OUR WORKSHO P :

B E I N G

A P RACTI CAL GU I DE To TH E AMATEU R

ENTRY ANDJ I NE Y OFCAR P O { .

P R O FU S ELY I L R AT ED.

Y D

N E W Y O R ] .

’ T T E 1 30 N A S S A U S T R E E . H O MA S O K AN ,

C O N TEN TS

C H A P . CARP ENTRY AND

TH E BENCH

H O W TO U S E THE

~ R EMAR H S ON THE S EASONING AND C HOI CE O F THE W OODS

V ARIOU S METHODS O F JO I N I N G TIMBER

V S IMP LE V O R H S IN W OOD

G V P L E TC . ROO ING ANES, MORTISING AND TENONING

DOV ETAI LING

V ENEER I NG

V ARNISHING AND FRENCH P OLISHING

A m1 2240 1

O U R W O R K S H O P .

D Y CARP ENTRY AN JOINER .

obli e d are sorry to be g to admit, that t o enter into a scientific investi gat ion O f the mechanical principles on

of C which the art arpentry depends ,

ul . s o wo d be worse than useless By doing, we w should only be occupying valuable space, ith o u t f imparting instruction, or a fording pleasure

f r to many o ou readers .

W e in should fail the first, Simply because a m a teu rs would not peru se such unpalatable matter f or so it wou ld be considered by the

- of every day reader light literature . The latter, o le as u r e - l n o t k p seeker, wou d ask why we did tell him how to m ake s ome ornamental or useful

d on article, instead of elivering a dry lecture

com osit ion resolu ti on o or ces the p and f f , the

ff o strengths of di erent f rms of beams , and many other matters which are all - important to the B practical carpenter . In truth, there always has been, and we fear there always must be, a very wide di stinction between the p r a c tica l and the

t u r am a e mechanic . W hile the former is dependent on the correct

n o f t o scie tific principles his art , to enable him

o guard against the m st disastrous consequences , the latter is quite satisfied with a mere super

fic ial o ffi him kn wledge, su cient to enable to carry trifling matters to a successful issue .

' Carpentry is one o f the most interesting and

of is useful branches mechanical art . It also a a cleanly and healthy employment . That c rpentry

. n o n o one is popular amo gst b ys, will deny . W h o ever saw a youngster who did not delight in of - the use his pocket knife, if no more

o o t o convenient t l were at hand, display his c onstru ctiv e t oo o , and we fear but ften his

d es tru c tive & W e c , capabilities hope that the advi e we can give and the knowledge we shall endeavour ’ ou r in o to impart to apprentices, Every B y s ” W o o o o rksh p , will reclaim all mischiev us fell ws , and encourage all th ose wh o are of an ingenious J and constructive turn of mind . ust reflect, if it

f or o h ow be only a m ment, gratifying it would be ’ t o o C have it said , D n t send for hips, the carpenter my son can do t he job quite as well ” he is a capital joiner . Besides this , there are s o many useful articles you would be able to Ca r e ntr a nd oiner p y J y . 8 m e f or o c ak the c st pri e of the material, and allowing a slight percentage on the Original

price of your tools .

o ce l G od tools are ne ssari y expensive , never t hele ss our apprentices must u s e none but the

best ; for in the end they are the cheapest . & Al old ways remember the and true saying, A ” o o good workman is kn wn by his to ls . A good workman may do a t olerable job with indifferent

o to ls, but a beginner should never attempt to

u se b u t fir st - or any class implements , he will

- u s never become a fir st class craftsman . If you e

t o o f bad tools, and try cast the blame bad work

o n o them , recollect that A bad w rkman always ” complains of his tools . A really clever mechanic cherishes his reputation far too hi ghly to allow his t ools to lapse into an inefficient

o t o his conditi n ; therefore , next character, the

o m honest w rkman prides hi self, and justly so, on

o of the superi r quality his tools . W e are that ou r apprentices cannot

all ff t o b ase o o t o t a ord go d t ols , the ex ent ’ i they will requ re them, at a moment s notice ;

o and, indeed, it is questi nable whether it would be advantageous for them t o d o so at first

& u o nder any circumstances , as increased c nfidence will be acquired by making a few to ols serve for

all purposes t o which they can effectively. be

applied . 4 u O r W orkshop .

Many people imagine that when they have not ’ s e t a good of carpenter s tools , the best plan is ” o f - ol t purchase a box o s o called To s . Beware

b u boss o t o ls u d o . o how y o this Never y a f . A ’ o - of joiner s t ol chest, if bought a respectable

f b u t not manu acturer, may be all right ; we do advocate the practice .

h or ou - Purc ase, , if y like, make a tool chest,

u and f rnish it with the best tools , carefully ’ selected from the manufacturer s stock . A young carpenter will do well to get some friend who has the requisite experience to examine the tools before purchasing . W e will quote the average prices of the best tools required for Our W orksh op ou r apprentices will then be able to judge of the qualities and prices offered by the makers with whom they may be obliged t o deal . Some little misconception exists respecting

c ar ent er oiner and c a bine t - m a ke r the terms, p , j , . a Strictly speaking, a carpenter is the rtisan

o ui whose duty it is to lay down flo rs , b ld roofs,

o - of and make ther substantial frame work, which

‘ many examples may be found in the bu ilding trade . A thorough carpenter is a very clever

m a —an fellow ; in fact, he is a scientific m

of engineer in his way . Many the most eminent bu ilders were carpenters . Half the men who style themselves carpenters and joiners are really a r e nt r a nd oine r 5 C p y J y .

o only the latter . A j iner begins where the car ff e nt er o . o o p leaves As s on as the r of, flooring, v and other hea y work is finished, the joiner

d - comes into the house, and fits the win ow frames & & c . c . and sashes, doors , cupboards, shelves, , ,

m which are essential to ake a house habitable .

r o u r All the fixtu es being completed, friends , the carpenter and joiner, leave the premises to the

- h w o & c . cabinet maker, supplies the furniture, , without which we should not feel much tempted

a o o to make a prolonged st y in the h use, h wever clev erly his able predecessors had accomplished their allotted tasks . ur or k 6 O W shop .

C H A P T E R I .

T H E B H ENC .

ou r t o o e n is intention n tic ma y things , .

o l h wever trivia , that may in any way serve t o enlighten ou r readers respecting the

’ o f m j oiner s art . Many the ost extensive works are pro duced by the proper combination. of several small, and, when taken singly, apparently unimp ortant devices . Every one wh o has made an attempt at carpentry is aware that the object on which we

t o ou r o in wish use to ls must be firmly fixed, such a manner that we may apply ou r to ols with

o t t o ou ; c nvenience to the par be wr ght . The 1 . o bench, of which fig is a representati n,

of o u o consists a str ng rough frame, s rm unted by a o of 2- o st ut top , formed inch b ard . The height

of o 2 6 . e the bench should be ab ut feet inch s, but this must be regulated to some extent by the

f t o stature o the w orkman . The best way deter mine the proper height for your bench is to place

on a plane an ordinary table, and grasp it as though in the act of planing If t he b ack b e ’ Ca r ntr a nd oiner p e y J y . 7

and w lit t le n the right elbo a be t, the

Y ou height is correct . shou ld feel that y ou have

ou command over the tool, which y cannot t hi possess if the bench be mu ch oo gh . 8 O u r W orkshop .

As we su ppose that ou r shop is only about to

o be opened, it will pr bably be better to purchase

o - of a sec nd hand bench some carpenter, which

ou may be done for a few shillings . If y can

f t o for a ford pay a new bench, do not hesitate , b u t so o do ; because, next to good tools , a s und,

ou steady bench is of great importance , as y will

n u s e discover shortly, when we begi to the

ou 5 o plane . If the bench be ab t feet l ng, and

2 o 4 . feet inches wide, it will be large en ugh The upper surface of the bench should be smooth

- and true . Near the left hand corner a square hole, or mortise , is cut, into which is fitted a

f s o u e o w S t . s block hard ood, , called the p The of the stop is to check the wood that is to be

d so not plane , that it may be pushed forward

- o when the plane iron begins to cut . The st p is somewhat longer than the thickness of t he top of t he bench, so that it may be driven up with

b t o of a mallet from elow, suit the thickness the work to be planed ; it can also be knocked down

s o to clear thin works , that the plane may pass over it without sticking . It is frequently necessary to secure one piece of on wood temporarily another, when using the

For u - chisel this purpose, a pec liarly shaped

- o h hold a s t is piece of wrought ir n , , termed a f ,

” o i empl yed . The holdfast acts n a very simple manner . The part you s e e above the bench is Ca r entr a nd oin r 9 p y J e y .

l n u n n u u o mere y be t ro d, the end bei g t rned p int

o a foot t o pre s s on the w ork . The l wer part is a

ou s e t straight r nd bar, which , by being askew in

o t p of a h le made in the p the bench, draws itself n tighter the harder we strike the head at , and thus forcibly presses down the w ork to be held

71 o . if struck at , the w rk is released

- o C l b e The screw ch ps, , also shown separate y

lo w f or o , are of great service holding w rk which

m a on o y require planing the edge, such as a l ng

& c . o board, , and als for many purposes we shall

o o o f n tice hereafter . The ch ps consist a face

C o of o board, , which sh uld be made s me hard

o wood, that is not liable to warp ; mah gany is C n very good . ommon be ches are fitted with

of . chops made pine, which is generally the mate f rial o which the bench is itself constructed . The face - board is made to advance to the edge of or the bench , to recede therefrom , by a strong

P hi o o wooden screw, , w ch w rks in a wo den nut , u fixed to the nderside of the bench . The face

r I s board is guided by a square rail, , which

s o r in ecured theret , the othe end sliding a suit

o u able m rtise, nder the bench . The screw is

o u o b ar m ved by a ro nd w oden , which passes o P thr ugh the head, , the bar being an easy fit, t o enable u s t o draw it through the head on either side as may be r e quired it is kept in its place by a head at each end . f rks O 1 0 O u r lVo h p .

W e & c . have given a list Of the principal tools, , f o u l . o that y wil require, and also illustrations _ the m ore important amongst them . The prices quoted will be found to agree very nearly with n those of the first L ondon houses . Tools can u doubtedly be bought for less than half the su m

o a s here stated, but the quality, if they be s ld f ’ w . o o new, ill be very inferior A good set j iner s

o of tools, if pr perly used and taken care , will last t and be serviceable for wo average lifetimes . All the edge - tools sh ould be made of the best

- cast steel, otherwise they will not remain Sharp

- for even a short time . Shear steel is very suit able f or many purpos es in which elasticity or tou ghness is required ; but it cannot be a d van ' t a ou sl e m l e d f r - g e y p oy o edge to ols . If the stee l

t oo t oo be hard, the edge breaks away ; if soft,

o the t ol quickly becomes blunt , owing to the edge turning up . There are few things more annoying t o a workman than to be obliged t o sharpen his chisels and planes much more fr e qu ently than would ot herwise be necessary if the

oo steel were g d .

2 O u r orks ho 1 W p .

u is Depend pon it, there no policy more short sighted than t o sacrifice quality for cheapness . Those who are unable to aff ord the stock - in - trade

o we have pr posed, must content themselves with

o o o p u rchasing a to ol occasi nally . A g d deal of

- saw - saw work may be done with a hand , tenon ,

- firm e r - one jack plane, a chisel, gouge, marking

. one gauge , one gimlet, bradawl, screwdriver,

oil- oil- hammer, mallet, square, rule , stone, can , and - - glue pot, costing about thirty six shillings . The o ther tools may very well be postponed

of until your capital will admit the investment . Ca r e nt r a nd oin p y J ery . 1 3

CH P TER A II .

H E T L O W T O U S H E T OO S .

A R P EN TR Y , like every other important

b e art, demands much attentive practice, fore even a moderate degree of proficiency

one can be acquired . Any accustomed to mechanical manipulation can tell whether a ff man is a skilled or an indi erent workman, by hi s noticing the way in which he handles tools . c A novice thinks, when he sees an expert arpen

l t o saw ter at work, that it requires no great skil ,

or one to plane , to bore a hole and that any can

or W s a is drive a nail put in a screw . hat we y , let ou r tyro try his hand at any of these ap

ar e nt l o w p y easy j bs . He ill very soon ask why ’ s aw or n the won t cut straight, the pla e make

o fiat the wo d ; why, in boring the hole, the wood

always splits, the nails goes askew, and the screw ’ ou r won t hold and, we may add, young friend d iscovers that carpentry is not s o soon mastered

as he thought . The saw being the first tool the carpenter must u se t o reduce his m aterials to the rough dim e n 14 O u r o k /t o W r s p .

& i ns S o . , we will consider it first On examination it will be observed that the steel or blade of the s aw is thinner on the back than on the to ot hed

o of edge . The bject this reduction in the thick ness is to enable the saw to move with greater

- ke . freedom in the rf, as the saw cut is called If the blade were of the same s ubstance from the f o o t o r nt to the back edge, we sh uld be unable drive the saw after it had fairly entered on its

o . work , owing to the great Side fricti n Another provision for still further facilitating the m ove

f a ments o the s w is called the s e t of the teeth . By this is meant the alternate side inclination of

the teeth . By bending the teeth alternately to

t on of the right and lef , they act more the Sides of the kerf, and make it wider than the thickness

an . the blade, which , being at liberty, c move freely

saw o Setting a is a nice peration, and it requires

u much practice to do well . An amateur sho ld

se t or r e - se t never attempt to rather his saws , as

saw he will in all probability spoil them . If a

b e se t one h on o more on side t an the ther, it will

o generally g astray on that Side, and will require n considerable atte tion to keep it to the line .

o of uf The saw, if b ught a good man acturer, will in all probability work quite satisfactorily but we c onsider it necessary to p oint ou t the difficulties

ou r which may arise , and advise pupils as to the

best course to be pursued . n r 1 5 Carp e ntr y a nd Joi e y .

b ox or S u ppose we require to make a rough

any similar object, which is formed by fastening fi 2 several boards together . The saw ( g . ) must necessarily be used to redu ce the wo o d t o the c om right size, before we can be said to have

m en c e d o u r task . The plank to be sawn is generally placed across two low stools or trestles W e n about twenty inches in height . must the mark a chalk or pencil line t o indicate the path ou r of the saw . If the plank be too wide for

— - 2 . H and saw . Fig .

u o saw dir e c p rp se, the must be employed in the

of or le n t hwa tion the grain , in the g y of the

l one of plank . The p ank must ov erhang the

saw t o trestles a few inches, and the , which is be h n t h o eld in the right ha d, can en be advantage usly Y applied . ou must stand a little behind the trestle which supports the overhanging end of

ur on the plank, and place yo right knee the i o o plank to keep it steady . The first ncisi n sh uld b e made with the small end of the s aw, the r f orks ho l 6 O u ll p .

strokes being short and quick . As the saw l advances, the stroke may be increased, unti almost the entire serrated edge comes into action . The overhanging end of the wood must be su p ported by the left hand , the fingers being below, n the thumb alone resting o the upper Side . The left hand is also employed to draw the plank

saw forward when the approaches the trestle . The labour o f sawing may be considerably di minished by o ccasionally greasing the blade with

or w a tallow candle end, the tallo may be smeared on of so a piece leather, and be more conveniently

r i in applied . Sawing with the grain is called pp g , and the tool employed f or this purp ose is called

r i - sa w of l a p , the teeth which are arge and of a

u ou triang lar shape . W hen y have ripped a ” sufficiently long piece of stuff to form the

of four sides the box, supposing the plank to be

u saw long eno gh, the can be applied across the n grain at right a gles to the first kerf, the plank being held only by the left hand behind the ne w

Ju kerf, st before the second kerf meets the first, the wo o d about to be severed must be supported by the left hand, and the saw must be used gently to avoid breaking a piece of the wood away

not when the kerfs meet . If care be observed, a large piece or Splinter will tear from either side, and perhaps u nfit the wood for the purpose for which it was intended . a r e nt r a nd oin r 1 7 C p y J e y .

f ‘ i s o u If the box nly to be made in the ro gh,

r that is , not planed, and simply nailed togethe ,

— saw you must the stuff as straight as possible,

o o otherwise it will indeed be a r ugh j b . If the plane is to be used, the wood must be sawn

f or across the sides after it has been planed, otherwise it will be more difficult to make the

o thickness unif rm . Sawing forms s o important a part of the ’ carpenter s work , that we may surely be excused if we dwell a little longer on t h e management

o o u r of this t l . O readers will do well if they practise sawing as extensively as their limited opportunities will admit . If t h e plank be thick and the length to be

u sawn considerable, the work sho ld be frequently t urned over to equalize any irregularity that

a may arise from unskilful guidance of the s w . The work must therefore be marked ou t on both

o sides , care being taken to make the lines c incide

or w with each other exactly, they ill be worse than useless .

W n v hile sawi g, the eye must be igilant, and Should appreciate the slightest departure from

s o the line . The eye must be directed only much t o the right or left of the edge of the

on blade, that the line may be seen either Side on the slightest movement of the head t o the

or . f right left If the eye be suf ered to wander, c 1 ork ho 8 O u r W s p .

— n so—that the line is seen entirely say o the right the hand will involuntarily force the s aw in

o m ' su e that directi n , and the blade will p an

t h e s aw erratic c ourse . If has not departed m o o uch from its pr per c urse, it may be restored to the line by twisting the handle a little in the Opp o site direction to that which the saw has

e t o d o taken . W are enabled this the more

set of readily owing to the the teeth, which has made the kerf a little wider than the blade , and the reducti on in the thickness of the blade t owards the back edge affords additional free

. C o dom are, h wever, must be observed in this

o correcti nal or steering process, otherwise the saw will be made to err as m uch in the opp o site

o in directi n, and the blade mav be jammed fast the kerf. The t oothed edge of the saw Should be held

or o . nearly vertically in the thrust, cutting str kes

t m t If it be allowed o become uch inclined . o the

t o in work, the depth be sawn is practically

o o o creased, and the labour pr p rti nally aug d m e nt e . W o or hen the w od is very hard thick, the saw must be grasped with both hands the diffic u lt of o y directing its course is then , h wever, ' u o t m ch increased . Sometimes the w od o be sawn is too short to be conveniently held on

. W the trestle hen this is the case, it must be

on or fixed either the bench in the screw chops .

2 u r Or hsho 0 O W p . intelligent workman feels a proper pride in the art he professes , and is really gratified when a young fell ow asks him to s olve the difficulties which all amateurs are certain t o experience in their undertakings .

For the present we must lay aside the saw, and o examine the plane, which is the to l by

o o im which the sm th, finished appearance is parted to all carpentry an d joinery w ork

of n o The plane consists a long, arr w piece of

— - 3 . Jack lane Fig . p .

in hard wood, made as true and smooth

o directi n as p o ssible .

3 o o f Fig . will give y u a general idea the

a ck- la ne f or n u J p , which is used reduci g the ro gh

o o t o m The w d a unifor surface . iron , as the i cutting blade is called, is in shape very S milar

— - Fi m r ch s l. 4. r g . Fi e i e

firm e r - (fi - to a chisel g . A wedge shaped a r e ntr a nd oine r C p y J y . 21

opening is made through the w oo d or sto ck of

in o . the plane, which the ir n is inserted The narrow end of the wedge - shaped opening is at

t o of t h e e or o the bot m sol st ck , through which f the sharp edge o the iron slightly projects .

o o o As it is not nly imp rtant , but abs lutely

o necessary, that the w rkman Should understand

t o of o l the cons ructi n the t o s he use s, we must request ou r pupils attentively to examine the several views of the plane we are about to

c onsider .

5 o Fig . is a section taken thr ugh the length

or of the stock, dividing it in the middle centre

5 . Fig .

f o . ( 1 b its width The iron, , is clearly seen ; also

the wedge , by which the iron is firmly fixed

o in the inclined positi n . The solid wood behi nd

on be d . the iron, which it rests , is called the

o a m ou th The narrow pening at is the , and the

a e w r inclined wall at is called the ea . The angle

of not e the wear Should be great, otherwis the ksho O u r or . 22 . W p wearing away of the s ole of the plane will tend t o enlarge the m outh at the same time the angle

t oo or choke must not be slight, the plane will that is, the Shavings will stick fast, and prevent

o e cl the tool working . The sec nd inclined wall, , is f i t e r m e d t he r ont o s o . f , the angle which unimp rtant The mou th is generally about one - third of t he

of e nd length the plane from the front , not only

— . 6 . S m oot h m - e Fig g plan .

b u t - in the long, also in the smoothing planes .

e fi The dotted lines, f ( g . Show where the

o - stock w uld stop in a smoothing plane, in which o the ir n is similar . Fig . 6 is a general r e p re se nt at ion of m o - a s othing plane . The wedge f or fixing the iron is Shown in two views in

fi 7 . g .

Fig . 7 .

t 1 The handle, or toat, , by which the plane s

o of driven forward, is simply in the f rm a horn ,

3 5 - as in figs . and , for these and panel planes a r entr a nd oiner 23 C p y J y . b u t h longer planes have andles , fixed in the same relation to the iron, but in shape they much

dl o f - resemble the han e a hand saw . Most of the surfa cing - planes are fitted with t 5

Fig . 8 . ” double irons . The irons are shown in section

i 8 o a a t o n . . a larger scale fig The l wer iron, is brea k- b b the cutter, while the upper, or iron , ,

Fig . 9 . only bends the shavings o u t of the way of the

of o d m edge the iron pr per, and irects the up the ” I) of - is wear . The end, , the break iron, formed with a large curve, and the edge which rests on

as the cutter is made only moderately sharp, it is

1 . Fig . 0 t no required to cut . The two irons are fastened

s together by the screw, , which is tapped

o o t - hi int the b ss, , formed on the break iron, w ch

o 1 e is S h wn separately in fig . 0 . The cutter is s en

- 9 disconnected from the break iron in fig . . The ur ork ho 24 O W s p . l n m e o g slot, , nables us to adjust the irons longi

t u dinall . y , and also, to a slight extent, sideways h t a The round hole , , is a lit le larger than the he d of 3 t o t o the screw, , permit the latter pass

w t o through hen we wish separate the irons, which is accomplished by u nslacking the screw

s - on about one turn, and liding the break ir back

h - of o . t wards the hole , The break iron the jack

one plane is generally fixed, so that its edge is ‘ sixt e enth or one - fift e e nt h of an inch behind the

- s t edge of the cutter . If the break iron be e

one - of n ot back, say eighth an inch , it will bend h f t he l the s avings su ficiently, and planing wil h very probably be roug . The nearer the edges

of the irons are to each other, within certain

o limits , the smoother will be the work pr duced, but the labour of driving the plane will be much

increased . The edges of the irons are s e t farther apart in the jack and similar planes than in the

o - u of sm othing planes, as the s rface the work is

not finished until a more advanced stage .

Planes . having Single irons are much less

lab oriciu s t o n ha dle , but the work executed by them is neither so smooth nor so truthful as that

h - of t e double ironed description . The shavings in escape long curls or . ribands from a single

of is iron, and the surface the work left some

what rough . It is a good plan to remove the first exterior and dirt fr om a plank with a single Ca r entr a ncl oin r 25 p y J e y .

e o iron d plane, after which the jack and sm othing planes will work pleasantly, and retain their edges for a longer time . The inclination or ' ang le at which the iron is & ” fixed in the st o ck is called the pitch . The pitch is regu lated according t o the nature o f t he

l is wood on which the p ane to be used . If the workman be using material of a hard and close nature , the iron must have much less inclination

o o than would be c rrect for soft wo ds, such as deal or pine . The pitch cannot be varied in o t w o or rdinary planes , therefore more planes , t d each having a different pitch , mus be provi ed, if the w ork demands much change in the charac

o ter of the wo d .

or com m on it ch f or The lowest, p , surfacing

f or or o planes soft woods, like pine deal, is f rty fiv e degrees fro m the horizontal line of the s ole ;

Y ork it ch or p , fifty degrees , is suitable for maho

o & m iddle it c h r fift - fiv e c . o gany, r sewood, p , y

o degrees , is the general angle for irons of m uld

- for o ing planes soft woods, and is also c rrect for

- ha l - it ch smoothing planes for hard materials f p ,

f or - l f or or sixty degrees , moulding p anes maho

o o gany, rosewo d, and ther woods which are liable ” t o U tear p . Still harder substances, such as o o & c . boxw od, iv ry, , require planes in which the

pitch entirely disappears , the iron being fixed

vertically . In some instances the pitch is re 26 ork ho O ur PV s p . versed byinclining the iron a little in the oppo

o o o site directi n . B th these planes are pr perly scrapers , and they only remove the material in

of the shape dust . Having considered the general construction of

- ofle r a s u e s the bench planes, we will now few g g tions respecting their management .

o Before setting to work, the ir ns must be sharpened and adjusted . The iron is disengaged from the sto ck by striking the latter on the back & ” end behind the toat ; the same may also be effected by a mod erate blow on the upper surface near the front end . The hammer should never

t w o be used with violence , as or three light taps will liberate the iron and not bruise the stock . The wedge may als o be loosened by tapping it on ffi either side alternately, and, when su ciently

ra . slack, it can be withd wn by the fingers The screw which secures the break - iron to the cutter must be tu rned back ab o ut one revolution

of - by the aid a large screwdriver, the break iron can then be slipped back till the head of the

ol h screw enters the h e, (fig . in the cutter, o when the ir ns can be separated .

o If the ir n be very blunt, it must first be

s t or ground and then e on the oilst one hone . 1 1 . 27 The grindstone (fig , page ) should be of a and o fine moderately quick cutting descripti n . ” Probably the bilst one is the best quality for

ho 28 O ur W or ks p .

o w of and f r ards across the face the stone, to

u preserve the latter from nequal wear, and this management is also necessary t o enable u s to make the edge of the iron straight . If the stone

o o n of were a little h llow the face, the corners

o ir n would be ground away, leaving the middle O n o o . too pr minent the ther hand, if the stone

or were rounding highest at the middle, the iron

2 Fig . 1 .

would, if kept stationary, be ground away at the

n ot . centre , and at the corners Grinding plane - irons and firm e r - chisels is a

u u nice Operation, and req ires m ch practice to do

o properly . It is generally found difficult to rest re the iron to the stone exactly at the same angle after it has been temporarily withdrawn for in

s t i n u l p e c o . The wrists o ght to be kept rigid y Ca r entr a nel oiner 29 p y J y .

t h e t he fixed, and arms should be held closely to

t o t o sides , impart as much firmness as possible the hands . If the iron be weakly held, it will

o n o as be imp ssible to gri d it to a unif rm face, the motion of the stone exerts a powerful influ ence in changing its position . The iron being satisfactorily ground on t he

now se t t o chamfer, it must be on the oilstone

it o m make s edge smo th and keen. It ust be stated that the flat side of the iron should never

3 . Fig . 1

t o be applied the grindstone , as any slight burr can be much better removed by the oilstone . 1 2 Fig . shows the position in which the iron should be applied t o the oilstone . The iron is n first grasped in the right hand, the fi gers being placed on the surface and t he thumb turned 1 of 3 . underneath, as in fig . The fingers the left hand must now be lapped over those of the

u w right , and the th mb must also be placed belo

o on to supp rt the ir . Some people place all,

o - fin e r o and excepting the f re g , bel w the iron, 0 u or k ho 3 O r W s p .

of lap the left thumb over the right . Either t hese meth ods is good .

o The ilstone , like the grindstone, requires uniform wear to keep it in good order . ” & o C Next to the Turkey ilstone, the harnley Forest is esteemed by joiners and others as the best for giving a fine edge t o various tools .

o o The stone sh uld be fixed in a wo den case, provided with a cover to exclude the dust when

not it is in use . Sperm oil is the best for

n o ne at sfo ot sharpe ing purp ses ; but is cheaper, and may be considered as a fair substitute ,

d of not being devoi unpleasant smell , and liable to thicken . The plane - iron should be held at a constant

of o - fiv e angle ab ut thirty degrees, and must be kept square across the face of the st one . If the

- stone be narrower than the iron , the latter must

t o be worked from side side, to reduce the corners

o o unif rmly with the middle . If the ir n be set

w on e o o f aske , so that corner m ves in advance

o o o o the ther, the f rem st c rner will be ground

t oo of o away rapidly, and the edge the ir n will

no longer be square to the sides . W hen the

e o f or edge is r quired to be slightly r unded, as

t o t he rough work, a light roll must be given

o blade edgeways , but a decided, th ugh small c hamfer, should be imparted to the irons of

s - and moothing planes , as distinct in its forma ar entr a n C p y d Joiner y . 81

one tion as the larger made by the grindstone .

Much pressure should be avoided, as the edge is

t o o is liable bend over, and bec me what called ” of wire edge . The flat side the iron must

u it e a t on now be laid q fl the stone, and gently rubbed a few ti m es t o remove any wire edge

which may have formed . U nder any circum

n . stances , this fi ishing process is advantageous

I f r t oo the i on be held upright , the edge is

o m m re quickly produced, but it will re ain sharp f or a much sh orter time than if it had been set at

o o a l wer inclination . It is obvious that if the ir n

of o - fiv e s were sharpened at an angle f rty degree , which is the pitch at which it is fixed in the

o ul stock , the chamfer f rmed by the oilstone wo d

on o o n o rest the w rk , and c nseque tly w uld act

only as a burnisher . On the other hand, if the

t oo t o angle be very acute, the edge will be thin be durable ; therefore the angle of thirty - fiv e degrees already stated appears as favourable as

The irons of the jack and other long planes

o or are gr und with a large curve arc, to make the centre part of the blade slightly in advance of

the corners . This method has the eff ect of r e du c ing the lab our which w ould otherwise be

t o required urge the plane forward . The irons of o - sm othing planes, though made as flat and

on ne v e rt he straight as possible the edge, are, ' 3 2 O ur orksho W p .

t o less , Sligh ly rounded at the c rners, to prevent their leaving marks on the work . The workman judges o f the c ondition of the

on cutter after setting it the oilstone, partly by f the eye and partly by sense o touch . The edge

o o may l k regular and sharp , yet it may not be sufficiently keen to penetrate the hardened skin of d o the hand when gently rawn acr ss it, which is the alm ost universal test to which the cutter i s applied before reinserting it in the stock .

u i se t The c tter being sat sfactorily , the break t iron must be attached . If the plane is o be u f or o w sed c arse ork , like removing the rough f & t h o o c . e e outside a b ard, , dge of the break iro n m ay be fixed about one - sixteenth of an inch

o fr m the edge of the cutter . The sides of the break - iron should be parallel with those of the

o m cutter, and the c rners of the latter ust be equi

o of - o distant fr m the edge the break ir n . If it be fo und that one c orner of the cutter I s nearer the

- o of break iron than the ther, the edge the cutter

s e t has not been ground and square to its sides .

If the discrepancy be considerable, the cutter

t o must be reground to rec ify the err r . If the break - iron be set back one - sixteenth of an inch

of u from the edge the c tter at the centre , and o ne corner of the cutter stands below the edge of

- o the break ir n , regrinding is inevitable .

n o u Supposi g the ir ns to be tr e to each other, Ca entr a nd oiner 3 rp y J y . 3

w they m ay no be fixed in the stock . The cutter & ” on n must be laid the bed, and be passed dow u ntil the edge is level with the sole of the stock .

The wedge is next put in, and gently tapped to

f u u prevent the irons alling o t . The plane m st then be held so that the upper corner of the back

on end may rest the bench, while the front end is supported by the right hand . The eye can now be directed along the sole , to appreciate the quantity the iron is made to project, by tapping it lightly with the hammer, which is held in the W left hand . hen the edge appears slightly

u o prominent, the wedge m st be kn cked in a little tighter, but violence should be carefully avoided .

ou The iron sh ld at all times be slenderly held, otherwise the stock will be distorted . If in driving the wedge forward the iron sho u ld also advance, it may be withdrawn by striking a moderate blow on the upper surface of the stock near the front end, and this without altering the

f d one of position o the plane . Shoul corner the edge project more than the other, the iron and wedge must be Slackened by a blow on the stock the iron can then be se t square by a f e w taps on

u the opposite corner at its pper end . By a fe w well - directed blows of the hammer the edge may d be satisfactorily a justed, but some practice is

ul so required to reg ate the iron nicely by eye, that the plane will act properly without su b s e D 4 orksho 3 O u r W p .

u m a on q ent correction . It y perhaps be found trial that the iron does not project sufficiently t o cu t ; a light tap on the t op of the iron will pro bably se t this right . Perhaps the iron stands

r m fo ward too uch, and either entirely opposes

of or the action the plane, renders the cut coarse and rou gh ; this may be rectified by one or t wo i i on of l ght blows , e ther the upper surface the

o or . stock near the fr nt end, on the back extremity These instr u ctions equ ally apply t o the smooth

in - n o g plane . This latter bei g required to pr duce

- as smooth a surface as possible, the break iron is

x u t h e fi ed m ch more closely to edge Of the cutter, the fortieth or fiftieth of an inch being the c om

m on u meas re .

t o The planes being in good order, the wood

d t on 8 be plane mus be laid the bench, the stop, , fi 1 : . so one g , being adjusted as to stand about eighth of an inch below the general level of the t plank . If wo opposite corners of the plank be & higher than the other parts, the board is in winding and if the edges or the middle be the ” o most pr minent, it is said to be cast . If the

plank be thin, it may be somewhat straightened

r on by holding one end fi mly the bench, and twisting the other in the opposite direction t o di that in which it is storted . If the wood be t oo

hard or thick to admit of this treatment, the

u prominences m st be removed by the plane .

36 O u or ksho r lV p . must then be driven from one end of the b oard

u u to the other, if its length be nder fo r feet ; at h t all events , the shavings s ould be at leas two

six or feet inches three feet in length , to insure f the accurate working o the tool . The plane requires to be kept firmly down to its work, which is done more by allowing the weight of the

on u body to rest it thro gh the arms, than by any

fl r n direct muscular e b t . If the pla e be making

u i o a good continuo s shav ng, the w rkman should

o endeavour, by m ving the plane with a steady

u and ninterrupted motion, to carry it to the end f o the w ork . This after a little practice is not f di ficult to achieve, for if the plane be in good & ff ” order, and the stu is tolerably straight, the workman after starting the ou t can walk from one of w end the ork to the other, and keep the

n is pla e moving at the same uniform rate . It not u nfrequently found that the wood planes more smoothly from one end than from the other ; it is therefore desirable to reverse the plank end & ” for end if the grain tears up , notwithstanding

n l - the use of a fi e y set iron .

u o On the ret rn str ke , the plane Should not only be entirely relieved of all downward pres

or sure , but the back end heel Should be slightly

raised to prevent useless friction on the sole .

W hen planing short pieces, the plane is generally off lift ed some little distance the work . O Car entr a nd oi ner p y J y . 0 7

W hen the rough exterior is removed and the plank has been made tolerably flat, the jack

o for - plane sh uld be laid aside the trying plane .

ou r If readers do not . possess this tool, which is

similar in character, only considerably longer,

- than the jack plane, they must reset their jack plane and fix the break - iron very close to the

edge of the cutter, and adjust this latter with a very fine c u t . After a few strokes have been

of made over the general surface the plank, the

st ra i ht - ed e work should be tested with a g g , which is simply a thin bar of hard wood (mahogany or

so metal) , which has been very carefully made, as to insure an edge as accurately straight as in possible . If the work be lower the middle

- nl than at the ends , the straight edge will o y

u dl re st on the ends and not to ch in the mid e . This want of truth in the work is readily detected by the line of light which is seen between the

of - edge the straight edge and the work, where ” u the latter is hollow . The c rative treatment is obvious we must lower the ends of the plank

off s o by planing a little them, and reduce them t o a level with the lowest part .

If the work be highest at the middle, the

- on straight edge will rock as a centre, owing

u di scr e ~ to the ends being nsupported . If the pancy be so slight as to occasion neither a

t o decided rocking nor Show a line of light, the 8 k o 3 O u r W or sh p . seat of err or may be discovered by holding the straight - edge at the centre between the fore

or finger and thumb , and twisting rotating it slowly backwards and forwards for a short

t h f o distance . If e highest part o the w rk be immediately under the centre of the straight edge, it will be plainly felt at that point; and the ends will move quite freely ; but if the straight edge rests on two or more points on either side of the centre, the fact is made apparent by the

f t o increased resistance o fered its movements .

t he In preparatory stage, before the work has become sufficiently true to require the severer

of - s test the straight edge, its approach toward accuracy is tried by placing the edge of the plane obliquely across it in the manner of a straight n f h edge . The workman als o raises o e end o t e

t o of his work the level eye and glances along it, or if the w ork be too large to be c onv e nie

t o t o t lif ed, he st ops attain the same rela ive posi

o u ti n, and in this way at once discovers the und lat ions which are to be rectified .

If the work is t o be planed on both Sides it & ” should now be gauged to thickness, and

a turned over, as the second side must be m de

on true before the final finish is put the first . It will be alm o st invariably fou nd that the board will cast a little on the removal of the rough ou tside it would therefore be a waste of labou r a r entr a nd oiner 39 C p y J y . to complete one side before touching the other ;

u t o c in fact, the endeavo r should always be arry on the w ork so that the Opposite parts may

ot he r as balance each . nearly as possible, and thereby avoid distortion . ” The two sides or surfaces of the board

u u being now tr e and flat, the edges m st next be

S r ni hot o planed . To do this conve ently the bo ard should be fixed in the screw - chops of t he 1 5 C . . bench ( , fig Fig illustrates the manner

of fixing the wood and handling the plane . The fr ont end only of the plank can be held in the

o o is u ch ps, the ther extremity therefore s pported

o one of by a small ir n bolt, which is slipped into a series of holes made for that purpose in some ’ 40 C u r W orksho p .

f convenient part of the frame o the bench . It d t will be seen that in shooting an e ge , the lef hand is difler e nt ly applied to the front end of the plane to what it is when surfacing . The thu mb

on of is allowed to rest the top the plane, and

u u the fingers are bent nder the sole to s pport it, the narrow edge of the board not affording su fli c ie nt base to keep the plane steady . The truth of the edge can be tested longitudinally by looking along it, and also by trying it with the

- straight edge . The edge not only requires to be

of straight in the direction its length, but it must also be made sq u a re to the Sides .

- . 1 6 Th e Fig . e S q uar .

fi 1 6 The squ are ( g . ) is the tool by which the

- truth of . all right angled su rfaces is ascertained . ’ of The joiner s square consists a steel blade,

on which is made quite straight the edges, which also require t o be perfectly parallel to

m . each other . This blade is fir ly fixed exactly at right angles in a stock formed of hard wood, which is faced with brass on the inner edge t o ar entr a nd n 41 C p y Joi ery .

' inn r d f increase its durability . The e e g e o the stock mu st be firmly held against the flat surface of the board, taking care that it rests fairly the square must then be gr adu ally lowered till the e dge of the blade comes in contact with the edge of the board . If the edge be square to the sides , the blade of the square will touch throu ghout the of thickness the board, but if the work be u u of on ntr e, the blade the square will rest the highest point , which must be reduced till the square bears fairly . The square must be applied a t intervals of a few inches throu ghout the length o f the plank, and frequently during the progress

O f o the w rk .

— . l R ule . Fig 7 .

W m in hen the edge has been ade true , both t he u t o long it dinal and cross direc ions, the b ard must be removed from the chops and laid flat on t he bench . The finished width Of the board is

t o now be marked . If the plank be more than s ix 1 7 inches wide, the rule (fig . ) will be the t o proper means employ . Suppose the plank is 42 u r o ksho O W r p . required to be six inches wi de throughout its

or e length parallel, the width can be measur d

& and marked at each end on t he surface ; a straight -edge must then be adj u sted to the marks

t o and a line ruled . If the work be marked is

or m ar kin only two three inches wide, the g

1 u au e . y y (fig 8) is sed . This tool is made of of hard wood, and consists simply a stem

— - 1 . M kin u . Fig . 8 ar g g a ge

- fit t in furnished with a closely g block, which is of f capable Sliding sti fly along it, and of being

fixed in any desired position, either by a wedge f or a set screw . Near one end o the stem a flat

or steel point or scriber is inserted, for marking n scoring a line o the work . The point should not project more than one thirty - second part of i ht l or d e e u n s . an inch, it will make a p g y mark ‘ To adjust the gauge it is only necessary to slacken the wedge or screw which fixes the

or movable block head, and to hold the latter in

4 4 O u r orksho W p .

t in an inclined position by the lef hand, and the

gauge is applied by the right . It is necessary to keep the head of the gau ge firmly against the edge of the work to which it is wished t o make

o the line parallel, otherwise any cro kedness in the grain of the wood will be liable to send the

u ga ge askew . W e u have, though navoidably, wandered from i n . the operation we had hand, viz , the planing

of b t o a oard, to which we at once hasten

return .

0 Fig . 2 .

Both edges of the plank are now s u pposed t o be true and parallel to each other ; it is there fore only necessary to fini sh the surfaces with the smoothing - plane to com plete ou r first attempt at c 20 of arpentry . Fig . represents the manner

m o h - holding the s ot ing plane . The right hand is

s o placed behind the wedge, that the thumb shall

of press against one side the stock, and all the Ca e ntr a nal oin 45 rp y J ery .

fingers on the other . The left hand is clasped

u of ro nd the front end the plane, and the thumb

on rests the upper surface . The w orkman has

o o ov l complete c ntr l er the p ane, and if the grain

and or of the wood be short cross, hard, knotty, ” or - t he tough, he imparts a side long sweep to tool , which somewhat facilitates its action as a smoother by enabling it to attack the grain a s favourably as possible . If the wood be clean

of o of and uniform hardness , the c urse the

o o plane sh uld be quite straight, and the str kes

of of moderate length . At the termination every stroke the plane is entirely lifted O ff the work, and is reapplied at any point, where, either from the indi cation of the straight - edge or of the appearance the work, it may be deemed requisite by the carpenter . If the thin & stuff ” which we have & planed ” up be intended for forming the carcase of

or of a box any similar piece rectangular work,

now O fl the sides must be marked out and cut .

ff on The plank is su ered to lie flat the bench,

so and the square is applied, that the stock may rest fairly against one of the edges which has

u been carefully planed . The sq are must be

ou t er of adjusted, so that the edge the blade may be within the lowest part of the end of the & ” of . plank, which is next the stop the bench

A pencil line is now to be marked, taking care 4 C r or ksho 6 a W p . that it be perfectly square to the edges of the

o plank . The board must next be rem ved and of b fixed in the chops the ench, so that the end just marked may stand a little above them . The end is suppo sed to have been sawn tolerably

square to the edges , when the wood was & ou t roughed but if, owing to bad workman

h ou t o f s ip , the end is much truth with the line

saw marked from the square , the must be employed t o remove the greater part of the material, previously to applying the plane . The

- se t o smoothing plane must be very finely , ther & ” it of o wise will tear up the fibre the w od, which is exceedin gly fragile in the cro ss direction

of o the grain . The plane must be used cauti usly

o n t o s a llin when sh oti g the ends , avoid the p y ” o f , that is , breaking away the fibre as a splinter on t he front edge towards which the plane is ff ” moving . The tendency to spall o may be

o o lessened by holding the plane s mewhat bliquely, to enable the iron to attack the fibre in the cro ss

r u nnin o t h e o direction, and by g f str ke by lifting the plane from the work just before the extreme

corner is reached . The result of this treatment will be to leave t the far corner too high, but this can be rec ified by turning the board and bringing the f r ont

edge towards the w orkman . The plane is again

] o t o used as before, til the high c rner is reduced Car entr anal oiner 47 p y J y . the proper level The square must n ow be t o applied from the edge, discover if the end be

o o truly at right angles to it, and als fr m the

’ of surface, to test the accuracy in the direction the thickness . Before using the square, any roughness on the edges of the work must be removed, otherwise the square will fail to indicate its actual condition, and will lead the workman astray . If the longitudinal edges of the work be strictly

of o parallel to each other, the end the w rk will f or t o o o . be square , at right angles b th them By applying the square to the edges respectively any di screpancy which may exist will be made apparent .

Sometimes the square is untrue . If the blade be badly fitted or ill - secured in the st o ck it is

and . liable to shift, occasion much trouble The truth of the square may easily be tested by

t o of applying the stock the edge a board, which & ” u has been caref lly shot, and drawing a line f against the outer and inner edges o the blade .

The o s quare must then be turned ver, and if the edges still agree with the lines it is true: It m ay also be tested by another squ are which is

n t o a k own be ccurate . The length of one side Of the b ox is now measured off from the end which has just been c a . ompleted, and line is squared across The orksho 48 C ar I V p . saw u t o m st be kept outside this line, which is l of be approached only by the p ane . The end

u u the plank is again sq ared and planed p , and and so on su ccessively u ntil the fou r sides are ff of of s cut O . The opposite end each the side

u e m st then be planed, after which the carcas

r u m ay be nailed o glued together . The vario s methods of uniting works will be considered hereafter . d su ffi If the work be thin, the e ges are not c ie nt ly wide to afford a steady base for the sole

2 Fig . 1 .

of l ffi the plane, consequent y the di culty of ” o o sh ting the edge true is materially increased . The shooting - boar d is a valuable auxiliary when the work to be planed is long and thin . Fig . 22 f 21 . o is an end, and fig a perspective view

- f or a shooting board, suitable the longitudinal

of edges of work . It consists a stout plank, ab out four feet long and sixteen inches wide .

of To the upper side this piece, which is called

heel u the , and which m st be quite true, is secured 0 D a strip , , of the same length, and about two Car entr a nal oin r 4 p y J e y . 9

f f o o . s thirds the width the bed A stop , , is

of fixed at the end the strip, to keep the work

on steady . It is important that the strip which

W a u u the work , w , is l id be q ite flat, and sq are

of B to the upper side the bed, A , to which it is permanently fixed by screws . If the bed and strip of the shooting - board be

of true , and the side the plane, which rests and slides on the bed, be strictly at right angles to

22. Fig .

of the sole, the edges the work will be made

u acc rately square to its sides . The work must be tested with the square, and if the edges be not at right angles, the defect is probably

o & occasi ned by the iron , which may not be square in the stock -a few taps on the corner of di the iron will rectify the screpancy . ur or k h 50 O W s op .

23 Fig . shows the work , w, placed at right

t o of t o angles the course the plane, to enable us

. a finish the end It is import nt to have the end,

3 Fig . 2 .

F of n d f , the stop truly at right a gles to the e ge o

of the strip, against which the sole the plane runs . The strip Should be made as wide a s

ff o o o h possible, to a rd r m for a broad stop, w ich

Fig . 24 . is of mu ch assistance in keeping the work squ are i while it s bei ng planed .

52 O ur or ksho W p .

2 3 . represented in fig . The loose blocks are

of o - five usually made to an angle f rty degrees , which is very frequently employed in joinery works .

26 . Fig .

The stop of the shooting - board acts bene fic ially in checking the tendency to sp a ll which the work is so liable when planed across the grain . If the w ork be kept firmly against

o the stop , the wood, which therwise might spall

O ff o . , is well supp rted The u se of the hand- saw and the plane seemed

for o to call Special n tice, but it is unnecessary to consider the several other to ols employed by the carpenter and joiner, until we require them for ou r work . C ar entr a ncl oiner p y J u . 53

CH P TER I I A I .

REMARK S ON THE SEASONING A N D C HOICE O F

H W T E OODS .

T is impossible to constru ct sound and

u d rable work, if the material employed be green or unseasoned : the firm e st joints

that can be made will part, and the entire fabric become distorted and worthless The

r a of p actical c rpenter is well aware this , and if

o he be wise and value his reputati n, he will spare no pains to insure the complete seasoning f o his timber . The winter is the usu al season for felling timber, at which time the wood is less copiously

sa u . charged with p , owing to the circ lation being almost entirely checked by the cold . After the

Cu t nu trunk is down, it is allowed to remain

o t uched for a few months , but it should be

t su n shel ered from the direct influence of the , otherwise the exposed parts are liable to become s a ken or h cracked . The next stage in the season ing commences after the trunk is sawn into planks, which, being comparatively thin, and

t o presenting two sides the atmosphere, mate 54 u r or k ho O W s p . riall i y hasten the process . W h le in the entire

u form, the evaporation of moist re from the wood

o could only pr ceed slowly, consequently the

o m a planks still c ntain uch s p . now The planks are formed into a stack, which

and must be raised a few feet from the ground, especial care must be taken to keep the wood from actual contact, by inserting narrow strips

of between the ends the planks, and also at

of hi distances about eight feet apart . By t s

of u arrangement a free circulation air is ins red, and the seasoning is favou rably and expeditiously accomplished . Even timber in the stack is not entirely free

of from the ravages the Shake, which will attack the ends of the planks and the uppermost layer, which serves as a roof to the remainder, is frequently almost destroyed by the changes from wet to dry .

Thin planks, if judiciously stacked, will gene in t rally season abou eighteen months, but thick pieces require a much longer exposure . The tim ber must not be employed f or works of im portance immediately on its removal from the

The l , stack . carpenter p aces several planks in t a racks , which re ain them in a vertic l position

hi s sh O near p, and shortly before working the ” stuff he removes it inside the house to ins u re its complete seasoning . i a nd oine r Carp entry J y . 55

o t oo If the seasoning be carried f rward rapidly, or is forced by subjecting the material to the

is of direct influence of the fire, it deprived its

i or toughness and elast city ; , as the carpenter & u u n of wo ld say, the nat re has bee taken out ” t o u it . If the timber is be d rable, the season ing must be gradual and complete . Though the wood may have been thoroughly seasoned, it is impossible to guard against the

f of e fects change of temperature, and the liability

u to reabsorb moist re, if placed in a damp situa l tion . On again becoming dry, the plank wil

b u t probably no longer retain its former shape, ” or or be more less twisted in winding, which is a peculiar spiral twist, running through it in the directio n of its length,so that if the board

o n ul on s were laid the bench, it wo d rest two cros

on corners, which it would rock . Straight grained woods are not s u bjected t o any considerable change I n the le ng thway of the di & grain, but a stortion, called warping, is

m a s i n very prevalent the soft, as well the hard, in varieties the cross directions . Thin boards are sometimes curved like a bow in their cross sections . The joiner restores them to their Original condition by ranging them round the

Shop , with the convex sides towards the fire, which, by evaporating the moisture, will cause

s o the fibres of the wood to contract, and bring C ar orksho 56 W p .

it to its proper shape . The wood must not be t oo or l long exposed to the fire, the remedy wil

or d be as bad worse than the isease, as the board will become conca ve on the side next to

c onvex on the heat, and the other, thus reversing,

of r n instead emovi g, the evil . This may be avoided by frequ ently changing the Sides when

in t o a ir the boards have become flat, order them

u eq ally .

m is t oo m Someti es, when the wood uch dis t ort e d - to yield to the last mentioned treatment, the joiner warms it equally on both sid es to lessen its rigidity, and bends it as straight as he

u ff n ot can by his hands . If the st will retain the

u it u req ired shape, m st be again warmed, and

t wo u placed between sto t planks, which are

and r s drawn closely together by h sc e w . If the plank to be wrought be t oo thi ck to of admit correction by the means just described, t the prominences mus be removed by the plane . No considerable distortion is to be feared in the

- as straight grained woods, such pine and maho gany, provided the seasoning has been properly

finel - fi u r e d conducted . The y g woods, which chiefly owe their beauty to the great irregularity of the grain, would be very liable to twist and warp, if employed in the same way as the straight

- grained description . The handsomely marked woods are t oo costly to admit of their being u sed ar entr a nd oine r 5 7 C p y J y . o f u for t o s fficient thickness the p of a table, the

f or s o . o ides a box, any similar article The wo d is c u t therefore into very thin slices, called v eneer e on , which is glu d the plain wood of which

u the fabric is constr cted . The amateu r should always keep a stock of

- in well seasoned wood his shop , and should never u se mat erial which has lately been taken from ’ t he carpenter s rack . W hen choosing his woods , the amateur must ” st u fl knot s be careful to select clean , free from , ” s ha kes cle a t s , and . Doats are black stains , occasioned by the con fined sap which has not

vi in evaporated, owing to the planks ha ng rested contact during their seasoning in the stack .

P ine Dea l , also commonly called , is very largely

- employed in house carpentry and other works .

of It is very clean and straight in grain, a light

u colour, and easily wrought . The colo r is much influenced by the qu antity of resinous matter or

u t rpentine contained in its pores, which imparts

or o either a red yellow tinge to the wood, fr m which peculiarity has arisen the di stinctive titles of red and yellow deals .

S r uce of p is of the same family, but inferior quality . It is of a harder natu re and whiter o c lour, and, owing to the knots with which it

for abounds, is seldom employed any except the u or s o 58 O r W k h p .

commonest p u rposes . These woods are natives

of . cold countries , where they thrive the best Our largest supplies of this valuable ti m ber

o are exp rted from Norway, Baltic Port, Memel,

R Dant z ic . iga, and

O a k is a very hard and durable wood, easily

- disting uishable by its yellowish brown colour .

oak is The English is esteemed the best, and

- very extensively employed for ship building,

u carpentry, s bstantial framing, and other works requiring considerable strength . It is little

f u a fected by expos re to the weather, and is therefore much used for numerou s ou tdoor

f 85 o 0 . works, for the spokes and naves wheels,

o S me kinds, having a red tinge, are inferior to

f or the brown , and are used only ornamental furniture .

E lm is a very useful wood, and exceedingly

or durable if employed in wet damp situations .

o - o o u It is unrivalled for d ck w rks, r ugh p mps ,

- o o of water w rks, piles for f undations, keels ves

c oflins sels, boards of , and many similar purposes .

u In drying, it shrinks and twists very m ch, and is inapplicable to works in which p ermanence of

o f rm is imperative . Elm is porous and cross

grained, but it is not liable to Split, and bears

the driving of nails better than any other timber .

0 O u r orks ho 6 W p .

t . . ies, viz , Spanish and Honduras The former

and is in every respect superior to the latter, is

o c u t generally, wing to its great beauty, into

on veneers , which are glued stout fabrics con s tructed of Honduras or Baywood, which, though not Often finely figured, is exceedingly good for

f of the inside works o fu rnitu re . It is a reddish

u m in brown colo r, someti es open and irregular

the grain, and the inferior kinds are filled with specks and short grey lines . Some few speci

of u mens are a fine golden colo r, with handsome

V eins and figures .

u and For f rniture other indoor works, maho gany is unrivalled . It shrinks less in drying t han any other wood, is susceptible of a high

t o or polish, and is little liable twist warp, and

of holds the glue the best all . Foundry patterns

o of o of are ften made it, as it resists the m isture

o a d the damp sand, which d es not, therefore,

s o oo here to it readily as to a softer w d . Maho

u gany is also in m ch request amongst turners .

w d u e R ose oo is another valuable furnit r wood .

Its colour varies from light hazel to deep purple ,

r o nearly black . Some Specimens are as open in the grain as coarse mahogany, but the best

c u t qualities are into veneers, and even solid

u pieces are used for cabinet and ph olstery works . i The harder k nds may be very highly polished, a r e ntr a nd oiner 61 C p y J y . but it seld om retains its lu stre so long as mahogany . & ; d Mr Edwar s say s, that at the time when rose

on e wood was first imported, there was the scal of C - o R ustom h use duties, Lignum hodium, per t on t h e , referring to the wood from which

of R o Oil h dium was extracted, which at that time realized a very high price . The officers claimed li the ke duty on the furniture rosewo od . It was J afterwards imported as acaranda, Palisander,

P alaxand e r and wood, by which names it is still

on called the Continent . The duty was entirely removed, and the consumption has proportion

now nl ably increased . It is o y known as rose

of u a s wood, some logs which have prod ced much 1 ‘ as £ 50 when cut into veneers .

kVa lnu t - fi u re d is a handsomely g wood, much

d f or use for furniture, which purpose the finest

o veneers are als employed . Large quantities are still I n demand for the manufacture o f gun

of hi o e stocks ; the prices w ch, in the r ugh, rang from a few pence to a couple of guineas each .

Boxwood is an exceedingly hard and u seful wood, extensively employed by the turner and

. o of the wo d It is two kinds, dis t in u ish e d g as Turkey and European boxwood .

o o m C o The f rmer is imp rted fro nstantinople, u r o ksho 62 O W r p .

Smyrna, and the Black Sea . In size it is very variable, ranging from two and a half to fourteen inches di ameter . The colour is generally a deep

o . y ell w, sometimes shaded with orange Large quantities of boxwo o d are c onsumed in

u of ul o the constr ction r es , scales , and bl cks for

wh o of engravers, employ it to the exclusion all

o o othe r w ds . The European boxwood does not attain so large a growth, is more curly, softer, and paler than the Turkish . Its usual size is from about

ne t o o five inches in diameter . Being stronger an th the Turkish box, it is better for lathe

and chucks , will bear more rough usage .

— E bony O f this wood there are three varie

‘ ties , which are usually distinguished by the names of the countries whence they are ex p ort e d .

t of The bes and most, costly the three is a native of the Mauritius . It is the blackest and

o hardest, but, unfortunately,the m st unsound Of the species . The East Indian is the next in o is rder ; it less wasteful, but inferior to the first in grain and colour . The African, which is the

is last in the list , is the least wasteful, but it

o o decidedly very poor in colour, and p r us in the g rain . Ebony is almo st exclusively employed f or Car entr and oiner 63 p y J y .

turning and ornamental work ; flutes, the keys o f o oo - pianof rtes , d r handles, and many similar articles are manufactured from it .

Li m e - t r ee - is a clean and light coloured wood, nd a quite as easily worked as deal . It re

quires to be carefully seasoned, otherwise it is

o s o very liable to twist and warp , m re than

. f r C o &c . u se o pine urriers, sh emakers, , it their

u - o u c tting boards , as it d es not infl ence the

of course the knife . It is technically said to be & ” a t without grain, as it may be cut with lmos e l - is qual faci ity in every direction . Lime tree

o t o peculiarly free from knots, and, wing its

of evenness texture, is very suitable for carved

u works . It enters largely into the constr ction

of m pianofortes and other musical instru ents .

P ear - tree w is a bro n wood, much used by the f Tunbridge turner . In many o its properties it

- d o . i s similar to lime tree , but har er and t ugher

for It is largely employed carved works , and the

- engraved blocks for calico printing .

S y cam ore is another of the light - coloured f . W o o woods hen y ung, it is a delicate silky hi w te, which changes into a pale brown as the

l o timber becomes O d . The w od is strongest

when the colou r is in the intermediate stage . 4 r o sho 6 O u lV rk p .

o u e s S me pieces are bea tifully mottled, and are teemed by the cabinet - maker in the construction

of fancy furniture . The plain kinds are made

of into many articles domestic utility, such as

85 ar t ic u 0 . presses , dairy utensils , It is also a p l f lar y good material o which to make screws .

TABU LA R V I EW O F S O ME O F TH E W O O DS I N E CO MMO N U S .

J oinery and Cabinet

Deal. k O a .

P ine .

S e e es nu w t Ch t t.

Fu rnitu r e. S tron Fr am in g g, ( fie. a o an M h g y . k O a . R ose ood w . h A s . S at in oo w d. Be e c . h anda d S lwoo .

Birc . h W a nu t l .

a o an . M h g y a M ple . B ac E on l k b y . W et W orks as P iles A m o na. , , b y

F i s ou nda t on d c. , Fou ndr P atterns y .

A der l . De a l . r t nd oiner 65 Ca p en ry a J y .

a T r n O r nam ent l u ing .

Am b oyna.

Be ef wood .

Black Ebony . S m all. Boxwood . o Bulletwo d . oo Cocoaw d.

C orom andel . S cam o e Li num V i ae y r g t . H o a o an lly M h g y . H orse st nu a Che t M ple . P ear- ree M iba t ust a . - r e A pple t e R ose wood . P lum -tree

A c omprehensive catalogu e of the Characters ” u of W o and ses the oods, will be f und in the ’ & first volume of H olt zapff el s Mechanical Mani ’ pulation . 66 O u r W orkshop .

R C H A P T E I V .

R V ARIOU S METHODS O F JOINING TIMBE .

HE practical carpenter displays his Skill by the judicious choice of that form of con

ne cti on which will, with the least waste

firm e st of material, insure the junction

f o o u . the pieces to be nited He has , m reover, carefully to c onsider the intensity and direction of the strains tending t o rupture the material

and separate the j oints . The amateur being principally interested in the

o of c nstruction light works , it will be unnecessary to investigate very deeply the formation of heavy framing : we shall therefore only notice a few of the most important connections in general u se . W hen it is necessary permanently to lengthen

. of is ie ced on a beam, another similar scantling p & ” of to it . There are many methods piecing

or scar n fi g timber, and every carpenter has his

own o o n strum, which he considers superi r to all

C is others . onsiderable ingenuity often displayed in the various connections required in m assive

' & b u u c . t framings, s ch as roofs, , it is generally

ur ksho 68 O W or p . t o u t o place large iron washers under the n ts , enable us t o screw the m up tightly without cu tting into the wood . The form of s c arfing represented at B is not s o of a c capable resisting crushing for e as A,

f or which is more suitable a pillar than B , owing

u o o o 8 . to the s pp rt derived fr m the Sh ulders, s If B were used in a situation where it had to — withstand a crushing strain which tends t o force — bot h ends of the beam towards the centre the wedge - shaped ends would be liable to slide on

2 Fig . 8 .

o o t t each ther, and the thin t ngues, , which

o confine their extremities , would, wing to the ff o . pressure, be apt to split

of s c arfin in 2 Another method g is shown fig . 8 . In C the tim bers are & halved together in a t 2 . 7 b ut somewha similar manner to A, fig , the

o bolts and plates are mitted . The end of each & ” a r r on be m has a rebate, , formed it, which ” l o cks into a corresponding groove made in the k k . Two shoulders keys , , having a slight taper, a r e nt r a nd oiner 69 C p y J y . a re driven in t o draw the neighb ouring par t s of in the joint closely together . One key the centre

o f i w uld be equally e fect ve, provided it were made i This for m of o a little wider . c nnection is capable of resisting either a crushing or a tensile strain , and may be considered the best of the more

o of D s c mplicated varieties piecing . is not o fi 2 o . 7 g od, having the same defect as B, g and

o if it were used as a pillar, its strength w uld be v e r v t o of inferior, owing the absence bolts , which

hi of are almost necessary in t s kind j oint .

o of If unassisted by iron plates , no f rm scarfed tie - beam c an possess more than one - third of the

i 2 F g . 9. strength of t he solid beam ; and it must be remembered that the strength of any j oint or framing can never exceed that of its weakest part . A very simple kind of scarf much in favour 2 o . 9 amongst Shipwrights is sh wn in fig , and is

shin a Tw o of termed fi g a be m . beams similar o t scantling are br ugh end to end, and two pieces of oo o of w d, each ab ut half the thickness the

on t o beams , are placed heir pposite sides ; the

o whole is then str ngly bolted together . This u r ksho 70 O r W o p .

of e form joint is very strong, esp cially as a post, and it is a ready and effective method of making repairs . n fi 0 . 3 Dovetail connections, as show in g , and 31 E fi . at E , g , are sometimes employed for o posts , but they cannot be rec mmended, and

e l should not be used without plat s and bo ts, if

Fig . 3 0 .

l the weight to be supported is great . Dovetai joints are seldo m introduced into heavy carpentry

. works , even when the grain of both pieces 0 . 3 runs in the same direction, as in figs and 3 1 f . W hen half the thickness o each piece

- R . 3 1 u is removed, as at R , fig (left hand fig re) , and the cut surfaces are brought together,

I s l ed it called a app joint . If the timbers be laid so that the grain crosses at a con Ca r entr a nd o ine r 71 p y J y .

‘ side rable angle the dovetail should not be used, as the shrinkage of the wood will cause the 2 . 3 joints to become loose ; therefore , D , fig , would be objecti onable in a situation where the joint was subjected to even a moderate strain . W h en the timbers cross at an angle of forty - fiv e & ” degrees they may be united by halving, as ’ ff shown at H H . The method is slightly di erent

Fig . 3 2.

’ i m m H , where the t mbers eet at the ends , and

o form a c rner . W hen one timber abuts against another the 2 3 . joint is made as shown at T, in fig . The piece

t enon o m hi T is called the , and the h le, , w ch is

m or tis e t he to receive it the . The tenon must fit

o mortise cl sely, and its shoulders must rest fairly on the surface of the wood against whi ch it

u . u ab ts An oak pin is us ally driven in at p , to 7 O u r W orksho 2 p .

u sec re the tenon, as it is liable to draw back ; the strain should tend to keep the shoulder of the tenon in contact with the wood in which the

is m mortise ade . The ordinary form of mortise and tenon employed in heavy carpentry is shown to a

Fig . 3 3 .

i n . 33 . T larger scale fig The tenon , , should seldom exceed one - third of the thickness of

ff o the stu , therwise the piece containing the mortise . M, will be weaker at that part

— - 3 4. T non . Fig . e saw

n u than the te on . The endeavo r should always be to balance the strength of t he t wo parts; so that, if subjected to a severe strain, they

u u is wo ld yield eq ally . The tenon formed by a r entr a n ner C p y d Joi y . 73

c utting away one -third of the thickness of the

on of timber each side it, and as the work will receive no fu rther finish than is imparted

- i o by the tenon saw (fig . th s t ol must be exceedingly well applied to insure a good fit

of in the mortise . The method cutting the

m ortise will be explained hereafter .

d so After the tenon has been riven home , that ’ o s s on of the sh ulders , , bed fairly the surface — the wood aro u nd the mortise in which they will — fail if all the parts be not exactly square the ’ h u t ole, p p , must be bored, b rather smaller t han it will u ltimately be required . The tenon

must then be withdrawn from the mortise, and ’ t o the hole, p , be enlarged the proper size for t h e pin ; p must also be increased t o the same

& s ize , but its centre is removed a trifle towards ’ t he ou s s r e sh lders , , so that when the tenon is ’ i not nserted in the mortise, the holes, p p , will

e xactly tally . The discrepancy should be very

s light, otherwise the tenon may be split when the

‘ pin is driven home . By setting the hole in the t in enon a little behind that in the mortise, the p i s enabled to draw the tenon forward u ntil both ’ t he o w t h e s s h les correspond, hen shoulders, ,

on M . will bear firmly the surface, Sometimes the ten on is brought boldly through

o the mortise , and the pin passed thr ugh its ex

t re m it y . Square pins are used in this situation, 74 ur rksh O W o op . being considered less liable to split the end of the tenon . If the end of the tenon be chamfered and of the workmanship is good, this form joint is n ot u u unsightly, and is freq ently introd ced in situations where the joint is exposed to view . W e shall have occasion to speak further of the

of formation the tenon and mortise, the dovetail, and some other connections, when explaining the u se of the tools employed by the joiner .

7 6 C a W orksho r p .

attempted, otherwise much that would have proved of great value remains undiscovered

u o b u Amate rs are rarely g od workmen, eca se they seldom practise sawing and planing su ffi i n l c e t y to become expert . Many people imagine that complete command of the saw and the plane m ay be acquired by

of r repairing a piece fu niture, making a box, and

s odd u imilar jobs , which, though seful in their

ffo b u t for way, can a rd little scope advancement ’ in e the join r s craft . The am ateur joiner has only a narrow field f or

p ractice, and unless he make a bold stroke, and c - n hi s o ombine cabinet maki g, tools will ften f c ontract the rust o idleness . A friend of the author has proved himself a

- m clever amateur cabinet aker, and can show several pieces of furniture which are e xc e e — creditable specimens of art ; and one article a — n sideboard deserves special mentio , being a hands ome and well - fini sh e d sample of go od

workmanship . W e only mention this circumstance t o show t if e hat amateurs may, they persevere , becom

’ & skilled mechanics . That practice mak e s per ” f n f e c t is only true o thoughtful practice . Ma y

men are engaged all their lives at one class . of

k . wor , and yet never excel Surely this cannot

w t of o be for an practice ; no , it is reflecti n in ar entr a nd oiner 77 C p y J y .

whiOh they are deficient . The intelligent an d

w o thoughtful man feels a pleasure in his rk, and is always striving to raise his art to still higher perfection by improving the means at his c om

n u ma d, and by endeavo ring to devise better and f quicker ways o doing the work . If t he plank be required for work in which w great accuracy is essential, it ill be necessary to be particularly careful when planing t he second side to make it exactly parallel to the first otherwise the plank will not be of uniform

of o thickness throughout . The eye a skilled w rk & & ” m an may be su flicie nt ly true or straight to enable him to plane up a small piece O f stuff without the assistance of a line or other artificial

i not t guide . A beg nner, however, must attemp t o or work in this way, he will invariably spoil whatever he undertakes . Next to the square, ’ the m arking - gauge is the w orkman s best safe

- o guard ; the straight edge sh uld also be at hand, its aid being indispensable f or testing the truth o f flat u n extensive s rfaces , as well as lo g narrow ones . After the rough outside of the plank has been & o f u or rem ved, the sur ace should be tried p ,

- generally planed over with the trying plane , to

o make it t lerably flat . If the longitudinal edges of o the plank be very uneven , they must als be ” o n - r ughly shot . The marki g gauge must be C r rksho 78 u o . . W p

' ' adju sted to the thickness to which the vV ork is & ” d s t O b e planed . If the wood will hol up, ay t o One n of t i ch thick , the head the gauge mus be

n n The se t back o e i ch from the scoring point .

' n b e r aise d a nd u on on e ed pla k must s pported ge, of t o the head the gauge being forcibly applied ,

' ov and m ed along, the true surface, while the scoring point leaves a c lear line on the uppermost

and as c o ed edge, mu h below the rough unt uch su rface as the substance of the w ork - now ex c e e ds the finished thickness t o which the gauge

s t is e . Both the longitudinal edges must b e e s ” gauged, and the nd also, if they be tolerably

n ow straight and smooth . If the second side be n carefully pla ed down to the lines, we shall have nk f W a pla o uniform thickness . hile planing

a - the last side, the str ight edge must be frequently

o applied acr ss the work to give us timely notice, if we be removing too much in the centre . It is a saf e plan to plane down the surface near the

d of - e ges to within a little the gauge lines , and

t f r e then to remove the s u f towards the centre, m e m b e ring to use the straight edge frequently in &

o the cr ss direction, and also occasionally length W wise . hen the second Side has been made as

is u true as the first, and the thickness fo nd to be

u c om uniform, the edges and the ends m st be

let e d o p as bef re explained . The process is somewhat different for thick e ntr a nd ner 79 Carp y Joi y .

fir t s ide e u w . t s orks Af er the has be n tried p , one t o of the edges is planed at right angles it, the truth being tested by the square, the stock

hi t o and of w ch is applied the first side, the blade

u . a t o to the edge . Great care m st be t ken make — ' the e dge or right - angled side a s it may be con — sid er e d in thi ck work exactly squar e to the

r t r ui re t o r fi s , as these two surfaces are eq d se ve as the foun dations from which the remaining s ides are to be wrought . The gauge must now b e set to the finished thi ckness or the distance whi ch is to exist between the first side and the

n r ll o e oppo site o para el t o it . hi ll A The first side, w ch we wi call , and the a e or - djac nt edge right angled side, B, should be marked by a pencil line extending from one to

in u t he the other, that we may dist g ish them from t wo ni u f C remai ng s r aces, and D, which are to t . C be wrough from them The second side, , w a of - hen pl ned to within a little the gauge lines,

on may be tested by the square, the stock resting the e on C . edge, B , and the blade The squar mu st be applied at short intervals a s the work

o ul appr aches towards completion, and sho d be moved over the entire surface, as some parts may

ou t of u on be square, tho gh closely bordering

others which are true .

C now The sides , A, B, and , are supposed to be finished it therefore only remains to operate on / k ho 80 C ar lVor s p .

t or u D to comple e the work . The edge fo rth side, D , might be planed at right angles to the

of first side, A, by the assistance the square, if it were not required to be als o parallel t o the second side, B . W e made A and C p arallel to each other ; the same relation must therefore exist between B

t o and D, render the work correct . The marking gauge must be set to the new measure, the width — or distance required between t he edges t he

o head being rubbed against B , while the p int marks out the new surface, D . Two lines must

— on o on C— be scored one A, the ther to guide

I n u s planing the edge square to them .

I f o the work has been pr perly executed, the sides will prove equally true when tried by the

o square in any directi n . Sometimes the several surfaces will appear true in the order of their

on t e st ' t he formation, but reversing the y will no longer agree . This want of accuracy can o cca . sion all not y be traced to the square, which may be f in good order, but more frequently the ault rests with the workman .

i - Squaring and plan ng u p works are not easy. of accomplishment, and even the simplest works

o require c nsiderable skill to achieve satisfactorily, and c onstant practice is necessary to insure success .

W e must suppose our pupils to have only. r e ntr a nd oiner ] Ca p y J y . 8

h commenced t eir apprenticeship , and shall therefore begin with the mere rudiments of the ’ joiner s art . The construction Of a plain deal box is pro bably the simplest wo rk ou r pupils could select

f r for their first attempt . The wood o the car case of the box having been cut out and planed

r in accordance with the directions al eady given,

u or the Sides may now be gl ed nailed together . ” Before detailing the method of glueing up

r f e w works , howeve , a words respecting the

t u r choice of the glue may be useful o o readers . The best glu e is prepared from parings of the

of l of hides animals , previous y to the process

of u tanning . The quality the gl e may be tested in several ways . The superior kinds are of o o of or a pale br wn c lour, and devoid taste smell . W hen held between the eye and the light the cake of glue should appear semi - trans

or parent , and entirely free from cloudy black

of spots, which indicate the presence foreign

of I s t o matter . If a large quantity glue be pur

it t o e chased, will be advisable tak a sample, and subject it to a severe trial . The glue must be broken into small pieces, and placed in a vessel f with su ficient cold water to cover it . If, after

of or the lapse three four days , the glue swell u it powerf lly without melting, may be considered t he best quality . a or ksho 82 C r W p .

In dry wea ther a cake of glue is generally

t o o o crisp and hard, but it is liable bec me s ft in

o o a moist atm sphere . If the glue be s ft in dry d weather it should be rejecte , being probably of

nf o i eri r quality . The kettle in which the glue is melted f or use

o one c nsists of two vessels , within the other, a certain space existing betwee n them f or a wa te r

t o e c c an bath determine the t mperature, whi h f never exceed th at o boiling water . This provi sion is a bsolut ely necessary to save the glue from

n or bei g unduly heated burnt, whereby its adhe sive properties would be destroyed .

t o It, is a good plan allow the glue to soak in . cold water f or several hours be fore placing the n kettle on the fire . The kettle must ot be

on ff r t o put a fierce fire, but should be su e ed

on h ob simmer gently the , until the glue is

thoroughly melted . A cover should be provide d

t o exclude the dust, a notch being made in the

b rI i sh edge for a stick or , with which the glue

t oo may be occasionally stirred . If thick, a little of the hot water contained in the larger

vessel may be added to the glue, which should be su fficie ntly thin to run in a fine stream from

o the brush . Shortly bef re removing the kettle w t o the ater may be allowed to boil gently, ensure the glu e being of sufficiently high tem p erat u r e t o remain fluid until the neighbou ring

84 C u r orks W hop .

Having ascertained that the four pieces of which the carcase ” of the box is to be con

a structed are quite squ re, and fit truly to each

t so other, they mus be marked, that their proper relationship may be known when glueing up is commenced . To ensure a good and firm joint it is necessary t o t he have the glue very fluid, and as hot as

- of water bath the kettle can make it . It is also of equal importance to bring the pieces which are to be united as nearly in contact as possible, thereby excluding the superabundant cement which would otherwise prevent the close union of the parts . If t he t op of the bench be uneven a flat b oard

on o should be placed it, therwise some difficulty may be experienced in glueing the b ox together f ” truly square . One of the sides o the carcase must be laid on the board with the inner side

upwards, and the end pieces , which have

on e respectively been glued on extremity, are

b o o n in o rub ed firmly d wn it, rder to exclude the surplus glue and bring the w ood into close

o of s contact . The opp site extremities the end n are next glued, and the seco d side is pressed

o o f rcibly up n them . It will be found that the cross - grain of t he

en d o pieces quickly abs rbs the glue, therefore its appli cation must be repeated several times before t d o er 85 Carp e n ry a n J in y .

on the usual quantity will remain the surface . Glue will never hold s o strongly in the cross a s in t - of the leng h way the grain, consequently little reliance can be pla ced on the strength of a b ox in which the cross - grain of the end pieces is

t o merely glued the sides . The four sides of the b ox or carcase being ” u t glued up , it must be t rned over to ascer ain if the edges of the side and end pieces rest fairly on the board ; and if at all di storted the & carcase must be corrected as quickly as b possi le, while the glue is soft , as any disturbance after the glue begins to s e t will be fatal t o the

soundness of the j oint . The work may be bound together more closely by screw- clamps, which i l o t o w l als tend preserve its shape while drying . After the clamps have been adjusted the truth of

not on the work must be again tested, only the

edges , but also by a square applied from the

t o di sc ov e r sides, if the ends be at right angles

to them . Before leaving the work to dry, the

' waste glu e which - haS ooz e d ou t at the j oints should be removed by a bit of S ponge slightly e moisten d with the hot water in the kettle . If

the waste glue were allowed to harden, it would

‘ - not ~ b e fi only dif cult to remove, but would stain the work and give it an u nworkmanlike

appearance . The work mu st not be di stu rbed for a t least 86 O u r or ks ho W p .

- - u four and twenty ho rs, and if the weather be

o . damp , a l nger period should be allowed W hen the gl u e is thoroughly hard the clamps may be removed and the b ottom of the box

attached If, on examination, the edges of the & ” o not carcase pr ve exactly fair, they must

ul - be dressed caref ly by the smoothing plane ,

m until the bottom fits the closely all round . Glue ing on the bottom of the box is merely a

repetition of the process we have just described . It may be found more convenient t o keep the ” bott om closely in contact with the carcase

u o while the gl e is drying, by a c uple of weights instead of t h e screw - clamps whi ch were used for A t the sides . f er the carcase has been rubbed down firmly on the b ottom and the waste glue

o u rem ved, the box may either be turned pside

so on down, that the weights may be placed th e

or u bottom , , being ndisturbed, the weights may be supp orted by a piece of wood placed on the box as a temporary c over .

b ox o r As the , however carefully glued t gethe , & ” will require to be finally finished off by t he

- smoothing plane, it will somewhat facilitate the process to allow the extremities of the side pieces t o project a very small amount beyond the

o o ends . The b tt m may also with advantage be a trifle larger than the exterior dimensions of the i c . arcas e If the work be qu te true, and the r nt i Ca p e ry a nd Jo ner y . 8 7

e d b glueing is well perform , no percepti le pro visi on for the fin al finish will be required . Great care mu st be taken in the finishing to ” i off avoid spall ng , the wood when planing the

- cross grain ends of the side pieces . The plane

u f or must be used obliq ely, and not the entire k n t h g or depth of the ends, the endeavour being t o work alternately from the upper and lower

o dl edges t wards the mid e , where the opposite

l and cuts wi l meet balance each other .

o If we require a board of c nsiderable width, it will be necessary to glue two or more narrow planks edge to edge . To do this successfully the edges of the respective planks which are to be

u o united m st be exactly straight and square acr ss . W hen one of the edges has b e en carefully shot according t o the indi cations of the straight edge , it may in its turn be used as a straight edge in working the edge of the plank with which it is to be united . If a little chalk be rubbed evenly all over the true edge , a small portion of the white powder will be deposited on the m pro inent points of the work , if the former be slightly m oved backwards and forwards over the h f latter in t e direction o its length . By removing the material where the chalk has adhered we shall s oon bring the edge of the second plank

o o int cl se contact with that of the first . W hen abou t to glue the boards together one of ho 88 O u r W or ks p . the pieces mus t be fixed vertically in the chops of d f e w the bench, the lower end being raise a inches from the floor . The second plank must

l o su a so be placed in an upright positi n, and p ported by a block of wood at the same height as h l the first, against w ich it is al owed to rest

so obliquely, that the edges to be glued may

o m f r a slight angle with each other . The glue brush is now r un u p and down the angle formed by the edges of the boards , and when the cement has been thoroughly worked into the grain of the

of u wood, the edge the second plank m st be

u of fi bro ght in contact with that the rst, which is firmly secured in chops of the bench . The

m second board, which is held by the joiner, ust be pressed and rubbed forcibly against the first u f ntil the joint begins to feel sti f under the hand, when the plank must be brou ght into its proper

A - position . straight edge shou ld be applied across the face of the board to test its accuracy before removing it from the bench . If the edges which we have j u st glued together be not exactly o l on square acr ss, the board wil prove rounding

won A one side and hollo the other . similar dis c r ep anc y m ay be occasioned by the respective edges of the planks not bedding fairly on each

m i of of other . A critical exa nation each side the

u s t o board will enable discover any such fault, which may be rectified by pressing the plank so n r 8 Ca rp e t y a nd Joine ry . 9

a s t o close the open joint . If the joint appear

or q uite sound, if the closing of a gap fail to t make the work flat, the joint mus be separated

As u d a nd rectified by the plane . s ch a procee ing

o w uld be very unsatisfactory, and waste much time, the greatest care must be taken when shooting the edges to ensure their accuracy . If

o the work be accurate, the joint must be sp nged

u over to remove the waste gl e, and after allowing a u f or se t few min tes the glue to , the board may be carefully removed from the bench by t wo

in o people, and rested an inclined p sition against the wall of the workshop . W hen a tru ly flat board of considerable width is required it would be u nwise to employ one

u ul of plank , even s pposing we co d find a piece

i for ou r sufficiently large growth su table purpose . W e have alr eady stated that the woods are very liable to warp and become otherwise distorted in

- of u the cross way the grain, conseq ently little dependence can be placed on the material in this I t direction . should not, therefore, if unassisted, be employed of great width in works where per m anenc e of m is ll for important . It wi frequently be fou nd that the plank becomes convex on the

of side which was towards the centre the tree, provided both sides are s u bjected to similar d con itions . If the wide plank be c ut into several narrow 0 O r r 9 u W o kshop . n ones and the alter ate pieces be reversed, and d then glued up edge to e ge, the wide plank thus formed will ret ain its shape much better than it could have done in its natural state . A wide

not art ificiall form e d plank y would become curved,

one like a large bow, side being convex and the ” - a . u other conc ve But in a made p plank , the

ar w component parts being comparatively n ro , the

o of curvature is sh rter, and changing the sides the alternate pieces has the effect of imparting a slightly serpentine outline instead of a large curve to the surface of the work, if it become warped . Since the direction in which t he wood is

o so it empl yed is of much importance, may be observed that those parts up on which the m o st reliance is placed to retain the work in shape should always be constructed in the length - way of the grain . For instance, the length and width

b ox of a are usually much greater than its depth , and as the true figure of the work depends on the

of r permanence the side and end pieces, thei longest directions must be made w ith the grain .

of If all the dimensions the box be equal, the length - way of the grain must still be at right

of of angles to the depth the box . The grain the w end pieces must al ays be in the same direction,

of or plain, as that the sides the combination of the four pieces will then mutually support and

a o ret in each ther in shape .

2 orksho 9 C ar W p .

work in shape . The simplest forms of clamp are

85 t o re s . hown in fig , which may be supposed present the ordinary drawing - board used by

mechanical draughtsmen . The board is con

of structed two pine planks , A B, free from

knots , and thoroughly seasoned . The edges

which are to be united must be very truly planed, and a shallow groove formed in each f or the recep

of hi of d t s li tion a t n strip woo , , called a p

e a ther . f , which materially strengthens the joint The groove cannot be satisfact orily made with

ou t a roovi n - lane of g g p , which we shall Speak

of presently . In the absence this tool the joint m ay be sufficiently well made for ordinary pur

poses, by simply glueing the edges together .

W u hen the glue is thoro ghly hard, the board

u s u m t be planed pon the sides and edges . The

C C of - clamp, , which is made a well seasoned ” straight - grained piece of stuff is fastened by screws across the grain of the board a short dis

tance from the end . It is always necessary to — have two clamps one near eachextremity of the — board and if t he le ng t h of the latter be consider

a able, third clamp may be required in the centre . As the board is liable t o shrink or become nar

it is u rower, s bjected to a considerable strain by

i fi C C h is being r gidly xed to the clamp , , whic incapable of shrinking in the direction of its

length . The clamp being u nable to yield in the a r e ntr a nd oin r 93 C p y J e y .

- ff n o length way of the grain , it can a ord liberty t o o - of is the cr ss grained wood the board, which apt t o split and tear away from the fastenings by which it is confined: A better kind of clamp which effectually pre

of o e serves the truth the b ard, and at the sam t o o is ime allows it to c ntract with ut restraint,

D of seen at D . Instead securing the clamps

o o by screws or other rigid c nnections , a d vetail, d is on , formed the side next the board , in which latt er is made a corresponding dovetail

o on gr ove . The dovetail the clamp and the groove in the board are made with a slight taper in the length - way to enable the clamp to draw

is itself tight when driven forward . The board quite free t o shrink throughout the entire length of d o of the vetail, and the truth the surface is

o t h e als strictly maintained . If the shrinking of

s o o board be considerable as to l osen the clamp , it may be immediately tightened by a few light blows of a hammer on the wide end of t he dove

f o t o tail . This form o clamp is very superi r the one first named but it is much m ore difficult t o

t he l d l make 5 for if dovetail be bad y fitte , it wil t ff fail o a ord the requisite support to the board .

m C C i t The cla p , , is a very ready and conven en

f or n n o o device strengthe i g the c vers , and als the bottoms and sides of rough b oxes or packing cases . or ks o 94 C ar W h p .

Fig . 36 represents a wide board formed by narrow strip s glued edge to edge . This board

is is strengthened by a clamp, E E , which h secured to t e end instead of the side . The ends of the board (only one is shown) are r e ba t ed on T each side to form the tongue, , which should

- of m be one third of the thickness the aterial .

3 6. Fig .

of A groove is planed in the edge the clamp ,

t o u E E , receive the tong e, which should fit it u moderately tight . If there be any do bt respecting the complete seasoning of the wood w of which the board is constructed, it ould be

imprudent to glue the clamp to the board, except of in the middle of its length . The shrinking the

96 ur or ksho C W p . not have sufficient liberty f or expansion and con

o if o tracti n, which, resisted, will cause the w od

ou t to split . The mouldings , when not worked of the solid, are secured to the styles and rails, and the panels are still unrestrained . The formation of framed and panelled works can scarcely be considered as easy examples of joinery ; we m u st therefore reserve this subject f or future investigation . It is often necessary to glue a narrow strip on

of & c . the edge a board to receive a moulding, , in which case it is better to make the addition wider than it will ultimately b e required, and

t o off of when the glue is hard, cut the excess material . By this means we are enabled to

s i s make a ounder joint, as the strip less liable to spring up at the ends, if its width be equal to about three or four times its thickness . It is s ometimes necessary to form a large

or e or curve sweep ither by bending the wood, by cutting it to the required shape . If the sweep

o e c on o be large, bending the material is the m st mical process . The simplest but certainly not the strongest method of bending is performed by making several kerfs with the tenon - saw along

d r the e ge which is required to yield o stretch . The kerfs must be equ i - distant and of uniform d epth, and care must be taken when bending not

u o to cripple the work by applying too m ch f rce . r ntr a ncl oiner 9 1 Ca p e y J y .

W hen the desired curve is obtained, the ends of the sweep should be confined by securing them to the board on which the work must be laid

saw for glueing . The edge in which the kerfs

n now f were made bei g convex, the ker s will be fou nd mu ch wider than they were previously to n f bendi g the wood . The strength o the work may be considerably increased by filling the w cuts with glue and inserting thin wedges , hich will also tend to preserve the curvature of the

of sweep . Sometimes a strip canvass is glued u pon the edge in which the cuts have been made . A nice curve cannot be formed when the ou ter edge is nicked, as the wood will yield unequally . If the wo o d of which the sweep is to be made

not be too thick and rigid, it may sometimes be bent by soaking the side which is to be con

h ot o vex with water, at the same time exp sing the Opposite side to the fire . If the work be

fixed while hot, it will retain when cold the form thus impressed upon it . W hen cu rved work is required of considerable substance it is u sual to build it u p by glueing

one c anl several thicknesses , upon another, in a , or u o of of mo ld, f rmed two pieces hard wood, which have been cut to the proper sweep for ou r work . The wood of which the curve is t o be

u formed m st be even in grain, free from knots,

of m and unifor thickness .

H 98 O u r W or ks hop .

For u in some p rposes, especially pattern

o n ou t e of making, it is c nvenie t to several pi ces the required cu rve ou t of comparatively thin ” f e stu f, and to glue them together till the prop r

e thickness is obtained . If the sweep be form d

o by j ining several short pieces end to end, the sec ond layer must be arranged s o that the joints shall occu r midway between those of the lower

or of is course in the centre the short pieces . It easy to perceive that if the joints in the sever al

layers were placed directly in a line , the work cou ld have very little strength it is therefore & u necessary to break joints, as in b ilding a

brick wall . W e shall have occasion t o speak further r e

t of u n spec ing the process gl ei g up works,

u u s when considering the constr ction , vario fram

n 85 0 ings , veneeri g, . Although glu e is very largely employed as a

of of means uniting many portions the work , yet t the carpenter, joiner, and even the cabine

u maker, would be nable, without the assistance

of nsu i nails and screws , to e re the requis te strength of those parts which are su bjected t o

severe strains .

3 7 f r In fig . several varieties o nails in gene al

u t o use are shown, but witho t reference their

i S ze .

1 r ose-shar d . A form called p , largely employe

u r orksho 1 00 O W p .

on e head, which slopes abruptly opposite sid s,

o clasps the w od when driven into it, and when

u punched below the surface, the plane can be sed over it without being injured .

4 c lou t u f or and . The is sed nailing iron other metal work t o wood . The head is flat and cir c u lar u , and the shank ro nd, terminating in a sharp point . ” 5 Connt erc lou t u . nails have co ntersinks,

u d r e conical necks , n er their heads, which are quired to lie level or flush with the surface of the work ; the shanks are r ound with chisel

u points . These nails are principally sed by smiths and wheelwrights .

Fine do u 6 . g is disting ished from a stouter

s tron or we i ht nail of a similar kind, called g g y cl o og . B th sorts are used for fastening down

o m str ng iron work , and for any other purposes d in which the hea s, which are very solid and

not slightly countersunk, are required to lie level of w with the surface the ork . The shanks are round, and terminate in spear points , which are well adapted for piercing and clenching .

K ent - hu r dle 7 . nails have broad and rather

- thin rose heads, clean drawn shanks with good s for pear points, which are very favourable nailing and clenching the oaken bars of hurdles

a t e nails together . A description called g is somewhat similar . J i Ca r ent nd & orn i p ry a J rryy

R ose - c le nch m 8 . are nails much e ployed by

- ship and boat builders . They are termed clench,

u because, after being driven thro gh the plank ,

‘ their ends are bent o ver by the hammer or

u clenched . If additional sec rity and neatness

u - r be req ired, a small diamond shape plate, , called

r os e a , is slipped over the point, which is then

u n rivetted down pon it, thereby drawi g the

u planks very closely together . The nail is sed extensively for securing the wood - sheathing to ’ u ships sides , for which purpose it is nsurpassed, as the square blunt end punches the hole, which

t o would require be bored, if a pointed nail were

t o of used, owing the fragile nature the wood,

t o which is very liable split . Large quantities of these nails are consumed in the c onstruction of - rough boxes, packing cases, and other coarse works , for which time cannot be spared to bore

f or holes the nails .

H ors e na i s 9 . l o , empl yed for attaching the shoe t o the hoof. Formerly the nails were

u made with sq are heads , but the preference t o h was given the shape represented, whic

u is also slightly co ntersunk , to allow the heads to lie in the groove made for them in the shoe .

1 0 . Br a ds u are very seful nails , great in

for of o demand all varieties light j inery w ork . The amateur will probably u se this class of nails { f lEGar t W orkshop . almost t o the exclu sion of any other ; they are little liable to split the wood and hold well .

of u of The best nails are made wro ght iron,

u which the to ghest description is selected, espe

ll f r c l nch of c ia y o e nails . Large quantities cheap o nails are manufactured from cast ir n, which is e annealed to lessen its brittleness . Malleabl cast - iron nails answer very well for numerous

i u coarse purposes, such as na ling p laths for

u u partitions, for sec ring fr it trees to garden

u walls, and many similar works in which m ch n n t stre gth is o required . It is not so easy to drive a nail properly as

a of many people imagine . If the he d the nail

not u be struck fairly in the centre, but obliq ely, the shank will either be bent or knocked ou t of

o t o u the true p sition, which it cannot witho t ffi some di culty be again rest ored . If the wood

o li be hard and the nail l ng and slender, the liabi ty

or to bend cripple the shank is considerable . The best way t o avoid this is t o bore a hole slightly smaller than the shank is in the middle of t r its length, if it be aper, and if pa allel, a little less than the part immediately above t he

o p int . It is evident that if the hole be made

or as large as the nail, the latter can have little

and no hold, if too small, the relief which it

& affords is insufficient to avert the danger of

o h n either splitting the w od or crippling t e ail .

l ar ork o O l C lV sh p .

inch of the shaft projects below the little finger .

f fe w or u I a very light blows taps be req ired, th e shaft may be held shorter or nearer the head ; but this is not the legitimate way of handling

of the tool . Before striking a blow the face the

u on or hammer should be r bbed the floor, on a

o b ard sprinkled with a little powdered chalk, to

‘ remove any grease that may adhere to it , which would c au se the hammer to glance off the head f o the nail . Though the shaft be held near the

m extre ity, the hammer is perfectly under control,

u u and it sho ld be sed lightly at first, gradually

‘ increasing the force of the blows as t he n ail sinks .

into the wood . w If the blows be violent at first, the nail ill

be or bent sent astray, as at this time it derives very little support from the wood into which it

is being driven . The endeavour should be to

of increase the force the blows at intervals , as

the nail seems able to bear it, as a too sudden c hange from light and rapid blows to heavy s trokes is almost s u re to send the nail astray .

' The a im u o f sho ld be accurate, and the head the nail mu st be struck by the centre of the hammer

face, otherwise it may be spoilt by a blow from

the edge, which would also very probably bend

the shank . Sometimes the greatest care will

fail to ensure the straight dri ving of the nail .

or If the nail appear disposed to bend go astray, Car entr a ncl oiner 1 05 p y J y . i t m ay frequently be restored t o its proper p osition by a few well - directed and slightly o on blique blows, which must be applied the side of the head furthest from the place which the

m ail should occupy .

Occasionally the pincers (fig . 38) must be used to extract a nail which has become hopelessly

crippled . If the nail be very fast, as it often

one of of is in hard wood, the bows the pincers

3 8 Fig . .

must be allowed to rest on the surface of the w of ork, in order that it may act as the fulcrum

a d u lever when the han les, which m st be grasped d d e re s é e . in the right hand, are powerfully p A double claw is provided at the end of one of the handles for prizing u p nails which have been

home . The claws are sharp enough to penetrate

u u of the wood aro nd and nder the head the nail ,

the neck of which can then pass between them . By depressing the opposite end of the pincers the nail will be raised sufficiently to enable us to ' d ou t raw it . If the work require a finishing touch from the

of t plane, the heads the nails mus be punched

u is ne c e s below the s rface . This almost equally l O 6 C a r W or kshop

o i a sary if the w od is to be pa nted, and the c vities left by the displaced heads m u st be filled with

u hi of p tty to de them . The punch consists a

of s cylindrical piece steel about three inche long, tapering from the middle of its length to one

u u extremity . The point m st be quite bl nt, otherwise it will not drive the nail down s atis

d e nd fac t orily . Two opposite si es of the taper of u u br a ds the p nch m st be flat for , and some what similar in shape to the nail itself. The point of the pu nch must be hardened to enable it to retain its shape . If the end be heated to

u of a dull red, and then be thr st into a lump

or w ffi tallow candle grease, it ill become su ciently hard .

wootl s crew The , also sometimes called the s cr ewnail of ni , is a strong and ready means u ting numerous works in wood . The screw possesses a great advantage over the nail in situations where considerable strength is required, as it powerfully resists any tendency t o dr aw it ou t f o the wood like a common nail . There are m many instances in joinery and cabinet aking,

u in which a nail would be seless, owing to the fragile character of the work and the trifling

of l not ff thickness the material, which cou d a ord ffi su cient hold for a nail . It is in these delicate

s of so u articles that the crew proves much val e . n n The screw, unlike the ail, needs no applicatio

u orksho 1 08 O r W p .

patent screw may not be sold by the tradesman with whom some of ou r readers may be obliged of to deal ; however, the best specimens the ordinary screws will answer sufficiently well for

many purposes . W hen choosing either iron or brass wood

screws select those with moderately deep threads , approaching as nearly as possible the shape of f 89 . or o A , fig . The end point the screw must also be smaller than the blank part just below

the head . Those having a projecting bur at the

e xtremity of the thread should be rejected, as the bur is apt to tear away the wood as the screw a dvances, leaving little or perhaps nothing by

or which it can hold . The nick, diametrical

s aw - c u t m f or - ade in the head the screw driver,

of fr e must be uniform depth, and not, as it

q uently happens, highest at the centre . The d of is o of o epth the nick als some imp rtance, for i f too deep the head is liable t o be broken by the

- o l in screw driver, which latter, h wever, wil have

s u ffic ie nt t oo o hold if the nick be shall w . The d epth of t h e nick may with advantage be about

of half the thickness the head, and it should be

of u the same width thro ghout . The end of the screw- driver sho u ld be formed 40 . . o as shown in the two views, fig The sl ping

or sides , chamfers, must not meet at the ex

t r e m it or u y, a sharp edge will res lt, which would a r entr a nd oiner 1 09 C p y J y . injure the sides of the nick if the screw - driver

u slipped out . The chamfers must be gro nd to

of o or t he an angle ab ut ten or fifteen degrees , t b tool will be unable retain its hold in the nick, and by frequently slipping ou t it will n ot only disfi u r e g the head of the screw, but also lessen

Fig . 40 .

ou r power to move it . For very large wood

and f or l screws , screws for meta work, the ex t r e m it y of the driver should be somewhat dif 41 fe re nt l fi . . y formed, as seen in g The sloping

or m u sides , cha fers , are nfavourable in their

u a action when m ch resist nce has to be overcome,

41 Fig . . as the pressure on the inclined surface is apt to ‘ fi 41 force the to ol ou t of the nick . In g . the sides of the driver are filled parallel for a sh ort

t o t o distance , enable it fit the nick for its entire depth . The parallel part must not be deeper than necessary, or it will be liable to break and 1 1 0 a orksh C r W op . for the same reason a sharp angle or corner shou ld be avoided where the straight part meets

m f . o the chamfer The end ust be made steel,

so and hardened, that a smooth file will just

ffi ul scratch it . There is less di c ty in driving a

as screw straight than a nail, the former will generally follow the direction of the h ole made to receive it, while the latter is influenced in

of a great measure by the blows the hammer .

o for not A h le must be made the screw, but larger than is absolutely necessary, as any excess

w of f it of size ill rob the screw a part o s hold .

of i There is , however, danger splitt ng the wood if the hole be too small ; and sometimes the screw, after entering a short distance, strips

or the thread hold it had obtained, and requires f to be replaced by one o larger size . This is very likely to occur if the wood be hard and brittle, as the point of the screw drives the fibre of the

’ w ood b e f or e so it, and contracts the hole much that the slight hold the screw has obtained is f insu ficient to enable it to overcome the resistance . The hole shou ld be as nearly as possible the size of bot t om the screw at the of the thread, and if

i made in hard wood the material must b e r e m ove d

42 ; by a gimlet like fig . , if the hole be small, and l t 44 im e . twist ed . if large, by a g , fig Very small

so ll screws require little room that, genera y speak

the - awl ing, hole for them may be made by a brad ;

1 1 2 Ca r W orkshop

t he any fut u re attempt to remove the screw . In

of on act unscrewing, the downward pressure the screw - driver shou ld be only s u fli c ie nt t o keep the tool in the nick , otherwise the thread in the wood will be strained, and perhaps stripped, by the

o C r needless resistance it has to overc me . onside able pressure may be required to keep the screw driver in the nick when endeavouring to start a screw which is very firmly fixed but no injury is occasioned at this time , as the entire length of the thread in the wood is s u staining the r e

sist anc e .

W e have endeavoured t o point ou t the diffi c u lt ie s which are like ly to arise where nails and

. 45 Fig .

t screws are employed, and to suggest the bes remedies in each case b u t as practice alone can enable ou r readers to avoid casu alties incidental to amateur workmanship , we will leave this

' subject and consider . some of the tools of which

not we have yet spoken .

t a ble com ass or lock- s aw u The , p , (fig . is sed ou t u for cutting c rved or sweep work . In gene ral formation it is similar to the hand- saw

fi of ( g . which it may be conside red a dim inu ntr a nd oin r 1 1 3 Carp e y J e y .

su fli cie nt l tive copy . The blade is y narrow near the extremity to enable it to follow a cu rve of two or three inches radius . A somewhat similar but more delicate inst r u ment is met with in the key - hole or f r e t - saw

saw is (fig . The blade of this thinner and

46 Fig . .

m of - saw ore flexible than that the table , and is fixed in the handle by two se t screws which c an - be Slackened by an ordinary screw driver . A narrow slot penetrates the handle in the direction of its length, through which the blade can pass , s o that it may be shortened or lengthened at

u of pleas re , to suit the character the work in hand . This provision is necessary to save the blade from being bent or broken when the point

u is sed . Neither of these saws is capable of withstand in u u g ro gh sage, and if they stick fast in the o d w rk must be carefully extricate . These saws do not always make their first incision at the edge of the wood, but sometimes in the middle of a board ; consequently, a hole must b e bored at

one o o of , and occasi nally at b th ends the intended

r for of ske f, the introduction and removal the 1 1 4 Ca r W orks hop

aw f s . Most o the curved works that amateurs are likely to att e mpt may be executed by these

o to ls .

For u o some p rp ses , however, a very fine saw kerf may be necessary, and the curve is perhaps t oo small for either the table or the key - hole w sa .

47 w u I n this case the t u r ning s aw (fig . ) o hl be wanted . The blade is so slight and flexible that it cannot be driven forward by one end in the

4 . Fig . 7

usual manner, and must necessarily be stretched f in a wooden frame, to impart su ficient rigidity

t o t to enable it act satisfactorily . The ex remities of the blade are secured by pins to round han dles which are formed with circular necks fitting stiffly

o f th e into the lower ends frame .

- or s id e - ra ils a b c d The two end pieces , , , , ,

m which form the principal embers of the frame,

- or str e tc her e are kept apart by the cross bar , j; the ends of which p enetrate a short distance int o them, but are not secured, as the side rails are

1 1 6 O u r lVorkshop .

n s like a trou gh with Ope ends . The side must be quite parallel, both inside and out , and three saw - kerfs are very carefully cut in them

- with the back saw . The kerfs near the right hand extremity of the block are exactly opposite

saw each other, consequently the will move in

m c u t the at right angles to the sides, and the f ends o the work square . The other kerfs are 45 made at angles of degrees , and slope in opposite directions for cutting mitres at the ends of pieces which are to be united at right angles .

If the kerfs be not exactly vertical, they are

saw t o worse than useless, as the is constrained

u follow their inacc racies, which are imparted to the work .

T o u s e - the sawing block , it is only necessary to place the work inside, holding it firmly against

- the further side, with the pencil mark indicating

of the line division exactly opposite the kerf.

saw The must be used with care, to avoid widen ing the kerfs in the block . W hen several pieces of equal length are

off of to be cut , a small block wood, called

o a st p , is temporarily attached to the sawing

o u of bl ck , which thus saves the labo r mea

ou t suring and marking , at the same time

ac u ensuring greater c racy . The shooting ” on 48 49 boards, represented pages and , are

- sometimes used in lieu of the sawing block . ar entr a nd oiner 1 1 C p y J y . 7

The kerfs for the guidance of the s aw are made ” u o in the strip , and the work is s pp rted & ” n c o o the bed . This arrangement is very n v e nie nt when it is necessary to saw the ends & of the work immediately after shooting its

edges . 48 is The spokeshave (fig . ) somewhat similar in its action to the plane ; but owing to the absence of the guide principle which exists in

of the sole a plane, it cannot be employed

48 Fig . .

for u working flat s rfaces, as it descends into all f o . the inequalities, instead removing them This t ool may be compared to a knife held at a very

low inclination, and indeed the pitch is lower

of than that of any the surfacing planes , being

25 r only about o 30 degrees . The spokeshave

of works well in the direction the grain, but it is only applicable t o small rounded or curved hi works w ch cannot be wrought by the plane . The blade is usually secured to the stock or handle by two spikes or tangs which fit

n d . S et r s 8 . 48 tightly i to the woo sc ews , , (fig ) 1 1 8 Ca r or ho W ks p .

are sometimes employed to facilitate the adj u st

of as ment the blade , which must be regulated

- xt r carefully as an ordinary plane iron . The e e m it ie s of the stock are rounded into c onvenient

w an d handles , hich are grasped in right left

o hands respectively . The operat r applies the tool to the work with the edge of the cutter

towards him, and removes shavings by drawing

the instrument forward . W hile speaking of the various tools u sed in

carpentry and joinery, we may observe that the

4 Fig . 9 .

4 firm er c hisel (fig . ) varies in width fro m abou t l 2- for T .. inch to 5 inches , and is generally used finishing portions of the work which may have

or - de fine d m saw th been left rough ill fro the , e .

li o h If the work be ght, it is held d wn on t e bench by the left hand, and the chisel is applie d

of c by the right . The flat side the hisel is placed t next the work, with which it must form a sligh

n t o . a gle, enable the edge to penetrate the wood

or v u W hen the work is large hea y , it m st be _

- x t n h fi . e fi ed ei her by the hold fast ( , g 1 , pag

sho 1 20 C ar W ork p .

stru ck by the mallet otherwise the handles may

as of n be split , the shoulder at the root the ta g

of causes the wood the handle to spread, and

u will event ally split it . The chisels used by carpenters are formed with sockets instead of

the tangs and shoulders . The handle is fitted

t he ff tightly into socket, which e ectually pre s w n erves it from splitting, not ithstandi g the

52 Fig . .

v iolent blow s which must be struck to drive the instrument into the wood when cutting the large

& c . u r mortises, , freq ently equired in heavy

carpentry operations . 52 The bevil (fig . ) is somewhat similar to the ff square (fig . and di ers from it only in not

having a permanently fixed blade . The square,

u as we have before stated, can only be sed for

of - u t es ting the truth right angled s rfaces, which,

m u l of 90 . to be correct, st form an ang e degrees Ca r entr a nd oin r 1 21 p y J e y .

i f or The bev l, however, can be employed any angle by simply altering the position of the

blade, which is attached to the stock by a pin ff u that a ords the req isite freedom . This tool is very u seful f or trying the truth of the mitre

of of at the extremities the pieces a light frame,

& - n c . ot , as the kerf in the sawing block may be

& of quite exact, and subsequent correction the

mitre by the plane is then necessary . The stock of the bevil m u st b e applied to the surface o f the

t o or work, and the blade the edge side which

is to be bevilled .

- br a d a wl o t wo . The , sh wn in views (fig is

the simplest of the boring tools for wo od . It consists of a cylindrical steel wire with a chisel

e m on dge, which is for ed by grinding a chamfer

awl two opposite sides . The is fixed in a small

of or . handle made beech, box, other hard wood This to ol answers very well f or making holes in n soft woods, but as it displaces rather tha

removes the fibre , it is apt to Split hard material . ’ - fi 54 The wire worker s awl ( g . ) is better qualified

u for boring hard wood, being sq are, and Sharp

on or ened the four corners angles , which cut

the fibre as the tool revolves . It gradually

tapers also towards the extremity, which termi in nates a Sharp point, formed by grinding a slight chamfer for a Short distance on each of

the sides . 1 22 C ar or ksho W p .

Large holes can only be made by removing

‘ i dis the material, and much ngenuity has been & ” in of h played the formation bits, whic , by

a allowing the chips to escape while boring, s ve the time whi ch would otherwise be lost in fre

u and l h q ently withdrawing c earing t em . The

of she ll simplest these contrivances is the , also

ou - - I called the g g e bit or qu ill bit (fig . n c u and shape it mu h resembles an ordinary go ge ,

. 5 3 . 5 5 Fig Fig . .

e n it is sharpen d at the end in a similar ma ner . The sharp extremity shears the fibre of the woo d

u of ro nd the marg in the hole, and the material entering the semi - cylindrical shell is remove d

of almost as a solid piece . Holes several i nches of in depth can be bored with this kind bit, and it will w ork very easily if lubricated with a little

a . W o t llow hen boring a deep hole, the t ol is apt to g o astray ; it is therefore advisable to l 24 a r or ksho C w p .

w the scre , and then withdrawn and emptied . The gimlet is more apt to split the wood than

- the gouge bit, and should not be used near the

of o if margin w rk, especially the material be hard or brittle .

The twisted gimlet (fig . to which reference has before been made , may be employed with

of m less risk splitting the work . The ste is

or r conical, larger at the upper than at the lowe extremity, which is formed into a screw precisely

of of similar to that the fluted gimlet . Instead

or u is a longitudinal groove fl te, a spiral groove made in the stem for the escape of the material .

Fig . 5 7 .

The cutting is done by the sharp extremity of

m m the ste at the ter ination of the spiral groove .

- in in 5 The centre bit shown two views fig . 7

for is a very useful tool, much employed boring hole S ’ which are required to be round, smooth, l b u t . and paralle , not very deep The point, p , a r e ntr a nd oiner 1 25 C p y J y . is stu ck into the wood where the centre of the intended hole Should exist, and after the point

ni cker n has penetrated a short distance, the , ,

' - ou t which is sharp and knife like, marks the f circumference o the hole . The pressure applied by the operator cau ses the centre - point and bit nicker to sink into the wood as the revolves ,

cu tt er c and the , , pares away the material within ‘ f t the circle described by the nicker . The e ficien action of this instru ment depends on the proper relative proportions and sharpness of the centre

- e nicker and cutter . The centre must be a littl t o longer than the nicker, to enable the tool obtain a steady fo oting before it is required t o withstand even the slight strain brou ght upon it.

m in b e by the nicker . The nicker ust its turn

of s o i e in advance the cutter, that it may d vid

of the fibre round the margin the intended hole, previously to the removal of the wood by the cutter, which latter should have a little less radius than the nicker, as it must not touch the

of or circumference the hole . The nicker leads prepares the way for the cu tter through out the

of entire depth the hole, and also leaves its f circumference tolerably smooth . The length o the centre from its point to the edge of the cu tter is f or available keeping the bit in its true position . bit 58 The represented in fig . is unprovided

u t wo u with a nicker, but is f rnished with c tters, ho l 26 O nr W orks p .

- one on each side of the centre point . If the u tool be sharpened down the Sides , which m st also be exactly parallel, it will bore hard wood very satisfactorily in all directions of the grain . W t h e m hen bits beco e blunt, they can be sharpened by rubbing the cutting parts with a

of b e small Slip oilstone, which may purchased a t - any tool shop . As the grindstone cannot be

’ b e t oo employed, the bits should not long

5 8 . Fig .

t o neglected, otherwise it will take some time

o t o f rest re them an e ficient condition . If the

n ot or of steel be very hard, a fine file a bit

t o o o gritstone may be used prior the ilst ne, if

has o the bit bec me very blunt . The centre and small gouge - bits have moti on imparted to them by the brace (fig . which i s Simply a crank made of either iron or w o od . A metal s ocket or p a d is provided at the lower

of in end, into which the shanks the bits are

r t d se e . u The hole in the pad is sq are, and

1 28 O u r or ksho W p .

allowed to pierce the opposite side , as it will leave the m argin of the hole torn and uneven .

- u Directly the centre point appears, the bit m st be withdrawn, and the work turned over . The centre - point can then be placed in the small hole it has made, and the large hole be satis f ac t oril y finished . Very little pressure must be u or of sed , the thin plate wood will be forced in, and leave the edge more ragged than if the hole

m n had been completed fro o e side . Car e nt r a nd oi ne r 29 p y J y .

CHAPTER VI .

e R oo v m e P LA S E T C . N E ,

HER E are many joinery works which cannot be conveniently united by nails

and screws , and even glue in some

situations would be of little service . The strength and neatness of many works depend on the judicious employment of t ong u e d and gr ooved

l s - r e ba t es m ou din c . attachments , , g , , which are

o formed by suitable planes, t tally distinct from

- f or u . those used s rfacing The surfacing planes ,

. 6 . 6 1 . Fig 0 . Fig

o however, must in all cases be first empl yed to

o impart the requisite truth to the work, previ usly

- & c v p . to applying the groo ing lanes, 60 1 . s i . 6 V Fig is a back, and fig a ide ew of K 1 30 C u r or ksho W p .

s ide llis ter for the fi , which is employed planing a

r of o of ebate around the edges a panel, a porti n hi fillist e r w ch is seen at A . The is required to

r i not o a h . work , nly with, but also across the g

W e t have seen that sof wood, like pine, cannot

o h be smo t ly planed across the grain, and that the plane must be held obliquely to enable the cu tting edge of the iron to attack the fibre as

favou rably as possible . It must be evident that

fillist e r of the , and planes a Similar class, which are a lways con strained to move parallel with

d of u the e ge the work, cannot be sed obliquely

u when cutting across the grain . To s rmount

hi f iron i s r e d obli u e l t s di ficulty, the fi q y in the

stock, instead of straight across, as in the sur

- facing planes . The depth and width of the rebate are regulated

by moveable pieces attached to the stock, which

of are capable great nicety of adjustment . The width is determined by the amount the lo o se

e 60 r 6 1 t or nc e . o se strip f , f , f , figs , is back from

of o the side the stock which is t wards the work,

3 s and the depth by the heig ht the stop, , , is raised from the sole .

To make this quite clear, we will suppose that

one one t h e rebate is inch wide and inch deep .

‘ The l l whic h s e c u r e screws , , , the fence to the i m u s t b e s e t sole, Slackened, and the fence back

t he The dis one inch from the side of stock .

1 32 O u r W orkshop .

of 60 m t hand Side fig . , is somewhat si ilar to hat ” - of of the nicker of the centre bit . Most the planes for working across the grain are fu rnished

- with obliqu e irons and scoring points .

s kew r e ba t e r a bbet - la ne is The , also called the p

of fillist e r frequently used instead the ,

Fig . 62 . t o of f the absence the ence and stop , it is more d ffi t o o i cult manage satisfactorily . This t ol is

o i i 62 i n . s sh wn in elevat on fig ; fig . an end

. 6 3 Fig .

64. Fig .

4 f V . 6 o . o iew , and fig is a plan the sole The ir n

filli r . st ( e , fig like that _ on the is fixed a ske w obliquely or in the stock . No scoring r ntr a nd oin r 1 Ca p e y J e y . 33

point is provided, but the iron is made to act in

- - a two fold manner, by sharpening the right hand

’ r so w u , , edge that it . may ork the perpendic lar h 2 . 6 of . side the rebate A hole, , fig , passes through the side of the stock to allow the shavings to escape .

65 . Fig .

S ua re r a bbot - la nes q p , in which the irons are set straight across the stock , are also in very

u e on general s . The iron is Sharp only the

le n thwa of lower edge , and is employed in the g y w the grain . Neither the ske nor the square rabbet - plane can be used with certainty to com

o w of e mence a rebate , ing to the absence a fenc to determine its width or the distance from the

of margin the work . A practised joiner may ex e c u t e t h e of - work by the aid a deep gauge line,

of indicating the width the rebate, and placing his fore - fing e r under the sole and against the f o . margin the board, to act as a fence If, after

r e gauging a deep line, the wood be roughly

o a fi in m ved by rmer chisel, order to leave a

o t o lane f Sh ulder guide the p , the di ficulty will be

of o much diminished . A narrow strip w od is sometim es temporarily t acked on to the sole of 1 34 O u r r ksh W o op . t he a s plane to serve as a fence, exposing only much of the iron as the width of the intende d f rebate . If the perpendicu lar side o the rebate h be left roug , the plane must be turned over to

i enable the ron to w ork it .

lou h 66 u as The p g (fig . ) may be sed eithe r a or o - b u t rebate a gro ving plane, it is more espe c iall s y qualified for the latter . In some respect

6 Fig . 6 .

fillist er the plough is Similar to the , being fur i h d n s e . with a fence and a stop The fence, f , is not i mmediately attached to the stock , but is

on s s built two transverse stems, , , which pene of ff trate the sides the stock, and a ord the fence a mu ch greater horizontal range than it could

of otherwise possess . The position the fence n being determined, the stems are locked by thi

a re s o wedges , which knocked in gently, that

1 3 6 O u r W orksho p . from the margin of the work than the range of the fence will permit .

A simpler form of grooving - plane must be employed in this case, and one in which the

c of st ru c t u i fen e forms no part the e .

Fig . 6 7 represents a grooving - plane applicable f or r e making grooves at any distance, however of mote from the edge the work . A narrow strip of wood or a straight edge is temporarily

68 . 6 . . 0 Fig Fig 9 F g 7 . nailed down to guide the tool while cutting the

A S u groove . the plane is often sed across the

- grain , it must be furnished with a scoring point ,

— of o in fact with two one for each side the g r ove . One scoring - point will suffice if it be divided at t he o t wo extremity int teeth, as shown separately a t e 1 29 pag . The grooves formed by this plane are generally intended for receiving the ends of shelves ; consequ ently their Sides are the more

and important parts, the bottoms may be suf Ca r entr and oine r 1 3 7 p y J y .

fi c ie nt ly well worked by an iron fixed square a cross the stock . The stop must still be retained with the thumb - screw adjustment ; or the less c ostly and less certain arrangement of a piece of ' boxwo od stiffly fit t e d int o the stock m ay be sub stituted for it . Boards for partitions and similar works could

' n ot be properly united by S im ply g lu e ing them

s lit - d e a l or m at ch e dge to edge . The p planes

6 and 6 o (fig s . 8 9) are theref re used by carpenters t o o - form the gr ove and tongue joint, which is shown finished in fig . 70 . These are simply grooving - planes for working with the grain the irons are placed square in the stocks, and the s coring - points are omitted ; the stops are not r e

o of quired, as the t ol is worked until some part n the stock rests o the work . These planes are ” m u f or f ade in pairs, and m st be used only stu f o f f or d the thickness which they are intende , o therwise the centre of the irons will not c or

t of respond with the cen re the work, and the groove and tongu e will not be in the middle of f the edge o the board . Sometimes it is necessary to plane the per

di u l r e n c a of r &c . p sides g ooves , independently of t o w f the bottoms , iden them su ficiently to

& c admit a thicker shelf, . The rabbet and

- grooving planes would be inconvenient, even if they could be used ; consequently another tool , 1 38 O u r W orkshop .

on which will cut one side only, must be em

e b t e - lane ployed . The sid e r a p is shown in

1 . . 7 elevation in fig It will be seen, by refer

- f . 73 3 o ring to fig , that the left hand side the

t he t stock is bevilled, thus reducing par which is the sole in other planes to a narrow edge, the sole being transferred to the side a b the edge of fi 1 c 7 . the cutter is seen at , g . The iron is

. 3 Fig 7 .

L Fig . 7

2 . Fig . 7

m a fixed obliquely in the stock, as y be seen at 72 of f, fig . , which is a plan the tool . The t h e s . 73 iron is similar in shape to stock at , fig , and is placed in it obliquely, to give the side edge the necessary prominence, and vertically, because t he lower extremity is no longer required

t o . or operate These planes are made in pairs,

- s o right and left handed, that they may be con v e nie nt ly employed in Situations where the work cannot be turned round to bring the opposite edge toward the workman .

’ o 1 40 O ur W orksh p . a nd a stop solid with the stock, as they do not

l r 8130 W d a s fi list e . require a justment, in the , hen

fi . 0 , t h e plane is applied to the work , the fence , g i 4 , 7 , is placed against the edge and is kept n

c ontact with it u ntil the moulding is finished . a r entr a nd i er 1 41 C p y Jo n y .

The iron continues to remove the material till the stop n rests up on the surface of either t he

d of s - strip , or the plain part the sa h bar . On

o of s -b ar the c mpletion . the first ide , the sash

r fi d must be turne d over and e xe . The finished

l a on Side being bevi led, it c nnot rest fairly the

f of o or bed , S S , there ore small wedges w od packing - pieces must be inserted b etween it and the bed to support the bar and relieve the tongue of the undue strain, which otherwise it would be & ” required to sustain , while we were sticking the second side of the bar . The tongue on t h e sash - bar is generally worked

s a sh- la ne by a p , which is expressly qualified for

o fillist e r o the purp se ; a may, however, be empl yed

now in its absence . The moulding in general ' ’ f or - l la m b s - t on u e favour sash bars is cal ed the g , w n hich, being free from a gles and sharp edges , is not disfigured by the paint which cl o gs and n spoils the appearance of more i tricate designs .

o In j ining, it is often necessary to stick a

n on one t mouldi g side only, the other being lef

as flat, that it may bed fairly against the panels,

o in d or and shutter work . The same sticking b oard may be used ; but as there is no tongue t o t he o f r - & o o c . m uldings employed do r frames , , the work must be fixed to the board by a thin blade of benc h- kni e steel, called a f , which is driven h partly into both at the back end . W en several 1 42 C a r W orksho p .

of mouldings the same pattern are required, the & ” joiner sticks a long piece, which he after

wards cuts into lengths suitable for his work .

w e or Sometimes the edges of ork are round d, a h ollow gro ove is formed on them in situations

not where a moulding is required . The rounded or convex edge could be wrought by a surfacing

or o u plane, but the concave gr ove co ld not be ” stuck without a special tool . Planes called

hollows r ou nds and are therefore used, in which

o the s les and irons are curved to suit the work .

‘ c& 7 0 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 .9

. 5 Fig 7 ,

r ou nd or These planes are made in pairs, the ( convex) exactly fitting into its corresp onding

w o hollo (or c ncave) partner . It must be evident that the hollow will make the edge of the work

‘ r ou nd o u round, and the will pr d ce a hollow

or oo gr ve . A complete set comprises eighteen

pairs . A go o d workman can sometimes make t wo or three sizes of hollows and rounds do duty

d - or for a moul ing plane, he may use them to correct or otherwise modify a moulding which

fails to give satisfaction .

1 44 O u r or ksh W op .

7 f similar planes is shown in fig . 6 . The back o t h e stock is grasped near the t op by the right hand, the thumb being towards the workman, and all the fingers on the opposite side of t he f tool . The front end o the plane is kept well d own on the work by the left thumb which is

th e f o placed on upper side o the stock . The f re

Fig . 77 .

w o finger, hich is bent at the second j int, is pressed against the Side of the stock to keep the fence in contact with the work but the remain i n m of g fingers are closed in the pal the hand . The plane mu st be lifted off the work at the ter

o mination of the str kes, as the iron will lose its keenness if drawn backwards over the work,

u u besides s bjecting the sole to seless wear . Ca r entr a nd oine r 1 45 p y J y .

The manner of handling the plou gh is r e

77 . presented in fig . This instrument is perhaps

ffi t o o ul rather di cult hold, wing to its pec iar con struction and overhanging parts . The right hand is applied to the back in a way s omewhat i n . 76 similar to that shown fig , but the fingers are placed on the back stem to help to balance the weight of the fence The thumb of the left hand is hooked over the forward stem : the fore and remaining fingers are then placed under its pr o

e ct in t o on j g end, and are allowed rest the fence to assist in keeping it against the work .

o on Our readers, unless they purp se practising a scale almost as extensive as that of a pro f e s sional joiner will not require one - half of the additional planes which we have lately brought u nder their notice The amateur will probably be able t o execute any groove - work he is likely

of u is to attempt by the aid the plo gh, which m u filli st e r ore generally seful than the , if a choice be made between them . A good plough with eight irons may be purchased for from fil eighteen to twenty shillings , and a moving

u lister for abo t eight shillings . Skew and

- m square rebate planes, with irons fro three

u of q arters an inch to two inches wide, will t cos about three shillings each .

' of - or If any the simple grooving planes , the 1 4 r ork ho 6 O u W s p . hollows and rou nds and moulding planes be su b sequently required, they may perhaps be pro & c ured ; but unless the orders with which Our

W o orkshop is fav ured be very extensive, this additional stock in trade will be unnecessary .

1 48 O u r W orks ho p .

cheeks m o saw u , re oved by the ten n , th s leaving

ou . 7 8 . two tenons and three sh lders, as in fig The ou tside cheeks c an be separated entirely

saw by the , which may be applied with equal

u and facility to both sho lders sides , but the shou lder or root of the central portion must be

or wrought by a mortising chisel, a hole may be

u bored, the diameter of which m st not , however,

of exceed the thickness the wood to be removed, and if the hole be m ade a trifle above the lin e

u of the Shoulders , the sq are corners may after wards be cut with a chisel . The practical application of mortising and tenoning may be better understo o d if we con sider the construction of a simple rectangular 9 u . 7 . o B O frame s ch as fig The l ng pieces , A , D,

st les o O B are called the y , and the cr ss bars, A , D,

u il r a s . which are sually Shorter, are named the No invariable rule can be given for the prop or

of of . tions the several parts the framing, as its strength mu st be regulated in a great measure

b e e y the charact r of the work, and the purpos a r entr a nd oiner 1 4 C p y J y . 9

i f or . o which it is intended In j ning, the styles and rails vary from ab out one -fou rth to one -fift h o f the internal width of the frame ; but in cabinet m one - aking, less strength being required, Sixth

. 9 Fig 7 .

is u r the most sual propo tion . The thickness of a style varies from one - third to one -half of its

is width, but the joiner guided more by the size of o of the w rk , the nature . the material, and his own u experience, than by any actual r le . 1 50 ar or k h C W s op .

Having determined up on the size of the fram e

t o and the material of which construct it, the styles and rails must next be cut ou t with the

- saw n o hand , bei g careful to allow s mething for planing up , and also a little excess in the length of the pieces f or trimming off after the frame is f ” united If the frame be small, the stuf should be planed up as one piece, and afterwards

o cut int the required lengths . Sometimes it may be difli c u lt t o procure wo o d long enough to do this but perhaps two pieces can be found from which either a pair of styles or a pair of rails may

one . be cut, or style and rail from each piece

off one Before cutting the lengths, Side of the stuff must be marked by a pencil from end to

t o end, to enable us distinguish it from the other after the wood has been divided . The internal dimensions of the frame must be

on of marked each the four portions, the length on n e the styles and the width o the rails . Gr at care must be taken to make the lines c orrespond

on as of exactly the respective pieces, any want truth will mislead u s when cutting the m ortises and tenons the frame, also, when put together, would be crooked Thi s contingency m ay be avoided by laying the styles side by side on the n bench, and scribi g the lines across them both nd with a square a scriber . The lines should be

u m eq idistant fro the ends of the styles , as both

u r o l 52 O r W o ksh p .

' of t non should x R . The thickness the e not e c e e d one - third of that of the rail ; b u t a little

' m a latitude y be allowed in this, and the mortise chisel which is nearest to the required thickness m a t y be selec ed .

m or tis e - au 81 The g g e (fig . ) is provided with t o two points , which may be adjusted the

of required width the mortise . The chisel chosen the work may be lightly stuck into

. 8 1 Fig . the edges of the styles and rails to mark its own t o thickness , which the gauge can be then readily

- s e t . The common marking gauge may be em o m pl yed, but it ust be adjusted twice, as the gau ge must be applied only to the face side of r e v iou sl t o the work, which was marked p y

off u . cutting the fo r pieces These lines, shown l 1 80 u a . on b ot h at , , fig , m st be m rked . the

& edges and across the ends of the fou r members of the frame . Ca r e ntr a nd oiner 1 53 p y J y .

It is evident that the tenons mu st be narrower

than the rails , otherwise they would break through the extremities of the styles when the f fi' ends o the latter are trimmed o . By inspect 0 ing fig . 8 it will be seen that the tenon t is cut

o B back from b th the edges of the rail , but much

r ou ter mo e from the than from the inner edge .

o ff t o It is not, however, cut close the shoulder

' on t o the outer edge, but is allowed stand up

o ab ut half an inch, as shown at S . The amount ,

of however, is regulated by the size the work or

u some pec liarity in it . The tenon is not necessarily cut back from the

inside, unless a groove for a panel is made in the

inner edges of the styles and rails . In this case the inner edge o f the tenon is made level with

o of of the b ttom the groove, the depth which latter may also determine the projection of the f part S rom the Shoulder .

not If the frame is to be fitted with a panel, t h e not groove will probably be required, and the inner edges of the tenons may be made level

with the inside edges of the rails . The lines which were scribed on the styles to indicate the internal length of the frame will als o serve t o

of m mark the inner ends the ortises, the outer e n nds bei g marked by similar lines, which are made as much beyond the first as the width of

the intended tenons . If a groove be necessary, 1 54 C ar orksho W p .

the lines determining the length of the styles will not be correct f or the inner ends Of the m or tise consequently new lines must be marked in

r advance, the inte vening space being equal to

the depth of the groove .

The frame represented in figs . 79 and 80 is

t o furnished with a panel, and the groove receive

o . 79 . it is shown by the d tted lines g, g , in fig

of o The width the the tenons , which varies fr m

- t o t wo - of about one half thirds that the rail,

t o being determined upon, it is now necessary mark ou t the mortises in the manner already

at o described, and nce proceed to form these

parts and put the frame together .

In joining, the styles being generally light,

on they are placed Side by side the bench, with

their inner edges upwards, and are held by the

o bu t h ldfast ; if the work be heavy, as in car

e nt r on -s p y , it must be laid the mortising tool,

o o and the Operator sits up n it . If the m rtise be

of unusually wide or deep, the greater portion the wood may be rem oved by a gou ge - bit or

- centre bit, and the mortise is afterwards finished

‘ by an ordinary chisel . in The chisel is held the left, and a mallet of proportionate Size in the right hand . The chisel is mostly held with its face towards the work -w

u one man, and the first incision is made abo t

1 5 u o ksho 6 O r lV r p .

e xperienced in cutting the mortise tru e . If the

o excavati ns do not exactly meet, in consequence o f the chisel going astray, the irregularities must ;

firm - be cut away by a e r chisel . A good work man will drive a mortise s o accurately as to render any subsequent correction u nne c e s sary l

' The ends of the mortise are bevilled from the o t o m uter edge the centre , to ake room for the wedges by which the tenon will be fixed in the mortise .

& Having driven all the mortises , the tenons

m c ut ou t must be marked from the and . If proper care has been bestowed in cutting the

u mortises, the ga ge lines will be still visible, and it would be only necessary to c u t the tenon s t o the lines which have already been gau ged on the rails , to ensure a good fit . As a precautionary m one w easure , however, and hich the amateur

t o ought never neglect , the styles and rails s t o on hould be allowed lie the bench, their & d of face . sides upwar s , and the ends the rails must be placed in c ontact with the inner edges of the styles , and the tenons marked from their

' corresponding mortises . The pieces should be in in numbered the order which they are marked , to avoid misplacement when fitting the frame to gether . If the original gauge lines on the rails

o t o be f und tally with the mortises, the work is

m a n accurate, and we y proceed to cut the te ons tr a nd in r 1 5 Carp en y Jo e y . 7

u but if there be any discrepancy, new lines m st be gauged, and distinguished by short pencil marks, as the false lines might lead us astray . The lines which were marked on the rails to in di c at e the internal width of the frame are also f corr ect for the shoulders o the tenons . One of the rails must now be fixed p e rp e ndi c u larl - u of y in the screw chops, the sho lders the intended tenon being just above the surface of

e t he - the bench . Eith r the tenon or sash saw of may be used to cut down the sides the tenon, and the greatest care must be taken to keep the

u t h e w instrument acc rately to gauge lines , hich

u not i m st be obliterated, but Should be vis ble to t t h the las . Having cut down both sides of e

a s tenon , the r il must be removed from the chop

on and laid the bench, and the transverses, or

u - d sho lder cuts, must be made by either the ove

O r saw r tail the carcass . It is immate ial whether

or h b ut the sides s oulders be first wrought, the saw must never be permitted to penetrate beyond

or of the lines , the strength the tenon will be much impaired .

saw If the tenon has been properly cut by the ,

l u a d it wil require no f rther finish, n the chisel should be used only to clean out the angles be

ho tween the s ulders and the sides, and perhaps to reduce the thickness and width of the e xt r e e ‘ mity Of the tenon, to enabl it to enter the 1 58 O ur or ksho W p .

. of t he mortise If, however, a few light blows

mallet fail to send the tenon home, it must be

o withdrawn, and those parts which sh w signs

of u having bound, m st be pared down by an o rdinary chisel, the flat side Of which is applied

t o the work . Very little should be removed a t i a t me, and only in exceedingly thin shavings .

e if The parts must be again put togeth r, and ”

t oo . still tight, again separated and eased The gr ooves f or the panel must be ploughed in the

of t he inner edges the styles and rails, after

mortises and tenons are finished . The necessity for tru e and careful workmanship will be fully admitted when the four m embers of

or the frame are attached . If either a tenon a

ou t mortise be, even in the slightest degree, of

square, the frame will be crooked, and the fault c an be rectified only by paring a little O ff the op

o of p sito sides the faulty tenon, close to the

u on one sho lder Side, and near the extremity on

. a ou t of the other If the p rts be much truth,

ff a s ' t he this treatment will fail to e ect a cure, teno n would be made s o loose in the mortise

that the joint would be practically worthless .

f or If the work prove satisfactory, the wedges fixing the tenons may now be cut ou t and tempo

r aril on y fitted . The wedges must be bevilled

. as One side only, and to the same angle the outer

of ends the mortises .

1 60 ur orksho O W p .

n u withi the mortises , and the blows sho ld be dis

u t o trib ted evenly to both ends , in order drive

of t he the style straight . If the material which

u frame is constructed be soft and easily br ised,

. of u e t o a small piece wood sho ld be interpos d, shield it fro m the strokes of the mallet . The ordinary hammer may then be u sed without fear of damaging the work .

W u u d hen the gl e has become thoro ghly har , i the extremities of the tenons and styles m u st be ' off 9 D fi 7 . O . trimmed , as shown at , g This

u o f w sho ld be done by one the back sa s , care

ou t being taken not to either the style or rails, which would be thereby much disfigured . 82 fit s In joinery, the panel P, fig . , into

a s grooves in the styles and rails , shown at S ;

S m

Fig . 82.

b u t - in cabinet making a rebate is generally made , ’ of as seen at S , and the panel is secured by slips wood which are glued on to the frame after it is

u i n u finished . In joinery, a mo lding ( ) is gl ed to

of t o finiSh e d the inner edges the frame, impart a appearance to the work . The moulding must not be glued to the panel, as the shrinking of the latter will separate the former from the frame . a r e ntr a nd in 1 1 C p y Jo er y . 6

Sometimes it is necessary t o make the panel

f i 8 flu Sh one o n . 3 . with side the frame , as fig The styles and rails are gro oved in the usual

i s k manner ; but the panel P made thic er, and a

t o rebate is formed around its edges, in order

oo make a t ongue t o fit into the gr ve .

. 3 Fig 8 .

Occasionally, neither grooves nor rebates are employed ; and the panel is retained by the slip

one on on side, and by a light moulding the

u r other . In this case the moulding m st be e

on one so on bated edge, that it may rest partly the surface of the styles and rails and partly d against their inner e ges . This plan is generally adopted only in cabinet work when the inner

of u of edges the rails are c rved instead straight . The curved mouldings cannot be wrought by a plane, therefore they must be carved by hand .

o - S metimes in cabinet making and light joinery, the mortises do not extend quite through the styles, and as the tenons cannot then be wedged u of p , the strength the work in a great measure depends upon the accuracy and close - fit t ing of the parts . W hen the rails are so wide that the width of the te nons would exceed four times their thick M 1 62 Ca r lV or kshop

ness , it is advisable to divide the tenons into two or o 84 . r e m re parts, as shown in fig , which presents a wide rail having t wo tenons with three

o sh ulders , which latter enter the groove in the styles . This kind Of rail is unsuitable f or the

d of o n t o o n it s en s a frame , the ten ns bei g ear edges ; but it is used intermediately when the

4 . Fig . 8

u t styles are long, and require additional s ppor ,

ar e u or when several panels to be introd ced . O As a general rule, the space D between the tenons should not be less than one - third the

o width of the original Single ten n A B , and the

o one - t o one - shoulders , S , S , vary fr m third half

f o the width of one o the ten ns .

‘ fi 85 w o In g . is sho n the formation Of the ten ns

f c on & and mortises or a wide external rail . The struction is very similar to that represented i n

. 80 . r fig , and the only important diffe ence is the subdivision of the tenon into two parts the

1 64 O ur orksho W p .

u u i i Before sing the plo gh, the inner ends ( , ) of the grooves must be cut with a small mortise

h of w o - c isel the same idth as the pl ugh iron, to enable the chips to detach themselves . A hole of the same diameter as the width of the intended

6 . Fig . 8 groove m ay be first made ; the chisel can then be u sed with greater facility .

re u l The feathers a sefu , inasmuch as they impart greater steadiness to the frame b checking any tendency of the shoulders to r on t h o style . t n 1 5 Carp en ry a nd Joi e r y . 6

C H A P T E R V I I I .

OV A L G D ET I IN .

BO & which is either simply gl u ed or

nailed together, can be considered only

as a very rough specimen Of joinery . If

o o h wever, the sides be d vetailed together, and the work be neatly executed, it will present a finished and artistic appearance . Small boxes and sim ilar light works which d o not require much strength are frequently m itr e d

8 . Fig . 7 and key ed : this m ode of attachment is shown in f 8 7 . o fig . The extremities the end and side pieces of the box are mitred or planed t o an 1 66 O W W orkshop .

45 on n - angle of degrees the shooti g board (fig . 22 d , page If this be properly one , the ends will form angles of 9 0 degrees with the

o sides , and the w rk will be truly square . The four pieces m ust be glu ed to gether in the or dinar a n y manner, d when the glue is quite hard, several cuts , inclining alternately a few degrees n upwards and dow wards , must be made back saw across each of the corners of the

8 . Fig . 8

of o K K small pieces veneer or ther thin wood, ,

ke s o called y , must then be glued and pressed int the saw kerfs . This joint is very easily made, and is stronger than many people imagine . It

o for t often pr ves a useful substitute the dove ail,

l o - o e especial y in light articles , such as w rk b x s , & o . , which are usually veneered .

1 6 O u r orksho 8 lV p .

- on e of marking gauge may be set to the lines , and the four pieces c an then be gauged at each

or r end and on both sides , the square and scribe may be employed . These lines, which also de

m ter ine the bottoms of the pins and dovetails, 89 are seen at g , 9, fig . . Sometimes the pins on the piece P are the

o on oc same size as the d vetails D, which latter c u py the spaces between the pins but in joinery and cabinet - work the pins are made only one

o or - fift h f urth one the size of the dovetails . The

of u strength the work is th s diminished, but

of greater neatness is secured, as less the cross grain of the end pieces is seen on the sides of the box, which are generally more exposed to view than the ends . The pins must be marked by a pencil on the

of two end pieces a box, care being taken to have equal spaces between them . A practised w orkman can s e t o u t the pins unaided by either rule or compasses ; but the amateur would be unwise, while yet inexperienced, to work witho ut their assistance . The pins should

on b u t be marked not only the extremities ,

on of t o also the sides the end pieces , afford some guide in sawing the sides of the

o e pins straight . The pins must be ab ut as wid again on the inner as on the outer side of t he t box, and the two external pins should be at leas a entr and iner 1 C rp y Jo y . 69

o . 89 twice as large as the thers . In fig the dove

cl d n tails , , , are external, consequently all the pi s f are of uni orm size . h ins Having set ou t t e . p at both extremities of one x the end pieces , of these latter must be fi ed

ul of perpendic arly in the chops the bench . Both sides of each of the pins must be very carefully

o sawn d wn to the guage line 9, g, by the dove tail saw . The lines representing the pins should almost be left standing in their favour, the waste

f s aw o a o the being taken fr m the sp ces . If the material be thick and the spaces wide, the wood between the pins may be cut out by the turning or

- 4 saw . 7 frame , fig the bottoms and the angles at the roots of the pins can afterwards be pared

fir m r - ou t by the e chisel .

or - In light joinery cabinet work, however, the sides of the pins are always cut by the dovetail saw , and the wood between them removed by

. u the chisel To accomplish this , the end m st be

o on rem ved from the chops and laid the bench , nd fi a o . , if necessary, xed by the h ldfast The chisel must be s ufficiently narrow t o pass easily between the pins, and it should be applied to the work ab out the sixteenth of an inch outside the

- gauge line . The tool is driven into the wood by

o of a few bl ws a light mallet , and after taking

o several slanting cuts, the w rk is turned over

o and c mpleted from the opposite side . 0 ur orksho 1 7 O lV p .

o n b e a ; The bott ms must ext finished, the g uge

o o k lines being very cauti usly appr ached . In ta ing l i the final cuts , the chisel must be al owed sl ghtly ve n in to o rha g the ends of the p s , in order to u t o or ndercut the bottoms, make them hollow i fi t n a . lower the centre, instead of quite As the cuts are t ak e n ' h alf through from the opposite

of e sides the work, and meet in the centre, th re

no f is di ficulty in making the middle lower, and close c ontact of the edges with the side pieces will be insured .

Having finished all the pins , the dovetail must

m a r ke d r om t hem an d o of next be f wr ught . One

on u of the sides is laid the bench, aud pon it one the ends is placed in its intended position . The extremities of the pins rest on the surface of the side piece, and their wide faces must be set upon the gauge - line which represents the b ottoms of the dovetails . The end being properly adjusted in every

o o direction, a scriber is p assed al ng the sl ping S of o t o x ides the pins , in rder mark their e act n shape o the side piece . The spaces just marked for the reception of the pins are generally t oo

t o saw and contracted be cut out by the turning ,

o w o saw are theref re usually rought by a d vetail , and an ‘ ordinary chisel applied in the manner already described .

If the spaces between the dovetails be carefully,

1 2 C ar ork 7 W s hop .

the dovetails are next marked from the pins , and the ends and sides must be numbered in the order in which they are scribed . The sides are then fixed and wrought like the ends . The pins and dovetails mu st not be made with

or or o any considerable angle bevel, the c nnec h o . ti n will be deficient in strengt More bevel, w however, may be allo ed if hard wood, such as oak or mahogany, be employed, but in deal and

u other soft or brittle materials, the parts sho ld be only slightly bevilled .

W e n ow will proceed to glue the box together . One of the ends mu st be fixed vertically in the

w— of one scre chops , the pins extremity being a f little above the level o the bench . The pins and bottoms must be sparingly covered with thin glue ;

r the fi st side is then held horizontally, and the pins are dire c t e d int o their corresp onding sockets

of between the dovetails . A small piece wood whi c h is sm o oth on the underside must be laid on t o the dovetails, save them from b eing bruised by the hammer which is now used t o drive the dovetails home t o the bottoms or shoulders of the f pins . As the length o the pins exceeds the

of - thickness the side, the hammer block must be s e t whe n ot h e back y become level with the surface,

. t to allow them o rise to their full extent . The

first end is now released, the second being fixed

r e in its stead, and the process just described is d 1 73 Carp e ntry a n Joinery .

d of u p e at e . Three sides the sq i re having been u t h e u m nited, work m st be removed fro the chops and laid o n the bench preparatory to attaching the fourth side, which will complete ” the square and form t h e carcase The first side is now supp orted upon t wo

of strips of wood equal thickness, which are

one h placed under each extremity, and just wit in the projecting ends of the pins, in order to keep

of f o o them clear the bench, and a f rd the w rk a d t o stea y base . The pins corresponding the dovetails of the second side are next glued the

side is carefully adjusted, so that all the pins

o may fairly enter into their respective s ckets ,

and is then driven home . The hammer and

u block are sed at each end alternately, and at in short intervals, order to drive the side down

as evenly as possible .

of m Although this form dovetail, if well ade,

o f or is a neat and useful j int plain works , it is not suitable f or cabinet - work and fancy articles unless the end grain of the pins and dovetails is

hidden by veneer . Small boxes, writing desks,

& c . of , are generally made mahogany, rosewood, o r some other ornamental wo od ; and as veneer

not o is then employed, the j int must be so

o d formed that the end wood may be c nceale .

la - d ove t a il The p , which is seen complete in fig .

92 u of , is sed for the description work last s o 1 74 O u r W ork k p .

Fi o o -of s named . g. represents the f rmati n thi attachment . e end grain of the pins and

o w dovetails is effectually encl sed, but a narro

of o - r strip the cr ss g ain end of the piece , P, is

at o u s observable E this, h wever, is disg i ed by rounding the corner after the work is put to

- . u h ow gether The ga ge lines g, g , which denote

o. Fig . g

far the pins and dovetails must extend inwards, w in 89 . are marked as in fig . It ill be seen, by 91 n n or specting fig . , that neither the pi s the dovetails extend quite through the wo od in r o which they are espectively f rmed , hence the im concealment of their end grain ; and it is material in which piece the pins or the dovetails

of ene r alll are made . The depth the dovetails is g y

- h abou t one eighth inch less than t e thickness of

/ r k ko 1 76 C a r lVo s p . lap is made to equal or slightly exceed the thick n of t h e is ess the piece D, consequently end of D fi 2 9 . covered by it, as seen in g . S ometimes the lap is not formed on the piece 91 containing the pins as in fig . and the ex t re m it ie s of the pins are then level or flush with

m the end E . In this case the lap ust be worked in the piece in which the dovetails are cut .

2 Fig . 9 . Before the sides and ends are cut to their t leng hs , the workman must decide in which pair he will form the laps, as this pair must be cut to

of the external dimensions the work, but the other pair being placed between the laps, the

of thickness the latter must be deducted . The ha lf - lap d ove tail is a modification of the

- of last named, and is much used for the fronts

Th u t . e c drawers pins are in the front piece, P t 1 1 7 Ca rp en ry and Joine ry .

r . 91 epresented by P, fig but their extremities a r e ou t level with the end E . The dovetails are

are o quite through the side pieces, which nly

ou t he a b t half the thickness of the front . If front is to be veneered, the dovetails are made 88 s . 89 a in figs and .

m it re d ove t a il 92 93 The , figs . and , is the neat f e st and most di ficult t o make of the group . The

Fi 3 g . 9 . f ou r pieces mu st be cut to the external dim e n

s . ions of the work , and then rebated at each end This rebate should be about an eighth of an inch

t o in square, and similar the lap E , the piece P , 91 of fig . in which E is about an eighth an inch

o o thick , and pr jects the same amount bey nd the N l 1 ’ k lz 78 Cu r ll or s op .

d of n en s the pins . After cutting and fitti g the

or b e pins and dovetails , the rebates laps must 52 mitred by a rebate plane . The bevel (fig . , s e t t o of 45 page if an angle deg rees, will

ro . W no greatly facilitate the p cess hen finished,

of is b ox portion the end grain seen, and the has

of m the appearance being si ply mitred . W hen the pins and dovetails d o not extend

o a quite through the work , the saw can nly be p plied obliquely, and not to the full depth ; the work is then completed by the chisel . If the c over of a box c onsist simply of a flat i piece , like the bottom, it is apt to warp , and w ll not then fit closely . W hen the cover is formed

~ o of with a d vetailed rim , it has the appearance a

or b ox t o shallow box tray, and the which it is

t a - h s t t o attached is said t o have a e c e p . If the b ox it and its cover were made separately, would

f t o u be di ficult ens re their exact agreement, and

u of o & c . . b e the labo r d vetailing, , would also increased . The required truth may be obtained by con st ru c t in b ox and o on e g the c ver as piece , and dividing them afterwards by the saw . The four

or u pieces , which must be wide deep eno gh to

o o f rm the box and its cover, are d vetailed to

a gether in either of the ways alre dy descri bed .

On adding the t wo pieces which respectively . r e

t o o present the p and bott m of the box, the work

1 80 O ur or ksho W p .

C H A P T E R I & .

V ENEER ING

U R readers already know that veneering is the art of glueing a very thin sheet of valuable wood upon a thick piece of a

cheaper description . V eneer is laid either with a cau l or the veneer

o ing hammer . The f rmer is always required for

of u an curved work , which it m st be exact counterpart ; it may also , when flat , be employed f or n plain surfaces the veneeri g hammer, how ever, can be used only for flat work .

The surface of the work , and both sides of the

u t ooth veneer, must be ro ghened all over by the i n - la ne g p , which is fitted with a perpendicular iron, the edge of which is serrated like an ex

e din l saw oo c e g y fine . The small gr ves made by

ke s or t ee th this tool are technically called y , and aff ord the glue a much firmer hold than it could otherwise possess . l If the veneer is to be laid by a caul , this atter m u st now be prepared, and should be fully as large as the work, and several pair of screw

of clamps must also be selected . Each pair t a o n 1 1 Carp en ry nd J i er y . 8

of of c on clamps consists two strong bars wood, n - o e c t e d at the ends by screw b lts and nuts . The

of inner edges the bars should be slightly convex , or u of so ro nding in the direction their length , . that they may touch t he middle of the caul and u nder side of the work earlier than the outer

r u edges o margin . The bars m st be adjusted to

so the proper distance apart, that the caul and

u for t oo work may j st slip between them, if m u t o u a ch be left screw p fter laying the veneer, the glue will lose its fluidity before the pressure is applied, and the work may be unsound in consequence . W e will now proceed t o lay a piece of veneer with a flat caul . The caul must be placed near

so ho t the fire that it may be made thoroughly , care, however, being taken not to scorch it and the sides should be frequently change d to equalize

of the influence the heat, which may otherwise

u of distort the surface . The pper surface the work, and both sides of the veneer having been toothed, they are next made very warm, and the surface of the work is brushed over quickly with very thin glue or size 5 the veneer is then glu ed

on and laid the work, being hastily rubbed down by the outstretched hands of t wo or three work

on men the hot caul is then placed the veneer, and t h e clamps are slipped on and screwed down

of ' in h at intervals two or t hre e c e s . The heat of ' a r o ksho l 82 C W r p . the caul quickly penetrates the thin veneer,

u i making the gl e exceedingly flu d, and the pres sure supplied by the clamps soon expels the

of it u t o greater portion , and ca ses the veneer

t he ’ work m us bed very closely to . The clamps t

o . as o be screwed d wn as evenly p ssible, so that the surplus glue may esc ape freely from the

e n centre of the work . This may generally be sured by screwing down both ends of the clamps

s o equally, that the bars , which are slightly di roun ng or convex , may touch the centre of the

u work first, gradually yielding as the press re

o . increases , until they bear through ut

' The same method is pursued when laying

o o of veneer up n curved w rks , but the face the

o caul, as before bserved, must be an exact

ou of f t o c nterpart the sur ace be veneered . The clamps must not be rem oved until the work is

o or for quite c ld 5 about twelve hours . The glue is not c onsidered t o be thoroughly hard unde r

o two or three days , and if it be disturbed bef re

dr e n it is quite y , the soundness of the work is

o ‘ dangered . S metimes the work is laid on the

o floor, the veneer downwards, and is then c vered w ‘ ith shavings, which exclude the air, and cause

o the drying to pr ceed more gradually .

i o The amateur w ll seldom, if ever, have occasi n

t o n not o ve eer curved works , and will , theref re,

u u u require apparat s s ch as clamps and ca ls . The

4 u r orksh 1 8 O W op . should be held before a fire of shavings to render

u the glue perfectly fl id, as it soon loses its heat, however expeditio u sly the operation may be per

u formed . After turning the veneer down pon

o t he ou t the w rk , it must be rubbed over with

of . e stretched hands two r three people, the pres sure being first applied at the centre and gra dually extended towards the margin . The upper side of the veneer is now washed over with hot

of size , which serves the double purpose impart

- u ing fresh heat to the rapidly cooling gl e, and

of n lessening the friction the veneeri g hammer, which we are now about to use . One man would scarcely be able to lay a piece of veneer satisfactorily ; and as the sou ndness of the work in a great measure depends up on the despatch with which it is conducted, as many

or hands as can be spared, as can conveniently assist, generally lend their aid . The pane of the hammer is applied at t he middle of the work 3 the operator bears heavily on the head, and slowly wriggles the tool by its handle towards the margin . He again returns

o to the centre, and w rks down a line a little to one of o so on r e side the f rmer course, and

e at e dl p y , until the entire surface has been traversed . D u ring the operation the surface of the veneer must be frequently washed over with hot size, to a ntr a nd r 1 C rp e y Joine y . 85

n of a d lesse the friction the hammer, n to supply fresh heat to the glue . Inattention to this pre caution would probably result in the destruction f o the veneer . The pressure applied to the narr ow edge of t he pane 1 s apt to cau se it to tear the veneer if the latter become ne arly dry . The heat and moisture supplied by the size tend to make the veneer pliable, and greatly facilitate

of u the escape the glue, which acc mulates in advance of the pane in its progress from the

of centre the work to the margin, where it is

f m discharged . The solidity o the work ay generally be tested by tapping the surface all over with the back of the hammer and if some of o the blows produce a dull holl w sound, the veneer is not in actual contact at those parts o with the f undation or work . The pane must again be applied to the faulty spots, and if the

t o o s et of glue be far to yield, the inner vessel

- the glue pot may be placed thereon , to furnish

f of the necessary warmth . The di ficulty the process materially increases wit h the magnitude of u the work , and so ndness is more uncertain than when cauls and clamps are employed . The hammer is very u seful f or laying narrow strips or for small works that can be quickly completed,

is and in such cases generally used, although the

- before na m ed apparat u s may be at hand . If veneered works when in u se be placed too orksho 1 86 O nr W p .

fire e close to the , the veneer is apt to becom

t o blistered, and it is impossible rectify the

- o mischief except by re laying . To rem ve the

u veneer, the s rface must be washed with boiling w 0 10 t h ater, and then wiped with a coarse , to r or t emove any dirt grease that may adhere o it . The article m ust next be placed with the veneer

or hot towards the fire, a caul may be placed

o W u up n it . hen thoroughly hot, the s rface must be rubbed over with linseed oil, and again

or c an] . exposed to the fire , supplied with a fresh

oil The will soon sink through the veneer, and

of soften the glue , when the edges the veneer may be gently raised by a chisel, being very t carefu l no to split it . The heat and application

' of oil must be continued until the veneer is e n t ir l e y separated from the foundation .

r e - Before attempting to lay the veneer, all the

off old glue must be scraped , after which either of the processes we have described may be

.adopted .

1 ur or k ho 88 O W s p .

o oil or or c ntain any grease ; some of the gums ,

u b wax , colo red to resem le the work, should be employed . The varnish may be placed in an ordinary pre

- of or serve jar, across the mouth which a string

o f or wire sh uld be stretched, wiping the brush upon every time it is dipped, as much waste is occasi oned by pressing the bru sh against the

of edge the jar, when we wish to remove the

u f surplus varnish . S ficient varnish should be poured into the jar to cover the hairs of the brush, which will thereby be kept soft and in

. W good working order hen not in use , the jar must be closely covered to hinder the evaporatio n of the spirit, otherwise the varnish will become

u too thick ; and if dust be not caref lly excluded, l the varnish wil be spoilt . If the varnish become too thick, its fluidity may be restored by adding a small quantity of spirits of wine . Turpentine and oil varnishes must be thinned by their r e t i sp e c ve solvents . Spirit varnishes are generally applied with a ’ camel s hair brush; which must of course vary in

o size according to the magnitude of the w rk . W hen the surfaces are extensive, large flat ’ camel s -hair brushes are used ; but they are so

1 1 n o W th u prop rtion to their idth, that they

h t o cannot old much varnish, and require be frequ ently r e - fille d when working on a large Ca r entr a nd oin r 1 89 p y J e y . s ffi u of o urface, whereby the di c lty laying a smo th coat is greatly increased . It is advisable under these circumstances to dilute the varnish with a little spirits of wine, which will make it flow

e . more readily, and pr vent it drying too rapidly

' Turpentine and oil varnishes are applied with

u o of fine br shes f rmed very and soft bristles , and sometimes ordinary oil colou r - brushes are em

t oo h ployed but these latter are generally hars , and the adhesion of the varnish is apt to draw ou t not s o the hairs, which are well secured as in proper varnishing brushes . W hether the varnishes be spirit , turpentine , or oil s o , they must be fluid, that they will

r spread o flow evenly over the entire surface . It is far better to apply several thin coats than t o lay on one or t wo of greater thickness ; and in the latter case it would be almost, if not quite,

t o o impossible btain a smooth, regular surface . The varnish is apt t o accumulate at the edges of - o t o the w rk, and lie too thickly in any angles

r o di o o m ul ngs with which it may be rnamented .

To avoid this, the varnish must be first applied at a little distance from the edge , which may be subsequently coated when the brush is nearly empty . The brush must be used from end to

of o end the w rk, the strokes being rapid and

t o o ou t light, at the same time taking care w rk

- any air bubbles that may form . If the surface be 1 90 ar or ks o C W h p .

ffi d small, very little di culty will be experience ,

one o as the brush can be passed over it at str ke,

o and if this str ke appear imperfect, a second

o i t o str ke may be made at r ght angles the first , and, if necessary, a third may be made in the

o b e same directi n as the first . This must

o quickly done, therwise the varnish will begin to

on . set, and streaky lines will be left the surface

of of If any the hairs the brush become detached .

on and stick the varnished surface, they must be immediately removed before the v arnish harde ns .

If this be neglected until the varnish is dry, the hairs or other extraneous matter must be care

e ou t t of - fully pick d with the poin a pen knife, and the surface m ust then be ru bbed level with

- fine glass paper prior t o the next coat . Varnishing should be conducted in a warm

o and th roughly dry atmosphere, and the work must be allowed t o acquire the same temperature as the apartment before commencing operati ons . This is specially important when using spirit

ar u e v nishes, which are exceedingly s sc ptible to

r of or moistu e, and cold currents air draughts, which will chill the varnish and deprive it of it s brightness . The presence of invisible moisture or vapour in the atmosphere is soon made ap

o it im parent by the milky , paque appearance

t o parts the varnish . The brightness of the chilled coat m ay sometimes be restore d by

1 92 ar rk h C W o s op .

occasion an irr egu lar chilled appearance in the

su r new surface . It may be observed, that if a it face present any inequalities, must be rubbed over with fine glass - paper before laying the next

coat . As a general rule, spirit varnishes require from three to four hours for drying between each coat ; turpentine varnishes about t e n or twelve hours ; and oil varnishes at least twenty - four h w ours . The time allo ed for drying must in some measure be regulated by the state of the

atmosphere, and the quantity of spirit, turpen

or oil tine, contained in the varnish . The hard ness of the varni sh may be t ested by pressing

u the kn ckles on the surface if no mark be left, the varnish is qu ite dry and in a fit state to r e c eiv e o a fresh c at . If the work is r e q u 1 r e d to be very highly

finished, the varnish may be polished when the

u last coat has become thoro ghly hard . It is presumed that the surface is free from brush

or o marks, other blemishes, bef re any attempt is

e o so made at polishing, which oth rwise w uld be

u m ch labour wasted . Mix about t w o ounces of finely - p owdered tripoli with water to the consistency of thick cream ; apply a small quantity to a piece of fine

flannel which has been folded four times , and rub f the su rface o the work with moderat e pressure . Care must be taken to keep the surface wet fl r 1 9 Ca rp entry a nd Joine y . ;

of i during the process . The progress the pol sh ing m ay always be ascertained by wiping a s m all of portion the work with a sponge, and when the

u has an ' s rface even gloss, the tripoli may be

e off r wip d , and the work d ied with a clean wash

l all or - leather . A ittle fine t ow mutton suet must now b e on n t he taken the fi ger, with which su rface mu st be to u ched in several places . The s u rface is then ru bbed with the fin gers or the palm of the hand ; clean wheat - flour is next

u t he is t he d sted over work, and also rubbed with

u fingers after the removal of the flo r, the surface should be gently ru bbed with an old silk hand

hi a a. ll u kerchief, w ch will imp rt bri iant l stre to

rn the va ish .

i n or w is French pol sh is a var ish lacker, hich not w u , however, applied ith a br sh, like ordinary

n b u t u var ish, is distrib ted with a soft rubber . The ru bber sometimes consists simply of a piece of or or of l of cloth, list, a small bal cotton wool or a s in f l w dding inclo ed a piece o inen rag . The cloth ru bbers are formed by coiling a narrow strip of cloth from whi ch the selvedge or list has

of or been torn to a diameter two three inches, a f ccording to the size o the work in hand . The is off soft edge, which left by tearing the list must be moistened with the polish and applied t o the

or work, , if preferred, a linen rag may be placed over it, which can be renewed at any time . 0 1 94 O u r r s o W o k h p .

French polish is made in many ways , but the simplest and perha ps the best is formed by dis solving two pounds of shellac in one gallon of

u spirits of wine witho t heat . The amateur can own easily make his polish, and in any convenient quantities ; say t wo ounces of shellac in half a f of pint o spirits wine as a minimum . If by

h m evaporation the polis beco e too thick, fresh

b u t t oo spirit can be added, if made thin in the

first instance , delay may be occasioned by having t o dissolve additional lac before the polish can be used . The proportions already recommended will be found satisfactory . The surface to be polished must be rubbed

o - perfectly smo th with the finest glass paper,

o ou t finishing off with that which is nearly w rn .

W 1 e d off o The dust must be p with a clean cl th,

u o and the s rface sh uld be carefully examined, and any scratches removed .

is t o d If the rubber be made of wad ing, the

u u latter m st be p lled to pieces , and all the hard

e b knotty portions r jected . A rub er of about an inch and a half in diame t er will be large enou gh f r or a surface of three o four square feet in extent . The wadding should be thoroughly saturated w u ith polish, sq eezed moderately dry, and placed in the centre of a single thickness of soft linen

u rag, which is then gathered p behind and

f w f oil tied . A e drops o linseed are placed

1 a orks 96 C r W hop .

of u b e tender coat polish . This opport nity may

t o r e - h u taken saturate the wadding, whic m st ,

w u a s as on ho ever, be sq eezed dry the first occasion . W hen the grain of the wood appears to be well

u f filled with the lacker, and the s r ace even and

b u tolera ly bright, the clo dy marks occasioned by the oil which was pu t on the ru bber may be

a u i a removed, by taking clean r bber nclosed in of ft i fe w of fresh piece so l nen rag, a drops Spirits of wine being placed on the ru bber instead of

u u v i lacker . The work m st be r bbed ery l ghtly ,

i ul beginn ng with circ ar strokes, and as the surface becomes dry it may be finished with straight

of n strokes in the direction the grain, passi g the

u u ff f r bber q ite o the end o the work . The polishing may be considered complete when the

u rubber is q ite dry . of After the lapse a few days , the polish will of be partially absorbed by the grain the wood, and it will be necessary to apply another thin

h ht l u coat oflacker . The surface must be g y r bbed

n - ou t - t with early worn glass paper, in order tha the last coat of lacker may be laid u nder the

u u . most favo rable circ mstances This last, when

t he one n quite hard, will require, like precedi g, to be finished with a clean ru bber and spirits of wine .

TH E EN D .