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Grades, Standards Grades, Standards 'Tîi.i^' In S,ny exchange of goods the buyer and seller must agree on how much of a com- modity is to be delivered. As soon as trade gets beyond simple barter, it has to depend therefore on weights and measures. Likewise, all trading, except simple barter, in- volves price. Price in practically all markets is a com- mon denominator by which are expressed unlike details of size, amount, weight, and quality of products being traded. Besides weights and measures, therefore, stand- ards for other attributes of goods have been developed. Grading is a basic function in practically all transactions. 142 The purpose is to establish a common language under- stood by buyers and sellers as a basis of judging the quality of a product in relation to its sales price. Grades are useful to all persons who engage in trade. They are also useful in describing the quality of many consumers' retail goods. Controversy over compulsory grade label- ing of consumer goods has waxed strong, however. Much of the argument has been concerned with the system of grading to use. systems of units the old names often Units and remain in-use. In Paris, after loo years of compulsory use of the metric system, hucksters still cry the price of fruit per Standards of livre (pound), just as the Berliner talks of the Pfund, even though the weight of each is actually a half kilogram. Measurement Our own customs are equally hard to change even when they cause some real trouble: We still give statistics on In any exchange of goods the seller grains in bushels, although by law and buyer must agree on how much deliveries must be by w^eight and al- of a commodity is to be delivered. As though farmers in some sections prefer soon as any trade gets beyond simple to talk of barrels or of hundredweights. barter, it has to depend therefore on In relatively recent times marketing weights and measures of some kind. areas have grown to the extent that In early days each locality or each local and even national customs and social and political unit developed its regulations regarding weights and own measures. The result was a vast measures have had to be adjusted diversity of units and methods of and—as far as practicable—unified measurement and with it misunder- and simplified. standing and the possibility of fraud. When uniform practices are not The processes of trade are eased if attainable, it is necessary at least to the weights and measures to be used know the units in which major produc- are prescribed by some authority and ing areas measure a commodity. The are not left as a subject for argument price the Kansas farmer gets for his between buyer and seller. So regula- wheat depends upon the size of the tion of weights and measures by law crops in Canada, and Argentina, and has been undertaken in all civiliza- Australia. To collect and distribute tions of which we have record. information on crops one must know But customs so closely related to our about the units and money used in everyday life are slow to change. Even each country. in countries that long ago adopted new In manufactured products the need 143 144 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1954 for uniformity of measurements is still made a standard of platinum to repre- more obvious. A replacement bolt sent the kilogram in usable form. that does not fit may put a tractor out As usually happens in such difficult of business, whether it be in Illinois, measurements, the length of the meter Brazil, or Africa. bar and the weight of the kilogram The world has made much progress cylinder were later found not to cor- toward such uniformity. Considerable respond exactly to the natural stand- diversity exists in details of each sys- ards from which they were derived. tem, but two general systems now Also on account of the departure of the dominate trade throughout the civi- kilogram standard from the intended lized world—the metric, based upon weight, the liter (unit of capacity), the meter and the kilogram, and the defined as the volume of i kilogram of English or ''Imperial," which has as water, is slightly larger than the cubic its basic units the yard and the pound. decimeter which it was intended to equal. THE METRIC SYSTEM was primarily a The French Government decided to result of the French Revolution. It adopt the units as preserved by the was itself a revolutionary development. platinum standards and thus in effect A reform of weights and measures was discarded the first principle on which urgently needed because France was a the system was based. The simplicity composite of kingdoms and principali- of the decimal system, however, and ties, and large differences existed be- the urgent need for uniformity in tween the units used in different parts weights and measures led to the wide- of the country. Instead of trying to spread adoption of the new system. adjust and reconcile the diverse units, Its use was made mandatory in the scientists to whom the problem France in 1840, and gradually spread was assigned devised an entirely new to other European countries; system. The two chief characteristics An act of the United States Congress of the system were that its units should in 1866 provided: 'Tt shall be lawful be derived from unchanging natural throughout the United States of Amer- standards and that units of various ica to employ the weights and meas- sizes should all be related by factors of ures of the metric system; and no con- 10 or its multiples, so that calculations tract or dealing, or pleading in any could be made simply by pointing off court, shall be deemed invalid or decimals or adding ciphers. liable to objection because the weights As an unchanging natural standard and measures expressed or referred to of length, the committee chose a quar- therein are weights and measures of ter of the circumference of the earth to the metric system." be measured along a meridian passing through France. The practical unit, the FORMAL INTERNATIONAL ACCEPTANCE meter, was to be one ten-millionth part of the metric system was brought about of that quadrant. After extensive sur- by meetings in 1870, 1872, and 1875, veys by competent geodesists to deter- which resulted in a treaty that set up mine the length of the quadrant, a a permanent organization to maintain platinum bar was made as a standard and perfect the system. The organiza- to represent the meter in a usable form. tion included a laboratory (the Inter- The unit of weight, the kilogram, was national Bureau of Weights and Meas- to be derived from the meter by making ures), to be placed on neutral inter- the kilogram the weight of i cubic national territory given by the French decimeter (that is, a cube one-tenth of Government, and an International a meter on a side) of pure water at the Committee on Weights and Measures temperature at which the water is most to direct the work of that bureau. dense (about 37° F.). As had been done The first duty of the new organiza- for the meter, however, the scientists tion was to provide standard meter UNITS AND STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT 145 bars and standard kilograms for the It is the legal system in all of Latin International Bureau and for the coun- America and in several Asiatic coun- tries that were members of the organi- tries, although older units still remain zation. As material to make the stand- in use in many countries. China, India, ards, the Committee chose platinum and Indonesia have planned to intro- alloyed with lo percent of iridium. duce it gradually to replace the many The making of the standards and local units still in use. Thus the whole their calibration took many years. In world uses or expects to use the metric 1889 they were completed and dis- system, except the English-speaking tributed to the various countries to countries, and in them the metric serve as national standards. One par- system is used in nearly all work in ticular meter bar and one kilogram were selected as the prototypes, or basic standards, and deposited in a ALTHOUGH THE METRIC STANDARDS subterranean vault at the Interna- made of platinum-iridium have served tional Bureau. At intervals since then their purpose very well, many scien- the meters and kilograms of the several tists have cherished the belief that the countries have been taken back to the system should eventually be based International Bureau for comparison upon natural standards of even greater with its standards. permanence. In particular, certain The metric system therefore has the wavelengths of light have long been advantages of being founded upon considered as possible substitutes for well-established standards of the high- the metal bar as the ultimate reference est attainable accuracy and of having standard of length. The natural ma- a competent organization to make sure terials, such as cadmium, mercury, that worldwide uniformity is main- and krypton, which might be used to tained over long periods. Also in the produce light for this purpose, how- everyday use of the system, as well as ever, are really mixtures of "isotopes," in learning it, the making of all calcu- that is, each of them includes atoms lations by multiplying or dividing by that have diverse atomic weights al- tens is a great saver of labor. though they are designated by the A minor advantage is that names for . same name and atomic number and all multiples of the basic units are are so similar in structure that they formed in a systematic way by pre- cannot be separated by ordinary chem- fixes, as follows: ical procedures.
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