Oriental Pantheon

ORIENTAL PANTHEON Hundreds and thousands of texts, and thousands of miniatures, are dedicated to gods who have been prayed to in the East since time immemorial. The journal Manuscripta Orientalia and the Peter the Great Museum of An- thropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera), Russian Academy of Sciences are unveiling with this publication a new section, “Oriental Pantheon”. This section is designed for publishing materials on the international project of the same name, with the ultimate goal of creating a complete encyclopaedic reference work on the person- ages of the traditional religions of Oriental countries, and also votive items, works of arts (primarily written monuments), customs and ritual practices connected with them. The materials which we are planning to publish in this section are of the nature of works in progress, as the ultimate aim of the project “Oriental Pantheon” is to gather, analyse, and then summarise and classify all accessi- ble information about gods, supernatural beings and items which were believed in at various times in the countries of the East — and the scale of this task is such that it may take many years. This is why we consider it necessary to start familiarising the reader with the preliminary results of our studies now, and call on all interested specialists to take part in our work. Project coordinator, I. Alimov I. Alimov THE WORK BY ZHOU CHENG: “RESEARCH ON THE EASTERN SONG CAPITAL”: INFORMATION ON TEMPLES AND JOSS-HOUSES Song joss-houses (miao) and temples (ci) located in the “Zhou Shi-pao visited Kaifeng three times, and he went eastern capital of the empire (the modern Kaifeng, with everywhere in his searches. [He], if he found something in the Song name Bianjing) is known to us from a number books, immediately wanted to see it with his own eyes; if it of historical works, and one of the most representative was not possible to see it, then he made visits to old resi- among them is the book by the Qing author Zhou Cheng dents to hear confirmation [of what he had read] from 周城 “Song dong jing kao” (宋東京考 “Research on the them. When he could neither see nor hear he went to the eastern Song capital”). About Zhou Cheng himself we so-called unofficial history of the Baiguan officials, and know extremely little: evidently, he lived in the years of checked their information too…” [1]. the rule of Kang-xi, Yong-zheng and Qiang-long (i. e. from 1662 to 1795), his second name was Shi-pao The value of the work by Zhou Cheng, writes contempo- 石匏, and he came from the province Zhejiang. His work rary researcher and textologist Dan Yuan-mu, is also that “Song dong jing kao” (20 juans) consists of over there are very few books devoted to the eastern Song 500 fragments, united into 42 thematic sections (門 capital: we know that in North Song one Song Min-qiu men). It contains various information about Kaifeng over 宋敏求 wrote “Dong jing ji” (東京記 “Notes on the 170 years, while this city was the eastern capital of Song Eastern Capital”), but this book has not survived; the China; in working on the book, Zhou Cheng employed work of Southern Song Meng Yuan-lao 孟元老 “Dong over 300 diverse written sources, a part of which have jing meng hua lu” (東京夢華錄 “Notes of Vivid Dreams not survived; the authenticity of the information he gives of the Eastern Capital”), for all its uniqueness, is too fic- is in no doubt: according to Wang Mei (王湄 first half of tionalised to give a full and objective idea of the Song the 18th century), the author of one of the forewords to Kaifeng [2]. “Song dong jing kao” (dated 1731): 58 Manuscripta Orientalia. VOL. 12 NO. 2 JUNE 2006 *** The religious life of Chinese society was long dis- ence among them was given to the spirit of Changjiang, tinguished by its diversity, which increased especially in and during drought the emperor appealed (in writing) to the period of the Song Dynasty (960—1279), when, be- this spirit with a request for rain. The joss-houses of sides Buddhism and Daoism, numerous minor local these spirits enjoyed special respect among the inhabi- popular cults blossomed. Interacting with the main reli- tants of riverside villages and towns, fishermen, traders gious and philosophical teachings (Daoism, Confucian- and everyone who was connected to the river by their ism and Buddhism), adapting to them and partially line of work or way of life; changing them, local cults became the foundation of (iii) the joss-houses of the patron spirits of cities (城 what it is customary to call Chinese religious syncretism. 隍廟 chenghuangmiao). The first joss-houses of this Beliefs in diverse spirits brought numerous temples into kind appeared under the rule of the Western Han dynasty being, and temples began to appear everywhere. In the (206 BC—23 AD), and until the Song dynasty there Southern Song city Jiankang there were simultaneously were very few of them. In the Song dynasty, as cities 28 Dao sanctuaries (觀 guan), 33 Buddhist temple com- developed, the cult of chenghuangs did too. Joss-houses plexes (寺 si) and 42 temples and joss-houses of minor of patron spirits of districts (縣隍 xianhuang) also began divinities of the folk pantheon (廟 miao and 祠 ci). In to appear. Chenghuang joss-houses had the patronage of some places the popular temples were particularly nu- the authorities: spirits were often given honorary titles merous — for example, in the south, in Fuzhou, where (not higher than wang), supervision was held over the “in every district there were up to several hundred of buildings, etc. Frequently, renowned officials and schol- them” [3]. A number of temples and joss-houses not ap- ars became local chenghuang spirits, whose work or ser- proved by the authorities began to go on the register of vice was connected with the place; “indecent cults” (淫 yin) and were centrally destroyed: (iv) joss-spirits of patron spirits of a region (土地神 for example, in the first year of the rule of Zheng-he tudishen). Patron spirits of a region were objects of (1111) in the eastern capital of the Song empire, prayer, mainly by village residents, and were frequently Kaifeng, alone, 1,038 such temples were destroyed. The very close to cults of patron spirits of cities. At the same distribution of popular cults took on such forms that in time, cults of patron spirits existed completely independ- several areas a certain local spirit was prayed to in liter- ently from all other cult buildings and spirits which were ally every house. prayed to in the region; to this day, on the territory of Modern Chinese researcher Cheng Ming-sheng sin- a Buddhist or Dao temple one can see a small joss-house gles out several types of popular ci and miao temples of a local spirit, who protects the region, and thus the which were widespread under the Song dynasty: temple on this territory; (i) joss-houses of mountain spirits (岳廟 yuemiao). (v) temples of historical figures (人物祠 renwuci). Above all they are the spirits of the five sacred moun- These temples were built in honour of historical fig- tains of China: Taishan, Huashan, Hengshan, Changshan ures — from emperors and rulers to ordinary officials; and Songshan. Among these Taishan stood out particu- those who looked after the people; those who did not larly, and if the spirits of other mountains could be spare their lives for the task they served; those who brought offerings and read prayers in the same temple, strengthened the state by their work; those who showed for the spirit Taishan special joss-houses were built — loyalty to their duty and devotion to their lord; those who Dongyuemiao, and in the Song dynasty praying to this mastered natural disasters and illnesses. Many Song offi- spirit reached its zenith. By special decrees, the court cials had such temples built for them soon after their gave the spirits of all five mountains imperial titles (帝 deaths; di), and these cults thus gained official status [4]. The (vi) “indecent” temples (淫祠 yinci). The construc- joss-houses built in honour of the spirits of sacred tion of these buildings was carried out by local inhabi- mountains were under official supervision, and special tants at their own initiative and without any permission officials made inspection trips to examine their state and from the authorities, and the cults of the spirits of these reported on necessary repairs which were made at gov- temples did not get on to official registers and were not ernment expense; officially recognised. Frequently, these temples were (ii) joss-houses of water spirits (瀆廟 dumiao). connected with long-standing primitive beliefs in these These are above all the “four streams”: the river of areas, beliefs in evil spirits and werewolves [5]. Some of Changjiang (Yangzi), Huanghe, Huaihe and Jihe. Prefer- these spirits were brought bloody human sacrifices [6]. *** In Zhou Cheng's book which was mentioned at the Below the reader will find a translation of general in- beginning, the section “Ci” contains information about formation reported by Zhou Cheng about all these 11 temples, while the section “Miao” contains informa- joss-houses and temples and also necessary notes by me tion about 24 joss-houses (15th and 16th juans). After (the additional information quoted by Zhou Cheng from the name of each temple or joss-house, Zhou Cheng pro- other sources is given selectively). There is no numera- vides general information about it and its location; this is tion of fragments in the original.

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