heritage

Review Hardware Heritage—Briefcase-Sized

Karol Król

Digital Cultural Heritage Laboratory, Department of Land Management and Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Land Surveying, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Balicka 253c, 30-198 Krakow, Poland; [email protected]

Abstract: The industry was a vivid place in the . IT systems and technologies thrived, and the market offered ever better, smaller, and more useful machines. Innovative technical solutions or intelligent designs that satisfied customers’ needs are often listed as milestones. Consequently, they became a permanent part of the computerisation history and can be considered hardware heritage artefacts. The purpose of the paper is to analyse the usability of selected systems. The foundation of the work is a literature review that includes technical specifications, industry reviews, and research papers. Archival materials were obtained from the Archive. Studies have revealed that the main problems design engineers of portable computers had to tackle in the 1980s were the reduction of mass and size of the computer system, portable power (self-power), and the quality of the displayed image.

Keywords: hardware heritage; easy to carry; briefcase-sized computer; portable computer system; lunchbox-style portable computer; transportable computer; 1980s technology ideas

1. Introduction   History is not a soulless record of past events, places, and people. The past explains what we call the present. It exhibits the origin of the world around us. Even though one Citation: Król, K. Hardware could argue this view to be arbitrary, historic events show us what is important and why. Heritage—Briefcase-Sized It is possible thanks to the preservation and transfer of ‘historical memory’ perpetuated in Computers. Heritage 2021, 4, tangible and intangible cultural heritage components [1]. 2237–2252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ The possibilities of recording and preserving social knowledge resources related to heritage4030126 cultural assets are as diversified as cultural heritage itself: from cave paintings to virtual worlds or pieces of binary code. Computer tools can create (digital) cultural heritage Received: 11 June 2021 components and turn into heritage objects themselves. At the same time, they render the Accepted: 3 September 2021 past accessible, or more accessible, and more tangible [2]. Published: 6 September 2021 Heritage is a constantly evolving collection of material objects and symbols, the complexity of images, cultural artefacts, statues, and ethnic customs relevant to specific Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral groups or communities. The past is the spirit of a reality gone by that survived in pieces with regard to jurisdictional claims in and can be experienced only from a temporal perspective. It cannot be restored in whole published maps and institutional affil- and exactly as it used to be. Nevertheless, attempts are made to represent it to today’s iations. generations as accurately as possible [3]. Cultural heritage assets can be tangible, intangible, natural, and digital. The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage [4] found these assets are risk of destruction not only by the ‘traditional causes of decay’ (such as water erosion, light, or humidity), but also by socioeconomic and Copyright: © 2021 by the author. cultural changes that drive consecutive generations towards ignorance and abandonment Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of some heritage assets, or even intentional damaging or destruction. Moreover, the This article is an open access article discussion concerning what digital cultural heritage actually is continues. Which objects, distributed under the terms and both hardware and , are worth preserving (archiving), which are not, and who is conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to decide that [5]? It is a certain research gap that justifies relevant studies. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ The computer industry was a vivid place in the 1980s. IT systems and technologies 4.0/). thrived, and the market offered ever better, smaller, and more useful machines. Manufac-

Heritage 2021, 4, 2237–2252. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030126 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage Heritage 2021, 4 2238

turers came and went just as swiftly, and users had plenty to choose from. The market slowly grew full of household PC machines with MS-DOS software that were relatively heavy and expensive. That is why designers strove to build a portable, self-sufficient (versatile) computer with a quality colour display (and a reasonable price). Many devices were advertised as ‘truly portable’. The purpose of the paper is to analyse the usability of selected portable computer systems. For the purposes of this paper, a portable computer is one that one person can carry–but not one that is necessarily easily carried. Many computers from the 1980s grew to be considered ‘milestones’, crucial steps’, or even ‘cult’. Innovative technical solutions or intelligent designs that satisfied customers’ needs and were available at reasonable prices are often listed as computer hardware turning points. One can identify various causes of this tendency. The ‘immortality’ and exceptionality of some models were usually conditioned by socioeconomic or technological factors or both. Some attributes that determined the selling success in the 1980s include performance, weight, size, and usability in a broad sense. Some designs that managed to overcome barriers hindering the comfort of use won the market and found their place in the annals of the history of computerisation. This paper is organised as follows. Section2 concerns the notion of hardware heritage, emphasising its relevance to the history of computer hardware and software and its relations to everything that built the user experience and socioeconomic context. Section3 describes the methodology, focusing on sources of information, whilst Section4 provides an overview of the study results. The paper is concluded with a discussion and summary.

2. What Is Hardware Heritage? Heritage is something that is, or should be, handed down between generations as an object of value because it conveys a specific value for someone. According to UNESCO’s concept of digital heritage [6], ‘digital heritage is made up of computer-based materials of enduring value that should be kept for future generations. Digital heritage emanates from different communities, industries, sectors and regions. Not all digital materials are of enduring value, but those that are require active preservation approaches if continuity of digital heritage is to be maintained’. Heritage should be considered in relation to a point of reference in a specific context. Some (outstanding) objects/assets are considered world heritage. At the same time, indi- vidual countries or regions determine their components of national, state, or local heritage valid in specific circumstances. Still, the value of heritage can also be derived from what is important to a group or community (such as software or hardware users). Digital heritage is often tended by aficionados or hobbyists brought together by grassroots initiatives [7,8]. This way, many digital heritage assets were saved from oblivion, including software (such as archaic video games) and hardware. Digital heritage’s focal point is digital data and software (software heritage). Still, it requires computer equipment or electronics for operation, including peripheral devices, accessories, and gadgets, both digital and analogue. The investigation into the technological progress of computerisation, which has influenced the usability and functionality of digital equipment, facilitates a reflection on the intellectual foundations of the development of software, databases, and (data) files as digital heritage assets. Digital software heritage or digital folklore could not exist and do not exist without hardware heritage. They could also not be effectively protected and shared. Therefore, computer hardware is part of digital cultural heritage. Today, the world seems to be fixated on breaking up with the technology of old. Not so long ago, the computer was associated mainly with a desktop device. Nowadays, computers are increasingly associated with remote access and cloud computation. Data availability and computer work are no longer restricted by the physical location of the machine or the user. What is more, the software of the previous period (installed on a medium, internal hard drive, reinstalled, etc.) controlled the spatiotemporal usability of hardware. It offered user interfaces with access to data and data processing capabilities [9]. Heritage 2021, 4 2239

Today, software is available through browsers and does not need to be installed on the device on which it is used. However, it is a different, much broader discussion [10,11]. Hardware, device, and technology heritage is often described in the context of modern IT, computerisation (from the first digital computer to the Web) [12], and software engi- neering [13]. The same applies even to outer space exploration, space stations, and the use of ‘legacy equipment’ to reduce costs of new space missions [14,15]. A common implemen- tation of design reuse is through flight heritage or legacy designs. Barley et al. [16] defined heritage systems as ‘hardware, software, and procedures with previous flight history that are reused for a new mission in order to enable a mission capability or reduce overall mis- sion cost, schedule, or risk’. Moreover, Barley et al. [16] defined inheritance as the process through which the compatibility and benefits of heritage systems to the new mission are evaluated. One must appreciate that most computers and pieces of ‘modern equipment’ would be of limited use or even useless without software (software heritage) [17]. Hardware heritage is the history of both hardware and software. Human knowledge, experience, and skills are translated into computation models (binary code) in software and computer environment (‘digital ecosystem’). The history of software is a history of how different communities of practitioners ‘put their world into a computer’ [17]. It was the beginning of a new perspective on the mechanisms that ran the world and helped develop new tools to express oneself and pursue goals: computer programs. From this viewpoint, models and tools that constitute software reflect the stories of communities that created them and cannot be properly comprehended without insight into these stories; stories that are much more than computer hardware and software and include the socioeconomic, political, and cultural context [17]. Therefore, hardware heritage is equipment, software, and all user experience compo- nents within a socioeconomic, political, and cultural context. Computer systems changed how we work with data and perceive data as such. They were the beginning of ‘data processing’. As a result, the history of computers, software, and its socioeconomic envi- ronment are of key importance for the development of the IT and modern technologies in general [18]. Archaic hardware attracts not only historians or fans of retrocomput- ing [7]. Technological artefacts are still employed, for example, in teaching. The use of 8-bit machines (from around 1980) in programmer training is an example of this. The archaic technology turned out to pose challenges in completely different programming circumstances [19].

3. Materials and Methods Digital heritage research focuses mostly on: (1) digitalisation of tangible (analogue) heritage assets; (2) preservation of digital heritage; (3) use of digital heritage; (4) presen- tation, sharing, and promotion of digital heritage; and (5) legal matters relevant to the protection of the heritage [5]. Hence, the issue is rather broad, and applies to equipment (modern and archaic), software, and digital data. Historical research on digital cultural heritage in the context of the hardware heritage focuses mostly on archaic devices and the early days of computer systems [2]. Many texts on the matter were written by hobbyists and enthusiasts who depicted their experience, thoughts, memories, and reminiscences. Many publications are based on archival materials such as computer magazines, manuals for old equipment, etc. or are compilations of various older articles [2,18]. A special place among them is reserved for publications of corporations that had a particular impact on the technological transformation and take good care to ensure their contribution to the history of computers and software is recognized [20]. The study was desk research. The potential of desk research is yet to be fully exploited. It is a shame because it takes little financial or organisational effort to explore many (digital) data sources. Desk research can solve intricate research problems. It can also be the first step towards ‘research proper’ or complement it [21]. Heritage 2021, 4 2240 Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 4

The foundation of this work is a literature review that included research papers and The foundation of this work is a literature review that included research papers and 1980s industry literature. Archival materials were obtained from the Internet Archive (IA). 1980s industry literature. Archival materials were obtained from the Internet Archive The(IA). Internet The Internet Archive’s Archive’s Wayback Wayback Machine Machine is the is largestthe largest and and oldest oldest public public Web Web archive ar- andchive has and become has become a significant a significant repository repository of our of recentour recent history history and and cultural cultural heritage heritage [22 ]. Internet[22]. Internet archive archive resources resources are providedare provided free free of chargeof charge to historians,to historians, researchers, researchers, and and for educationfor education purposes. purposes. TheThe analysisanalysis involvedinvolved selectedselected IAIA resources resources in in ‘eBooks ‘eBooks and and Texts’. Texts’. First, First, the the search search was narrowedwas narrowed down down to the sectionto the section ‘The Computer ‘The Computer Magazine Magazine Archives’ Archives’ (a metadata (a searchmetadata with thesearch keyword with the ‘computer’). keyword Next,‘computer’). a text search Next, enginea text search was used engine with was the followingused with keywords:the fol- portablelowing keywords: computer, portable easy to computer, carry, briefcase-sized easy to carry, computer, briefcase-sized portable computer, computer portable system, lunchbox-stylecomputer system, portable lunchbox-style computer, portable transportable computer, computer transportable and their computer various combinations. and their Thevarious result combinations. was specific The articles result from was computer specific articles magazines. from computer magazines. UsabilityUsability is a property of of software software or or hardware hardware that that determines determines its its use use quality. quality. Us- Us- abilityability is a measure of the comfort comfort of of use use of of a a specific specific piece piece of of software software or or hardware hardware and and translatestranslates into their potential efficiency efficiency wh whenen used used for for specific specific purposes. purposes. The The usability usability indicatorsindicators forfor portableportable computerscomputers (regarding(regarding technical,technical, designdesign aspects)aspects) cancan bebe CPUCPU perfor-per- mance,formance, display display size, size, image image quality, quality, weight weight and and size size of of the the system system unit, unit, and and RAM. RAM. They They all affectall affect use comfortuse comfort when when working working with softwarewith software but also but transport also transport convenience. convenience. A usability A analysisusability cananalysis trace can the evolutiontrace the evolution of hardware of hardware and better and identify better breakthroughidentify breakthrough solutions worthsolutions preserving worth preserving for future for generations. future generations. TheThe work assumes that that usability usability is is the the measure measure of of the the comfort comfort of of use use of of a aportable portable computer.computer. The study on portable portable computer computer usab usabilityility focuses focuses on on the the size size (dimensions) (dimensions) and and weightweight (mass),(mass), factors that affect affect mostly mostly portability. portability. The The display display technology technology and and image image qualityquality werewere assessed as well. These These attributes attributes contributed contributed to to the the weight weight of of the the computer computer systemsystem toto a significantsignificant degree in in the the 1980s, 1980s, which which made made it it harder harder to to move move it itaround. around.

4.4. ResultsResults OneOne of the the distinguishing distinguishing features features of ofthe the businessman businessman of the of 1980s the 1980s was slightly was slightly in- inconvenientconvenient briefcases. briefcases. They They contained contained no nopape papersrs or writing or writing implements implements but were but were cases cases of ofportable portable computers computers (Figure (Figure 1).1 ).It Itwas was the the ph philosophyilosophy of of computer computer manufacturers manufacturers tens tens of of yearsyears agoago that a complete kit kit with with a a display display in in a acase case should should be be taken taken from from the the office office to to homehome andand back, and also used used for for business business travel. travel.

FigureFigure 1.1. Briefcase-sized computers computers (the (the 1980s). 1980s). In In the the figures, figures, left left to to right: right: the the Otrona Attache, Attache, Findex , TRS-80 Model 4P, Osborne Vixen. Source: original work based on materials Findex microcomputer, TRS-80 Model 4P, Osborne Vixen. Source: original work based on materials from Internet Archive. from Internet Archive. The 1980s saw many machines whose designers claimed them to be portable. Tech- The 1980s saw many machines whose designers claimed them to be portable. Technical nical specifications of selected models have been included in the Appendix A (Table A1). specifications of selected models have been included in the AppendixA (Table A1). Some Some models had handles integrated with the case, such as the 1979 8-bit Findex, which models had handles integrated with the case, such as the 1979 8-bit Findex, which weighed weighed 31 pounds, or 14 kg [23]. The Findex was advertised as a standalone and porta- 31 pounds, or 14 kg [23]. The Findex was advertised as a standalone and portable computer

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Heritage 2021, 4 2241 Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 5

ble computer system that could be taken on a plane or to a car. ‘Wherever you go, FINDEX goes with you’. Its optional battery and built-in improved the system’s system that could be taken on a plane or to a car. ‘Wherever you go, FINDEX goes with functionalityyou’.ble computer Its optional [23]. system battery that and could built-in be taken printer on improved a plane or the to system’s a car. ‘Wherever functionality you [23 go,]. FINDEXComputersComputers goes with were were you’. not not Its cheap cheap optional in in the battery 1980s. and It built-in waswas notnot printer aa goodgood improved idea idea to to carrythe carry system’s them them far far withoutwithoutfunctionality a acarrying carrying [23]. case. case. It It did did not not take longlong beforebefore manufacturersmanufacturers offered offered dedicated dedicated ‘briefcases’‘briefcases’Computers and and covers coverswere not for for cheaptransporting transporting in the 1980s. thethe computers. computers.It was not a The Thegood carrying carrying idea to cases carrycases forthem for the the far first first portableportablewithout computers computersa carrying lookedcase. looked It nothing nothingdid not like take today’s long before briefcases.briefcases. manufacturers They They looked looked offered more more dedicated like like trunks trunks forfor‘briefcases’ wheeling wheeling andequipment equipment covers for because because transporting it itwould would the be computers. be hard hard to to carry The carry carryinga adozen dozen casesor or several severalfor the dozen dozenfirst kil- ogramskilogramsportable of computersequipment of equipment looked in a in large nothing a large box box like through through today’s the briefcases. the city city (Figure (Figure They 2).2 looked). more like trunks for wheeling equipment because it would be hard to carry a dozen or several dozen kil- ograms of equipment in a large box through the city (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Carrying cases from Radio Shack. Microcomputer Newsletter–Edition No. 2 (1978-11). Source: Internet Archive FigureFigure 2. Carrying 2. Carrying cases cases from from Radio Radio Shack. Shack. Microcomputer Microcomputer Newsletter–Edition No. No. 2 (1978-11).2 (1978-11). Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1978) (1978) [24].(1978) [24]. [24]. This is how Radio Shack described a set of carrying cases for the TRS-80 system: ‘One ThisThis is is how how Radio Radio ShackShack describeddescribed a a set set of of carrying carrying cases cases for forthe theTRS-80 TRS-80 system: system: attache-like case houses the keyboard, recorder, power supply and cassette tapes. Black ‘One‘One attache-like attache-like case case houseshouses thethe keyboardkeyboard, ,recorder, recorder, power power supply supply and and cassette cassette tapes. tapes. leatherette vinyl. Only for hand carriage. Not for transportation purposes’ [25]. BlackBlack leatherette leatherette vinyl. vinyl. OnlyOnly for handhand carriage. carriage. Not Not for for transportation transportation purposes’ purposes’ [25]. [25]. Not all portable computers came with a separate dedicated carrying case. Many NotNot all all portable portable computerscomputers camecame withwith a aseparate separate dedicated dedicated carrying carrying case. case. Many Many systemssystems hadhad casescases thatthat doubled doubled as as carrying carrying devices. devices. A A good good example example is theis the Osborne with 1 systemsits small had monitor cases inthat a plastic doubled case as (Figures carrying3 and devices.4). The userA good would example open and is the close Osborne it just 1 withwith its its small small monitor monitor inin aa plastic casecase (Figures (Figures 3 3and and 4). 4). The The user user would would open open and andclose close it it likejust luggagelike luggage that that it resembled it resembled thanks thanks to a to leather a leather handle. handle. It weighed It weighed 24.5 24.5 pounds pounds or 11 or kg. just like luggage that it resembled thanks to a leather handle. It weighed 24.5 pounds or Consecutive11 kg. Consecutive Osborne Osborne machines, machines, the Osborne the Osborne Vixen, Vixen, for example, for example, were alsowere ‘enclosed also ‘en- in 11 kg. Consecutive Osborne machines, the Osborne Vixen, for example, were also ‘en- carryingclosed in cases’.carrying cases’. closed in carrying cases’.

Figure 3. On the right-hand side side is is the the Osborne Osborne 1 1with with its its briefcase-sized briefcase-sized body. body. Source: Source: Personal Personal

Computing, December 1981 1981 No. No. 12, 12, p. p. 42, 42, Internet Internet Archive Archive (1981) (1981) [26]. [26 ]. Figure 3. On the right-hand side is the Osborne 1 with its briefcase-sized body. Source: Personal Computing, December 1981 No. 12, p. 42, Internet Archive (1981) [26].

HeritageHeritage 20212021, ,44 FOR PEER REVIEW 22426 Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 6

FigureFigure 4. 4. LeftLeft to to right: right: The The OsborneOsborne Osborne 11 portableportable 1 portable comput comput computer;er;er; the the theOsborne Osborne . Executive. Executive. Source: Source: Source: Internet Internet Internet ArchiveArchive (1981, (1981, 1983) 1983) [27,28]. [27,28].

FollowingFollowing a areorganisation, reorganisation, OsborneOsborne Osborne ComputerComputer Computer CorporationCorporation Corporation (OCC) (OCC) (OCC) was was was ready ready ready to to to conquerconquerconquer the the market market with with two two newnew computers,computers, the thethe OsborneOsborne Osborne VixenVixen Vixen and and and the the the Osborne Osborne Osborne 3 3 in 3in latein latelate1984. 1984. Determined Determined to regain toto regainregain his his markethis marketmarket position, position,position, the the founderthe founder founder Adam Adam Osborne Osborne abandoned aban- aban- donedthe CP/M the CP/M operating systemsystem and manufactured andand manufacturedmanufactured his first his his and first first last and and IBM-compatible last last IBM-compatible IBM-compatible machine, machine,the Osborne the Osborne 3 (Figure 533). (Figure(Figure The Osborne 5).5). TheThe 3, OsborneOsborne advertised 3, 3, advertised advertised as midsize, as as no-frills, midsize, midsize, portable, no-frills, no-frills, wasport- port- the able,last portablewas the last system port byable OCC. systemsystem byby OCC.OCC.

Figure 5. The Osborne 3 with an 80-character by 16-line liquid-crystal display (LCD) and two 5.25″ 00 FigureFigure 5. 5. TheThe Osborne Osborne 3 3with with an an 80-character 80-character by by 16-lin 16-linee liquid-crystal liquid-crystal display display (LCD) (LCD) and and two two 5.25 5.25″ floppy-disk drives. Source: Internet Archive (1985) [29]. floppy-diskfloppy-disk drives. drives. Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1985) (1985) [29]. [29]. OCCOCC decided decided to to install install a smaller, a smaller, 16-line 16-line monitor monitor instead instead of a ofstandard a standard 25-line 25-line one to one OCC decided to install a smaller, 16-line monitor instead of a standard 25-line one to reduceto reduce the price. the price. Similarly Similarly to all early to all LCD early sc LCDreens, screens, the one in the Osborne one in Osborne3 was not 3backlit. was not reduce the price. Similarly to all early LCD screens, the one in Osborne 3 was not backlit. Therefore,backlit. Therefore, the monitor the had monitor poor had contrast, poor contrast,which made which it difficult made it difficultto read without to read withoutgood Therefore, the monitor had poor contrast, which made it difficult to read without good lighting.good lighting. Some Someusers usersmentioned mentioned additional additional light lightsources sources they they carried carried to operate to operate their their lighting. Some users mentioned additional light sources they carried to operate their OsborneOsborne 3s 3s [29]. [29]. Osborne 3s [29]. TheThe Osborne Osborne 3 3 was ‘truly‘truly portable’portable’ andand could could run run for for about about five five hours hours on aon recharge- a re- The Osborne 3 was ‘truly portable’ and could run for about five hours on a re- chargeableable standard standard NiCad NiCad video-camera video-camera battery. batte Butry. it cameBut it with came no with battery no battery or software. or soft- With chargeable standard NiCad video-camera battery. But it came with no battery or soft- ware.one drive, With theone machine drive, the weighed machine 9.5 weighed pounds 9. (a5 littlepounds over (a 4 little kg) without over 4 kg) the battery,without whichthe ware. With one drive, the machine weighed 9.5 pounds (a little over 4 kg) without the battery,was approximately which was approximately the weight of the the typical weight luggage. of the typical An external luggage. dial-up An external facilitateddial-up battery, which was approximately the weight of the typical luggage. An external dial-up modema connection facilitated with a other connection computers with overother phone computers lines. over phone lines. modemTheThe facilitated Osborne Osborne 3 a 3had connection had an an Intel 80C86,with 80C86, other 16-bit 16-bit computers 3.5 3.5MHz MHz CPU,over CPU, phone256 256KB lines. RAM KB RAM (expandable (expandable to 512to 512KBThe KBusing Osborne using 256 256 3KB had KBDRAMs) an DRAMs) Intel and 80C86, and was was16-bit compatible compatible 3.5 MHz with CPU, with MS-DOS 256 MS-DOS KB 2.11. RAM 2.11. In (expandable In1985, 1985, it was it was to 512discounted KB using to 256 1895 KB USD DRAMs) from 2995 and USD was (for compatible a set with with two floppyMS-DOS drives 2.11. and In 2561985, KB it RAM). was The reduction did not save the company from going bankrupt in early 1986 [29].

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Heritage 2021, 4 2243 discounted to 1895 USD from 2995 USD (for a set with two floppy drives and 256 KB RAM). The reduction did not save the company from going bankrupt in early 1986 [29]. The Morrow Pivot was a virtual twin of the Osborne 3, but in reality, it was the OsborneThe Morrow3 that was Pivot based was on athe virtual Morrow twin Pivot. of the The Osborne Morrow 3,Pivot but weighed in reality, 9.5 it pounds was the Osborne(4 kg with 3 thatno battery was based and ona single the Morrow floppy drive) Pivot. and The featured Morrow a Pivot Harris weighed 80C86, 9.53.33 pounds MHz (4CPU. kg withThe 16-bit no battery machine and from a single 1984 floppy was the drive) first andproduct featured of Morrow a Harris Design 80C86, compatible 3.33 MHz CPU.with ’s The 16-bit machineMS-DOS from(previous 1984 systems was the usually first product run on of S-100 Morrow or CP/M). Design The compatible Morrow withPivot Microsoft’s was classified MS-DOS as a lunchbox-style (previous systems portable usually computer run on S-100with a or vertical CP/M). design The Morrow and a Pivotfold-in was keyboard. classified May as a1985 lunchbox-style saw the Morrow portable Pivot computer II, which withwas a slightly vertical cheaper designand and a fold-inimproved keyboard. version Mayof its 1985predecessor. saw the It Morrow had a 25-line, Pivot II,backlit which LCD was EL a screen slightly (640 cheaper × 200). and It improvedoffered a slightly version better of its predecessor.performance and It had was a 25-line,fully IBM-PC backlit compatible. LCD EL screen Despite (640 the× im-200). Itprovements, offered a slightly Morrow better Designs performance could not andwithstand was fully competition IBM-PC and compatible. filed for bankruptcy Despite the improvements,on 11 March 1986 Morrow [30,31]. Designs could not withstand competition and filed for bankruptcy on 11The March TRS-80 1986 Model [30,31]. 4P portable system (1983) was advertised as ‘the perfect com- puterThe for TRS-80our mobile Model society’ 4P portable that can system be taken (1983) along was literally advertised everywhere as ‘the perfect (Figure computer 6). The forModel our mobile4P was society’easy to carry that canand be small taken enough along to literally stow in everywhere luggage racks (Figure on a6 ).plane, The Modeltrain, 4Por wasbus. easy to carry and small enough to stow in luggage racks on a plane, train, or .

FigureFigure 6.6. TheThe Radio Shack TRS-80 line line (the (the Model Model 4P 4P in in the the centre centre of of the the bottom bottom row, row, 1983). 1983). Source: Source: InternetInternet ArchiveArchive (1984)(1984) [[32].32].

ItIt waswas not easy easy to to offer offer colour, colour, ‘advanced’ ‘advanced’ graphics graphics in the in the1980s. 1980s. In most In mostcases, cases, ad- additionalditional components, components, generators, generators, or controllers or controllers were were used. used. A good A good example example is the is theTRS-80 TRS- Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 8 80with with a peripheral a peripheral colour colour graphics graphics generator/ generator/controllercontroller the Percom the PercomElectric ElectricCrayon (Figure Crayon (Figure7), which7), offered which offered a semigraphics a semigraphics mode as mode well as[33]. well [33].

Figure 7. The Electric Crayon was $249.95 (April 1980). It was delivered complete with the EGOS Figure 7. The Electric Crayon was $249.95 (April 1980). It was delivered complete with the EGOS system,system, 1 1 KB KB of of video video memory, memory, and and a a thick thick user user manual. manual. Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1980) (1980) [34]. [34].

The Percom Electric Crayon was a small box (12 inches wide and 9 inches deep, 30 by 23 cm), which output a video signal to a monitor or TV. It connected directly to the TRS-80’s printer port and did not support sprites [33]. Another example of a computer system transformer that could turn into a carrying case and back was the Otrona Attache (1982, Z-80A, 4 MHz, 5.5″ amber CRT). The Otrona Attache was referred to as the ‘BMW of portable computers’ in the early 1980s. The Attache was launched a little after the Osborne and the II and, with 18 pounds (8 kg), was by far the smallest and most portable of them all. Still, it was a little more expensive [35]. The Telcon (22 pounds, about 10 kg) and the Kaypro II (about 26 pounds or 12 kg) were built similarly. The Zorba had a sturdy, brown, plastic carrying case with a leather handle [36]. The Kaypro had metal housing. According to Rimmer [37] of Com- puting Now! It took less than a minute to transform the Zorba from a suitcase into a computer even if ‘you are partially asleep’. ‘You unhitch the front of its box… the key- board… heave it on a table or other horizontal phenomenon, plug in the cable that con- nects it to the rest of the computer, plug in the power cord and boot the system’. While the machines discussed above were advertised as handy carrying cases, the Zenith Z-171 PC (1985, 14.4 pounds or 6.5 kg) was a lunchbox that could fit on your shoulder. It was, perhaps, because the Zenith was slightly lighter than other similar de- signs due to the use of an LCD display. The Zenith Z-171 was presented as a brief- case-sized computer hanging on a woman’s shoulder not without reason. The subliminal message was clear: the Zenith was lightweight and easy to handle, even for ladies. In- deed, six and a half kilograms was a very good result for a complete computer system in 1985 [38]. The Sharp PC-7000 (1984) consisted of three main components: a system unit with a display, keyboard, and printer. All of them had cream, light grey plastic housings. The keyboard and the printer could be clipped to the main unit to form a suitcase (Figure 8). Its handle made the system easy to carry, particularly without the printer (weight with- out the printer was 18 pounds or about 8 kg). With the printer clipped, the case grew significantly heavier by 11.5 pounds or over 5 kg. The complete set weighed about 13 kg.

Heritage 2021, 4 2244

The Percom Electric Crayon was a small box (12 inches wide and 9 inches deep, 30 by 23 cm), which output a video signal to a monitor or TV. It connected directly to the TRS-80’s printer port and did not support sprites [33]. Another example of a computer system transformer that could turn into a carrying case and back was the Otrona Attache (1982, Zilog Z-80A, 4 MHz, 5.500 amber CRT). The Otrona Attache was referred to as the ‘BMW of portable computers’ in the early 1980s. The Attache was launched a little after the Osborne and the Kaypro II and, with 18 pounds (8 kg), was by far the smallest and most portable of them all. Still, it was a little more expensive [35]. The Telcon Zorba (22 pounds, about 10 kg) and the Kaypro II (about 26 pounds or 12 kg) were built similarly. The Zorba had a sturdy, brown, plastic carrying case with a leather handle [36]. The Kaypro had metal housing. According to Rimmer [37] of Computing Now! It took less than a minute to transform the Zorba from a suitcase into a computer even if ‘you are partially asleep’. ‘You unhitch the front of its box ... the keyboard ... heave it on a table or other horizontal phenomenon, plug in the cable that connects it to the rest of the computer, plug in the power cord and boot the system’. While the machines discussed above were advertised as handy carrying cases, the Zenith Z-171 PC (1985, 14.4 pounds or 6.5 kg) was a lunchbox that could fit on your shoulder. It was, perhaps, because the Zenith was slightly lighter than other similar designs due to the use of an LCD display. The Zenith Z-171 was presented as a briefcase-sized computer hanging on a woman’s shoulder not without reason. The subliminal message was clear: the Zenith was lightweight and easy to handle, even for ladies. Indeed, six and a half kilograms was a very good result for a complete computer system in 1985 [38]. The Sharp PC-7000 (1984) consisted of three main components: a system unit with a display, keyboard, and printer. All of them had cream, light grey plastic housings. The keyboard and the printer could be clipped to the main unit to form a suitcase (Figure8). Its handle made the system easy to carry, particularly without the printer (weight without the Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 9 printer was 18 pounds or about 8 kg). With the printer clipped, the case grew significantly heavier by 11.5 pounds or over 5 kg. The complete set weighed about 13 kg.

FigureFigure 8. 8. TheThe Sharp Sharp PC-7000. PC-7000. Source: Source: Personal Computer World World ( (1985-12,1985-12, p. p. 153). 153). Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1985) (1985) [39]. [39].

TheThe adjustable adjustable handle handle was was an an interesting interesting design design feature, feature, particularly particularly useful useful after after attachingattaching the printer. TheThe useruser could could compensate compensate for for a shifteda shifted centre centre ofgravity of gravity to improve to im- provecarrying carrying comfort. comfort. DataData General General was was among among the the first first manufact manufacturersurers of of minicomputers in in the the 1960s. 1960s. The The DataData General General One One (CPU: (CPU: Intel Intel 80C88, 80C88, 4 4 MHz) MHz) was was advertised advertised as as the the first first fully fully functional functional businessbusiness system forfor workingworking atat the the office, office, home, home, or anywhereor anywhere else: else: ‘truly ‘truly portable, portable, IBM- IBM-compatiblecompatible personal personal computer computer with with a full-size a full-size LCD LCD display’ display’ [40]. [40]. The One (DG/One) was a typical PC with built-in floppy drives and a The Data General One (DG/One) was a typical PC with built-in floppy drives and a full-size display. It was compatible with a portable printer and a battery for eight hours full-size display. It was compatible with a portable printer and a battery for eight hours of operation, an external modem, and a 5.25″ floppy drive [41]. The $2895 machine was launched in 1984 (Figure 9) and weighed 10 pounds or 4.5 kg.

Figure 9. The Data General One–lightweight and portable. Source: Internet Archive (1984) [41].

The Data General One was advertised as a battery-powered mobile with such advanced features as one or two 3.5′′ floppy drives by Sony. It had the largest, 11′′ display of all portables at that time, which could display 25 lines of 80 characters. The Data General One was only 4.5 kg, which was much less than the competition, for ex- ample, the IBM Portable PC (30 pounds, 13.6 kg) [40]. The Data General One was not flawless. The gigantic, 11″ LCD screen was ‘new and amazing’ but offered poor contrast, making work harder. The monitor had only two po- sitions: opened and closed. Batteries were charged with a large external 5.8 VDC power supply. The system had no transport handle [40]. These problems were regularly taken care of in successive versions. Nineteen eighty-six saw the DG/One Model 2 with an elec- troluminescent display (ELD), and Model 2T was launched in 1987. Even though the new ELD offered an unparalleled image quality, its power consumption was too high for battery power.

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 9

Figure 8. The Sharp PC-7000. Source: (1985-12, p. 153). Source: Internet Archive (1985) [39].

The adjustable handle was an interesting design feature, particularly useful after attaching the printer. The user could compensate for a shifted centre of gravity to im- prove carrying comfort. Data General was among the first manufacturers of minicomputers in the 1960s. The Data General One (CPU: Intel 80C88, 4 MHz) was advertised as the first fully functional Heritage 2021, 4 business system for working at the office, home, or anywhere else: ‘truly portable,2245 IBM-compatible personal computer with a full-size LCD display’ [40]. The Data General One (DG/One) was a typical PC with built-in floppy drives and a full-size display. It was compatible with a portable printer and a battery for eight hours 00 of operation, an an external external modem, modem, and and a a5.25 5.25″ floppyfloppy drive drive [41]. [41 ].The The $2895 $2895 machine machine was was launched in in 1984 1984 (Figure (Figure 9)9) and and weighed weighed 10 10 pounds pounds or or 4.5 4.5 kg. kg.

Figure 9. 9. TheThe Data Data General General One–lightweight One–lightweight and and portab portable.le. Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1984) (1984) [41]. [41 ].

The Data GeneralGeneral OneOne waswas advertised advertised as as a battery-powereda battery-powered mobile mobile workstation workstation with withsuch such advanced advanced features features as oneas one or or two two 3.5 3.500 ′′floppy floppy drivesdrives by Sony Sony.. It Ithad had the the largest, largest, 11′′00 displaydisplay of of all all portables portables at at that that time, time, which which could could display display 25 25 lines lines of of80 80 characters. characters. The The Data General OneOne waswas onlyonly 4.54.5 kg, kg, which which was was much much less less than than the the competition, competition, for for example, ex- ample,the IBM the Portable IBM Portable PC (30 PC pounds, (30 pounds, 13.6 kg) 13.6 [40 kg)]. [40]. The Data Data General General One One was was not not flawless. flawless. The Thegigantic, gigantic, 11″ LCD 1100 screenLCD screen was ‘new was and ‘new amazing’and amazing’ but offered but offered poor poorcontrast, contrast, making making work workharder. harder. The monitor The monitor had only had two only po- two sitions:positions: opened opened and and closed. closed. Batteries Batteries were were charged charged with with a large a large external external 5.85.8 VDC VDC power power supply. The The system system had had no no transport transport handle handle [40]. [40]. These These problems problems were were regularly regularly taken taken care of in in successive successive versions. versions. Nineteen Nineteen eigh eighty-sixty-six saw sawthe DG/One the DG/One Model Model2 with 2an with elec- an troluminescentelectroluminescent display display (ELD), (ELD), and Model and Model 2T was 2T launched was launched in 1987. in Even 1987. though Even thoughthe new the ELDnew offered ELD offered an unparalleled an unparalleled image quality, image quality,its power its consumption power consumption was too high was for too battery high for power.battery power. Model 2T was designed to work only with an external power supply, which improved the image quality at the expense of portability. In January 1988, the system consisted of a new, blue supertwist (STN) LCD and a 20 MB hard drive. All this for 3195 USD. The Data General One was a breakthrough design in 1984 but rather obsolete in the late 1980s. Portable systems became available and slowly displaced the last ‘heavy and cumbersome’ portable computers, the DG/One. Nineteen ninety saw pocket computers, such as the Poqet PC and PPC with 80 × 25 displays weighing a pound or less. Another machine with a handle that was part of its case was the Apple Macintosh (Figure 10). The Macintosh was first released in 1984 with 128 KB RAM. It quickly turned out to be insufficient. The manufacturer managed to release an upgraded version the same year; it was dabbed ‘Fat Mac’ due to its 512 KB of RAM. Interestingly, the computer had an innovative Macintosh GUI () operating system, which was well-received. The computer could be transported over significant distances in a dedicated case by Macintosh. The Macintosh Portable was the first portable Apple computer powered by lead-acid batteries. The Macintosh Portable was released in 1989 with the 68HC000 @ 16 MHz and 1 MB RAM (9 MB max). The video was displayed on a 10-inch black and white active matrix LCD screen. The computer had a new, advanced display, which affected the price: USD 7300 in 1989. Despite the breakthrough solutions, the computer was not successful. It was relatively heavy (16 pounds or 7.2 kg). Its high price did not help. Two years later, a lighter and cheaper successor was released, the PowerBook 100. Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 10

Model 2T was designed to work only with an external power supply, which improved the image quality at the expense of portability. In January 1988, the system consisted of a new, blue supertwist (STN) LCD and a 20 MB hard drive. All this for 3195 USD. The Data General One was a breakthrough design in 1984 but rather obsolete in the late 1980s. Portable Macintosh systems became available and slowly displaced the last ‘heavy and cumbersome’ portable computers, the DG/One. Nineteen ninety saw pocket computers, such as the Poqet PC and Zeos PPC with 80 × 25 displays weighing a pound or less. Another machine with a handle that was part of its case was the Apple Macintosh (Figure 10). The Macintosh was first released in 1984 with 128 KB RAM. It quickly turned out to be insufficient. The manufacturer managed to release an upgraded version the same year; it was dabbed ‘Fat Mac’ due to its 512 KB of RAM. Interestingly, the computer had an innovative Macintosh GUI (graphical user interface) operating system, which was well-received. The computer could be transported over significant distances in a dedi- cated case by Macintosh. The Macintosh Portable was the first portable Apple computer powered by lead-acid batteries. The Macintosh Portable was released in 1989 with the Motorola 68HC000 @ 16 MHz and 1 MB RAM (9 MB max). The video was displayed on a 10-inch black and white active matrix LCD screen. The computer had a new, advanced dis- play, which affected the price: USD 7300 in 1989. Despite the breakthrough solutions, the Heritage 2021, 4 2246 computer was not successful. It was relatively heavy (16 pounds or 7.2 kg). Its high price did not help. Two years later, a lighter and cheaper successor was released, the PowerBook 100.

FigureFigure 10. 10. LeftLeft to to right: right: The The Macintosh Macintosh Portable; Portable; Apple’s Apple’s PowerBook PowerBook 170, 170, 140, 140, and and 100 100 set set the the standardsstandards for for portability portability and and ease ease of of use. use. Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1989, (1989, 1992) 1992) [42,43]. [42,43 ].

5.5. Discussion Discussion TheThe selected selected models models of of computers computers can can be be considered considered hardware hardware heritage heritage in in light light of of thethe analysis analysis of of their their technical technical and and usability usability attributes attributes as as they they are are turned turned out out to to be be break- break- throughs.throughs. Users Users and and experts experts often often refer refer to to them them as as ‘exceptionally ‘exceptionally important’, important’, noteworthy, noteworthy, oror ‘indispensable’. ‘indispensable’. The The selected selected designs designs were were in in demand, demand, selling selling in in millions millions of of copies, copies, whichwhich paved paved their their ways ways into thethe historyhistory of of computerisation. computerisation. Others Others were were such such failures failures that thatusers users struggling struggling with with their their shortcomings shortcomings have have been been immortalised immortalised in numerous in numerous anecdotes. an- ecdotes.Others Others yet were yet breakthrough were breakthrough designs design that leds that the led way the of way future of future development. development. In the In1980s, the 1980s, such attributessuch attributes as weight, as weight, image quality,image quality, performance, performanc or operatione, or operation (including (in- the cludingoperating the system)operating determined system) determined to a large extent to a large the uniquenessextent the uniqueness of consecutive of consecutive models and drove the (technological) development of computers. They also affected machine usability. models and drove the (technological) development of computers. They also affected It played a particular role in the 1980s. Computers were not popular at the time. Many machine usability. It played a particular role in the 1980s. Computers were not popular at people had had no computer experience and were unfamiliar with their functionalities and the time. Many people had had no computer experience and were unfamiliar with their operation. What is more, many buyers were disappointed that their machine was harder to functionalities and operation. What is more, many buyers were disappointed that their use than they expected. This led to the potential of many computers, mostly for business machine was harder to use than they expected. This led to the potential of many com- use, lying idle. Therefore, manufacturers’ priorities were education and hardware perfor- mance (operating speed), functionality (number of applications), and usability (weight and size or image quality) improvement. Institutions and communities involved in archiving and promoting digital resources have underestimated the value of the proposition that the best way to preserve digital artefacts ‘as they really were’ is to maintain the original hardware they were created and used with. Data migration and emulation were perceived as the primary methods for ensuring the availability of archaic software and files. However, the use of archaic software produced in the mid-1980s may be difficult. It was the time of many incompatible operating systems and file formats that were discontinued for various reasons (mostly financial ones), while their creators did not care for archiving their work. Original hardware and software combined with the socioeconomic context they existed in may be necessary to fully comprehend the nature of these artefacts [44]. Moreover, a computer without software is useless. Hence, it has to be stored together with the operating system to fully show its potential regarding the current state of technology [45]. It justifies the effort to preserve archaic hardware with software and provides a rationale for historiographic analyses. According to Bill Machrone [46], no discussion on portable devices is complete without mentioning the Golembo effect. Eri Golembo was vice-president for sales and marketing at Computer Centers and a founding father and board member at the Association of Better Computer Dealers–now CompTIA. In the 1980s, Eri Golembo noticed that consumers would buy any new product that is made smaller, retains the functionality of its larger Heritage 2021, 4 2247

counterpart, and has a handle (is easier to transport) [47]. The effect was used as an argument for miniaturisation and advancement of portable computers that would drive demand for household computers through increasing miniaturisation. The Golembo effect was first evoked in literature by Bill Machrone [46,47], who used it in his piece on the Portable. In his paper, Machrone [46] argued that the II would be a marketing success thanks to the Golembo effect. Machrone [46] emphasised that portable computers were not as functional as their desktop counterparts, indicating that Compaq Portable II’s performance was better. The Golembo effect was first proposed on pages of PC Magazine by Bill Machrone. There, one can find reference to the effect and its description, which remains underappre- ciated in scientific and popular science literature. Still, it is an interesting aspect worth mentioning in the context of hardware miniaturisation. A portable computer should be easy to carry from one place to another (using human muscles and over significant distances, not only from the desk to a car). One should not mistake the word ‘portable’ for ‘transportable’ here. Otherwise, every computer would be portable if a sufficiently large vehicle is available. Wszola [48] proposed the following typology of portable computers in 1983: • pocket computers: they fit into a pocket, are battery-powered, lightweight, offer 1-line displays, small memory, and most commonly, BASIC preinstalled in ROM (Read- Only Memory). Data were stored on cassette tapes. Touch typing was impossible on keyboards of pocket computers. The single line could be used for elemental programming only. The Sharp PC-1500 is an example of such a computer (Figure 11). Moreover, there was a custom-manufactured version of the PC-1500 built by Sharp for Tandy Radio Shack, called the TRS-80 PC-2. Apart from a different keyboard layout, it was identical. The Sharp PC-1500 was very popular among computer hobbyists, and it was used by many companies who equipped their field staff with the machine. • briefcase computers (briefcase styling): these computers were small enough to fit into a briefcase. They usually offered a 4 to 8-line display, full-size keyboard for touch typing, and serial and/or parallel ports. They were AC or battery-powered. Most briefcase computers used BASIC, while some included applications, such as word processors, telecommunication programs, or diaries. Data could be recorded to various media. Additionally, the relatively low weight (five to ten pounds) and size of the machines made them portable. Examples of briefcase computers are the Radio Shack Model 100 or the Data General One. • transportable computers: were relatively heavy. They could be moved but not easily. Transportable computers were simply desktop computers that could be carried using a special handle in transport configuration. These computers weighed 15 to 40 pounds (7 to 18 kg), had a CRT display, and one or multiple floppy drives. Their use was limited by the access to AC power supply or a heavy battery. An example of a transportable computer is the Osborne Executive.

5.1. Display Portable computers of the early 1980s most often had the reliable CRT (cathode-ray tube) monitor. Its main issues were relatively large size, shape, and energy consumption. In addition, CRT displays were rather fragile, which affected the housing and transport conditions. They had some advantages as well. One of them was that they emitted light, which made them suitable for poor lighting conditions. They could also display any type of image, including colour (for example, the Commodore Executive 64). Plenty of software could use these capabilities. Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 12

size of the machines made them portable. Examples of briefcase computers are the Radio Shack Model 100 or the Data General One. • transportable computers: were relatively heavy. They could be moved but not easi- ly. Transportable computers were simply desktop computers that could be carried using a special handle in transport configuration. These computers weighed 15 to 40 Heritage 2021, 4 pounds (7 to 18 kg), had a CRT display, and one or multiple floppy drives. Their2248 use was limited by the access to AC power supply or a heavy battery. An example of a transportable computer is the Osborne Executive.

FigureFigure 11. 11.LeftLeft to toright: right: The The Sharp Sharp PC-1500 PC-1500 is is a atypical typical pocket pocket co computer.mputer. TheThe flip-upflip-up 80-character 80-character by by 8-line 8-line LCD LCD screen screen on on thethe Sharp Sharp PC-5000 PC-5000 is isonly only on one-thirde-third the the size size of of a a standard standard CRT screen.screen.Source: Source: Internet Internet Archive Archive (1983) (1983) [48 [48].].

5.1. DisplayThe Commodore SX-64, also known as the Executive 64, or VIP-64 in Europe, was a portable,Portable briefcase/suitcase-size computers of the early ‘luggable’ 1980s versionmost often of the had popular the reliable Commodore CRT (cathode-ray 64 home tube). and Its held main the issues distinction were ofrelative beingly the large first size, full-colour shape, portableand energy computer. consumption. The Inmachine addition, was CRT carried displays by its were sturdy rather handle, fragile, which which doubled affected as an adjustablethe housing stand. and transport Portable computers had small and lightweight LCDs (liquid-crystal display) that conditions. They had some advantages as well. One of them was that they emitted light, usually required little power and were relatively sturdy. Still, their response time was which made them suitable for poor lighting conditions. They could also display any type worse than that of CRTs; they were not as good at displaying bitmaps and did not work ofbelow image, 0 including◦C. In the colour 1980s, designers(for example, worked the onCommodore applying new Executive display 64). technologies Plenty of insoft- wareportable could computers, use these suchcapabilities. as ELD (electroluminescent displays) and gas-. TheThe Commodore Sharp PC-5000 SX-64, portable also computerknown as had the oneExecutive of the largest 64, or LCDsVIP-64 available in Europe, in 1983 was a portable,(Figure 11briefcase/suitcase-size)[48]. It was one of the ‘luggable’ first clamshell-style version of portablethe popular computers Commodore after the 64 Grid home computerCompass and and held the Gavilan. the distinction When the of PC-5000 being the is open, first thefull-colour LCD screen portable (8 × 80) computer. is lifted toThe machinereach its was operational carried by position, its sturdy and handle, when it which is being doubled closed, as the an screen adjustable tilts until stand. it covers thePortable keyboard. computers had small and lightweight LCDs (liquid-crystal display) that usuallyThe required Sharp PC-5000little power had aand suite were of utility relatively software, sturdy. including Still, their Easy-Writer response II (atime word was worseprocessor), than that Easy-Comm of CRTs; (communications)they were not as good and Easy-Planner at displaying (). bitmaps and Theredid not were work belowsold together0 °C. In as the the 1980s, EasyPac designers (also known worked as Easy-Report). on applying new display technologies in portable computers, such as ELD (electroluminescent displays) and gas-plasma display. 5.2. Software The Sharp PC-5000 portable computer had one of the largest LCDs available in 1983 Computers are useless without software. It makes them complete and usable. Thanks (Figure 11) [48]. It was one of the first clamshell-style portable computers after the Grid to the bundled software, the machine could be used out of the box. In the 1980s, manufac- Compass and the Gavilan. When the PC-5000 is open, the LCD screen (8 × 80) is lifted to turers usually delivered computers with word processors, spreadsheet applications, and reachdatabase its operational programs. Someposition, portable and systemswhen it wouldis being come closed, with the as much screen as tilts 2500 until USD it worth covers theof keyboard. software [48 ]. The Osborne 1 was sold with a WordStar, a spreadsheet editorThe SuperCalc, Sharp PC-5000 and was had compatible a suite of with utility CBASIC software, and MBASIC.including The Easy-Writer extra software II (a was word processor),estimated atEasy-Comm the time at 1500(communications) USD. It is a significant and Easy-Planner value considering (spreadsheet). that the OsborneThere were 1 soldset together (transportable as the computer), EasyPac (also including known hardware as Easy-Report). and software, cost ‘merely’ 1795 USD. All the user had to do was switch it on and insert the right floppy disc. This approach drove significant demand [49–51]. Consumer choices were affected by the comfortable portability and use conditions (weight, size, display, power source, etc.). Still, when choosing a computer, an answer to a question just as relevant back then as today is important: what will be the conditions of use? Is it office (transport from work to home), fieldwork (frequent transport and use in the field), or at home in different rooms? The place of work and conditions of transport relevant to it may be of key importance when selecting a portable computer. Heritage 2021, 4 2249

6. Conclusions There were two general types of portable computers in the 1980s. The first group included ‘truly portable’ computers that were battery-powered and relatively small and lightweight (they often looked like a large and could be put into a briefcase, suitcase, backpack, or hung on a shoulder). Their performance was not much worse than that of their larger cousins, but small size and weight reduced work comfort, mostly due to poorer display capabilities. The ‘mobility’ of these systems came at the expense of image quality. The other group of portable computers were computer systems that resembled a suitcase or were stored in trunks. The luggage held complete sets and was rather heavy. What is more, they most often required an external power source. All this made the computer portable but also cumbersome. It was a real challenge to transport it over significant distances. They were, therefore, often referred to as ‘transportable computers’. Miniaturisation and mobility of today’s equipment were not always given. Rather, they were historically pursued in different ways, not always successfully. However, it is a response to the expectations of users and software manufacturers. Users of the first portable systems had to face issues posed by their weights and sizes, lack of internal power sources (batteries), and poor image quality. Therefore, designers strove to build a complete, self-sufficient computer system with a quality colour display. Such half measures as peripherals did not resolve the problem. Eventually, all the design issues discussed here have been successfully addressed. Portable computers went from ‘trunks’ to miniaturised systems that can fit in hand. Portable computers were promoted as the attribute of a modernity in the 1980s. This approach was supported by a relevant presentation, usually in the hands of a smart busi- nessman, a man of success or on the shoulder of a businesswoman, a chic woman of success. Flagship devices survived till today, just as their dedicated transport backpacks, cases and bags, perhaps except monitor trunks. Today, users have access to traditional desktop computers, and some of them have transport handles just like in the 1980s. These are most commonly used to move computers over short distances, though. Small, lightweight, and super-performance , notebooks, and are widely used. Modern lunchbox computers are popular as well. Still, pocket computers have been replaced by smart devices. Portable computers and mobile devices keep abreast with desktop computers in terms of performance. Some of them are even dedicated to gamers or offer heavy duty performance for design, business, and professional use. They have high-quality displays and do not exceed several pounds in weight. Therefore, they can be effortlessly transported over any distance. Yet, the road that construction engineers and designers had to take to achieve what we have today was hard; and the journey is not over. The number of applications and functionalities of personal portable devices (computers) will grow even more just as their usability, despite miniaturisation. Selected functionalities can soon surpass the physical limitations if fibre backbones and conductors, cases and displays, and the latest ground-breaking machines will turn into museum exhibits. Exhibits listed as hardware heritage artefacts.

Funding: This study was financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland under the project ‘Cultural heritage of small homelands’ No. PPI/APM/2018/1/00010/U/001 financed by the Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange as part of the International Aca- demic Partnerships. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The source of the figures: Internet Archive (https://archive.org/, accessed on 25 August 2021). Access to the Internet Archive’s Collections is provided at no cost and is granted for scholarship and research purposes only. Heritage 2021, 4 2250

Acknowledgments: The paper was written at the Digital Cultural Heritage Laboratory (https:// culturalheritage.urk.edu.pl, accessed on 25 August 2021), part of the Department of Land Management and Landscape Architecture at the Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Land Surveying of the University of Agriculture in Krakow, Poland. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the reviewers for their constructive criticism, which contributed to the final content of the paper. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. All trademarks and registered trademarks mentioned herein are the property of their respective owners. The company and product names used in this document are for identification purposes only.

Appendix A

Table A1. Technical specifications of selected portable computers from the 1980s.

Release Price Attribute CPU RAM (KB) Display Mass (lbs) Type Date (US $) Apple Motorola 68000 9-inch monochrome transportable 1984 512 16.5 2495 Macintosh @ 7.83 MHz screen, 512 × 342 pixels computer 5-inch composite color Commodore MOS 6510 @ monitor (CRT), transportable SX-64 1984 64 23 995 1 MHz 40 × 25 text computer Executive 320 × 200 11-inch LCD, Data General Intel 80C88 @ briefcase 1984 128 (up to 512) 80 × 25 characters, 9 2895 One (DG/One) 4 MHz computer 640 × 256 graphics 40 × 6 text plasma @ transportable Findex 1979 48 display 20 4980 2.5 MHz computer built-in thermal printer 9-inch CRT green Zilog Z80 @ transportable Kaypro II 1982 64 monochrome display, 26 1595 2.5 MHz computer 24 × 80 text monochrome LCD, lunchbox style Harris 80C86 @ white-on-black, Morrow Pivot 1984 128 (up to 512) 9.5 1995 portable 3.33 MHz 480 × 128 graphics, computer 80 × 16 lines text Zilog Z80 @ built-in 5-inch CRT transportable Osborne 1 1981 64 24.5 1795 4.0 MHz monitor, 52 × 24 text computer monochrome LCD, lunchbox style Intel 80C86 @ black-on-white, Osborne 3 1984 128 (up to 512) 9.5 2995 portable 3.5 MHz 480 × 128 graphics, computer 80 × 16 lines text built-in 7-inch, Osborne Zilog Z80A @ 80 character × 24 line transportable 1982 128 28 2495 Executive 4.0 MHz amber monochrome computer CRT display 7-inch diagonal amber Zilog Z80 @ transportable Osborne Vixen 1985 64 display, 18 1298 4.0 MHz computer 80 × 24 text 5.5-inch amber CRT, Zilog Z-80A @ transportable Otrona Attache 1982 64 320 × 240 graphics, 18 3995 4 MHz computer 80 × 24 text monochrome LCD, Intel 80C88 @ Poqet PC 1989 640 80 × 25 text, 1.2 1995 7.0 MHz 640 × 200 graphics monochrome LCD, Radio Shack Intel 80C85 @ briefcase 1983 8 (up to 32) 40 × 8 text, 3.9 1099 Model 100 2.4 MHz computers 240 × 64 graphics LH 5801 @ LCD, 26 × 1 text, Sharp PC-1500 1981 3.5 less than 1 200 pocket computer 1.3 MHz 156 × 7 pixel Heritage 2021, 4 2251

Table A1. Cont.

Release Price Attribute CPU RAM (KB) Display Mass (lbs) Type Date (US $) lunchbox style LCD, 640 × 80 pixel, Sharp PC-5000 1983 @ 4.77 128 11 1995 portable 80 × 8 text computer EL backlit (blue) LCD, lunchbox style @ Sharp PC-7000 1985 320 (up to 704) 640 × 200 graphics, 19 1795 portable 4.77/7.37 MHz 80 × 24 text computer Radio Shack Zilog Z-80A @ 12-inch monochrome transportable TRS-80 1977 4 (up to 48) No data 599.95 1.77 MHz monitor, 64 × 16 text computer (Model I) TRS-80 9-inch, monochrome CRT, transportable 1983 Z-80A @ 4 MHz 64 (up to 128) 26 1790 Model 4P 80 × 24 text computer 10-inch backlit LCD, lunchbox style Intel 80C88 @ Zenith Z-171 1985 256 (up to 640) 80 × 25 text, 14.4 2699 portable 4.77 MHz 640 × 200 graphics computer NEC V30 (80C86) 7.0 × 2.75-inch LCD, Zeos PPC 1992 @ 640 80 × 25 text, 1.2 595 pocket computer 4.77 MHz/7.15 MHz 640 × 200 graphics Zilog Z-80 @ 7-inch green/amber CRT, transportable Zorba 1982 64 22 1595 4 MHz 80 × 24 text computer Source: own study based on technical specifications published by digital computer museums.

References 1. Ruggles, D.F.; Silverman, H. From Tangible to Intangible Heritage. In Intangible Heritage Embodied; Silverman, H., Ruggles, D.F., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2009; pp. 1–14, ISBN 9781441900722. 2. Król, K.; Hernik, J. Digital Heritage. Reflection of Our Activities; Publishing House of the University of Agriculture in Krakow: Krakov, Poland, 2020. [CrossRef] 3. Loulanski, T. Revising the Concept for Cultural Heritage: The Argument for a Functional Approach. Int. J. Cult. Prop. 2006, 13, 207–233. [CrossRef] 4. UNESCO. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. 1972. Available online: https: //whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 5. Wang, X.; Lasaponara, R.; Luo, L.; Chen, F.; Wan, H.; Yang, R.; Zhen, J. Digital Heritage. In Manual of Digital Earth; Guo, H., Goodchild, M.F., Annoni, A., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 565–591. ISBN 9789813299153. 6. UNESCO. Concept of Digital Heritage. Available online: https://en.unesco.org/themes/information-preservation/digital- heritage/concept-digital-heritage (accessed on 25 August 2021). 7. Takhteyev, Y.; DuPont, Q. Retrocomputing as preservation and remix. Libr. Hi Tech 2013, 31, 355–370. [CrossRef] 8. Tait, E.; MacLeod, M.; Beel, D.; Wallace, C.; Mellish, C.; Taylor, S. Linking to the past: An analysis of community digital heritage initiatives. Aslib Proc. New Inf. Perspect. 2013, 65, 564–580. [CrossRef] 9. Kaldrack, I.; Leeker, M. (Eds.) There Is No Software, There Are Just Services; Meson Press, Hybrid Publishing Lab, Centre for Digital Cultures, Leuphana University of Lüneburg: Luneburg, Germany, 2015. [CrossRef] 10. Kittler, F. There is no Software. Stanf. Lit. Rev. 1992, 9, 81–90. 11. Manovich, L. Software Takes Command; Bloomsbury: London, UK, 2013. 12. Ceruzzi, P.E. A History of Modern Computing; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2012. Available online: https://mitpress.mit.edu/ books/history-modern-computing (accessed on 25 August 2021). 13. Wirth, N. A Brief History of Software Engineering. IEEE Ann. Hist. Comput. 2008, 30, 32–39. [CrossRef] 14. Portree, D.S.F. Mir Hardware Heritage; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center: Houston, TX, USA, 1995. 15. Explore the NASA STI Repository (NTRS). Available online: https://sti.nasa.gov/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 16. Barley, B.; Bacskay, A.; Newhouse, M. Heritage and Advanced Technology Systems Engineering Lessons Learned from NASA Deep Space Missions. In Proceedings of the AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition, Anaheim, CA, USA, 30 August–2 September 2010; AIAA SPACE Forum; American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics: Orlando, FL, USA, 2010. 17. Mahoney, M.S. What Makes the History of Software Hard. IEEE Ann. Hist. Comput. 2008, 30, 8–18. [CrossRef] 18. Mahoney, M.S. The History of Computing in the History of Technology. Ann. Hist. Comput. 1988, 10, 113–125. [CrossRef] 19. Schielke, P.J. Old hardware new students: Using old computing machinery in the modern classroom. J. Comput. Sci. Coll. 2014, 29, 74–79. 20. Bashe, C.J.; Johnson, L.R.; Palmer, J.H.; Pugh, E.W. IBM’s Early Computers; MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1986. Heritage 2021, 4 2252

21. 11 Lessons: Managing Design in Eleven Global Companies; Desk Research Report; Design Council: London, UK, 2007. Available online: https://www.designcouncil.org.uk/resources/report/11-lessons-managing-design-global-brands (accessed on 25 August 2021). 22. AlNoamany, Y.; AlSum, A.; Weigle, M.C.; Nelson, M.L. Who and what links to the Internet Archive. Int. J. Digit. Libr. 2014, 14, 101–115. [CrossRef] 23. 23. FINDEX Microcomputer with Bubble Memory 1980. Internet Archive. Available online: https://bit.ly/findex-portable (accessed on 25 August 2021). 24. Carrying Cases from Radio Shack. Microcomputer Newsletter—Edition No. 2 (1978-11). Available online: https://bit.ly/Radio- Shack-case (accessed on 25 August 2021). 25. A Tandy Company, 1980 Catalog No. 315. p. 170. Available online: http://pdf.textfiles.com/catalogs/RADIOSHACK/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 26. The Guy on the Left Doesn’t Stand a Chance. Personal Computing 1981 12. Internet Archive. Available online: https://archive. org/details/PersonalComputing198112/page/n43/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 27. It was inevitable. Microcomputing Magazine, June 1981; 25. Available online: https://archive.org/details/kilobaudmagazine-1981 -06/page/n23/(accessed on 25 August 2021). 28. Executive Sweet. Creat. Comput. 1983, 11, 48. Available online: https://archive.org/details/Creative_Computing_1983-11/page/ n51/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 29. Osgood, D. The Osborne 3. Mag. 1985, 10, 284–289. Available online: https://archive.org/details/BYTE_Vol_10-09_1985-09_ 10th_Anniversary_Issue/page/n287/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 30. MS-DOS Portable, Pivot Has Modem, Drive Built in. Byte Mag. 1984, 9, 46. Available online: https://archive.org/details/byte- magazine-1984-08/page/n51/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 31. McCarthy, M. Pivot II Update: Warning Signal Gives Portable a Higher Score. Infoworld 1985, 7, 46. Available online: https: //books.google.com/books?id=My8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA46 (accessed on 25 August 2021). 32. Radio Shack Catalog RSC-10 Computer Catalog. Internet Archive. Available online: https://bit.ly/Model4P (accessed on 25 August 2021). 33. Kalinowski, F.S. Color by Percom. 80 Microcomputing 1981, 68–87. Available online: http://bit.ly/80-Microcomputing (accessed on 25 August 2021). 34. 80 Microcomputing Magazine (April 1980). Percom Electric Crayon. Available online: http://bit.ly/Electric_Crayon (accessed on 25 August 2021). 35. Otrona Attache. OldComputers.net. Available online: http://oldcomputers.net/attache.html (accessed on 25 August 2021). 36. The Zorba Portable Computer. Byte Mag. 1983, 8, 441. Available online: https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1983-01/ page/n450/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 37. Rimmer, S. The Zorba. Comput. Now 1984, 2, 30–33. Available online: https://archive.org/details/ComputingNow1984-02 /page/n29/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 38. Z-170 PC Portable Computer, Owner’s Manual. Zenith Data System. Available online: http://oldcomputers.net/Zenith-Z-170- operators-manual.pdf (accessed on 25 August 2021). 39. The Sharp PC-7000. Personal Computer World, December 1985; p. 153. Internet Archive. Available online: https://bit.ly/sharp7 000 (accessed on 25 August 2021). 40. Data General One. Old Computers. Available online: http://oldcomputers.net/data-general-one.html (accessed on 25 August 2021). 41. Introducing the Data General / One Portable. Byte Mag. 1984, 9, 33–36. Available online: https://archive.org/details/byte- magazine-1984-11/page/n33/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 42. The power to be your best. Even when there’s no power. MacWorld 1989, 42–43. Available online: https://archive.org/details/ MacWorld_8911_November_1989/page/n57/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 43. Apple Reinvents the Notebook. Byte Mag. 1992, 17, 253. Available online: https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1992-03/ page/n277/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 44. Galloway, P. Retrocomputing, Archival Research, and Digital Heritage Preservation: A and iSchool Collabo- ration. Libr. Trends 2011, 59, 623–636. [CrossRef] 45. Burnet, M.; Supnik, R. Preserving computing’s past: Restoration and simulation. Digit. Tech. J. 1996, 8, 23–38. 46. Machrone, B. Here it comes—The Compaq Portable II. PC Mag. 1986, 5, 147–149. Available online: https://archive.org/details/ PC-Mag-1986-03-25/page/n145/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 47. Machrone, B. DOS to Travel. PC Mag. 1986, 5, 108–140. Available online: https://archive.org/details/PC-Mag-1986-07-01/page/ n111/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 48. Wszola, S.J. How to choose a Portable. Byte Mag. 1983, 8, 34–47. Available online: https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-19 83-09/page/n35/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 49. Osborne computer. Byte Mag. 1982, 7, 31. Available online: https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1982-04/page/n31/ (accessed on 25 August 2021). 50. Pournelle, J. The Osborne 1, Zeke’s New Friends, and Spelling Revisited. Byte Mag. 1982, 7, 212–213. 51. Collins, R.H. Portable computers: Applications to increase salesforce productivity. J. Pers. Sell. Sales Manag. 1984, 4, 75–79.