Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada

Vol. 37(2) Winter 2018

The Newsletter of the BSC is published twice a year by the Biological Survey of Canada, an incorporated not-for-profit In this issue group devoted to promoting biodiversity science in Canada. From the editor’s desk...... 2 Information on Membership ...... 3 Student Corner President’s Report ...... 4 Global Change Effects on Detrital Food BSC on facebook & twit- Webs and Ecosystem Processes ter...... 6 Carlos Barreto...... 7 Contributing to the BSC Newsletter...... 6 Feature Article: Student Corner Global Change Effects on Detrital Four new records of beetle species Food Webs and Ecosystem Pro- (Insecta: Coleoptera) in Saskatch- cesses, by Carlos Barreto...... 7 ewan, two native and two adven- Feature Article tive, with musings on the size of Four new records of beetle species the Saskatchewan beetle fauna (Insecta: Coleoptera) in Saskatch- David J. Larson...... 10 ewan, two native and two adventive, with musings on the size of the Saskatchewan beetle Project Updates fauna, by David J. Larson...... 10 Crabwalkers and sand minnows: Searching for Project Updates psammophilic mayflies in the central and west- Crabwalkers and sand minnows: ern states (& provinces) Searching for psammophilic may- Greg Courtney...... 16 flies in the central and western states (& provinces), by Greg Harvestmen of the Family Phalangiidae in the Courtney ...... 16 Americas Harvestmen of the Family Phalan- submitted by Robert Holmberg...... 22 giidae in the Americas, submitted by Robert Holmberg...... 22 Commentary: Commentary Management, bureaucracy, and coping with their Management, bureaucracy, and impact on research coping with their impact on re- search, by Hugh V. Danks ...... 23 Hugh V. Danks...... 23 Canadian Journal of New Program Notice: Arthropod Identification: IISD Experimental Lakes Area’s Artist-in-Resi- 2018 paper...... 43 dence program Check out the BSC IISD Experimental Lakes Area (IISD-ELA), the world’s Website: Publications ....43 freshwater laboratory, is very proud to announce its Artist-in Residence program. Notices ...... 44 ...... 42

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Contact us: [email protected] Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada 2

From the Editor’s desk Donna Giberson

I hope you enjoy this issue of the Biologial Society of Canada (BSC) Newsletter, which was particularly interesting for me to produce, thanks to the range of articles that was submitted - from project updates and feature articles to commentary. This newslet- ter would not be possible without the contributions from our readers, and I urge you to read these and consider submitting an update or article on your own work. In addition, our society president, Cory Sheffield has an informative update on the Biota of Canada project in his President’s message, as well as information on other on-going projects and how you can get involved in the society and various projects. Please consider getting involved, whether it be standing for one of the positions on the board, or engaging with on-going projects.

If you haven’t yet looked up our website or checked out the BSC on Facebook, consider doing so, and send us your comments; of course, if there are any little bumps in navigating the site, we’d like to hear about them. The new site will continue to have links to biodiversity resources of the BSC, and our publications, and will be easier to keep up to date. Check it out, at http://biologicalsurvey.ca/

Questions? Please contact us at [email protected] D.Giberson Tiger beetles on Blooming Point Beach, PEI.

The Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada is published twice a year (summer and winter) by the Biological Survey of Canada, an incorporated not-for-profit group devoted to promoting biodiversity science in Canada, particularly with respect to the Arthropoda. Send submissions to: Dr. Donna Giberson ([email protected]) Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada Department of Biology, University of Prince Edward Island 550 University Ave., Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3

Masthead image: Tricoloured Bumblebee, Bombus ternarius photographed on lupins in PEI in 2010, D.Giberson Volume 37(2) Winter 2018 [click here to return to front page] Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada 3

Biological Survey of Canada: Documenting Canada’s Biodiversity

The Biological Survey of Canada (BSC) has been collecting, collating, analyzing and disseminating information about Canada’s biological diversity since 1977. The BSC is a Canadian non-profit, charitable organization consisting of biodiversity scientists across Canada, and in other countries, who have an interest in Canadian biota. The BSC prides itself in identifying and filling biodiversity information needs using a bottom-up organiza- tional structure, whereby front-line workers identify the needs and work to address them. The BSC has successfully demonstrated its capacity to advance national level biodiversity science and knowledge concerning terrestrial arthropods, which account for >60% of Canadian species, and is now reaching out to the broader biological community to bring together those who are experts with other taxa and who share a common vision and goal of making biodiversity information more accessible.

Are you a member of the BSC? You may be on the mailing list to receive BSC newsletters, but may not be a member! To become a member, send a request for membership to the BSC Secretary (see below). Remember to request membership before the AGM so you are eligible to vote. If you don’t hear from us within a couple of weeks, please contact us again, to be sure your request has been received.

To Join the BSC: Send an email to Joel Gibson, Secretary, BSC. [email protected]

- In the subject line, write “BSC Membership” - in the body of the message, give your full name and contact infor- mation, and a valid email address. Remember to update the BSC if you change email addresses. Please also provide some informa- tion on your background and biodiversity interests.

Check out the BSC website! http://biologicalsurvey.ca/

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President’s update Biological Survey of Canada/ Commission biologique du Canada Cory S. Sheffield Research Scientist - Curator of Invertebrate Zoology Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Regina, Saskatchewan

Greetings everyone!

I am very pleased to report that the “Biota of Canada” family level series for terres- trial arthropods, which will be published in the journal ZooKeys, is nearing completion. All chapters have been reviewed and accepted, and most have gone through the page proof stage. Please expect an early 2019 release date for the entire volume! Overseeing the completing of this series has involved a lot of extra work for me, but especially for past BSC President David Langor. I would especially like to acknowledge the hard work Dave has put into this series, and feel that it would not have been completed, and pos- sibly not even possible without his contributions. I also want to thank all of the authors that dedicated their time and expertise to this project, Jeremy deWaard for providing information on DNA barcodes and his own expertise for the taxa covered, and lastly, all of the article reviewers who made valuable contributions and the folks at Pensoft. I am very excited about this work, and though I will not write much on the tallies of species here, I will say that the resulting 29 or so chapters contribute much to our understand- ing of terrestrial arthropod diversity in Canada, with significant growth in the number of recorded species since 1979. I think many folks will be surprised about the diversity of terrestrial arthropods in Canada, and especially the actual estimates of unrecorded species for some groups. The approach of incorporating DNA barcoding, particularly BINs (Barcode Index Numbers) provides another approach to examining biodiversity in Canada – one that was not possible 40 years ago – and I think that incorporating these data provides evidence of the exciting opportunities for future faunistic work in Canada. On that note, I want to reflect on the potential for future BSC projects and collabora- tions. As mentioned in past reports, some of the BSC’s regular activities have been put on the back burner while this “Biota of Canada” series was completed, and our an- nual symposium was not held at this year’s Joint Annual Meeting of the Entomological Societies of America, Canada, and British Columbia, in Vancouver. However, I am pretty excited about 2019. We have a great opportunity for broadening the normal focus and attendance of our symposium in 2019, as the Entomological Society of Canada (ESC) will be held in Fredericton, New Brunswick jointly with the Acadian Entomological Society, and also with the Canadian Society of Ecology and Evolution (CSEE). One does not have to look far into the history of the BSC to realize that it has, for a large part, been ento- mologically focused. Browsing the past newsletters, publications, etc., evidences this. Perhaps this makes sense, as most of the terrestrial biodiversity in Canada is made up of entomology-related taxa (insects and their kin, arachnids and myriapods), and because there have always been strong ties to the Entomological Society of Canada. However, and strangely because I too am an entomologist, I feel that the BSC needs to attract new members (including board members), that represent other taxa and other experi- ences. In addition to its rich biodiversity, Canada also has a rich assemblage of bota- nists, bryologists, lichenologists, mycologists, ornithologists, mammalogists, herpetolo- gists, ichthlyologists, invertebrate zoologists, and microbiologists, not to mention folks involved with national and jurisdictional conservation initiatives, the Alliance of Natural History Museums, and many natural history societies across the country. The BSC could serve as a hub for many of these groups which share an interest in Canada’s biodiver- sity. Therefore, I propose that the BSC consider ideas for its 2019 symposium to take advantage of this opportunity to host something of interest to the CSEE membership on topics that relate to all biodiversity in Canada. I feel that at this specific joint meeting there is much potential for this symposium to be more encompassing of Canada’s flora

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and fauna, especially with the cross-disciplinary attendees. It is my hope that the BSC could be branded in such a way to attract these folks to join. Of course, this could also be the perfect opportunity to attract these folks to our other activities and venues for sharing information. Our Facebook page continues to get new followers, currently 257 which is almost 40 more since my last report. Similarly, our Twitter feed now has 288 followers, 44 more since the last BSC Newsletter. These pages continue to be an easy to use and fast way to share some of the exciting biodiversity- related events that the BSC is involved with, and also the scientific research and news stories that are, or should be, of interest to those interested in biodiversity (hint hint, the CSEE membership!). As stated in the past, the BSC’s social media pages are also great venues to post links to your own biodiversity-related events, and we encour- age you to contact us at [email protected] if wish to do so. Perhaps an even better approach is to tell us of your biodiversity-related research in Canada. We want to hear about the organisms that you study, so why not share your experiences with other members of the BSC through this newsletter? We are always excited to receive contributions, so I encourage you to write up a piece for us, and photographs are also welcome. This also provides a great opportunity for graduate students. Please see below for information on how to submit a manuscript, and please visit the Biological Survey of Canada’s website to see past issues of the newsletter for examples. I am sure you will find these a great resource! I will end this post with a reminder for others to join the BSC, and for those members that are interested, I encourage you to put your name forward to be considered for the BSC Board when the opportunity becomes available. In 2019, we will have several posi- tions to fill (some of these have been vacant since 2017). As always, it has been a plea- sure working with my colleagues on the Board, and the BSC appreciates your work in the past, and into the future. Thus, it is always refreshing to have new faces, new ideas, and new enthusiasm serving the BSC Board. I have enjoyed my time on the BSC Board, including as President, but as noted in previous newsletters, I will be ending my position after my two-year term is complete in 2019. In addition to wanting to focus on my own research projects and museum duties, my wife and I are expecting our first child early in 2019, so my focus will likely be elsewhere! However, I will continue to be actively in- volved in the BSC and the activities they support, and really hope that completing other series in the “Biota of Canada” will be a priority. This is a great group! I hope that all of you have had a very productive 2018, and that 2019 is especially good! I think the first Volume of the Biota of Canada will be a great example of how we can collectively work to increase our knowledge of Canada’s biodiversity, and hope that it will serve as a stimulus, and perhaps a template for future works on other taxa. This of course will require our society to reach out to other organizations interested in our wildlife.

Cory

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BSC on Facebook and Twitter Join the Conversation!

The BSC is active on Facebook (www.facebook.com/biolsurvey1can) and Twitter (https://twitter.com/BiolSurCan). We regularly share news about new biodiversity research in Canada and updates from the BSC. Like and Follow the Biological Survey of Canada! If you have content you would like to share with the BSC please email [email protected]

BSC Student Corner

Students and Early Career Researchers - Do you have a Biodiversity Project you’d like to have highlighted in the BSC Newsletter? Contact the editor (giberson@ upei.ca) to inquire about contributing. Articles can be on preliminary data, experiences/adventures in the field, or any other as- pect of your work or study. We welcome notes on sampling methods or interesting habitats as well, and illustrations are encouraged.

Examples of other student articles can be found on pp.27-35 in Vol 29(2) (http://biologi- calsurvey.ca/newsletter/bscfall2010.pdf), pp.41-49 in Vol 30(2) (http://biologicalsurvey.ca/ newsletter/bscwinter2011.pdf), and pp.7-19 in Vol 34(1) (http://biologicalsurvey.ca/news- letter/bscsummer2015.pdf).

Contributing to the BSC Newsletter

Do you have an article about a topic relating to Canada’s Biodiversity that you would like to submit to the Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada? We welcome topics on all aspects (and all species) relating to Canada’s biodiver- sity. Topics are up to the authors, but examples of appropriate articles include interesting finds, habitats, or collecting trips, results or reports from Bioblitzes, information about local natural history museums, and so on.

To submit a manuscript, please contact the editor ([email protected]) for instructions. The Newsletter is published twice per year (Summer and Winter), and deadlines for articles are Mid-May for the summer issue and Mid-December for the Winter issue.

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Student Corner

Global Change Effects on Detrital Food Webs and Ecosystem Processes Carlos Barreto Soil Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function Lab the University of Western Ontario

Food webs describe feeding relationships among species and are most often studied in aquatic (see Shurin et al. 2006), and aboveground terrestrial ecosystems compared to belowground (soil) systems, where the basal resource is decaying organic matter (i.e., detritus) (Odum and Biever 1984). However, soil systems are responsible for important ecosystem processes such as decomposition, recycling of nutrients, and carbon stor- age (Adl 2003, Moore et al. 2004, Fierer et al. 2009), besides providing habitat for soil invertebrates. How soil food webs will respond to global change factors such as warm- ing is not yet well understood, nor what the outcomes of altered soil food web structure will be on ecosystem-level processes. These unknowns are of high importance in boreal peatland systems, which are considered global carbon sinks (Gorham 1991) and where predicted shifts in vegetation (Dieleman et al. 2015) and soil biodiversity (Lindo 2015; Asemaninejad et al. 2017) under climate warming can affect this carbon balance (Diele- man et al. 2016). Specifically, increased productivity of microbes and their consumers are anticipated to accelerate decomposition and increase rates of nutrient cycling (Ngai and Srivastava 2006, Kardol et al. 2010, Wagg et al. 2014), increasing carbon release from soil stocks and reducing overall soil carbon sequestration potential (Tarnocai 2006). To fill knowledge gaps in this field, I have moved from Brazil to work on my PhD under the supervision of Dr. Zoë Lindo at the University of Western Ontario in London. For that, I have transitioned from biodiversity surveys in caves in my previous research job to the mite world in academia. Because I have been involved in biodiversity studies – mainly with insects – since the beginning of my undergrad degree in Biology (about ten years ago) and the fact I love a challenge, I decided to face this opportunity of learning the taxonomy and ecology of an entirely new group (Acari: Oribatida), also switching from caves in tropical forests in Brazil to peatlands and boreal forests in Canada and in the United States. The overall objective of my PhD is to understand how global change factors (e.g., warming) and cascading effects of global change (e.g., increased nutrient availability) affect peatland soil biodiversity and soil food web structure, and to link these changes to potential outcomes in peatland carbon storage. My research integrates large-scale field experimental manipulations of warming alongside controlled laboratory experiments to mechanistically understand how carbon, as an energy unit, moves through peatland soils. In the field my studies capitalize on two large-scale experiments (SPRUCE in Bovey, MN

(Fig. 1) and BRACE in White River, ON (Figure 2)) that have warming and elevated CO2 as treatments in three peatland types (bog, nutrient-poor fen, nutrient-available fen). Repeated soil core sampling over several years including pre-treatment data will allow me to test the single and combined effects of future climate change factors on peatland soil biodiversity. To assess the oribatid mite diversity in BRACE sites in a study, I used litterbags to sample fauna at the BRACE site and establish pre-treatment baseline biodiversity. In this study I also investigated their role in litter decomposition processes of different common peatland plant types (Sphagnum moss, Carex sedge, or Chamaedaphne shrub leaves) in a hummock-hollow system (Barreto and Lindo 2018). I found that plant type had a sig- nificant effect on the rate of decomposition with the highest mass loss observed forCarex followed by Chamaedaphne and then Sphagnum. In contrast, the microarthropods were

Volume 37(2) Winter 2018 [click here to return to front page] Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada 8 C. Barreto C. Barreto Fig. 1. SPRUCE project in Bovey, Minnesota. Figure 2 – BRACE project in White River, Ontario. Open top chamber in the picture. Chambers Open top chambers in the picture. Chambers were were built on a regression -based design built on a factorial design with passive warming with five temperature treatments (ambi- (ambient, +2°C). ent, +2.2, +4.5, +6.7, and +9°C) with two chambers at each temperature (with and

without +500 ppm of CO2 above ambient reference).

Fig. 3. Microarthropod abundance in litterbags placed at BRACE sites (Barreto and Lindo 2018).

significantly affected by microhabitat, with greater richness and abundance in hollows than hummocks, which probably relates to temperature and moisture content. Oribatid mites were the dominant microarthropod group (Figure 3). Also, in addition to my field samples, I recently performed a controlled laboratory study to experimentally test the effects of altered soil food web structure on important soil processes (decomposition, nutrient cycling, carbon storage). Using an experimental soil system, I tested whether top-down (predator addition) and bottom-up (nutrient addi- tion) processes are moderated or altered by soil warming. So far, my results show that nutrient addition and warming decreased richness and abundance in Oribatida, which can potentially impact decomposition processes negatively. Human-induced global change is expected to impact biodiversity, ecosystem processes, and affect human wellbeing. Understanding the effects of climate change on boreal peat- lands is imperative since these peatlands are globally important carbon sinks. Using field and laboratory manipulative experiments will provide a robust and comprehensive view of a complex research area, helping to predict changes in food web structure, biodiversity and in ecosystem functions such as decomposition, carbon storage and nutrient cycling.

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Zoë Lindo, not only for accepting me as a student, but also for having effectively joined me in my new adventure. I would also like to thank Dr. Hans Klompen (The Ohio State University), Dr. Ashley Dowling (Uni- versity of Arkansas), Dr. Fred Beaulieu (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada), Dr. Roy Norton (S.U.N.Y. College of Environmental Science and Forestry), Dr. Samuel Bolton (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services), Dr. Ronald Ochoa (USDA), Dr Zoë Lindo herself and ultimately Dr. Valerie Behan-Pelletier (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada - with a special presence) for teaching at the OSU Summer Acarology Program (2017/2018).

References Adl S.M. 2013. The ecology of soil decomposition. Cabi Publishing, Cambridge, US. Asemaninejad A., Thorn R.G., and Lindo Z. 2017. Experimental climate change modifies degradative succession in boreal peatland fungal communities. Microb. Ecol., 73:521–531. Barreto C. and Lindo Z. 2018. Drivers of decomposition and the detrital invertebrate commu- nity differ across a hummock hollow microtopology in Boreal peatlands. Ecoscience,25 : 39-48. 10.1080/11956860.2017.1412282 Dieleman C.M., Branfireun B.A., McLaughlin J.W., and Lindo Z. 2015. Climate change drives a shift in peatland ecosystem plant community: Implications for ecosystem function and stability. Glob. Change Biol., 21:388–395. Dieleman C.M., Lindo Z., McLaughlin J.W., Craig A.E., and Branfireun B.A. 2016. Climate change ef- fects on peatland decomposition and porewater dissolved organic carbon biogeochemistry. Biogeo- chemistry, 128:385–396. Fierer N., Grandy A.S., Six J., and Paul E.A. 2009. Searching for unifying principles in soil ecology. Soil Biol. and Biochem., 41:2249–2256. Gorham E. 1991. Northern peatlands: role in the carbon cycle and probable responses to climatic warming. Ecol. Appl., 1:182–195. Kardol P., Cregger M.A., Campany C.E., and Classen A.T. 2010. Soil ecosystem functioning under climate change: plant species and community effects. Ecology, 91:767–781 Lindo Z. 2015. Warming favours small-bodied organisms through enhanced reproduction and compo- sitional shifts in belowground systems. Soil Bio. Biochem., 91:271–278. Moore J.C., Berlow E.L., Coleman D.C., de Ruiter P.C., Dong Q., Hastings A., Johnson N.C., McCann K.S., Melville K., Morin P.J., Nadelhoffer K., Rosemond A.D., Post D.M., Sabo J.L., Scow K.M., Vanni M.J. and Wall D.H. 2004. Detritus, trophic dynamics and biodiversity. Ecol. Lett., 7:584–600. Ngai J.T. and Srivastava D.S. 2006. Predators accelerate nutrient cycling in a bromeliad ecosystem. Science, 314:963. Odum E.P. and Biever L.J.1984. Resource quality, mutualism, and energy partitioning in food chains. Am. Nat., 124:360–376. Shurin J.B., Gruner D.S., and Hillebrand H. 2006. All wet or dried up? Real differences between aquatic and terrestrial food webs. Proc. R. Soc. B, 273:1–9. Tarnocai C. 2006. The effect of climate change on carbon in Canadian peatlands. Glob. Planet. Change, 53:222–232. Wagg C., Bender F., Widmer F., and van der Heijden M. 2014. Soil biodiversity and soil community composition determine ecosystem multifunctionality. PNAS, 111:266–5270.

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Feature Article

Four new records of beetle species (Insecta: Coleoptera) in Saskatchewan, two native and two adventive, with musings on the size of the Saskatchewan beetle fauna

David J. Larson Box 56, Maple Creek, SK [email protected]

New Saskatchewan records of beetle species, 2017 Each year, the general collecting of beetles in Saskatchewan yields new records of spe- cies for the province. Among those found in 2017 are the following four species. They are chosen for inclusion here as they are easily recognized in the field through their general appearance or behaviour.

Bembidion levigatum Say (Carabidae, Trechinae). Fig. 1 SK (new provincial record) – South Saskatchewan River at AB bor- der, May 31, 2017, D. Larson (1♂, 1♀) DJLC (D. Larson Collection). Lindroth (1963) included the species in a key to North American species of Bembidion and provided a diagnostic description but had not seen any Canadian specimens. Once recognized as a species of Bembidion, this species is unmistakable due to its relatively large size (5.5 to 7.2 mm), and shiny dorsal surface with a green or blue lustre, and long, erect setae. Bousquet and Larochelle (1993) gave the range as eastern North America from Alberta (the only Canadian province), Montana and Utah to New Mexico and Texas and east to the Atlantic Coast from New Hampshire to Florida. The habitat has been described as clay or sandy banks of rivers, usually some distance from water’s edge. Saskatchewan specimens were collected from the edge of a large, water-filled borrow pit located in the river flat but not connected to the river. The beetles were within 1 to 2 m of the water edge on sandy-clay soil with Fig. 1. Bembidion isolated tufts of grass and dead and newly emerging weeds. They levigatum. were in association with a rich fauna of shoreline beetles, notably the similarly large, shiny B. bimaculatum Kirby. I have collected the species in a similar habitat at the edge of a small reservoir in western Kansas, where it was also in associa- tion with the following species, Chlaenius solitarius Say.

Chlaenius solitarius Say (Carabidae, Harpalinae). Fig. 2 SK (new provincial record) - South Saskatchewan River nr AB border 50o 54’ N 109 o 59’ W, August 18, 2017, D. Larson (1, 2♀), DJLC. 5 additional specimens observed but not collected. Bell (1960) included the species in a key to North American species of Chlaenius and provided a description. It can be recognized by the following characters: medium size for the genus (L = 12.0 to 13.5 mm), dorsal surface shiny, bright metallic green with reddish-yellow appendages, and prothorax very narrow with sides strongly sinuate and constricted before sharp right-angled hind angles. Bell described the range as central US from the Rocky Mountains and Texas to the Mississippi River (with a few additional records from eastern states). Lindroth (1969) provided the only Canadian record, a male specimen collected in Medicine Hat, AB. Fig. 2. Chlaenius Habitat not recorded. Saskatchewan specimens were washed from solitarius.

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cracks in heavy sandy-clay soil just above the wave line on a barren river bank, and among rock rip-rap infilled with clay just above the water line of an irrigation pad built out into river from the shore line.

Polydrusus impressifrons Gyllenhal (Curculionidae, Entimi- nae). Fig. 3 AB (new provincial record) – Medicine Hat, Strathcona Island Park, June 27, 2016. Cottonwood. D. Larson (1), DJLC. SK (new provincial record) – Larson Ranch, Hwy. 21, 16 km S Maple Creek (July 1, 2017 (3), May 29, 2018 (1), June 20, 2018 (2), June 26, 2018 (4). Swept from Populus (cottonwood, aspen) and Salix (sandbar willow, golden willow, beaked willow). DJLC. Bright & Bouchard (2008) key, describe, and illustrate the species. Four species of Polydrusus occur in Canada, three of which have been introduced and are unique within the fauna in the body being covered by flat, green scales. In the Prairie Provinces, where P. impressiforns is the only known species, the milky-green color of this species is distinctive and a live speci- men seen in bright sunlight is like a living opal. Polydrusus impressiforns is native to Europe but was in- troduced into eastern North America in the early 1900s. It is now known from MB to NS, eastern US and Oregon (Bright & Fig. 3. Polydrusus Bouchard 2008). Adult weevils feed on the foliage of many types impressifrons of trees and are minor pests of shade and fruit trees, especially poplar and willow as well as birch, apple and pear.

Telmatophilus typhae (Fallén) (Cryptophagidae). Fig. 4. AB (new provincial record) – Medicine Hat, Medicine Hat College ponds, June 12, 2018, D. Larson, Typha (11). DJLC. SK (new provincial record) – Larson Ranch, Hwy 21 16 km S Maple Creek (June 26, 2017, 18), Watrous, Typha flower, July 5, 2017, D. Larson (3); South Saskatchewan River nr. AB border, 50o 54’ N 109o 59’ W, Aug. 18, 2017, D. Larson (1). DJLC. Two species of Telmatophilus occur in North America. The Nearctic species, T. americanus LeConte, occurs across southern Canada, including Saskatchewan. It is readily recognizable as it is larger, the male has highly modified hind legs in which the metatibia bears a broad basal flange, the last sternite has a deep, oval pit, and it does not occur on cattails. Telmatophilus typhae, a Palearctic species introduced into North America, is smaller, lacks the male characters of the hind tibia and sternite and occurs only on Typha where all stages feed on the flowers. Hoebeke & Wheeler (2000) first recorded the species in North America from specimens collected in Maritime Canada in 1995 and 1997. They considered the species to be provisionally adventive in Fig. 4. Telmatophilus North America as specimens were known only from the Maritime typhae Provinces, but they also suggested the possibility it might be an overlooked Holarctic species. Majka & Langor (2010) reported an earlier Maritime collec- tion (1986). Bousquet et al. (2013) gave the range as Quebec and Maritime Provinces. All collections were made from staminate flowers ofTypha latifolia. At almost any time of the summer a few beetles could be found on the flowers and seedheads but shortly prior to and during dehiscence beetles congregated on and ran actively over the male flowers, their numbers subsequently dropping rapidly as the flowers dried. Hoebeke & Wheeler (2000) reviewed the biology of a European species, which is assumed to be like that of T. typhae. Eggs are laid in clusters on the outer side of immature male inflores- cences and on hatching the first two instars feed on immature stamens and pollen. The final instar (3rd) feeds on mature pollen grains. Pupation occurs in the flower clusters and

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the beetles overwinter in leaf sheaths. In all collections, except for that from Watrous, the introduced cattail seed bug, Chilacis typhae (Perris) (Larson & Scudder 2018) was also present but tended to be more abundant on the female flowers or at the juncture between male and female parts.

Developing a Saskatchewan Species List – Expect the Unexpected Figure 5 is a plot of the number of species of beetles known from Saskatchewan over the recent time period when this fauna has been cataloged. Each successive listing in- cludes more species and because such lists are cumulative the number of species listed for the fauna will grow. The question is when will the rate of addition of new species to the fauna slow and the faunal list plateau?

Figure 5. Number of species of beetles recognized in Saskatchewan beetle checklists, 1991 to present.

The very nature of exploration involves search for the unknown, some of which is sus- pected or hypothesized but a certain amount is always unknowable and unexpected. This is what adds spice to the process and drives much of the process of discovery. We know that groups containing small, cryptic, taxonomically overlooked forms are going to contribute disproportionately to the future growth of the Saskatchewan spe- cies list. A spectacular example is the paper by Klimaszewski et al. (2016) in which 67 species of aleocharine staphylinids were added to the faunal list. It is almost certain that the likes of this paper will not be seen again. However, comparing the species lists of Pti- liidae of the three Prairie Provinces (Bousquet et al.2013), Alberta has 15, Manitoba has 11 and Saskatchewan 1 species. DJLC has several genera and unidentified species of this family. When the Saskatchewan ptiliids are studied by a capable taxonomist, it is certain a number of new species records will be added to the Saskatchewan list. Other groups with as yet unrecognized diversity are Cantharidae, some groups of Staphylinidae and small species of Curculionidae. Collections of families such as Phalacridae and Lycidae have more morphologically recognizable forms than there are currently available names. In almost all families there are groups of unidentified specimens, or specimens under one species name, that show enough variation that it is quite likely they are multispe- cies. This is not to say that all new additions to the fauna will be small, obscure species. The four species treated above show that striking forms are to be discovered. Other examples of large distinctive species recently reported from the fauna include the follow- ing: Bell et al. (2014) added the large introduced carabid Carabus granulatus L. filling in the Saskatchewan gap for what is now a transcontinental species; Finnamore (1998) added the huge native cerambycid, Prionus fissicornis Haldeman; Bousquet et al. (2017)

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increased the number of Cerambycidae, a well collected and taxonomically well known family, from 80 (2013) to 87. Even within families that are well known, the potential of adding new species is high. An illustrative example is shown by the stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) fauna of Alberta. Strickland (1953) listed the then known 29 species of Alberta Pentatomidae (including Acanthosomatidae), remarking “Since these relatively large bugs are readily observed by the general collector it is probable that the following list is nearly complete for this province.” Subsequently, the Canadian Checklist of Hemiptera (Maw et al. 2000) listed 35 Alberta species and I (December 2018, data file of the rueT Bugs of Alberta and Saskatchewan) have records of 38 Alberta species. In approximately 65 years, the known Alberta fauna of pentatomids expanded by 9 species or about 31%, a rate of increase of 0.14 species or 0.486% per year. This shows that the body size and the ap- peal of a group of insects to collectors may not necessarily relate to how well the group is known. On the other hand, the fauna of many collectors’ favorite beetles, tiger beetles (Carabidae, Cicindelinae), has not changed; Wallis (1961) had already listed all Sas- katchewan species and subspecies of tiger beetles that are currently recognized. There are a variety of beetles that are lurking just beyond the bounds of the province and for which we are waiting for a tarsus to cross the border to permit their inclusion. Some examples of the more noteworthy species are: Omophron robustum Horn (Carabidae: Omophroninae) which is known from only one prairie locality (Chappice lake, AB), where it has been taken repeatedly. This is a lake in a series of closed basin, saline lakes that extend into SW Saskatchewan to Bit- ter Lake, and that share much of their halobiontic faunas. Surely the species occurs in other lakes of the basin? Dicaelus laevipennis LeConte (Carabidae: Licinini). This is a fine, big ground beetle that is known from a few records in the dry grasslands of southeastern AB. The habitat is continuous into SW Saskatchewan so there seem to be no barriers to D. laevipennis entering the province. Georissus pusillus LeConte (Hydrophilidae: Georissinae). This is a small western species that occurs along the water margin of streams and has been collected in the lower Milk River of AB where the river enters the US. Similar, although smaller, streams of Saskatchewan which also drain into the Missouri system, such as Frenchman River, would seem to offer suitable habitat. Elateroides lugubris (Say) (Lymexylidae). This rarely collected species has been re- corded from both Alberta and Manitoba and certainly occurs in Saskatchewan for aspen logs with holes that look like the adult emergence holes of the species have been seen in the province.

This list could easily be extended to include an estimated several hundred species which occur in the adjacent provinces and territory in Ecozones (ESWG 1995 describes the zones) that are common to Saskatchewan so that the beetles are very likely to be in Saskatchewan also. These distributions demonstrate the degree of under-collecting on the Saskatchewan side of the border. The number of species with this type of distribution has not be tabulated but it is certain to be substantial and may be enough when added to the number of already known species to raise the total species count to around 3000. Over time, it is expected that all or most of the province’s resident species will be dis- covered and as this point is approached the rate of increase in recorded species for the fauna will approach zero. However, faunas are not stable, and ranges of the constituent species expand and contract. With climate change, temperature regimes and precipita- tion patterns will no doubt change favoring some species, perhaps eliminating others. Increasing temperature and lowering rainfall would improve conditions for the biota of the intermontane sage/grassland fauna of the Rocky Mountain states and lead to incur- sion of these species into Saskatchewan. Increased precipitation would lead to forest expansion perhaps permitting more of the species from both the western cordilleran and eastern Laurentide forests to colonize the province. Developing a faunal list for the province is simply an additive process. However, know- ing what currently exists within the area is more complex for this needs to account for and subtract species that have been incorrectly placed on the list or have become extir-

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pated within the area. The family Gyrinidae in 1991 had 23 species, but now has 21, the difference due to the recognition that several species records were based on misiden- tifications. The family Haliplidae has gone from 10 species to 13 but this hides the fact that new species have been added and some of the previous names removed as new synonymy has been discovered. Many of the species in the faunal list are represented by a single collection or some even by a single specimen. This raises several questions: was the species established? does it still exist in the area? is it secure or is it endan- gered? These are often impossible to answer, and only long-term collecting and experi- ence give insight into the species status. An interesting case is the invasive lady beetle, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas). The first, and only provincial record is a breeding population, discovered in summer and fall of 2011, which overwintered but disappeared in the sum- mer of 2012 (Larson 2013). Was this a short-term colonization event where the species survived long enough for a generation to be produced then became extinct, or does the species exist continuously as transitory populations? The biggest group of the unknowns is the introduced species. Bousquet et al. (2013) listed 628 species of adventive beetles in Canada, an increase of 134% (from 469 spe- cies) from 1991. Although introduced species are more numerous on both the east and west coasts, a large number also occur inland and make up a significant portion of the Saskatchewan fauna (this number has not been tabulated to date). In fact, much of the pest, synanthropic and detritivore faunas is adventive. It is impossible to predict which species will arrive and establish on the continent then expand in range to include Saskatchewan. There are many adventive species in both the eastern and western parts of the continent that have not spread into the prairie provinces. However, there are also many that have been stable in one of these areas for decades then have suddenly ex- panded their range. An example is the rose stem girdler, Agrilus cuprescens (Ménétriés) (Buprestidae), a well know pest of roses in eastern North America for over 70 years. It suddenly swept across the Prairie Provinces (MB to AB) around 2000 and now occurs in the grasslands and southern parkland areas where it has devastated stands of prairie roses (Larson 2009). Prairie people live in fear lest its congener, the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire) which has devastated eastern ash trees (Paiero et al. 2012), will show a similar spread of destruction on the prairies where green ash espe- cially is one of the most important ornamental and shelter belt trees. The cattail beetle discussed above seems to have landed in the Maritimes and swept across the continent very rapidly, present in AB and SK within about 30 years of its first known introduction.

A Problem and Solution (?) to Maintaining Species Lists Considering both the recognition of native species and the discovery of adventive species, the known SK beetle fauna increased by 896 species between 1991 and the present. Thus, the known fauna increased by an average yearly rate of 33.2 species/ year or by about 2% per year, although as described above this faunal growth has not been uniform, it occurs episodically. Each publication of a checklist added a burst of new species to the fauna and various publications such as faunal studies, taxonomic revisions and more focused reports on single or a few species also incrementally increased the faunal list. Known species, including additions to the fauna, are given in the various checklists, without reference to the source of the records or verification. Some of these records come from papers in referreed journals but many of them are based on data files of specimens in collections (e.g. Royal Saskatchewan Museum List of Insects; D. Larson List of Coleoptera of Saskatchewan (Biota File)). Although available for scrutiny, they cannot be considered readily available and this raises a major problem in developing a knowledge of the fauna; there is not a simple vehicle available for the publication and dissemination of information on new records. The process of journal publishing makes this slow and unwieldy for simple records. There are not regional journals or newsletters that are suitable for listing and documenting additions (or removal) of species to region- al faunal lists. Might this not be a role for the Biological Survey? – to develop an open access file system whereby new records with supporting information can be efficiently and rapidly posted thus keeping the list current and documented. In the early 1900s the Entomological Society of Ontario had a series, The Entomological Record, in which

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new insect records were published on a regular (annual?) basis. Could this be practically reinstituted as an annual portion of the Biological Survey of Canada Bulletin, perhaps in the format of the four new records given at the beginning of this paper?

References

Bell, A.J., Boyes E.J., Schmidt A.T., and Phillips I.D. 2014. Hidden in plain view: the range expansion of Carabus granulatus L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and new provincial Record for Saskatchewan, Canada. The Coleopterists Bulletin, 68:700–702. Bell, R.T. 1960. A revision of the genus Chlaenius Bonelli (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in North America. Miscellaneous Publications of the Entomological Society of America, 1(3):98–166. Bousquet, Y. (Ed.). 1991. Checklist of the beetles of Canada and Alaska. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa. Vi + 430 pp. Bousquet, Y., Bouchard P., Davies A.E., and Sikes D.S. 2013. Checklist of Beetles (Coleoptera) of Canada and Alaska. 2nd Edition. Pensoft, Sofia-Moscow. 402 pp. Bousquet, Y., Laplante S., Hammond H.E.J., and Langor D.W. 2017. Cerambycidae (Coleoptera) of Canada and Alaska. Prague, Nakladatelstvi Jan Farkač, 300 pp. Bousquet, Y. and Larochelle A. 1993. Catalogue of the Geadephaga (Coleoptera: Trachypachidae, Rhysodidae, Carabidae including Cicindelini) of America north of Mexico. Memoirs of the Entomo- logical Society of Canada 167. 397 pp. Bright, D.E. and Bouchard P. 2008. The insects and arachnids of Canada, Part 25. Coleoptera, Curcu- lionidae, Entiminae. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, ON. 327 pp. ESWG (Ecological Stratification Working Group). 1995. A National Ecological Framework for Canada. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Branch, Centre for Land and Biological Resources Re- search and Environment Canada, State of the Environment Directorate, Ecozone Analysis Branch, Ottawa/Hull. Report, 125 pp, and national map at 1:7 500 000 scale. Finnamore, A.T. 1998. The effects of grazing and exotic grasses on the ecological integrity of upland prairie: arthropod biodiversity, the ground beetle, ladybird beetle, and longhorn beetle fauna (Co- leoptera: Carabidae, Coccinellidae, and Cerambycidae). Grasslands National Park, Annual Report, 3:33–41. Hoebeke, E.R. and Wheeler A.G., Jr. 2000. Telmatophilus typhae (Fallén) (Coleoptera: Cryptophagi- dae), a Palearctic cattail specialist established in the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 102:398–402. Hooper, R. and Larson D.J. 2012. Checklist of Beetles (Coleoptera: Insecta) of Saskatchewan. 133 pp. Http://www.entsocsask.ca/documents/insect_lists/Coleoptera%20Species%20List%20of%20 SK_copy.pdf Klimaszewski J., Larson D.J., Labrecque M., and Bourdon C. 2016. Twelve new species and fifty-five new provincial distribution records of Aleocharinae rove beetles of Saskatchewan, Canada (Coleop- tera, Staphylinidae). Zookeys, 610: 45. Larson, D.J. 2009. Notes and observations on the rose stem girdler (Agrilus cuprescens Ménétries) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. Blue Jay, 67: 82–85. Larson, D.J. 2013. Key to lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) of Saskatchewan. Http://www. entsocsask.ca/documents/insect_lists/ Larson, D.J. and Scudder G.G.E. 2018. Seed Bugs and their allies (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Lygae- oidea) of the Canadian Prairie Provinces. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification, 34 (July 2018). doi:10.3752/cjai.2018.34 Lindroth, C.H. 1963. The ground-beetles (Carabidae, excl. Cicindelinae) of Canada and Alaska, Part 3. Opuscula Entomologica, Suppl. 24. Pp. 201–408. Lindroth, C.H. 1969. The ground-beetles (Carabidae, excl. Cicindelinae) of Canada and Alaska, Part 6. Opuscula Entomologica, Suppl. 34. Pp. 945–1192. Majka C.G. and Langor D. 2010. Contributions towards an understanding of the Cryptophaginae (Co- leoptera, Cryptophagidae) of Atlantic Canada. ZooKeys, 35:13–35. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.35.314 Maw, H.E.L., Foottit R.G., Hamilton K.G.A., and Scudder G.G.E. 2000. Checklist of the Hemiptera of Canada and Alaska. NRC Research Press, Ottawa. 220 pp. Paiero, S.M., Jackson M.D., Jewiss-Gaines A., Kimoto T., Gill B.D., and Marshall S.A. 2012. Field guide to the Jewel beetles (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) of Northeastern North America. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. CFIA P0764-11E. Ottawa. 411 pp. Strickland, E.H. 1953. An Annotated List of the Hemiptera (S.L.) of Alberta. The Canadian Entomolo- gist 85(6):194–214. Wallis, J.B. 1961. The Cicindelidae of Canada. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. 74 pp.

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Project Update Crabwalkers and sand minnows: Searching for psammophilic mayflies in the central and western states (& provinces)

Greg Courtney Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA All figures © G.W. Courtney.

Motivated by a number of collaborative photography projects with Steve Marshall (e.g., Courtney & Marshall, 2019), I have devoted a bit of time recently to searching for non- dipteran aquatic insects. Among the ongoing projects is a book on which I am not only lead author but in charge of several chapters focused on taxa outside my usual bailiwick (e.g., Ephemeroptera!). Thankfully, Steve has already established an excellent template for such a book (Marshall 2006: “Insects. Their Natural History & Diversity”, which was recently (2017) published as a 2nd edition). His “Flies” (Marshall 2012) and “Beetles” (Marshall 2018) books are other outstanding contributions focused on specific taxa. So, using Steve’s “Insects” book as a template, we have started working on a book on aquatic insects. We have a number of goals, with perhaps the most daunting being inclusion of images of live exemplars of ALL families of aquatic insects GLOBALLY. Because of this goal, I decided that a good starting point for the Ephemeroptera chapter was to see which North American families I still hadn’t photographed. In developing this list, it was obvious that most “missing” families (e.g., Acanthametropodidae, Ametrepodidae, Behningiidae, Pseudironidae) occur in shifting sand, a habitat I had rarely sampled. In fact, the only of these psammophilic (literally “sand-loving”) families I’d ever even seen was Behningiidae, but I had seen these bizarre mayflies only in Thailand, and had never photographed a live nymph! So it was apparent I’d have to deviate from my usual focus… torrential streams… and start visiting sand-bottomed rivers (Figs. 1 & 2). The fauna of these habitats includes a variety of interesting insects, and not just mayflies. Noteworthy among the non-mayfly taxa is Progomphus, a fairly common dragonfly across North America (including in Iowa). But the focus of my initial interest was mayflies. Because this was a novel habitat for me and some of these mayflies are considered quite rare, the task seemed especially daunt- ing. This prompted me to consult with several experts, notably Boris Kondratieff, Colorado State University, and Dennis Lehmkuhl, formerly at University of Saskatchewan. Both graciously recommended a number of potential collection sites and advice on how to find these mayflies. G. Courtney

Figure 1. Habitat for psammophilic mayflies: a, Niobrara River, Nebraska; b, Cedar River, Iowa; c, upper Blackwater River, Florida. Abbreviations: H, Homoeoneuria; P, Pseudiron; D, Dolania.

Volume 37(2) Winter 2018 [click here to return to front page] Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada 17 G. Courtney Figure 2. Habitat for psammophilic mayflies: a, Pembina River, Alberta; b, Milk River, Montana. Abbreviations: Am, Ametropus; An, Analetris; P, Pseudiron.

Pseudironidae: Pseudiron McDunnough (Fig. 3). One mayfly of particular interest was Pseudiron centralis McDunnough, the monotypic exemplar of the family Pseud- ironidae, and widespread in and endemic to North America. Pseudiron is often called the “crabwalker” mayfly because nymphs can scurry quickly across the sand in any direction, reminiscent of the movement of a crab. Their saltatory agility, and the fact that most psammophilic nymphs are excellent swimmers, can make their capture a chal- lenge. Pseudiron has also garnered attention because of their predatory feeding habits. Soluk & Craig (1990) demonstrated that nymphs actually use their body position to generate an upstream vortex in front of the head. As the nymph moves upstream and forward, the vortex continually digs a pit in front of the head, exposing midge larvae and other potential prey buried in the sand. My search for Pseudiron and other psam- mophilic mayflies began in the Nebraska Sandhills but took me as far afield as north- western Colorado, northcentral Montana and southern Alberta. My first collections and photographs were from the North Loup G. Courtney River in north-central Nebraska, and Little Figure 3. Psammophilic mayflies: Pseudiron Snake River in northwestern Colorado. It centralis (Pseudironidae). a, habitus of mature was at these sites where I discovered the nymph, Milk River, Alberta; b, anterior view of nymph, South Skunk River, Iowa. most effective technique for capturing these elusive creatures usually involved simul- taneously kicking sand, “dancing” backwards (i.e., stumbling) upstream, and flailing a D-net behind me [All of which was quite amusing to any onlookers!]. After a couple western trips and (perhaps more importantly) perfecting HOW to collect them and WHEN to look, I unexpectedly found Pseudiron in many Iowa rivers. Ironically, one of the most productive Iowa sites was just a 5-minute walk from my house! Over the past few years of psammophile hunting, Pseudiron has proved to be one of the most widespread and frequently encountered psammophilic mayflies, with my records including approximately 20 locations across five states (Colorado, Iowa, Montana, Nebraska and Wisconsin), one province (Alberta), and numerous collection dates.

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Ametropodidae: Ametropus Albarda (Fig. 4). Another psammophile target was the mayfly Ametropodidae, commonly called “sand min- nows”. This Holarctic family contains a single genus, Ametropus, and two species (see Mayfly Central, https://www.entm.purdue.edu/may- fly/na-species-list.php), both of which occur in North America: A. ammophilus Allen & Edmunds in the Pacific Northwest andA. fragilis Albarda (including the former A. albrighti Traver & A. neavei McDunnough) in the intermountain west (including Alberta & Saskatchewan). Ametropus nymphs have also been the subject of behav- ioural studies, although they do something slightly different thanPseudiron . Soluk & Craig (1988) found that Ametropus nymphs remain in one location, buried in the sand, usually with the head and forelegs exposed. They then lift the forelegs into the current (see Fig. 4b), which generates a pair of vortices that again create a pit in front of the head. Food particles… in this case detritus… become entrapped in the vortices and are delivered to the pit (and the nymph’s

mouthparts). I was fortunate in having collected G. Courtney and photographed both North American species of Ametropus. My first encounter wasA. fragilis Figure 4. Psammophilic mayflies: Ametropus (Ametropodidae). a, habitus of mature A. at the Milk River in southern Alberta. I would ammophilus nymph, Wood River, Oregon; subsequently find and photograph this species b, anterior view of partially buried A. fragilis at other sites in southern Alberta, north-central nymph, Milk River, Alberta; c, emerging A. Montana, and northwestern Colorado, as well as ammophilus, Wood River, Oregon. A. ammophilus at several sites in western and south-central Oregon.

Oligoneuriidae: Homoeoneuria Eaton (Fig. 5). A third group on my wish list was Homoeo- neuria Eaton, one of two oligoneuriid genera in North America (the other being Lachlania (Navas), which is not particularly psammophilic). Homoeoneuria contains seven species, includ- ing five in North America; however, only two occur in central- and western North America: H. alleni Pescador & Peters and H. ammophila (Spieth). These mayflies would prove to be another widespread and frequently encountered psammophile. My records include H. alleni from more than 10 locations across four states (Mon- tana, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Utah) and H. ammophila from several locations in Iowa. Most records include multiple dates and often remarkable abundances. Like all other psammo- philic mayflies,Homoeoneuria exhibits unusual nymphal behaviour. However, these nymphs are different in that they burrow into the sand first with the thorax, often leaving only the head and

caudal filaments exposed on the surface (Fig. 5). G. Courtney Although hydrodynamic studies of their behav- Figure 5. Psammophilic mayflies: Homoeoneuria iour have not been done, Homoeoneuria prob- (Oligoneuridae). a, partially or mostly (see ably does something similar to Ametropus. As an arrow = top of head and eyes) buried H. ammo- added benefit, any vortex in front of aHomoeo- phila nymphs, Raccoon River, Iowa; b, partially neuria nymph will presumably enhance delivery buried male nymph of H. alleni, Niobrara River, of oxygen across the gills, most of which are Nebraska; c, partially buried female nymph of beneath the thorax. H. alleni, Niobrara River, Nebraska.

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Acanthametropodidae: Analetris Edmunds (Fig. 6). Perhaps the greatest challenge in my search for psammophilic mayflies was the fam- ily Acanthametropodidae, which contains two genera, the Holarctic Acanthametropus Tshernova and the monotypic North Ameri- can endemic Analetris eximia Edmunds. The Nearctic exemplar of Acanthametropus, A. pecatonica Burks, is considered by many experts as the rarest mayfly in North America. Although recorded from the upper Midwest (northern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin) and southeastern United States (Georgia & South Carolina), this mayfly has never been collected in abundance. This has been attrib- uted in part to their preference for large, deep rivers, their reputation as rapid swimmers, and recent habitat degradation, at least in the upper Midwest (McCafferty 1991). Although I have searched for Acanthametropus at known sites in Wisconsin and seemingly suitable sites in the southeastern US, my searches have garnered only wet clothes and exhausted arms (both because of the depth of sampling efforts). Thankfully, my search for the western acanthametropodid genus, Analetris, has been more successful (but still usually resulting in

wet clothes and tired arms!). G. Courtney My first encounter withAnaletris eximia Figure 6. Psammophilic mayflies: Analetris Edmunds was somewhat unexpected. I had eximia (Acanthametropodidae). a, habitus of stopped along the Red Deer River in southern mature nymph, Red Deer River, Alberta; b, Alberta, partly because Lehmkuhl (1976) had anterior view of mature nymph, Milk River, Montana; c, recently emerged subimago, recorded large numbers of Analetris down- Milk River, Montana. stream, in the South Saskatchewan River (across the border, in Saskatchewan). Any op- timism at findingAnaletris on that day was dashed when I noticed the river was high & turbid. Despite this, I found a sandy area where I could wade in and sweep for mayflies. My efforts yielded only a singletonAmetropus . Clothes already soaked, I worked my way upstream along the bank, even though I couldn’t see the bottom and the water was waist deep and relatively swift. After an off-balance sweep along the margin yielded a single Analetris, I shifted to standing in the river a meter or so from the bank, facing the bank, and sweeping my net vigorously against the bank (where the slope seemed quite steep). After adopting this technique, I was able to capture several Analetris nymphs as I progressed upstream (I can also confirm that these nymphs are indeed agile and rapid swimmers!). I subsequently used the same method with success at another site on the Red Deer River, as well as on the Milk River in north-central Montana (Fig. 2b), where I collected Analetris on several occasions.

Behningiidae: Dolania Edmunds & Traver (Fig. 7). No discussion of psammophilic mayflies is complete without mention of the Behningi- idae, which includes perhaps the most specialized sand-inhabiting nymphs. The adults and life history of these mayflies are comparably bizarre (Peters & Peters, 1984). The family contains three genera (Hubbard 1994), the Palaearctic and Oriental genera Behningia Lestage (3 species) and Protobehningia Tschernova & Bajkova (2 species), and the monotypic North American Dolania americana Edmunds & Traver. Dolania is known primarily from the southeastern United States (except for two 1989 nymphal records from Wisconsin). My collections and photographs of this mayfly are from the Blackwater River in the Florida panhandle (Fig. 1c). Dolania is another group in which the hydrody-

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namics of their nymphal behaviour has not been studied. However, these nymphs do something totally different than other nymphs mentioned above… the nymph burrows beneath the surface of the sand, where it searches for chironomid larvae and other prey. Their mouthparts, legs, and many other anatomical structures are unusual for a mayfly nymph and presumably adaptations to their predatory habits and “subsurface” activities (Tsu & Hubbard 1979). The latter presents a challenge to collecting these nymphs. Unlike other psammo- philic groups, which are usually on the surface or buried only a few millimeters beneath it, Dolania nymphs can be several centimeters beneath the surface. My own collections have typically included scooping sand from the bottom, then waiting for the sand particles to pass through the mesh of my D-net.

Sympatry, phenology & microhabitat. It is perhaps expected that multiple psammo- philic mayfly species can be sympatric in rivers of central and western North America. Many if not most midwestern rivers (i.e., those with suitable

shifting-sand habitats) harbor populations of both G. Courtney Pseudiron and Homoeoneuria. In these in- Figure 7. Psammophilic mayflies: Dolania stances, phenological separation is typical, with americana (Behningiidae). a, habitus of Pseudiron active primarily during early to mid- “swimming” nymph, Blackwater River, Florida; summer, at which time small Homoeoneuria b, habitus of burrowing nymph, Blackwater nymphs may start to appear. The latter nymphs River, Florida. can be quite common in late summer and early fall. This pattern was most striking in rivers of the Nebraska Sandhills (e.g., lower Niobrara River, various forks of the Loup River). Levels of sympatry were even greater in some western rivers (e.g., Red Deer River and Milk River), where Pseudiron, Ametropus and Analetris were sometimes present along the same general reach of river. However, unlike in the Midwest, there appeared to be less seasonal separation of populations. Instead, microhabitat partitioning was suggested. Throughout their range, Pseudiron and Homoeoneuria nymphs seemed most abundant in the “active” portions of sand shoals, usually where sand ripples were abundant. In contrast, Ametropus nymphs were often most abundant along the margins or downstream edges of sand shoals, usually where water depth was increasing. Likewise, Analetris nymphs were encountered most often on the margins of deeper, mid-stream channels or on steep drop-offs along the shoreline.

Concluding remarks. Despite a few new records and a bit more anecdotal information, we remain sorely ignorant about the distribution and biology of these psammophilic mayflies. Specific in- sights on nymphal microhabitat and habits, phenologies, and other biological character- istics are lacking for most populations. This is exacerbated by the difficulty in sampling psammophilous habitats, particularly in large, deep rivers. The future use of novel col- lecting techniques (e.g., Lillie 1995) may be critical to effectively documenting the fauna of such habitats. Furthermore, it is unclear how environmental changes (e.g., increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation) will impact local populations of psammophilic insects. Needless to say, drought could easily diminish or eliminate shifting-sand habitats at a critical time in an insect’s life history, thereby leading to extirpation of local popula- tions. In fact, this could explain the apparent lack of Ametropus in the Little Snake River in northwestern Colorado. Historical records suggest that this river may have been one of the better Ametropus sites in Colorado, yet several visits since 2013 have yielded no specimens. After seeing the river almost completely dry in late summer, 2013 (Fig. 8b), I wonder if the absence of Ametropus is because droughts occurred at a time when

Volume 37(2) Winter 2018 [click here to return to front page] Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada 21 G. Courtney Figure 8. Little Snake River, Colorado: a, August 2014 (normal flow?); b, August 2013 (drought year).

nymphs would normally undergo substantial growth. The latter could obviously be a challenge if the habitat is gone! It follows that these insects may be sensitive indicators of changing temperatures and precipitation, especially in western rivers.

References: Courtney, G.W. & S.A. Marshall. 2019. 10. Aquatic insects of North America: A photographic over- view. In R.W. Merritt, K.W. Cummins & M.B. Berg (editors). An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. Fifth Edition. Kendall / Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa. [in press] Hubbard, M.D. 1994. The mayfly family Behningiidae (Ephemeroptera: Ephemeroidea): keys to the recent species with a catalog of the family. Great Lakes Entomologist, 27: 161–168. Lehmkuhl, D.M. 1976. Additions to the taxonomy, zoogeography, and biology of Analetris eximia (Acanthametropodinae: Siphlonuridae: Ephemeroptera). The Canadian Entomologist, 108:199– 207. Lillie, R.A. 1995. A survey of rare and endangered mayflies of selected rivers of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Research Report 170. 28 pp. Marshall, S.A. 2006 (2017). Insects: Their Natural History and Diversity (2nd Edition). Firefly Books, Buffalo, New York. 718 pp. (735 pp.) Marshall, S.A. 2012. Flies: The Natural History and Diversity of Diptera. Firefly Books, Buffalo, New York. 616 pp. Marshall, S.A. 2018. Beetles: The Natural History and Diversity of Coleoptera. Firefly Books, Buf- falo, New York. 784 pp. McCafferty, W.P. 1991. Comparison of old and new worldAcanthametropus (Ephemeroptera: Acan- thametropodidae) and other psammophilous mayflies. Entomological News,102 :205–214. Peters, W.L. & J.G. Peters. 1988. The secret swarm. Natural History Magazine, 97:8-13. Soluk, D A. & D A. Craig. 1988. Vortex feeding from pits in the sand: A unique method of suspension feeding used by a stream invertebrate. Limnology and Oceanography, 33:638–645 Soluk, D A. & D A. Craig. 1990. Digging with a vortex: Flow manipulation facilitates prey capture by a predatory stream mayfly. Limnology and Oceanography,35 :1201–1206. Tsui, T.P. & M.D. Hubbard. 1979. Feeding habits of the predaceous nymphs of Dolania americana in northwestern Florida (Ephemeroptera: Behningiidae). Hydrobiologia, 67:119–123.

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Project Update Harvestmen of the Family Phalangiidae in the Americas

Most of the harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones) that people encounter around their homes, gardens, along roadsides and other disturbed areas belong to the family Phalan- giidae. James Cokendolpher (from Texas) and Robert Holmberg (Athabasca University) have recently completed a more than 20-year, long-distance, project on the American members of this group. As the first harvestman described by Linnaeus wasPhalangium opilio, both names have a long history of use and abuse. The published paper (Cokendolpher and Holmberg 2018) documents 68 species names but only 16 are still valid. Moreover, up to 38% of these species have been introduced into North America, especially from Europe. Also, no members of the family are native to Mexico, Central and South America, or the Carib- bean. The 44-page paper contains a key, diagnostic table, summary table of valid and invalid names, as well as 51 drawings and colour photographs. One figure shows the world distribution of Mitopus morio, a problematic northern species that occurs in Alaska and Greenland, as well as northeastern North America. Supposedly, it does not occur in the northern regions of Canada. An electronic copy of the paper can be downloaded for free from http://www.nsrl.ttu. edu/publications/specpubs/index.htm. A copy, printed on good quality, glossy paper can be purchased from the publisher for about $US10. Cokendolpher and Holmberg are both officially retired but still work on Opiliones.

Reference Cokendolpher, J.C. and Holmberg R.G. 2018. Harvestmen of the family Phalangiidae (Arachnida, Opil- iones) in the Americas. Occasional Papers of the Texas Tech University, Number 67

(Submitted by Robert Holmberg) R.G. Holmberg Male and female Opilio parietinus in typical mating position.

Volume 37(2) Winter 2018 [click here to return to front page] Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada 23 ______- Commentary - The Commentary section is a forum for views and ideas of potential interest to readers Contributions should be sent to the editor ______

Management, bureaucracy, and coping with their impact on research

Hugh V. Danks Ottawa

Abstract Ways in which flawed management and bureaucracy harm scientific research, especially the study of biodiversity, are illustrated with examples and commentaries from my experience in Canada. Government science is hindered when strategic goals lack adequate scientific input and are biased by political and other agendas, priorities are imposed without sufficient employee consultation, employ- ees are not trusted, managers are appointed despite limited scientific knowledge, and resources are diverted from scientific activities into administration. These faults are amplified by the fact that too many individual managers have unsuitable personalities, lack a broad scientific perspective, or are ineffective in other ways. Other adverse effects stem from unduly elaborate and inefficient organiza- tion, planning, discussion, and reporting, and are compounded by using grand words, jargon, and obscure writing that hinder communication. Individuals can reduce these burdens on their research if they make long-term plans, satisfy bureaucratic requirements, and stay motivated. Some ways to do so are suggested. In addition to these individual ways of coping with negative elements of manage- ment and administration, citizens as a whole should insist that political representatives base unbiased decisions on verifiable science. In contrast to the failings identified here, the cooperative science- based approach of the BSC has been particularly effective in building useful and credible knowledge.

Introduction Some of my comments in the last Newsletter about travel on behalf of the Biological Survey of Canada (Danks 2018) highlighted the contrast in philosophy, especially in the Government of Canada, between individual entomologists and some of their manag- ers and administrators. This contrast was mentioned too in my paper for the issue of The Canadian Entomologist that commemorated the 40th anniversary of the BSC (Danks 2017). Feedback that I received about the topic, including frustrations with the manage- ment of research, has encouraged me to elaborate on these and allied themes. The start of my career included work in Canada’s Department of Agriculture, at a time when major changes in the nature of management had just begun. The period after my appointment as head of the BSC in 1977 was complicated by similar trends (cf. Danks 2016). Those experiences, as well as my exposure over many years to management and bureaucracy in various organizations (including the National Museum of Natural Scienc- es, later renamed the Canadian Museum of Nature), inform the following commentary. The many examples here are known to me through personal experience. Although I use the past tense for my encounters, the problems they illustrate remain the same today. During the early 1980s, I used to compose rhymes and other attempts at humour (about various subjects, such as the quality of coffee!) while waiting for my transport home after work. Some of them served to dissipate growing frustrations with adminis- trative matters, and a few examples that accord with the themes of this article are in- cluded here in an attempt to lighten the tone. Later, I was known for occasional pointed remarks in coffee breaks and meetings, but the collective sense of humour seemed to

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decline as more members of staff were co-opted into management roles. Therefore, I no longer posted satirical comments, and paused only occasionally to mock the system. This article has three components. First, it considers difficulties with management, that is, problems in the establishment of organizational goals and in the relationships with employees who can achieve them. For example, scientific goals formulated by non- scientists may be misdirected. Hindrances to research created by some of the flawed approaches reviewed here are very disruptive for the long-term studies required to assess and interpret biodiversity, especially for the arthropods. I should add—in case any manager who reads these remarks is aggrieved by some of them—that each section actually begins with an outline of the requirements for positive and effective manage- ment, as still exercised by some individuals. A second set of themes relates to narrower bureaucratic problems that stem from a preoccupation with process, paperwork, terminology, and so on. Here, too, each section begins with positive recommendations about procedures, meetings, word use, commu- nication, and other topics. Although some problems are inevitable in the administration of large organizations, people who concentrate on tasks such as writing procedural rules (which are easier than direct dealings with employees, genuine scientific assessments, or long-term planning) are less effective managers. In a final section, I suggest ways to offset or limit the difficulties these flaws impose on research scientists.

Management systems Management systems are explicit schemes designed to develop organizational goals and the means to reach them. In essence, they dictate how products are chosen and produced, and how employees are enlisted to do this. To meet these needs, many more or less formal systems of management were devel- oped over time, as discussed in many publications. Originally, most of them were in- tended to get more from workers on production lines in factories. One mindset is shown by the scheme that became known as KITA (Weissman 2001), which used stress to keep workers on their toes. It constantly moved workers around and laid them off, so it actu- ally stood for a Kick In The Ass. The key belief behind this and similar schemes is that workers on the factory floor will not reach maximum productivity (for various reasons) unless forced to do so. An alternative viewpoint is that people value achievement, especially when they have some investment in the goal (cf. McGregor 1960). Motivated employees profit from a less controlling management style, one that focusses on the values of the organization and its staff, and is directed by well informed managers who foster an environment to benefit from the expertise of employees. Indeed, such employees may be more techni- cally skilled than management, and are able to make independent decisions. Management schemes of the first type emphasize the difference between managers and workers. Managers are supposed to know exactly what is required, whereas workers have to be forced to focus on the correct priorities and to maximize output. The applica- tion of these controlling schemes to scientists, most of whom are self-motivated, is not only less necessary but also likely to be counterproductive. A key contributor to the erosion of government science by new management philoso- phies was the way in which Management by Objectives (MBO) was introduced late in the 1960s, in the belief that applying strategies used in commercial businesses could increase the efficiency of activities for the public good and allow them to be delivered more cheaply. In the theoretical MBO model, managers determine the mission and stra- tegic goals of the enterprise. The goals are based on an analysis of what can and should be accomplished by the organization within a given period of time. Employees participate in the development of objectives to meet those goals. Continuous performance monitor- ing, evaluation, feedback, and appraisal are then used to ensure that the objectives are met. MBO, as adopted in the Department of Agriculture for example, included a goal like increasing crop production by 5% during each successive multi-year plan, even though this was impossible or unsustainable across multiple periods. Launched in a book by Drucker (1954), MBO was popular in the 1960s and 1970s, but was introduced into government agencies at a time when the corporate world was al- ready learning its many potential weaknesses (Box 1). Even Drucker himself wrote years later that Management by Objectives is not the great cure for management inefficiency

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but just another tool, now largely ignored. Unlike most of those who implemented the system, he understood that organizational forces should not supersede dealings with employees.

Box 1. Problems with Management by Objectives.

Frequent problems in the application of MBO in all settings are that it is time- consuming, increases paperwork, stresses employees, creates organizational difficulties by highlighting the difference between employee and employer goals, may lead to internal conflicting objectives, sets objectives that do not endure after initial excitement, generates objectives that are unachievable if they are too rigid, fails to provide adequate monitoring or feedback, provides no motivation for employees, and lacks appreciation of them. The most significant problems result from poorly executed dealings with employees, the weakness of poor man- agement in general. For scientific research and other knowledge-based enterprises it is important to have informed leadership and genuine inclusion of input from employees, not just a set of strategic goals and corresponding administrative procedures imposed from above. Scientists qualified in the subject matter generally consider such a system, which unduly limits their options for relevant research, to be politically motivated or ignorant.

Management and priorities in practice Management in scientific organizations should target two key areas. First, activities that best deliver things for which the organization is responsible should be identified and given priority, a task that requires knowledge of the subject area and a broad under- standing of the context and realities of science as well as its connection to societal aims. Second, good relationships with others, including the fair treatment of staff, ensure that employees work to best advantage. These requirements are not met if the wrong system of management is chosen, or if the chosen system is implemented poorly. Despite concerns about MBO (summarized in Box 1) and subsequent schemes, they have been implemented zealously within the Canadian government for many years, a process that weakened and diminished scientific research. Seven major features of the changes were harmful. Five of them contributed to a gen- eral setting that was often inappropriate: strategic goals were unduly biased by political and short-term considerations; priorities were imposed almost exclusively from above; managers lacked trust in employees; managers were incorrectly supposed to be able to manage anything regardless of subject knowledge; and resources that could have been spent on scientific research were spent instead on its management. woT other harmful features had particular day-to-day impact, and are discussed separately: many manage- ment appointees were personally unsuited to fulfil their responsibilities; and processes to implement the chosen activities were inefficient and unduly bureaucratic.

Biased strategic goals Under the new system, directed increasingly by people who were not well informed scientifically as well as some with personal ambition (seeIndividual managers below), overall goals were biased by political and other considerations. Moreover, over time, less and less input was sought or accepted from various advisory boards, made up chiefly of scientists, which could provide the government with unbiased opinions about important topics (e.g., Quirion et al. 2016).

- General problems. In the new reality, the priorities for research were driven by con- cern with political saleability, promotion of industry, expected revenues, and other fac- tors outside science. Genuine interest in broader and longer-term elements, or in social responsibility such as the protection of heritage and environments, was reduced. In addition, non-biologists did not like the uncertainty that stems from the stochastic- ity of many biological systems (in contrast to deterministic physical laws and chemical reactions). Therefore, some of them felt able to disregard the information provided, even when the general conclusion was clear.

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The value of basic as opposed to applied research was underestimated. Applied research is essential but is not the only need, because basic knowledge reveals what benefits are possible and how to make them feasible. Applications in all scientific fields cannot just be invented on their own, but have to be based on good basic research, which reveals future applications that could not have been predicted in advance. In biol- ogy, the complexity of ecological relationships means that many factors are potentially relevant; basic research therefore has great future value, much of it typically funded by governments in the public interest. Consequently, the more narrow government perspec- tive was particularly damaging to biology. Thereby affected were efforts to characterize biodiversity, as well as the supporting taxonomic work. Highly applied work also seemed to those now in charge to be especially cost-effec- tive—as it could often be in the short term only, by exploiting earlier basic work. Howev- er, cost-effectiveness over the short term did not usually translate into long-term benefit to society, as with other short-term gambits like the sale of capital assets to balance annual cash flows, or the reduction of government monitors by relying instead on self- regulation by industry. Moreover, this restricted view of applied work brought temptation to overweight perceived relevance at the expense of quality, even though both basic and applied research must have comparable scientific rigour. As the senior scientists originally in charge of sections were replaced by career manag- ers and administrators, fewer people looked out for the science itself, and fewer still were in a position to influence or educate key decision-makers. As a result, an undue preoccupation with work that appeared to be more “relevant” diminished the power of research. For example, Agriculture focussed more narrowly on the production of crops, and Fisheries on the exploitation of fish populations. Also, support for topics deemed important constantly waxed and waned as each new talking point captured the attention of politicians and senior executives.

- Selected examples. A well known example of the faulty execution of science is the system that Schindler (1976) called the Impact Statement boondoggle. Environmen- tal Impact Assessments were required originally to aid environmental protections, but in practice few of them made scientifically rigorous attempts to analyse what might actually happen, including any adverse consequences. Biodiversity and environmen- tal relationships were normally addressed in limited ways. Rather, many assessments produced documents that could be used by under-informed people to justify proposed developments, simply because the obligation for a report had now been fulfilled. Nor was follow-up scheduled to learn about major consequences and so assist future planning in similar cases. The government approach to the International Convention on Biological Diversity was likewise flawed. The Biodiversity Convention Office (like the Ecological Monitoring and Assessment Network and other related entities) had virtually no funds for the core work of assessing biodiversity. Instead, it emphasized policies and protocols and held workshops to develop schemes for action and enlist others to contribute, but with very limited funds to implement them. This mindset was visible soon after Canada signed the Convention, when people were invited to report relevant research to the Ministry. Their contributions were used to declare how much Canada was doing, but no real effort was made to support their work. Despite the absence of an integrated scientific program, money for “biodiversity proj- ects” did become more readily available within some individual jurisdictions after the Convention was signed. However, many proposals were limited or lacked expertise. For example, I received many enquiries from provincial officials who now intended to include arthropods in their studies of local biodiversity. Most of them had no biological back- ground, did not know that arthropods were diverse, and had allotted paltry funds for the arthropod component, so that little of value was likely to be produced. Nevertheless, they hoped that I could tell them in a few minutes how to assess the arthropod biodiver- sity of their study area. In 2003, 11 years after Canada signed the Convention, the federal government orga- nized a workshop to develop consensus on criteria and actions for biodiversity science and information (cf. Danks 2016, p. 93). The workshop was introduced by a senior man- ager who asserted that there would be no new money, so that political palatability and low cost would be the most important elements of any proposals that might be carried

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forward. The main aim of this and other workshops appeared to be how to get credit for seeming to act in the spirit of the Convention, but without additional cost, and with no overall long-term plan that was actually based on proper scientific evaluations. Similar perspectives were evident in other branches of government. During its early days, the BSC signed a memorandum of understanding with the National Parks branch for entomological research in Parks. Subsequently, it became clear that the view in Parks’ headquarters of “sensible” ideas for action under this agreement were ones without either cost to them or other implications, such as adjusted guidelines for outside research. At least at senior levels in Ottawa, control, perception, and lack of cost were valued, rather than the core job of scientific enquiry. The wish to have end products without the preceding basic research was illustrated by an opinion held by some managers in Agriculture Canada during the 1970s. Knowing something about the capabilities of electrophoresis and computer analysis, these people hoped that the time-consuming taxonomic study of many specimens could soon be vir- tually eliminated by developing a suitable machine. Whenever a specimen was dropped into the device, a species name would print out. This possibility was attractive at more senior levels, and the computer system to do it was likely to be funded. However, the amount and duration of basic taxonomic study needed to make it feasible for the arthro- pods, but that would not now be funded as less necessary, meant that resources would likely be wasted and the progress of science slowed. Advances in DNA analysis and com- puter capacity have brought part of this idea closer to reality, but do not offset the need for detailed taxonomic study. The expansion of computer capability, along with digital imaging, also made possible valuable web-based keys, descriptions, illustrations, and maps, which impressed deci- sion-makers too. Therefore, software development for many such platforms was funded to make data available in a more accessible form. However, because the necessary basic research had been completed for relatively few taxa (notably birds), different web-based platforms used the same data over and over again. Others relied on data that had not been properly verified. There was much less enthusiasm to fund core work (for example, items in the BSC’s Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification) that would allow ad- ditional treatments of high quality.

- Conclusion. In effect, the planners and strategists and their political masters who took over the decision-making were largely unqualified for these roles. They emphasized political considerations, and understood neither the requirements for proper research nor its basic nature, including the long-term perspective that is most fruitful for scientific en- deavours. Such a biased and limited viewpoint might be adequate to manage a factory making simple commercial products—but the priority given to detailed biological investi- gations should not be driven almost entirely by factors outside science.

Imposed priorities Management in knowledge-based organizations should involve both managers and employees, who come to general agreement on the objectives and how to achieve them, but in practice the government schemes were implemented as a means of control, with overall objectives set almost exclusively from above. In many departments, this approach led to top-down enforcement of priorities (“se- nior managers know best”), without real involvement or investment by employees, even though it would be wrong to think that scientists are not trying to do work important to their organizations as well as trying to ensure the quality of the science. Most genu- ine input from employees was not welcomed, and “consultations” were largely window dressing, as illustrated by the following examples. When Management by Objectives began in the Department of Agriculture, several av- enues for consultation were set up, with meetings of “Think Tanks” and “Syndicates”. A section head told the scientific staff about one of these meetings, at which a “crazy” idea suggested by management had been discussed, but the scientists there had deemed it counterproductive and even unworkable. Indeed, the arguments made had completely destroyed the validity of the idea. Two weeks later, the section head was surprised to learn at a similar meeting that managers were still talking about the same idea, al- though it had surely been put to rest already. Several weeks elapsed. The section head, by now rather cynical, reported that the idea was to be implemented. A similar preoccupation with managerial control was reflected in the way that vol-

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unteers—even highly qualified retired scientists—were treated. These people worked without a salary, but for several years their virtually free contributions were deemed less important than the fact that they were more difficult to control than regular staff. -Con sequently, retired scientists would be granted support such as office space only if they submitted and carried out detailed work plans deemed to be fully consistent with the strategic goals established by management. Many years later, I attended a meeting, led by a senior manager, to seek input from scientists about the budget for projects in the next fiscal year. After nearly three hours of scientist input, which included valuable suggestions for modification, no changes were made. However, the manager took out his copy of a form listing timelines for the budget process. On this list, he checked a box that read “Consultation with scientists”, and ended the meeting.

Lack of trust in employees Some managers seemed to regard employees as adversaries trying to reduce mana- gerial control, rather than as people seeking appropriate goals for their work within the organization. They disregarded advice from employees as untrustworthy. One manager even said that if people have specific knowledge of a subject area they must have a vested interest, making their advice suspect. This lack of belief in employee input cemented the biases in goals imposed from above, and led to further inefficiencies. In particular, advice was sought from outside consul- tants rather than employees (and, of course, consultant opinions were more highly regarded than internal reports at higher levels too, including Treasury Board and other oversight groups). This route had several weaknesses. First, the consultants charged substantial fees, making the contracts expensive. In addition, typical consultants needed data and education from staff before they could do their jobs, so that considerable staff time had to be invested, even though that cost was not included in the budget for the project. Many contracts confirmed the truth of the saying that a consultant is someone who borrows your watch in order to tell you the time. Second, the findings might be biased, because, in addition to the subjects to be ad- dressed, the conclusions hoped for by management were usually communicated to the consultants. In one instance known to me, two reviews made within a few years of each other had opposite conclusions, reflecting the opposing beliefs of the senior decision- makers who had hired and briefed the consultants. The two reviews were even carried out by the same consulting firm! Not uncommonly, staff input was filtered through time-consuming workshops guided by the outside consultants. Typically, these workshops used substantial resources, fol- lowed elementary procedures such as pinning coloured preference buttons on to a lim- ited number of options shown on a wall chart, and produced elementary conclusions. For example, after many hours of expensive workshops at the Canadian Museum of Nature to discuss desirable roles for the Museum, a principal conclusion was that a national mu- seum should be national! Moreover, an outside consultant might seize on an issue that had been raised to point out that a further workshop on the topic was necessary—requir- ing another contract that the consultant would be happy to accept. Finally, if the completed report of a consultant did not show the desired outcome, an “executive summary” with conclusions different from the original findings might be -ap pended to the report. It would be effective because many senior decision-makers would read only that “summary”. This ploy was used during reorientation of the work of the Entomology Research Institute that began in 1969.

Belief in transferable management The government espoused the mistaken belief that someone trained only in man- agement can manage anything, including science. In fact, even a manager competent elsewhere might be unsuited for a different role. Some individual examples are given in the next main section. This same belief encouraged the transfer of career managers to oversee a series of dif- ferent units, and a Management Advancement program was instituted for this purpose. Under the auspices of the program, a person ignorant of the subject might cycle through

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on a 6-month appointment in charge of the research specialists. Some recently appointed individuals, unfamiliar with the field they were now charged with overseeing, left on courses about museum collections or other topics. Most courses were intended for people with a background in biology. Even after a course, the knowl- edge of a newly imported manager who did not know how a species was defined, or even how species and specimens differed, remained superficial.

Use of resources Implementing the new management systems took resources away from science. Work led by senior scientists had, of course, sometimes wasted a proportion of resources on unsuccessful or inappropriate projects, but this variable proportion was relatively small, and so were the administrative costs. Because collective scientific expertise had set the priorities, useful scientific output came from most of the resources used. When full-time managers and administrators established and administered priorities instead, a fixed and much larger proportion of potential funding for scientific activities had to be consumed on other matters, even if all the projects eventually approved had been highly efficient. At first, scientists co-opted into management continued to be listed in corporate docu- ments as scientific staff, although a sometimes considerable proportion of their time was now spent on corporate paperwork. Such listings made the resources devoted to management seem smaller than they were. Eventually, the changes were also reflected by a decline in the number of public-service employees classified as scientists, with a corresponding increase in the number of full-time personnel in managerial and adminis- trative roles.

▪ In summary, management and priorities in Canadian government organizations— especially in headquarters—emphasized top-down control, often with limited input from scientists. Not only did this make employees even more vulnerable to individual managers (see the next section), but also led to the pursuit of political priorities, and to oversight by bureaucrats better versed in procedures than in science (see Admin- istrative processes and procedures below). The fact that political rather than scientific considerations drove the operation led to short-term thinking and “flavour of the month” research. It led too to further limitations, lest any divergence between politically desir- able and scientifically correct assertions became evident. For example, presentations of research findings had to be pre-approved by management (e.g., Gatehouse 2013; Owens 2018). I was at scientific meetings during the 1980s when, for similar reasons, managers attended instead of the staff scientists who should have been there.

Individual managers Individual managers help to translate policies and priorities into action through the efforts of employees. Good managers know the subject area, understand the organiza- tion’s true goals, think clearly, and interact well with employees to advance the work. For example, they let people know through words or actions that they are valued and sup- ported, create an honest environment of mutual trust, respect every member of staff, apply policies consistently, and hold meaningful meetings. However, managing people is difficult, not only because it is extremely challenging to follow this framework, but also because members of staff with different personali- ties—including some who are less competent or unnecessarily troublesome—have to be understood and handled appropriately. The new management philosophies meant that few senior well organized scientists who were also good with people were placed in charge. Instead, partly because there were so many more managers in a more complex system, science became governed in- creasingly by people who were not qualified to evaluate and support the most appropri- ate activities. A combination of the wrong management models with the wrong individu- als hindered the progress of science. Rather than helping qualified people to achieve a desired result, too many of these people gave weight to factors such as strict conformity with perceived strategic goals, short-term results, clearing their desks of paperwork, self-promotion, or simply getting through the day without any difficult interactions. The most effective managers, in both government and university hierarchies, protected the academic freedom and resources of expert staff, and let them work with as few dis-

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tractions as possible. However, many less desirable managers lacked suitable experience or personality. They could not cope with the difficulties of managing people (see above), were unduly egocentric, did not understand the subject matter (or even had no back- ground in science), or had limited aptitude for some other aspects of the job. Interac- tions with some of these individuals prompted the commentaries shown in Box 2.

Box 2. Two commentaries about managers.

ANOTHER GOVERNMENT MANAGER TAKES THE HELM (1981) The boss stood on the burning deck And noted with a smile The ship may go on down, but I Am laterally mobile!

UNTITLED (1983) The modern breed of manager must keep his wits in play To make the tough decisions that he deals with every day And so he cannot specialize nor learn specific facts For he well knows that “detail work” each manager distracts.

So if he comes to judge a thing on which he has no clue He simply asks an expert (who has nothing else to do). The extra value of this ploy can easily be named He takes the credit for success—but failures can be blamed.

Most inadequate managers could be placed into one of the overlapping categories below.

Arrogant managers The new systems favoured some arrogant individuals, including controlling personali- ties, self promoters, and political climbers. Some had sought managerial roles only to pursue their own advancement, rather than because they were keen and qualified for the tasks or supportive of the institution and its research role. Those who were unduly self-interested were most influenced by political judgements, and they could be cynical in pursuit of that trajectory. After I complained privately about an unnecessarily lengthy meeting, one senior manager agreed with me that he or I could quickly have written up the outcome in advance (because the direction was self- evident), but stated that it was advantageous to let people think that they were having input. One executive briefed the scientific staff soon after his appointment, declaring that he would be making changes to improve the operation. Although he had no biological train- ing, he asserted that his own ability to comprehend (as an executive in his previous job) was so high that if any scientist could not explain to him within one or two sentences exactly what they were doing, it was their fault. Moreover, he said that the Museum and its scientists must generate more revenue by doing “whatever it takes” to get consult- ing work and sponsorships. His perspective on sponsorship suggested to me that the institution might end up being renamed the “McDonald’s Speedy Muffler King Museum of Nature”... Fortunately, his tenure was short-lived. Most of the arrogant managers were relatively difficult to deal with, because they were convinced that any decision they made was correct. Commonly, an attempt to explain why a proposed approach might not be the best one would be met with a response equivalent to “I get to make the decisions”. This was true, but a decision might be ill-advised if it was driven by political or personal agendas, or if input about scientific aspects had been ignored. Some arrogant personalities thought that their power gave them the right to bully oth- ers. For example, they might proscribe the tasks of junior staff in restrictive detail. When one scientist was reluctant to serve in a role that included administrative matters that should have been the responsibility of his manager, he was met with the implied alterna- tive of dismissal.

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Managers lacking scientific perspective Managers unfamiliar with the subject lacked the insight to identify valid priorities. Many middle managers were “policy wonks”, who were interested in minor or technical aspects of strategies and policies, rather than a broader overview. Most of these people served to carry out instructions from their superiors, but did not know what the best scientific research priorities for the institution might be, especially in the long term. They stood no chance of giving education or constructive feedback to those instructing them. Instead, they simply implemented the policies that they were given, or considered rea- sonable from their own limited knowledge. Because they wished to deflect the possibility of being held responsible later for policy errors, they developed procedures that were often so detailed that timely progress was impeded (see Administrative processes and procedures below).

Ineffective managers Ineffective performers included not only people with limited general competence, but also some of the scientists who had been co-opted or coerced despite little interest in these tasks. Some ineffective managers concentrated on paperwork, because a common tendency of individuals unable to manage other people is to retreat to memoranda, reports, and decrees. In contrast, others tried neglect as a way to minimize the increasing amount of time demanded for administration. One individual (a co-opted scientist appointed relatively early in the reorganization of government management) confessed to me that he ignored every memorandum that he received, reasoning that the sender would follow up only if a response was essential. He would not then have to deal with any of the less critical issues. I encountered several career middle managers (including policy wonks) who seemed to realize that they were out of their depth in the scientific arena, and adopted the habit of being pleasant to everyone. Recognizing their limited knowledge, they listened to or sought advice from staff. Most of these people were more or less agreeable to deal with, and more likely than their more aggressive counterparts to help the institutional task. Nevertheless, without informed judgement they were relatively ineffective in a wider context, because they could not identify or promote promising directions for research, nor push back against ill-informed superiors. Some managers avoided difficulties simply by agreeing with anyone of higher rank. At one meeting of the management group, a senior executive (who was known to think highly of his own opinions) mused that a particular direction for action was likely to be best. Immediately, most of the managers present agreed, strongly reinforcing that opin- ion. However, the executive continued, the opposite direction surely has more merit. Like passengers rushing across the deck of a listing ship to the opposite side, the managers hastened to agree fully with this completely contrary assertion.

▪ In summary, not all individual career managers were well suited to help science, support their staff, or even administer effectively. Some further examples illustrate such limited perspective or capability. One representative of the Department of Agriculture who attended a meeting of the BSC’s Scientific Committee in 1977 crystallized the short-term and commercial-business viewpoint of the current management when he criticized a long-term plan being devel- oped by the BSC (Danks 2016, p. 30). This former scientist complained that the Survey’s plan failed to meet the criterion that “my managers want to see a dollar back next year for every dollar spent this year”, a principle that showed limited understanding of how to implement true scientific objectives. Work was to be done to satisfy a perceived goal, without ensuring that it was done well or had any long-term value. The preference for political palatability over quality was confirmed when an experi- enced professional translator was contracted to prepare French versions of some of the BSC’s scientific briefs. Most of this translator’s other jobs involved documents requested by various government agencies, pursuant to the policy on bilingualism in the public ser- vice. I reviewed the translated briefs, and made a number of suggestions to ensure that the French reflected precisely what was intended by the English. I was concerned that

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these comments might be viewed by a professional translator as unwelcome criticism. However, the translator responded instead that “it is great for once to deal with someone who cares”, after he had completed so many government contracts to satisfy the expec- tation that a translation should be provided, whether or not it was accurate. In another instance, a grand document about project plans had been drafted. It con- tained an extraordinary number of subdivisions, embellishments, and rationalizations. The approach suggested that the work on every one of the topics might at least merit a Nobel Prize, even though each project was to be carried out by only a few scientists. At the meeting to discuss this document, I pointed out that the plans were so lengthy and complex—and, although I didn’t say so, so full of posturing and unnecessary ver- biage—that a summary would be useful for orientation. The senior manager agreed, and charged another manager with preparing it. Afterwards, that person told me privately in a worried manner that they had no idea how to develop a summary. Because I had suggested the task, I dashed off a rough draft in a few minutes and sent it on to il- lustrate the sort of text required. In due course, the final document appeared. My draft, unchanged by either manager, was now entitled “Executive Summary”, and had been strikingly outlined (fortunately without attribution) in a highlight box on the cover of the document!

Administrative processes and procedures Organizing work to meet the chosen objectives requires some established procedures. In efficient bureaucracies, administrative requirements are transparent, as simple as possible, and targeted to serve the result rather than the process. These basic requirements have been superseded in many organizations by an absence of transparency (such as closely held criteria for staff classification), unduly elaborate ways to establish objectives (through complex work-planning exercises, for example), a preoccupation with process for its own sake (partly because designing forms is easier than leadership), and a concentration on peripheral items (which are more amenable to the construction of rules than central actions would be). Too much bureaucracy diverts time and money into administration and away from more useful products. The verse in Box 3 accords with this theme.

­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­Box 3. A satire about administration.

ANOTHER CAUTIONARY TALE (1982) Because for publication funds we argued and we fought The publications section had to choose what to support. The group discussed great questions, of content and display And struck six subcommittees, the questions all to weigh.

At last the full assembly of these policies was made And all decided such a thing deserved to be displayed And so the laser-printers ran, the printing presses rolled The coloured covers of the book were glorious to behold.

And yes indeed the group had solved the question of support For all the annual funds were spent to publish their report.

All large organizations, both public and private (including universities, museums and governments), tend to suffer from similar problems, even for elements that should be routine. Matters unrelated to the core operation, such as office assignments and parking, are important to employees and potentially difficult to adjudicate. Here, too, a common response is to establish rules. The mind-numbing complexity of regulations in the British Civil Service in the past included a strict hierarchy (based on seniority) in the size of of- fices, desks, carpeting, and so on.

Potential bureaucratic missteps are exemplified below for a few sample categories.

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Procedures As the federal government introduced management schemes and adjusted priorities in the 1970s, paperwork and procedures proliferated. Additional requirements were imposed, but any that had become meaningless were not discontinued. For example, monthly cash-flow estimates could be prepared simply by reproducing the pattern of previous years (Danks 2018, p. 27). Even when a bureaucracy did seek to reduce the number of official forms, it might first prepare several additional forms to gather infor- mation! Some procedures were plainly absurd. Therefore, bureaucracy was a favorite target of my informal jibes, which included some April Fool’s Day “Memoranda” (e.g., Box 4), concordant with the layout of official government forms. Reference might be made there to other forms, which in this example are coded “W.O.T.” (=waste of time).

Box 4. A sample memorandum posted on April Fool’s Day, ridiculing procedures.

TO: All members of the Division DATE: April 1, 1982 SUBJECT: SUPPLIES

In order to avoid the problems created late in fiscal 1980-1981 by the lack of funds for supplies, it will be necessary in future to complete 3 copies of Form W.O.T. 1 for each removal of supplies from the cupboard. To ensure that these forms are completed and filed properly, a new section entitled “Supply Control” has been organized. This has resulted in the loss of one technical position from each division, but we are assured that the long-term increase in efficiency so produced in the control of supplies will more than compensate for this minor inconvenience.

The new section has issued the following directives: “1. Supply control applies to all disbursements of material. Therefore, a form must be completed even for single paper clips or elastic bands, for example. Abuse of the new system will thereby be prevented. 2. No material can be removed until the necessary forms have been completed. 3. Our automatic data-processing facilities require that W.O.T. 1 be typed in 12-pitch lambda-biased typeface, with an inking density of 27 IU. Forms W.O.T. 2 will soon be available to apply for time on the only machine currently owned by the corporation that can meet these specifications. Please allow for a 3 weeks waiting period. 4. Additional directives will follow daily.”

Forms W.O.T. 1 will be available in April 1983, when sufficient funds have been encumbered to print the number of copies required.

You are nevertheless asked to implement the appropriate procedures immedi- ately.

­­­­­­­­­­­­­­ Some months later, a member of staff sorting the pile of various expired items taken down from postings in the mail area saw this joke (Box 4) again, and re-posted it on the nearby supply cupboard. When I was in that area a couple of days later, I was addressed by a senior zoologist standing at the cupboard. His secretary was away, and he needed supplies. “Hugh,” he asked me, “Where do I get one of these forms?” I suggested that he look at the date of the memo. Given his willingness to believe that memorandum, I realized that parodies of this sort are potentially dangerous, because their level of bureaucratic foolishness is so close to some of the things that have actually happened that their ideas might end up being adopted!

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Meetings Meetings allow ideas from different people to be received and evaluated so that ap- propriate decisions can be reached about specific topics. Well organized meetings have clear aims and knowledgeable leaders skilled at encouraging competent participants, and so they produce useful conclusions and assign future tasks. Meetings with a defined purpose need advance preparation, including a detailed and well crafted agenda. Atten- dance is limited to people who are appropriate in the subject area and who have been briefed with the agenda and key supporting information, as well as those (perhaps for shorter periods) who can provide helpful data or insights. In contrast, many meetings produce little because they are unfocussed or loosely structured, concentrate on process rather than achievement, or have insufficient prepa- ration. Some of them are intended to stimulate “buy-in” by staff to an existing decision, but are otherwise fruitless. Some government meetings include representatives who claim that they are “positioning” their institutions, a term that often means their partici- pation is merely protective in case some issue arises that might impinge on the jurisdic- tion of their departments. Many of these wider meetings make little headway because participants will not accept new tasks, even those with collective value, unless they have substantial direct bearing on their own responsibilities. Nevertheless, to show that the topic is important to the organizer, the participants, or their superiors, yet another meet- ing on the same topic might be agreed for the future even if no progress has been made and no action needing follow up has been decided. A comment triggered by one kind of meeting is reproduced in Box 5.

Box 5. A comment on meetings.

MANAGEMENT MEETINGS (1981) Going to meetings is Like a religion, by Managers everywhere Viewed as sublime. But I can tell you that Workers in general think Most of these people are Wasting their time.

People attending meetings may be poorly prepared or poorly chosen. One govern- ment representative at a meeting of the Scientific Committee of the BSC delivered the comment (preserved without attribution in an earlier issue of the BSC Newsletter): “I don’t know anything about the subject, and I haven’t read the document under discus- sion, but I think...”. Again, under an initiative of the national museum, middle managers responsible for collections visited regional museums, and held meetings with directors and scientific staff to promote the possibility of collective action. They were greeted with puzzlement in places where it became clear that they were unqualified to discuss most of the relevant subjects in any detail. My role in the BSC caused me to be enlisted for a large internal committee about an “important biodiversity project”. This group held lengthy meetings, but it soon became clear that the aim was not scientific, even after I had made several attempts to see if any actual biodiversity work might be included. I finally offered the corollary that driving a large truck around town all day with both “Biodiversity” and “Canadian Museum of Na- ture” painted prominently on the side might be useful as a public-relations exercise; but this particular truck would be empty, and I was interested in what might be inside it. The committee continued to explore ways to promote a mantle of biodiversity without any biodiversity content, but at least I was released from further meetings...

Reports Reports should be as simple as possible to meet clearly defined objectives. In some cases, however, preparing the report becomes its own objective. For example, interim reports demanded from each employee were progressively elaborated by adding minutiae and peripheral items. Frequent changes in layout took

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additional time as ongoing listings had to be reformatted. From time to time consider- able detail would be stipulated. For example, one section had to log all telephone calls precisely, including who had requested information and how long had been spent on each call, even though there was no follow-up to determine patterns that might be of interest or might suggest useful changes in how calls were directed or handled. Logging many of these interactions took longer than the calls themselves, and the data also had to be transcribed into quarterly reports. However, the detailed information was used only to thicken these and other reports (and appraisals, for example, were based instead on annual submissions).

Work-planning Procedural inefficiencies were common too for the annual research plans submitted for approval. Fictitious “consultations”, about budgets for example, were noted under Imposed priorities above. In the 1980s, complex forms were designed for work-planning so that proposed re- search could be evaluated in relation to departmental priorities. Included was the time allowed for each activity, together with further columns to be completed later. They would permit many comparisons with the estimates, such as the time and money actu- ally spent on each aspect of a project. Initially, the forms were set up on a DOS-based computer system as a series of nested tables that were difficult to complete and extraordinarily time-consuming to navigate across multiple screens. The layout of the forms also changed for each itera- tion, requiring a new learning curve. Moreover, the actual versus estimated comparisons would have taken so much effort to complete and analyze that they were never used for project tracking. Therefore, none of the follow-up implied by the design of the forms was done. Fortunately, requirements later became simpler, though still rather inefficient.

Reorganization Reorganization is a favorite way of seeming to make progress and be in control (com- monly after the appointment of a new executive), even if the re-labelling creates more work or affects morale without any likelihood that the results will be more useful. Of course, when the names of formal entities are changed, costs are incurred to prepare new and discard old letterhead, business cards, promotional material, websites, and so on. These concerns are not new (compare Box 6).

Box 6. A quotation about reorganization.

A well known quotation by Charlton Ogburn (written in 1957, although similar versions are often falsely attributed to the ancient Roman courtier Petronius) reads:

“We trained hard, but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form up into teams we would be reorganized. Presumably the plans for our employment were being changed. I was to learn later in life that, perhaps because we are so good at organizing, we tend as a nation to meet any new situation by reorganiz- ing; and a wonderful method it can be for creating the illusion of progress while producing confusion, inefficiency and demoralization.”

▪ In summary, the way that administrative requirements developed transformed what should have been relatively simple discussions, reports, evaluations, and actions into unnecessarily detailed processes and procedures. These requirements reduced the ef- ficiency of the work, especially when complex management systems or hierarchies had been adopted.

Word use Plans and results are best explained with words carefully chosen for clarity. A clear style of expression favours the further development of key ideas. In contrast, a conspic- uous symptom of faulty bureaucracy is the over-use of buzz-words and jargon that are used not for precision (as might be necessary in technical writing) but to make some-

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thing sound impressive, to conceal the fact that the idea itself is unclear or trivial, or to identify the user as someone who is executive material or at least is in the management loop. As bureaucracy grew, plain English was replaced by grand words and meaningless generalizations to give the illusion of credibility. Words were even combined into over- blown verb-adjective-noun sequences, such as “conceptualize synergistic initiatives” (plan joint work) and “actualize mission-critical deliverables” (produce essential results). A few sample words of this sort are shown in Box 7. Elaborate phrases and jargon came at the expense of rapid comprehension, quite apart from any eye-rolling they prompted amongst people who were not in the management loop.

Box 7. A sample of the grand or overstated words that replace plain words.

Verbs Adjectives Nouns

Grand Grand Grand Basic word Basic word Basic word replacement replacement replacement

Arrange,Set up Orchestrate Effective Impactful Criterion Benchmark Change Revolutionize Essential Mission-critical Influence Leverage Encourage Incentivize Good World-class Model Paradigm Occur Eventuate Improved Value-added Result Deliverable Plan Conceptualize Joint Synergistic Use Utilization Produce Actualize New Visionary Uses Functionalities Start Initiate Original Leading-edge Worker Operative

Allied jargon was adopted to imply that understanding or consensus had been achieved. Frequently heard in meetings were the mantras “low-hanging fruit” (things that can be done most easily), “win-win situation” (both parties benefit), and “think out- side the box” (use an unconventional approach). Similar use was made of acronyms, which like jargon were sometimes intended not to simplify expressions but to validate the insider status of the user. Acronyms for the many government agencies are more easily comprehended by insiders than by others. Therefore, the over-use of acronyms was especially unhelpful in meetings that included both administrators and scientists. Inevitably, as these overblown words and expressions became more common they were adopted to describe the work of employees. For example, a description of the tasks carried out for the Biological Survey of Canada was converted from plain English into the format, sprinkled with grand words, that had been adopted for formal job descriptions (Danks 2016, p. 38). The wish for grandiloquent titles led to re-labelling. Groups of staff who studied par- ticular insect taxa or pursued particular entomological subjects were reorganized and re-labelled to sound more impressive and to highlight chosen themes (such as a focus on individual crops or other applied topics) that were more likely to be seen by non- scientists as appropriate (see Biased strategic goals above). Of course, whole establishments have been re-labelled, partly for the same reasons. Since 1973 the Entomology Research Institute in Ottawa has also been called the Bio- systematics Research Institute, the Biosystematics Research Centre, the Biological Re- sources Division of the Centre for Land and Biological Resources Research, the Eastern Cereal and Oilseed Research Centre, and the Ottawa Research and Development Centre. The corresponding succession of acronyms that could be used in meetings for this one institution was ERI, BRI, BRC, BRD, CLBRR, ECORC, and ORDC! Staff titles were inflated too. Relatively junior members of staff became Administrative Support Specialists, Office Directors, Senior Administrators, and Executive Assistants. (A recruiter might be called a Talent Acquisition Consultant, and even the dog catcher was now a Canine Relocation Professional.)

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I was once appointed to help interview applicants for jobs in an office with only a typist and a secretary. However, these positions had been re-labelled as Office Manager and Administrative Assistant, respectively. Thereby tempted to apply were several highly qualified candidates. The Applicant Evaluation Team included a Human Resources Associ- ate (from the former personnel department), who asked one of the candidates to indi- cate his typing speed. This widely experienced candidate had previously managed a busy office with about ten auxiliary staff. “Oh”, he replied airily, “there are people to do that”!

Communication Information for employees should be clearly expressed, and normally should help them to feel that they have been considered and included in the actions being communicated. Instead, the love affair with grand words, jargon, acronyms, and other pretentions hin- dered communication. Indeed, a newsletter about administrative matters was produced by the government for many years, filled with articles that were written in particularly dense and obscure prose. The text in Box 8 parodies this trend towards opaque modes of expression. Translated into simpler language, it claims only that more managers can be hired if memos are less easily understood.

Box 8. A parody of obscure bureaucratic writing.

MEMORANDUM (1981) I am pleased to inform that in order to ensure adequate visibility ratios pertaining to the reorganized institutional entities, and to rationalize and coordinate more fully personnel and budgetary resource alignments consistent with established mandates, the institution will shortly be actioning dynamic strategy optimization with respect to the negative implications for managerial growth potentially im- posed by communication effectiveness scenarios, pending development by expert consultants of a finalized policy framework enhancing the low comprehensibility factor of favoured expressions in transoffice information transfer documents.

A parallel to the use of buzz-words and impenetrable prose was an attempt to massage perceptions through euphemisms and overdrawn explanations. A lack of transparency in some of these messages, or an apparent attempt to hoodwink staff, diminished the credibility of executives in both government and corporate worlds. For example, firings or layoffs came to be known as “downsizing” and then “rightsiz- ing”. Doing fewer things when resources were reduced became “increasing efficiency” even though much less was being done. One of the briefings provided to the BSC during a meeting of the Scientific Committee repeated the mantra of “increasing efficiency” as several programs were cancelled within the Department of Agriculture and the corre- sponding scientist positions eliminated. When a new research building was constructed for the Canadian Museum of Nature in the 1990s, the design called for open-concept spaces, with small cubicles separated by partitions for almost everyone, including research scientists (although not for senior managers). A senior manager produced a script of more than 20 pages claiming that the open concept had been designed deliberately to encourage “teamwork” and to take account of “interior design flow”. Cited as examples of these themes were relatively low partitions between cubicles, and curved sweeps of colour on the carpets (some of which subsequently separated along the resulting seams). However, problems with open-concept classrooms and offices, including visual and auditory distraction, had been well known for many years, and we now know too that in these circumstances employees choose to reduce face-to-face communication (Bernstein and Turban 2018). Apparently, as for Management by Objectives, the open concept was implemented chiefly by people without in-depth knowledge about it. A major contributor to the cost of any building is the heating and cooling system, which is much cheaper to implement for large spaces than for many separate rooms occupying the same area; multiple rooms are also more expensive to build. Hence a key way to save on costs is to limit the number of enclosed offices and to reduce the space assigned to each person. Moreover, low partitions favour air flow and thus reduce demands on the physical plant. A request for people to do their best despite the compro-

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mises forced by limited funds or government edicts might have been grudgingly accept- ed. However, the long exposition actually produced was not credible. Its florid explana- tions about teamwork and design were rife with buzz-words, pretentious expressions, and special pleading. It served to reduce the morale and effort of some employees—as well as prompting additional eye-rolling, of course. Also, for several months prior to a move into these smaller premises, managers strode into meetings and along corridors chanting “purge and merge” to insist that as much as possible would be thrown away, including unsorted collections unlikely to be required. At a corporate level, the purge included all of the back issues of many older Museum publications.

Coping with the system I think that there are three main defences against the managerial and administrative shortcomings outlined above: comprehensive planning, which minimizes disruption to long-term objectives; satisfying required bureaucratic systems, which reduces potential short-term hindrances; and finding ways to stay motivated, which offsets aspects of the workplace that might be discouraging. Suggestions are listed in Box 9, and elaborated below.

Box 9. Ways to offset the potentially negative effects of inferior manage-ment and administration.

Planning Develop a well thought out long-term program with shorter-term milestones Present proposals in ways that reinforce institutional or granting-agency requirements Deliver results in an acceptable pattern Produce ongoing items to confirm that effective work continues Establish feasibility before making commitments Structure reporting to ensure that objectives are always met Plan for reporting, to highlight achievements and to minimize the time required Budget strategically, using appropriate subdivision Use any surplus funds wisely, and keep track to allow timely use

Satisfying bureaucratic requirements Meet all deadlines by planning ahead Follow financial rules to the letter Meet ridiculous administrative requirements without complaint, unless particularly onerous Use bureaucratic terminology when essential, but otherwise avoid that style

Motivation Focus on the interest of your studies and the fascination of insects Try to be as productive as possible when working Strive for creditable scientific achievements and enjoy having done them Interact with colleagues locally and nationally, at scientific conferences, and through scientific societies Enjoy nature Develop interests outside the workplace

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Planning With or without problems of the sorts just outlined, a long-term plan for research is essential. Assess current knowledge, consider possible questions in the broadest possible setting, establish appropriate objectives, and develop specific ideas about how to carry out individual pieces of work. A well thought out research plan with shorter-term milestones is the key to both scientific quality and coping with external administrative systems. A long-term plan allows the research to be driven forward with fewer distractions. In practical terms, it should be structured to show that proposals are consistent with institu- tional or granting-agency requirements, and to deliver results in an acceptable pattern. Proposals are more likely to be accepted when the context and directions of the research plan are fully thought out in advance. Careful consideration and preparation has even al- lowed some successful grant proposals to be published in primary journals! A schedule for the delivery of results is important, because products that are too widely spaced (even if individually brilliant) will not satisfy most government work plans or granting systems. Therefore, ensure that smaller items can be produced to confirm that effective progress continues. Successive reports that use the same data are effective for this purpose: not just a published paper, for example, but also a preceding conference paper, subsequent seminars or special lectures elsewhere, an abbreviated summary for a newsletter, and a paragraph in an institutional vehicle. However, science is not well served by the too-common alternative of breaking up key results into “least publishable units”, because it reduces their value and hinders synthesis. Instead, identify smaller aspects for which separate scientific publication is justified. Commit to a time frame only when you are certain that the work is feasible. Even pre- liminary elements like rearing technique and ability to obtain enough material should be considered. One way to ensure timely delivery is to structure reporting. For example, a year that has seen substantial production (or fanatical work!) allows reports about some successful items to be held back to the next reporting period, or at least until promising preliminary results are available. All studies will then be completed ahead of the reporting requirements, a pattern that can be repeated. Plan too for the reports themselves. Make annual commitments that are adequate but more limited than you hope for, so that normally you will exceed rather than simply meet expectations. In annual appraisals I used to tabulate Expected results achieved, Additional results achieved, and Notes on significance separately, highlighting the increased level of achievements as well as their significance. Reduce the time needed to complete annual evaluations (or granting-agency reports) by making ongoing notes that eliminate time-consuming tracking later. For example, keep a brief list of journal papers you have reviewed, so that a summary will take only seconds. Maintain a similar list of outreach or other positive activities outside research. Keep a single electronic or paper folder with copies of positive correspondence you have received that confirm the scientific quality and relevance of your work—they will be useful later to supplement appraisals or proposals. However, don’t overdo the minutiae, but concentrate on the research and wider scientific involvements that have been delivered. Streamline interim reports. I used to sketch in my four quarterly reports in advance, because it was easiest to do this at the same time as annual work plans. Each one would then have enough content, but the time needed to complete them would be minimized. Structure budgets carefully. Subdivide the budget into well rationalized parts, to show that your projects are well planned, and to limit the possibility that any particular dollar figure will be viewed as excessive. Don’t underestimate the necessary funds, but request an amount that will be sufficient even if there are inevitable difficulties. However, if every- thing works smoothly and there are surplus funds, be sure to put them to use elsewhere rather than let them lapse (both to support your studies, and because similar requests in future can be justified). However, never waste funds just to use them up, as has some- times been the case in government agencies at the end of a fiscal year. You should have another subproject that needs the extra support, and you should also have a list of further components within your program to be funded if possible. Track the pattern of expendi- tures often enough that any extra funds can be used before they lapse. In summary, reduce the constraints of the system by thinking ahead to avoid disruption, to reduce the burden of administration, to deliver on commitments, and to meet or exceed expectations.

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Satisfying bureaucratic requirements Follow the demands of the bureaucratic system closely to minimize its effect on your scientific endeavours. This approach requires care, attention to detail, and self control. Meet all deadlines by planning ahead, as outlined above. Follow financial rules to the letter. One colleague of mine ordered an inexpensive item without the necessary purchase order. This single misstep led to continuous future scrutiny from the finance department. Of course, creative ways to dispense the budget are appropriate, as long as they are both procedurally correct and completely legal. For example, the production of Canada and its insect fauna, one of the BSC’s earliest publications, was feasible despite the fact that advance payment for printing and other services was not allowed, because this stipulation did not apply to the purchase of products such as paper that could be used eventually for the printing (Danks 2016, p. 24). Resources could thereby be con- served until the next fiscal year. Conform with administrative requirements, even if they seem ridiculous, to avoid agi- tating administrators and risking future impediments. After one journey on behalf of the BSC, I had to submit a signed affidavit to claim a few city bus fares because no receipts were available (Danks 2018, p. 32). Object only to aspects that are particularly onerous or unwelcome, so that you do not acquire a reputation for arguing or become a potential target of officious retaliation. Use bureaucratic terms when essential, like the grand words favoured in job descrip- tions, but first write in plain English so that the meaning is correct. Otherwise, strive for clarity in documents and meetings and avoid the jargon, buzz-words, and obscure claptrap that tend to creep in. A relevant story comes from an incident I witnessed in Japan, where procedures are followed diligently. It illustrates the lesson that a problem can usually be solved without getting excited or insisting that rules must be changed. In this example, a postdoctoral fellow from another country needed an institutional car for fieldwork. According to the rules, as a pdf he was not allowed to reserve it, but any permanent member of staff could do so on his behalf. However, the postdoctoral fellow complained repeatedly that he was being disrespected, and ought to be able to book a vehicle himself. The direc- tor reminded him that in Japan a change in rules is slow or unlikely, but the procedure available did allow him to have a car whenever he wished, both during and outside office hours. The fellow continued to complain nevertheless, discomforting those present and decreasing the likelihood that he would receive eager assistance with future issues.

Staying motivated Constant exposure to management missteps and bureaucratic bungling can be de- moralizing. A government research scientist, who was able to retire because he was independently wealthy (but continued to work full time), once said to me that he could highly recommend retirement as a way to pursue one’s studies with far less stress. Re- tirement also made unpleasant managers less relevant. This option is not open to most people, but it illustrates the need to find a way to offset the effect of negative settings. Another anecdote confirms this need. Museum management learned that staff mo- rale was low (a result of the weaknesses identified in this article), and discussed ways to boost it. A corrective program was developed and duly implemented, but it failed to improve morale (or even to reduce eye-rolling)—because the program consisted merely of giving each employee a pen that bore the Museum’s name and logo! The key way to avoid demoralization is simply to focus on the interest of your studies. Try to be as productive as possible when working, and to recognize the fascination of insects and their environmental relationships. Efforts then go into worthwhile avenues rather than being wasted on potential bureaucratic issues. (Nevertheless, from time to time it may help to blow off steam about managerial or bureaucratic disappointments by discussion with trusted colleagues...or through satirical compositions!) Concentrating on scientific aspects in turn allows you to strive for worthwhile scientific achievements and to enjoy having done them, which reinforces the value of your efforts. Be sure to interact with colleagues, who will bring fresh perspectives and interest. Be open to cooperative ventures. Participate in scientific conferences, and also in the committees or governance of entomological or other scientific societies, which will allow further interactions and broaden your outlook.

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Find ways to enjoy nature, by getting into the field to enjoy unspoiled environments and observe insects and other organisms, both as part of your studies and for general relaxation. Finally, follow some interests outside work. Hobbies (even entomological ones, but without performance pressure) will clear your mind of other distractions. These strategies serve to keep in perspective all of the workday difficulties discussed above.

Conclusions When chosen systems of management are deficient and individual managers lack appropriate skills, scientific research (especially in government) fails to emphasize the most appropriate goals or to profit fully from the expertise of employees. Some ambi- tious managers are more interested in self-promotion than in the subject matter of the work for which they are responsible. Their political masters tend to have similar biases, and to lack scientific knowledge. As a result, many government decision-makers show unduly political behaviour, undervalue expert scientific advice, select narrow or inappro- priate targets, and fail to appreciate the nature of the long-term research required for studies of biodiversity and other subjects. In addition, typical bureaucracies hinder research, because many of their agents (administrators as well as managers) concentrate on paperwork, process, and control, rather than on the efficient production of high-quality science. Inefficiencies arise from unduly elaborate protocols, frequent reorganizations, poorly conceived meetings, exces- sively detailed reports, use of buzz-words, unclear or misleading communications, and other bureaucratic weaknesses. Some of these preoccupations reflect a lack of relevant knowledge, a focus on organization rather than more difficult interpersonal relationships, and a wish to obscure potential responsibility for faulty decisions. Two approaches serve to offset these problems. At an individual level, scientists can reduce the constraints on their research by planning, satisfying bureaucratic require- ments, and staying motivated, as exemplified in the previous section. Moreover, individ- ual managers and administrators should strive to play less obtrusive and more support- ive roles. Second, actions are needed in the broader context of society. Schindler (2017) encour- aged Canadians to promote science literacy among both leaders and ordinary citizens, noting that accurate information on most scientific topics of public interest is available on the internet from the world’s National Academies of Science, most of which take simi- lar well-founded positions about topics of long-term importance. Knowledgeable citizens should demand, as Schindler urged, that their political representatives base decisions on sound, verifiable science, rather than on political and other priorities of the sorts identi- fied in this article. I end with a belief expressed earlier (Danks 2003), and repeated above. If entomolo- gists concentrate on the interesting scientific studies they are doing, and on the fascina- tion of the insects themselves, it will help them to deal with the inevitable day-to-day distractions generated by the constraints of poorly implemented management and the burdens of bureaucracy. The history and achievements of the BSC (Danks 2016, 2017) show that cooperative efforts by scientists who maintain a positive focus on the pursuit of knowledge produce results that are far superior to those from operations encumbered by inadequate systems of management and bureaucracy.

References Bernstein, E.S., and S. Turban. 2018. The impact of the ‘open’ workspace on human collabora- tion. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 373 (1753). doi: 10.1098/ rstb.2017.0239 Danks, H.V. 2003. Knowledge and synthesis in entomology (Gold Medal address). Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Canada, 35(4):168–176. [available from https://esc-sec.ca/publications/ bulletin/ [December 2003]] Danks, H.V. 2016. The Biological Survey of Canada: a personal history. Biological Survey of Canada Monograph Series 8: 1–180. [available from http://biologicalsurvey.ca/monographs/read/19] Danks, H.V. 2017. Benefits and principles of the Biological Survey of Canada: A model for scientific cooperation. The Canadian Entomologist, 149(6):693–701. Danks, H.V. 2018. The Biological Survey of Canada: reflections on travelling on behalf of the Survey. Newsletter of the Biological Survey of Canada, 37(1):20–32. [available from http://biologicalsur- vey.ca/newsletter/bsc-summer-2018.pdf]

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Drucker, P.F. 1954. The practice of management. Harper & Row, New York. 404 pp. Gatehouse, J. 2013. When science goes silent. Maclean’s magazine, May 2013 [available from https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/when-science-goes-silent/]. McGregor, D. 1960. The human side of enterprise. McGraw Hill, New York. 246 pp. Owens, B. 2018. Half of Canada’s scientists still feel muzzled. [available from http://www.sci- encemag.org/news/2018/02/half-canada-s-government-scientists-still-feel-muzzled] Quirion, R., A. Carty, P. Dufour, and R. Jabr. 2016. Reflections on science advisory systems in Canada. Palgrave Communications 2 (August 2016), article 16048. doi: 10.1057/palcomms.2016.48. Schindler, D.W. 1976. The impact statement boondoggle. Science 192: 509. Schindler, D.W. 2017. Facts don’t matter. Alberta Views, 1 July 2017 [available from http://alberta- views.ca/facts-dont-matter] Weissman, R. 2001. The case against GE. Global management by stress. Multinational Monitor 22 (7–8). [available from https://www.multinationalmonitor.org/mm2001/072001/weissman.html]

New Program Notice

IISD Experimental Lakes Area’s Artist-in-Residence program

IISD Experimental Lakes Area (IISD-ELA), the world’s freshwater laboratory, is very proud to announce its Artist-in Residence program.

What is IISD Experimental Lakes Area? Put simply, IISD-ELA is an artist’s dream. It is a series of 58 pristine lakes, set within Canada’s boreal forest in northwestern Ontario, set aside for a unique approach to scien- tific research. Photos reveal a space of great peace and tranquility, vast expanses of untouched lakes bordered by dense forests, and a busy community of scientists working together towards common goals. Being there and experiencing it for yourself reveals so much more.

What is IISD-ELA’s Artist-in-Residence program? Are you a painter? Or photographer? Writer, poet, songwriter? If you create any kind of expressive art, we are interested in inviting you to the site to spend at least one week here from May to October. The dates are negotiable, and travel to and from the site, ac- commodation and food is included. You will meet the residents (there are usually about 20-50 people at the site at any given time), go out on the lakes, take part in the science, get your hands dirty and ex- perience the solitude and excitement of the world’s freshwater laboratory for yourself.

Deadline for 2019: Jan. 10. For more information, and to apply, visit https://www.iisd.org/ela/blog/news/iisd-elas-artist-residence-program/

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2018 papers in the Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification:

Larson, D.J., Scudder, G.G.E. 2018. Seed Bugs and their allies (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Lygaeoidea) of the Canadian Prairie Provinces. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification 34. 174 pp. doi:10.3752/cjai.2018.34 http://cjai.biologicalsurvey.ca/ls_34/cite.html

Reminder of BSC Publications The BSC has produced a number of monographs and briefs on various topics relating to biodiversity. Briefs and some monographs are available as downloadable pdf documents from our website: http://biologicalsurvey.ca/home

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Notices

Recent Books available from the Biological Survey of Canada. These are available for download on the BSC website, and most are also available as softcover bound versions. See http://biologicalsurvey.ca/monographs for information:

Arthropods of Canadian Grasslands series Volume 1: Ecology and Interactions in Grassland Habitats. Volume 2: Inhabitants of a Changing Landscape Volume 3: Biodiversity and Systematics, Part 1 Volume 4: Biodiversity and Systematics, Part 2

A Handbook to the Ticks of Canada (Ixodida: Ixodidae, Ar- gasidae)

The Biological Survey of Canada: A personal history

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Entomological Monographs

The Entomological Society of Canada has published a number of entomological monographs (including some of the popular Insects and Arachnids of Canada Series) on their website. To access these, go to: http://esc-sec.ca/publications/aafc/

If you prefer the monographs in bound format, these can still be obtained on a print-on- demand process though an agreement with Volumes Direct (http://www.volumesdirect. com/). Visit their website, and search for title or author.

Call for Suggestions for a 2019 Biological Survey of Canada BioBlitz

A Bioblitz is a great way to start or implement a faunal inventory of a region, as can be seen by reading the report of the 2017 bioBlitz in this issue. The 2017 bioblitz was held in the Cypress Hills of Saskatchewan in conjunction with the Bioblitz Canada 150 pro- gramme. If you are interested in organizing a BioBlitz for the next summer, please contact the Bio- logical Survey of Canada: [email protected]

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Add Your Voice: Biological Survey of Canada on Social media

Join the biodiversity discussion on the BSC facebook site, and other ways to engage in discussing topics in Canadian biodiversity.

visit our facebook site: https://www.facebook.com/biolsurvey1can/?fref=nf#

Who we are: The Biological Survey of Canada is a Not-for-Profit Corporation dedicated to promoting biodiversity science in Canada - The BSC consists of an elected board of directors and hip represent- ing all areas of biodiversity science, though with a focus on Arthropods. - We produce a newsletter twice per year, organize events such as the annual BSC Symposium at the Entomological Society of Canada (ESC) meeting, a “Curation Blitz” at some ESC meetings, and assist in organizing BioBlitzes when possible. Anyone can receive the newsletter, by sending a request to the Sec- retary (address below). - Membership is free, and includes this newsletter and the right to vote at the Annual General Meeting. All members are encouraged to become actively involved in BSC projects, propose new projects, or to run for the positions on the Board of Directors. (A nominal membership fee may be charged in future to cover infrastructure costs). - The Annual General Meeting is held each fall at the annual meeting of the Ento- mological Society of Canada.

To Join the BSC: Send an email to Joel Gibson, Secretary, BSC. [email protected]

- In the subject line, write “BSC Membership” - in the body of the message, give your full name and contact infor- mation, and a valid email address. Remember to update the BSC if you change email addresses. Please also provide some infor- mation on your background and biodiversity interests.

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