Constantly Mobilized. Mass Rallies In

CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Professor István Rév Iordachi Constantin Supervisor: Professor

Constantly Mobilized. Ethiopian War In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of :

Case StudyBasedthe onProvince ofIstria

Mass RalliesMass in Fascist Italy During the 1935 Central EuropeanCentral University

History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts David OrlovićDavid Submitted to

2013 By

- 36 CEU eTD Collection

or part, may part, madeor be accordancethe in with only bytheand instructions Author given lodged Copyright intextof rests the the thisthesis eitherfull Copyright with byany in Copies Author. process, i n the CentralDetails n the mayfrom European pageLibrary. This must obtained librarian. be the form apart of anysuch copies made. Further copies made accordance in with such instructions may not be made without the wr the instructions mademaywithout be not

Statement ofCopyright

itten ofAuthor. permission the i CEU eTD Collection pedagogyFascist aiming tot for the andof a as tool propaganda useful inwell militaryEthiopia, endeavor regime its and war order mobilization in of constant Ethiopian to supportfromthe masses obtain towards the rallies through the writing of their émigré press. majority ofSlav authorit improvised bylocal Rome,regional in were events,imposed center or or spontaneously the initiated from even rallies were highly centralized propagandistic celebrations, with an ideological meaning way they were presented thein press. The thesis also deals with the question whether the mass rallies, with an emphasis on the manner in which thefascist authorities prepared them and the confidential documents, discussI the main organizational and ideological features of the mass regime representation of these events through the writing of the regime Italy's Provinceof correlation Istriain of the 1935-

In In this thesis, amI analyzing the mass rallies that the Fascist regime organized in It will be argued that the Italian Fascist regime - speaking people, I willspeaking I also people, include their ies. ies. Since theProvince of Istria's population madewas by a

al fascistization of theIstrian people. Abst

ract

36 Ethiopian war.36 Ethiopian R organized the mass rallies during the

perception of theFascistmass

- a ffiliated press and elying on elying official ii CEU eTD Collection

to well as through help wholeTimár, greatly the academic,a whose year writing myimproved English Eszter goes professor least, to not gratitude my but immense topic.And last onthe knowledge must I easier. also thank professorRév, István valuable whoinsights provided wit lot a thesis my onthis made work that innovative forsuggestions his Iordachi Constantin supportduringfor their myNext must abroad. I stay my thank supervisor professor I must first thank my family; my father Aniko Molnar, who made my student life AnikoMolnar,made lot my a who student

Acknowledgments Branislav easier. , mother

Fernanda

and grandma h his

Rita iii s

CEU eTD Collection

Bibliography Appendix I Conclusion IV. Apotheosis the of Nation:Celebrating Victories the and Proclamationof the Empire III. Ita III. II. Mobilization The Initial Mass Rallies in Fascist Italy Fascist in I. TheoreticalRallies Framework: Explaining the Mass Introduction

IV.4. IV.3. TheSlavic reception theEmpire of Creation and Apotheosis The May”: “Radiant The IV.2. IV.1. Victories, Celebrating Finally. the Battles 1936. Early in III.3. Concluding remarks III.2. Commemorating Istria’s Fallen Soldiers Sanctions Nations’ of League the to Related Events III.1. II.2. TheAdunata delle Forze delRegime II.1. Greeting Istria’s Soldiers I.7. Concluding remarks I.6. The Ethiopian War: “Relaunching the Revolution” and Apotheosis II.5. Concluding Remarks II.4. TheSlavic Reception II.3. The Takeover of Adua I.5. Genres of rituals in Fascist Italy Fascist in rituals of Genres I.5. StateI.4. Rituals and Party Enthusiasm Masses’ the of Usage Regime I.3. RoletheI.2. of MassTotalitarianism in Rallies ItalianI.1. Fascism: AnExperiment Totalitarian of Political Religion ly Victimized:toly Responding the Remembering Sanctions and the FalleninEthiopia Concluding Remarks

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of October 2 October of

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1935 ......

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.... 85 84 81 79 78 66 63 63 62 50 59 50 47 25 25 23 20 19 43 46 33 16 11 15 iv 1 9 8

CEU eTD Collection Colonialism] sense of discomfort and their acclamations were spontaneous”. 2 1 mentioning the war, and newspapers were filled with ecstatic letters from the front. More coursepassed without school single a not victory, after every regime’sby the organizations Fascist pro The popularity of in war official domestic the forEthiopia. the fascist regime support the and its initial stages, the economic sanctions imposed by the League of Nations increased the of that educational entertainment and educational system, leisure working the place. and implies that every facet theof figure around “mass consent and state Fascist of of ofcorporative genuine asconsolidation a 1930s forging period the a the finished and the Italian Empire was proclaimed hy historiograp regards 1936.Modern in May generatedeuphoria in Italy Fascist the War Ethiopian after of 1935- oncolonialism leading the historian Italian Boca Del followshis Angelo description of the

Državni Arhiv u Pazinu (DAP), Prefecturein Pola (PP), 1935, b(ox): 281,f(older): XVII Angelo Del Boca, Del Angelo “Maybe for the first time lives, in their Italians wore their Fascistdresses without a continues at sound of national hymns stop, proclamation our King Emperor greeted by explosion of exaltation stop demonstration of joy enthusiasm became uncontainable at announcement annexation Ethiopia to Italy and Massive crowd around three thousand persons intervened at gathering in Albona stop huge the Prefecture in Pola describing the mass rally after the proclamation of the Empire on May 9 May on Empire the of theproclamation after rally themass describing Pola in Prefecture the 1936

(Telegram Italian in

period. of consolidation in in of invasion Ethiopia The Italian 1 , paganda celebrated incessant Italian victories in Ethiopia, parties were organized )

Milano 2010 Milano Guerra d'Etiopia. L'ultima impresa del impresa colonialismo L'ultima d'Etiopia. Guerra , 243. ,

sent by sent

of the society was ideology,of society the invaded byfascist including the

the commander of the Carabinieri lthough there was widespread skepticism towards thewar in Benito Mussolini Benito Introduction late 1935 and early 1936 is often seen as the climax the as 1936is oftenseen early 1935and late Marshal Laurenzi Marshal

and hisand F

[The Ethiopian War. The Last Feat of of Last The Feat Ethiopian War. [The ascist regime.ascist This perspective

in the Istrian town of Albona to 2

With these cautious words

36 was proclaimed as - A - 5 - 10/2

th 1

CEU eTD Collection WorldWar I comprehensive of viewby ofseries works was Boca,as Del his Angelo about published part was theFederal Secretary (Se provinciallevel,On head the the ofNational Party the Fascist ( Comuni various the while name variants for the localities that will be used. all toponyms in the Province were given their Italian namevariants. In this thesis, the Italian “other” [ term the under authorities assimilating of mostly tool a as used the local oriented mostly against socialists, in the Julian March authors today “Border call Fascism”. Italy two thirds), the fascist totalitarian repression policies region. border 1935- achieved by the leadership of theFascist regime. fateful hills ofon Rome”May 9, considered are the climax of societal awide consensus Ababa s

pecifically, the dayspecifically, the of 1936,after May ,

sincewere they

1936. on May 5and the proclamation ofItalian the Empire, the rebirth ofEmpire the the“on Much has has war writtenEthiopian Much Italian been onthe in historiography. Themost allotherItalianProvinces, one Like the Istrian This thesis focuses on allo ] “descent” [ P art of the wider - Austro doomed the from Since the oriented against Slavic speakers (Croats and Slovenes)

majority of the genos

(municipalities) in it had the Podestà allogeni gretario federale). The provincial capital of Istria was Pola. ]. Julian March ( Fascist Italy's Province of Istria The namesThe and surnames of theSlavs were Italianized, and . Th Thus, w

population e the the Italian occupation capital ofEthiopian Addis the Hungarian Empire

word derive Venezia Giulia Slavic speak

hile in Italy proper fascist repression was in in Provincewasthe non-

were different ascom region

was headed by the Prefect ( s

fromGreek and mean ing population, referred to by the bythe to population,ing referred

, the P , the (and thus Istria), oppression was oppression Istria), thus (and )

region, as theofficials heading them. Partito Nazionale Fascista Partito Nazionale (or Pola), rovince was a contested annexed pared to the rest of the to rest pared during years the Italian

in what many what in by Italy afte by Italy s

people ofpeople Prefetto

(roughly (roughly

), 2 r )

CEU eTD Collection 2011. Gentile’s bookGentile’s Sacraliz issue ofmass rallies in Fascist Italy in general was tackled in two works. First, in Emilio and state impact of propaganda pages. theevents (such as huge markingendrallies the of in war the 1936) May mereon a couple of the war, during but Ethiopian oftheir aretodescriptions confined the analyses the main recently, Emilio Gentile in his work his updated on findings Ethiopianthe War Italian colonialism in E 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Civil War. The main works on the Fascist regime in the Julian March written in Italy are less, chapter,one even conflated with or being the the discussionimpact about ofSpanish the Dukovski in this p Fascist Marchduring the regime region Julian anti and CroatIstria. Slovene and historians mainlyantihave focusedonthe Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of Inter only slightly onthe topic of the massrallies during the Ethiopian war.

the Two Wars], Ljubljana 1965. Ljubljana Wars], Two the of the Empire] Press, 1997. Press, Boca, Del Lavo Čermelj, Slovenci in Hrvatje pod Italijo med obema vojnama [Slovenes and Croats Under Italy Between ErnestRadetić, Istra p Mabel Berezin, Gentile, Emilio Gentile, Boca,Del

Darko Dukovski, Dukovski, Darko Tone Crnobori, Borbena Pula [Fighting' Pula], Herman Buršić, Od ropstva do slobode. Istra 1918 - Istraslobode. do ropstva Od Buršić,Herman

There noThere is workdealing No work has yet comprehensive yet work has No erspective, are the works of Ernest Radetić, Ernest of works the are erspective, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist in Italy of Politics Sacralization The Gli ItaGli 11 Guerra d'Etiopia,

, and Herman Buršić. Herman and

Milano 2001.

Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of of Inter Culture Political The Self: the Fascist Making Fascismo di pietra di Fascismo liani in Africa Orientale. II. La conquista dell'Impero dell'Impero conquista II. La Orientale. Africa in liani - 1918 u Istri. Fašizam od Italijom 1918. 1918. Italijom od ast Africaast

ation of Politics in Fascist Italy

Milano 2010.

[Fascism Stone], Roma of - 12 - sponsored events on the everyday life in the country. The country.The everydaylife the sponsored eventsonthe in

( In these analyses, however, the Ethiopian war occupies just occupies war Ethiopian theseanalyses, the In however, with the topic on a provincial level, more specificallyon level, provincial on a topic thewith – Gli Italiani in Africa Orientale 1943 1943

1943.[Istria Under Italy 1918-

Fascism of Stone of Fascism [Fascism in Istria 1918 Istria in [Fascism ly ly

Rijeka 1972. Rijeka

focused war onthe in a distinct volume. , Cambridge,, Mass,: Harvard UniversityPress, 1996 1945 [From SlaverytoFreedom. Istria1918 8

Bari: Laterza, 2010 Laterza, Bari:

Lavo Čermelj, Lavo - Fascist local resistance. Most notable, 5 -

war Italy , tackle thequestion ofmass rallies - 6 1943] -

[Italians in East Africa. II. The Conquest Conquest The II. Africa. East in [Italians war war Italy and second, MabelBerezin’sin 1943], Rijeka 1991. Rijeka 1943], . - related mass rallies and the Pula 1998. 4 )

. . 3 Both Del Boca Both Del and, more , Ithaca: Cornell University University , Cornell Ithaca: 7 9

More recently, Del Boca

Both these works Both these

Tone Crnobori, - Slav the repressionin

- 1945], Pula Pula 1945], 10

Darko Darko

touch 3

CEU eTD Collection 2007. Society in the Years of Consolidation of Mussolini's Dictatorship] of Consolidation the of in Years Society consolidamento della ditt Bari 1966. March], the Julian in The Julian March Question and Slovene Remembrance], Zagreb 2011. Province of Istria and its connection to the political center in Rome. Unfortunately, due to a it is hoped that the thesis will contribute to the effort of reconstructing the political life in the war people. ofIstrian fascistization the total pedagogy for the aiming of Fascist tool propaganda and masses towards the regime and its military endeavor in Ethio allthese obtain to regime events in constant organized order frommobilization of support the orevents, initiated evenimprovised spontaneously bylocal authorities. will argueI thatthe ional imposed meaning Rome,reg ideological celebrations, an in were from with center the or propagandistic highly centralized eventswere see to if Ithese try Bythat, doing press. f the which onthe withmanner featuresofemphasis an theseevents, in ideological and organizational connected Venezia Giulia by Apih, Elio authored 17 16 15 14 13 Slovene and émigrés Croat take myonthe Except student’s theseworks, in even However, related

1935

David Orlović, Orlović, David Marina Cattaruzza, L'Italia e il confine orientale 1866 orientale e il confine L'Italia Cattaruzza, Marina Italia, fascismo e antifascismo nella Venezia Giulia (1918 Venezia Giulia nella e antifascismo fascismo Italia, Apih, Elio Marta Verginella, Granica drugih. Pitanje Julijske krajine i slove krajine Pitanje Julijske drugih. Granica Verginella, Marta Almerigo Apollonio, Venezia Giulia e fascismo 1922 - - related consent-

36 According to the Zagreb Emigre Journal Istra], MA thesis, Pula 2012. Pula MA thesis, Istra], Journal Emigre to Zagreb the According 36

My My This thesis eventsin their journal Istra

to aim aim ascist authorities prepared these events and the waywere presented they in the the Ethiopianthe War (1935- Etiopski rat 193 Etiopski region. is is to to focuses building operations and t contribute atura mussoliniana

Almerigo Apollonio, Almerigo

5. on -

36. prema pisanju zagrebačkog emigrantskog lista Istra existing to existing the the war Ethiopian mentioned is a in mer the the , 17 regime

there isthere nowork focusing impact ofwar onthe the the in 36). 36). [The Julian March and Fascism 1922- - It It explores how many place, took events main the organized massrallies he war’s impact on everyday life in Italy. Also, Also, Italy. in everydaylife on impact war’s he knowledge about the Fascist the regime’sabout knowledge Ethiopian 14 - 2006 [Italy and the Eastern Border 1866

Marta Marta - 1935. 1935. , Gorizia: Libreria Editrice Goriziana, 2004. Goriziana, Editrice , Gorizia: Libreria Verginella Una società post nsko pamćenje [The Border of the Others. the of Border [The pamćenje nsko

’ -

1943) 1943) writing about the war Ethiopian

[Italy, Fascism and Anti Fascism and [Italy, 15 pia, as well as a useful in the P the in

and CataruzzaMarina e couple of sentences. - asburgica negli anni di - post A 1935. rovince of Istria [TheEthiopian War - 2006], Milan Milan 2006], Habsburg - fascism fascism

16 4 - .

CEU eTD Collection someevents from ofthe a different perspective. The journal included commentaries to current four weekly a Yugoslavia, who ran Zagreb, in intellectuals situated notable of the exception with of group absent, a conspicuously paper. Nonpaged - four) or section (pagesthree twoand Province” three) “Newsthe (pages or from news.Theworld research will be based on the regime in the Province of Istria. movement, the paper sided with Mussolini's ideology, later the namechanging Corriere into Istriano hundred Thethree new issues. contributed to voiced opposition or them. reception to theseFascist mass rallies and to the extent avenue of research will be, however, to gain as much aspossible insight into the Slavic reports. This is, however, an important issue that deserves further research. A secondary in attitudes regimeofficial confidential documents they be reports, pr or Italian masses to the Fascist mass rallies, but will confine itself to the analysis of popular of s lack 18 newspaper Croatia (Državni arhiv u ). Pazinu Istriano propagandist nature organized by the Fascist regime in Istria, using the press, the

- (1807

Marcello Marcello Bogneri, 1947)], Trieste: Italo Svevo, 1986., p. 111, 147. 111, p. 1986., Svevo, Italo Trieste: 1947)], The methodology willThe methodology onanaly mostlyzing all focus war Most of the thesis will be based on the analysis of articles from thePola daily ources, the thesis will not in explore ources, the will comprehensivea thesis bythe mannerresponse real the an d Corriere Istriano Istra La stampa periodica italiana in Istria (1807 (1807 in italiana Istria stampa La periodica

journals, and confidential and documentsjournals, StateArchive in the from Pazin, Italian or oppositional press able to cover the events in Istria was

published May between1935and May s paper started publishingpaper started 1919in the name under of L'Azione 18

The front page was usually used for publishing orItalian pageforThe front publishing used wasusually

in 1929. In the early periodin the of 1929.In early the Fascist

articles from the –

1947) to to become the voiceofficial of the

to the which Slavicpopulation [The Periodical Italian Press in Istria in Istria Press Italian Periodical [The

émigré Croatian and SloveneCroatian émigré

“Chronicle from the city” - paged journal covering covering journal paged

- related events of 1936, approximately 1936, approximately opagandistic pressopagandistic s

of this fourof this Corriere

5 a - ,

CEU eTD Collection a campaigna ofneed and victimization for patriotic mobilization. will Similarly, it how analyze mobilizing the inmass rallies crowds by the regime wasexploited new and how and that Italy 6 ofhistorically symbolicOctober townof oftakeover Ethiopian the celebration Adua the on 2 onOctober ofRegime Forces” “Gathering the the war: ofEthiopian start the very capital departingof up fromPola, greet soldiers provincial the war inEthiopian culminated the connecti their and Italy, theinmassrallies explains background thoroughly of Gentile'she which on Emilio workin outlineshort discussing the nature of Fascist Italy asa totalitarian regime, will I put purposes ofmass rallies in pressinformation encounteredthe in theand various are letters and telegrams between Rome and the Prefecture in Pola, as well as between Pola Statefundus the from Archive in Pazin 1935 the be - ofnwill informatio source A second Yugoslavia. Julian March, news, asinsights as well into 19 1935.

1940], in: godine“ [The Paper 'Istra', Voice of the Union

Ive Mihovilović, “List »Istra«, glasilo Saveza jugoslavenskih emigranata iz Julijske krajine od 1929. do 1940. The second chapterThe second will deal with the first mass from organized rallies 1935onto May The first chapter will give a theoretical framework to the thesis The third chapter will Pazinski memorijal 19 This last group of articles will be used for this thesis.

obtained through cross through obtained

Istrian localities. on to the fascistization and mass consent operations in the 1930s the mass operations andin fascistization consent the on to - 107 pp. (1970), 2 , totalitarian regimes in g

tackle the imposition of sanctions by the League of Nations on ofbythe of imposition League sanctions Nations the tackle the daily life and events related to the Slavic population in the population the in related Slavic the events and to dailylife the .

The primary materials will be confronted with existing . - of Yugoslav Emigres from the Julian March Between 1929 and border smuggling of informationKingdom into the of , boxes no., boxes 281. 264,280and 127.

36 material36 from Prefecture the Pola in eneral and eneral to the events that marked the eventsthat the to Fascist Italy. After giving a

The documents analyzed The documents analyzed

aiming

to explain the explain to

nd emphasis

and theand

that that th 6

CEU eTD Collection 5 capitalAbabaonMay of Ethiopian Addis the of end notablyby the marked war, after massrallies the byhuge announcement fall the the of ia andEthiop how concluding they celebrated, were with the enormous enthusiasmprovoked organized kindthatsense. mobilization what masswere and in of rituals the 9

th 1936.

first news of Istrian soldiers killed in Africa was exploited for further patriotic The fourth and last chapter will return to the victories that the Italians began scoring in

and the proclamation ofEmpi the and the

re on re May 7

CEU eTD Collection strength, and on the symbolic link with ancient with Rome”. link symbolic onthe and strength, “grass connotations ofthe emphasizingboth conflated, society. As a symb a symbol ofthejuridical authority of themagistrates, aswell asthe unity and strength of a Roman civilization and in visual representations always shown carried by Roman word Latin creating a new civilization. devoted to the totalitarian and imperialist project of by governingparty,and that the doing man” conquering “new ofa indirectionofaimingforging total society, functioned the a at aimedideology, monopolysingle ofa the Itas power. wasbuilt at movement party a revolutionary organized throughall into which, an The Fascist regimeBenito Mussolini of in Italy was organized by a military organized 22 21 20 Payne Emilio and Stanley Gentile. Roger GriffinFascism saw as“agenus ofpolitical influential names dealing with the topic of Italian Fascism Renzo are de Felice, Roger Griffin, phenomenonexplanations ofpolitical the 20 the throughout arose category. latterwith alower case “f”. universal political phenomenon, scholars spell Italian Fascismwith a capital “F”, while the between the wordas a designation for the Italianmovement or regime or generic a and “Fascist”, deriving from the word

Iordachi, New York:Routledge, 2010

Ibid, 3 Ibid, Constantin Iordachi, Emilio Gentile, Cfr. I.

: Explaining Explaining the Rallies Mass Fascist: in Italy Framework Theoretical - The conceptof “fascism”debated historiography, highly various a topic in as is 4.

of rods sorrounding an axe existing fasces, designatingbundle a ofsorroundingexisting the axe in ancient rods an ol and name and ol movement later forand the regime,meanings these both were Politics as a Religion a as Politics „Introduction“ 22 20

This paper, dealing with the regime in Italy, f Where does thenamefor theregime comefrom? The term , in: in: , , 16.

Comparative Fascist Studies Fascist Studies Comparative fascio , Princeton , , meaning “bundle” or “union”, has its roots in the, meaning itsrootsin “union”, has “bundle”or –

Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2006, 46. 2006, Press, University Princeton Oxford: 21 - roots political activism,and unity

– In orderIn to make a differentiation

New Perspectives th -

party party regime it and century. Themost century. - absorbing type of of type absorbing , ed. Constantin alls into the first Lictors, was

CEU eTD Collection totalitarianism as a trend in politics, while Friedrich’s and Brzezinski’s, ‘ope Autocracy (1951) and Carl J. Friedrich’s and Zbigniew Brzezinski’s work work War, Second the Hannah Arendt’s World with after of regime? them bythe inherently in Fascist Italy? experiment of totalitarianism? Second, what is the role of mass rallies in totalitarian s several problems that will be tackled in this chapter analyzmost thoroughly during withand the regimethe period main “oceanic being the assemblies”. symptom it of National Socialism, Italian Fascism he man.a new nationalism”, aiming for the rebirth of the nation and the transformation of the individual into whose ideology mythic its core in permutations various i 25 24 23 control over the life ofItalians. bythepower” movemenwell as t, byMussolinias his and followers theirin quest of total by used opponentsand the of the Fascists for purposesof denouncing the “total monopoly on historiographyin whether it applies Fascist to was Italy. inIt thecoined 1920s early Italy in The term ‘totalitarianism’ is old as the term ‘fascis I.1.

Constantin Iordachi,New Yo

Iordachi, Iordachi, Ibid, 120. Introduction”, “Fascism: Griffin,Roger General Italian Fascism Italian

The topic of this The topicof this “Introduction“,

(1956). Arendt’s, ‘developmental’ modelmostly deals the with of origins 23

When fascism explaining asacharismatic form ofpolitics, he noteslike that :

A ed by Gentile. Using Gentile’s Gentile’s authors’ Using and byGentile. findings, ed are other there rk:Routledge, 2010, - chapter n 29.

Third E

xperiment of T of xperiment

25 , these “oceanic assemblies” asevents of public ritual, were , what is the role of emotions at rallies and the exploitation

The first influentialThe analytical takes on the termoccurred ld the charismatic aspect after the revolutionary stage

118. in: in: Comparative Fascist Studies

otalitarian otalitarian m’ itself, and is it also a contested concept . First, can Fascist Italy be considered an P olitical olitical s a palingenetic formof ultra The Origins of TotalitarianismThe Origins of Totalitarian Dictatorship and – R

New Perspectives eligion

rational’ or or rational’ tates an , ed. 24

d 9 -

CEU eTD Collection existence for individuals and the collectivity, at least on this earth”. ofmeaning human aim fundamental and to the determine prerogative the claim for itself over religioustaking the dimension and acquiring a sacred nature, politics went so far as to “(b)y Enlightenment, the period after the in that religion. He political notes a as it identifying that it was not fully implemented.” toward totalitarianisminter in - “evenlevelorganization, drive if the unfulfilled ofthe that at who state allegedly argue mobilization ofma the andthe monarchy Church, to intotal traditional bureaucracy,led the which failure totalitarianism scholars regard the Fasc ist experiment ‘imperfect’ (Renzo De Felice) or even ‘failed’ for non- evidence the seenare as such. Lack ofmass terror and a small number of executions in Italy is the main function. ‘functional’ model tackles themainfeatures of thetotalitarian regimes, well ashow as they 29 28 27 26 a plurality of ideas” system guarantee of “thepolitical formsa that bythe sacralization explains he which religion, phenom that as afully

Ibid, xv. Gentile, Ibid, 33. 29 Ibid, Gentile of nature his reinforced totalitarian ItalianFascismGentile conviction on the by ideological monism,and the obligatory and unconditional subordination of the individual and apolitical of system sacralization the founded on unchallegeablemonopoly of power, Both inArendt’s andFriedrich’s and Brzezinski’s works Fascist Italy is not considered -

Politics as a religion Politics 32. 26 - built totalitarian regime, because only

enon back to the American and French revolutions. American French from the and Differently to civil back enon

(Alexander de Grand), due to the regime’s compromises with the Catholic 29 , Gentile regards political religion as totalitarian nature of FascistItaly in the views of theseauthors. Other sses. On the other hand, there were authors, headedGentile authors, byEmilio were there hand, other On the sses. , xiv.

war Italy was genuine and should not be dismissed on the count dismissedonthe be not should and Italywar wasgenuine

Nazi GermanyNazi the and Soviet Stalinist Union

He traces the origins of 10

CEU eTD Collection Italian Fascism of asaproject gradual process of creating a totalitarian state. totalitarian community and the fascistization of the masses, agrees with Gentile’s approach to English under the title The Politics of Sacralization Fascist in Italy work showing characterimovement regimethe and fully 32 31 30 American social scientist and anthropologist David I. Kertzer, “(m)ass rallies are one of the unity.national festival were aimed at bringing the masses of people closer to the state and and thus create that post democracythe ofin instruments popular the as festivals The American cultural historian George L. Mosse, stressing the mass rallies and public I.2.

University Press, 1987, 107. 1987, Press, University

George L. Mosse, Gentile, Ibid, xv.

Role ofMas the Role This paper, This its in approach to the Gentile convincingly explored Italian Fascism as the first nationalist totalitarian of a society’s collective life. collective asociety’s of invasi itsthe collectivity to code a comandments.political of is intolerant, religion Consequently, Il culto del littorio. La sacralizzazione della politica nell’Italia Fascista What since was present theEnlightenment period was an idea which would replace thoseof the Church national unity, but in order to achieve this purpose they had to be filled with symbolisms o maintenance the ensure beyond such moral purposes: they were designed to make people love the Republic and to (…) as themodels for uplifting public and private morals. But festivals were supposed to go Jean

The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist in Italy of Politics Sacralization The Similar ideas can be translated from nations to political groups. In the view of the ve, and fundamentalist, and it wishes to permeate every aspect of an individual’s life and life individual’s an of aspect every permeate to wishes it and fundamentalist, and ve, Jacques Rousseau first put forward ath forward put first Rousseau -Jacques Masses and Man. Nationalist and Fascist Perceptions Reality of Perceptions Fascist and Nationalist Man. Masses and s Rallies in Totalitarianism s in Rallies

30 f order and public peace. Festivalswould berededication a to

events of public ritual as a driving force in creating a . 32 ,

Cambridge,Mass,: Harvard UniversityPress, 1996

eory of public festivals and stressed their purpose purpose their stressed and festivals public of eory stics of a political religion in of in 1993 stics political a his religion

- Enlightenment periodargues in 1996. in , Detroit: Wayne State Detroit: , Wayne that events of public eventsof public that 31

, translated to

11 CEU eTD Collection subjected to the law of the mental unity of ofmental tolaw crowds”. unity the subjected the t same and direction, i view, translation 1895 LeBonhis psychologist in Gustave common use.” for a together many so people impacthaving of emotional the with symbols, combined increasing their identification with the group (…) the group and goals.”its He seessuch rites as having “powerful effects on the participants, strengththe of political a fosteringcertain images in exhibiting group’s and nature regarding publicsupport(…),dra demonstrate in meansboth most effective to 38 37 36 35 34 33 German despotism indeed is condition a of obtaining their foll a explains which fact the rapid turning ofsentiments d a the in of crowd a children”. and women, savages, mainly “in judgement and of thecritical spirit, the exxageration of the sentiments”, elements observed characteristics of crowds are “impulsiveness, irritability, incapacity to reason, the absence of crowds. LeBon’swith workand an took example fromfor his own it tacticsof control over the master”. flock to is LeBon,crowd servile ofAccording a thatis “a withoutincapable ever doing a

Ibid, 120. Ibid, 118. Ibid, 39. Ibid, 36. Gustave Le Bon, David I.Kertzer, n a crowd, the sentiments and ideas of all the persons in the gathering take one and the the and one ingathering take the ofpersons all ideas and crowd,n a sentiments the

Führer These “powerful effects”masses on were explored by the 19

The of Crowd: A Study the was Popular publishedMind a year later) Such leaders, view,Such leaders, his in “wieldvery a should and despotic authority, this 33

The Crowd Ritual, Politics and Power Ritual, Politics and Adolf Hitler,the Duce heir conscious personality vanishes”. It becomes a“single being, (…) , New, York, The Viking Press,1960, 23

, New, Haven

of Italian Fascism Benito Mussolini came in contact 35 work

Also, he noted “excessive suggestibility a “excessive (…) noted he Also, –

London: Yale University Press, 1988, 119. 119. 1988, Press, University Yale London: L a psychologie des des foules a psychologie through the carefulthrough the of manipulation 34 owing”

Le Bon noticed that that themain - 24.

Indeed, withIndeed, along the Nazi th

century French socialcentury efinite direction”.

(The English (The . In LeBon's matically

12 36

CEU eTD Collection 2003, 77. 2003, emotion of solidarity and not a rhetoric of persuasion”. political rhetoric a not and emotion solidarity of “the something there morethe for explain suchneed to events? emotions, show of drawing and force members of mass a closer to the movement/regime. Is propaganda”. performative language a thathad captivating unequalled force by traditional means of employed politicians, instead and ofa the typical bourgeois rational rhetorics “avoided 43 42 41 40 39 spiritual of formation and collective organization “through the masses participation of the propaganda hoperational could ever achieve”. to farmorea wayeffective of producingconsent approvaland of the presented message than “(t)ranslating fascist ide essential element ofmass politics in a contemporary state.” vision of political expression anand their coherent them considering a manifestations, “fascists (…) first believe in the quality of their mythsand the ofserioussness their notmass is enough. of psychology mere of sideshow result the and work of propagandaapparatus a poised manipulation for the

New York, Routledge, 2004, FeldmanMatthew (ed.), Press, 1997, 249. 1997, Press,

Mabel Berezin, Berghaus, 80. Ibid, 78. Güther Berghaus, Gentile, Gentile, piazzas Another scholar, American sociologist Mabel Berezi Gentile argues that to arguesthatto Gentile look public at demonstrations onBuilding LeBon’s Günterviews, B

The Struggle for Modernity: Nationalism, Futurism and Fascism

for public aimingspectacle” create a “to community of feeling based onthe 39

Making the Fascist Self: The Political Culture of of Inter Culture Political The Self: the Fascist Making

Thus, we findcorr a “The Ritual Core of Fascist Theatre. An Anthropological Pers An Anthropological Fascist Theatre. Ritualof “The Core Fascism. Critical Concepts in Political Science, vol. 3: Fascism and Culture and Fascism 3: vol. in Political Critical Science, Concepts Fascism.

ology into a mythical language (…) through ritual performances was ritual performances mythical language(…) athrough into ology 72.

elation ofelation mass to rallies state propaganda,appealing to In opinion, his myth the aroundmade built the Fascism 42 erghaus argues that thetotalitarian leaders

n sees the Italian Fascist usage of -

41 war war Italy and parades in Fascist Italy as a

Similarly, Berghaus states that , Westport, Co Westport, , pective”, in: Roger Griffin, , Ithaca: Cornell University University , Cornell Ithaca: 43

The regime sought nn –

London: Praeger, Praeger, London: , London – London , 13

CEU eTD Collection masses bythe regimes. education the of constant a mobilization”in of “perpetual state a harmony”“collective in masses towards the state. The totalitarian states used these events for of well attachment the as inevent, an such participating individuals among both the feeling façade a of“behind efficiency”. orderand fantasies, and enthusiasm”, especially in the times of economic crisis, to hide the problems Overall, the ch the greatness of the totalitarian regime and sacralizing the image of theDuce and the Party. manifestation of an image of Italian unity with the Fascist regime, legitimity and emphasizing Fascist revolution”, constant a indoctrination. mobi perpetuosly be to masses for the educational activites of thestate. usingunity” myths. 47 46 45 44

Ibid Ibid Ibid, 85. 82. Fascist Italy, Politics in of The , Gentile Sacralization , 81. , 86. the participation of the masses in the life of the regime the of life the in themasses of participation the all Italians; it had to be transformed into tradition and custom, to arouse and give substanceto state, theFascist relig partaking of the faith. Through ritual, constant cathechetical indoctrination by the party and the

To sum up, various authors agree that the events of public ritual bring about cohesive a authorsbring events agreethatthe ritual various ofTo sumpublic up, Nevertheless,Gentile fin (a) the masses and conquer their consent – consent their conquer and masses the

tion to organiza promote asatotalitarian the mobilization wasasimportant mass liturgy of ief aim was “to influence public opinionemotions, bysummoning influencefeelings, public ief aim“to its was 44

Gentile

ion must become an essential component of the mentality and character of of character and mentality ofthe component essential an become must ion

calls calls it the creation throughof “harmonious whole” re the the ds also mainthree propaganda aims oftheseevents: 45

It wasIt aconsensu lized in what theregime saw 47

understood not as free and critical participation, but as but participation, critical and asfree not understood

He argues that

s - building propaganda operation, aiming operation, building propaganda . 46

an aim for the “continuous “continuous aimforan the

purposes of creating a 14 - CEU eTD Collection connecting it to it to ideaconnecting the manipulation of bytheIn state. her opinion, regime’s the aim of Führer described the irrational enthusiasmtowards the regime andfanatical devotion towards the themselves. of ruling are uncapable thatthey reason,and not feelingsemotions, and were In Gentile’s opinion, the Fascists were sure that the main driving force I.3. 51 50 49 48 abuse. drug or of result alcohol a “intoxication” as or “drunkenness” it wa theperiods in previous connotations, while positive festivals andmass rallies. some ofunique the traits of National Socialist ‘spirit’ and practice” during the Nazi regime collective violence and fraternization”, and, above astate all of “ecstasy believed Nazi Germany described in the word “Rausch”, which expresses “enthusiasm, fanaticism, regime masses mass presentat rallies organized by totalitarian regimesmanipulation the and by the cohesive force of therituals. andsusce while primitivechildhood society” psyche collective of the back “slipped into many people argues,adding that Berghaus ofsubsequent economicperiod and hardship of threat revolutionary activity by Left,the ofperiods crises thatprovoked sense a of disorientation, such as the First WorldWar and the The public celebrationsconsiderable a had impact on the aftermasses’ emotions prolonged

Experiences”, Experiences”,

Ibid, 4. Ibid, Arpad von Klimó, “Nazi Discourses on ‘Rausch’ Before and After 1945: Codes of Emotions and 78 Berghaus, Ibid Regime Usage of the Masses’ Enthusiasm Masses’ the Regimeof Usage .

s themselves. For instance, Árpád von Klimó finds the concept narrowed to the case of case the to concept narrowed the Klimó finds von Árpád instance, For themselves. s , Adolf Hitler. Simonetta Falasca- Research has been done on the relationship between ecstatic emotions among the

http://www.escholarship. - 79 ,93. 79

Zam 50 49

Klimó argues that only in the Nazi period did this term gain

poni applied poni the concept of ecstatic crowds to Fascist Italy, org/uc/item/6f03t43x ptible leadersptible the the and the to promises of

(accessed on March 2, 2013), 1, 3. 1, 2013), 2, March on (accessed

s an expression to describe 51

In short, the term the short, now In

amongmasses the

to to represent 15 48

CEU eTD Collection government. of his theand support leader wild,towards channeled the tamed”,run and allowedbut to not concludes her analysis by stating that “the ecstasy that takes place in fascism checked is in to be put in the perspective of fascistization of themasses ded second36. This deduction, for useful this research and to be more deeply analyzed has later, sense,narrower the aim of creating consent for the campaign Ethiopia in in the period 1935- fascistization ofmasses and the the spreading of theFascist religion among them, and specific objective she is out, pointing we can deduct, in the broader aimsense, the of the “co reach a wasto puts ofmasses, she it, state a ecstasyas through manipulation obtaining among the 54 53 52 collective worship: they were an occasional crowd than rather a liturgical mass”. ceremonies, althou illumination of allpublic buildings. However,in Gentile’s this view, and otheroccasional parades military the and first Sundayinincluded and every June, whichItaly, wascelebrated of Statute holiday honoringUnification one the and 1922,national only wasthe Until the I.4. direct it inspecific objectives. and wasit possible to be exploited by the regime to create consent around itself, as well as to

4. Rausch and and Rausch Fascist Italy“,

Gentile, Gentile, 8. Ibid, Simonetta - Falasca State and Party Rituals Thus, we seethat enthusiasm was

The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist in Italy of Politics Sacralization The mmunion with mmunion andthe with leader” for otherspecificobjective.an 53

Zamponi, „Ecstatic Crowds, Addicted Dictators, Intoxicating Politics: Reflections on on Reflections Politics: Intoxicating Dictators, Addicted Crowds, „Ecstatic Zamponi, gh thousandswith of people attending them, not “did represent true http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/67w279nj#page

clearly createdof theclearly events through public ritual, , 11. ,

- 1

(accessed on March 2, 2013), 2013), March 2, on (accessed uction. Falasca 52

For this other this For 54

- He seesaHe Zamponi Zamponi

in a a in 16 CEU eTD Collection es due to a lack ofmass organized lack of a exploitation to symbol. due and es ritual failure in the liberal government to achieve collective enthusiasm and mobilization of the 60 59 58 57 56 55 Italian of make publicof to withorganized discipline, other political badly events contrast Fascists. important instances in Fascist liturgy were the ritual of swearing gatheringmovement group which and is referred in to ofthe Statutes Fiume”. journal campaigninterventionist Fiume and adventure. rituals borrowedthose were Christianity from were D’Annunzio’s and in in already use members, attract public support as well as frigh of theatrical publicmartial rituals, meant strenghten a of to communionsense among its creating in national ritualsthroughnovel of organisation mass his meetings. interventionist promoting the through camp aign for Italian intervention in the war made a strong contribution bard,“prophet, high and of priest renewed a ‘patriotic religion’” D’AnnunzioGabriele religion”. religion”. historypolitical of Europe a as thus whole, is for Italy and developmethe Italian Regency of the Quarner. As is the First WorldWar an important threshold in the Rije theHe same implemented briefmodus during operandi his therule in cityof Fiume (today

Gentile , , Gentile Cit. in Gentile, “The Theatre of Politics in 76. in Fascist Italy”, Politics Theatre of “The Cit. in Gentile, Ibid, 22. Ibid, 28. Ibid, 17. Ibid, 12. ka in Croatia) where he acheved fusion of arts and politics in apolitical entity called the In its “blackshirt In its era”, before taking power, the Fascistmovement developed a series A new phenomenon came Italy’sparticipation with in the Great War, when the Il popolo d’Italiaat 1922th in Fascism has returned to Italian cities that art of human 60

The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist in Italy of Politics Sacralization The

The c The eremonies were meant to be strictly choreographically organized and a show

, 25 , 58 tening political enemies. - 28.

Gentile quotes the writing quotes the of Mussolini’s Gentile

55 - in in and funerals offallen

nt of its “patriotic Some elements of 59

The most 17 56

CEU eTD Collection indissoluble union between Fascism and the state”. sealonthe “setting holidays, the national into transformed celebrations soon were fascistized by the new regime.Fascism itself began to be celebrated, and t in 1927isit a goodmetaphor of how pre fas the and form of disturbances. of public events ritual, the policewhile apparatus’closesupervision aimed any preventing at theto new outlawed.regime its ideologywere and TheParty imposed its leadershipover antagonistic liturgies imposingoverall strictcontrol them. limitationand through Effectively, state”. totalitarian a nationorganized a into “projectedontoconceptofnation, the eventually forces. 65 64 63 62 61 events of various genre to attend andto feel theregime’s constant presence their in lives. andParty, imposed on strictrules all publicmanifestations. The people had now calendar a of regime fascistized the already ex ritual of Italy, public enthusiasmin exploiting the by them itspurposes.The created for which set an annual rhythm of ritual ceremonies and celebrations with rallies October 1922. takeoverin of power their after Fascists monopolized and bythe quickly became theappropriated as “rebirth ofnation” war the the population meant population towas attend.

Ibid, 48. 36 Ibid, See Ibid, 88. Ibid, 28. Ibid, 76. 62 61 We seethat the Fascist regime gave importance and even esthetic value to the events Besides paving the way

Nearing the end of1920s, the the regime allmanifestations, disciplined chiefly In Gentile’s words, the sense of communion created through these ceremonies wa theseceremonies created words,through sense of the communion Gentile’s In cistization of the Italian royal coat of arms by adding the lictorial fasces symbols to - 42.

for the creation of the Fascist movement, of remembrance ofFascist the the creation for the

isting ritualsin the process of connecting the State and the - Fascist symbols and rituals became appropriated and 65 64

The regime implemented a calendar The same counts for the Statute Day, Statute for the counts The same

in which the the which in he party he

18 s CEU eTD Collection Fascist Italy Fascist celebrating tamingcelebrating the ofRomanity and nature. ( Day and October Revolution anniversary festivities inthe Stalinist Soviet Union. points out Gentile, were the festivities and cults of theFrench Revolution, aswell as the May memorialor for services fallen Fascists. demonstrations. of rituals in Italy: commemorations, Fascist celebrations, symposia, and inaugurations We will use American sociologist Mabel Berezin’s classification clear of five different genres I.5. 72 71 70 69 68 67 66 or memorial layingof ofthe a newor opening a building form works the the of in public headquarters.premises, mainly other of On the the meant inaugurations initiations hand, looked at the past,“celebrations reveled in the present and in thefuture”, argues Berezin. passage and celebrated with utmost solemnity. Party from Fascist as of the whuch regarded rite Youthorganizations, a into conscription the as well as events such asthe“Calling of the Colors” ( the victory in entryin Greatof April), Warthe Rome (24 (21 onRome May), the March and October) (28 theevents: ofanniversary of foundation the the groups combat (23Fascist the March), Birth

Festa dell’uva

Berezin, Berezin, 37. Italy”, 86 Fascist Politics in of “The Theatre Gentile, Gentile, Gentile, Berezin, 37. Fas Politics in of “The Theatre Gentile, Berezin, 37. Genres of rituals in Fascist in Italy rituals of Genres ns, conventio congresses, lecturesSymposia involved and meetings FascistParty at included otherhand, of various Celebrations, onthe visits Italy, to ofparts Mussolini infollowing the regimeglorified and were nation the commemorative the events In The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist in Italy of Politics Sacralization The Fascist in Italy of Politics Sacralization The , 90 ,

91. the Great War (4 November). ), celebrated on the last Sundayof last Septe onthe celebrated ), 66

cist cist Italy”, 80. 68

What Mussolini and his regime took as an example, example, an regimeas took his and What Mussolini 67 , 65 , 86. , -

87.; See also Gentile, Gentile, also See 87.; Berezin puts into thiscategory publicfunerals - 70

66.; Berezin, 37. 66.; 71

Also, the traditional Feast ofGrape traditionalthe Feast the Also, In contrast with commemorations which mber, was a “joyous and solemn rite” rite” solemn and “joyous mber, wasa Leva Fascista

The Sacralization of Politics in in Politics of Sacralization The ), th e celebratione of 69

19 CEU eTD Collection Berezin. inaugurationsplace”, persons; boundto boundto were concludes were “Symposia monument. 76 75 74 73 the character of Italians” aswell as “toughen them, and in the process, restart the stalled Ethiopia in endeavour for remaking society.” plans their apply to elsewhere looked usefulness. Fascist(…) technocrats were clearly stymied by the failure of corporatism and ideological dead proclamation of the Italian Empire. placetook throughout 1936 May to celebrate conquestofthe Addis Ababa and the League of Nations sanctions was one such event, but the most enthusiastic mass gatherings gave wedding the their womencountry ringstothe countrypressed help throughout bythe series of events. The so rituals were thevastassemblies which occurred during theEthiopian campaign”. Emilio Gentile went to claim the that “most grandiose events in the history of Fascist mass I.6. of (1935 during the occurred - Italian invasion Ethiopia this last genre of ritual in Fascist Italy are the “ public emotion in supportof fascism”, Berezin. sums up announcement ofbeginning announcement the campaign on2

Phase, 1935 Phase,

AlexanderDe Grand, Italy“, 84. Fascist Politics in of “The Theatre Gentile, 37 Ibid, Ibid, 38. The Ethiopian War: “R According According to AlexanderDe Grand, mid the “by the 1930s regimeFascist an was at “purely events,usually represented Demonstrations helddisplayexpressive rallies, to - 73

38. –

1940”

, - Co end. Theend. rative reached had limits experiment corpo propaganda the of its ntemporaryEuropean History “Mussolini's Follies:

would be “the measure of howmuch fascism had succeded in altering - called “Day of Faith”, held on18 held “Daycalled Faith”, of

elaunching the elaunching the

Fascism in Its Racist Its Imperialin Fascism and , Vol. 13, No. 02, May 2004,

R adunate evolution” and 36). nd

October 1935 fir was the ”, the vast popular assemblies that

74 th

December 1935 in which Italian Italian which 1935in December Definitely, the best example for 76

The impending colonialThe impending A 136. potheosi

st long a in 75

The The 20 CEU eTD Collection Africa. sightofthe Italiansoldiers leaving their cities and towns boarding and ships bound for Stanleysituation. Payne “tremendous notes the provoked among enthusiasm” public by the participation definitely was ab Starace’s endless choreographed rallies no longer appeared as stupid absurdities”, war, the regime would create “organized and disciplined masses”, and in this context “Achille of nowforeigntotalitarian the implemented regimepolicy. nature through was that ofBottai. the citing writing Giuseppe De Grand revolution” adds 83 82 81 80 79 78 77 the regime’s usage of the League of Nations sanctions for pro Ethiopia in progress in firstslow couple ofthe months. The lack of victories was filled with an with and ofcampaign, welcomedfear evident start the isolation Italianpublic the the endeavour. only after the fact that the British and French will not intervene against Italy’s colonial thatanti concluding a “proletarian war” as attracting consensus among the wider public, and Communist leaders ofduring war. periodleadership countryjust the the ofEthiopian the noting worth is tenof thatthe out total Duce held a sixty during his held fourhe speeches of an a internalpolicycampaignpart to state.overall of moreItalians the bringing closer

De Felice, 52. Felice, De Ibid, 235. Stanley Payne, Gentile, 138. Grand, De Felice, De Ibid, 137. the fascistization process of the20s and early 30s failed, and thethat way to achieve the 81 Felice’s opinion, the consent of the Italian people towards the evident towards opinion,the is war consentofItalianpeople Felice’s the De In war eoverall th in the ofEthiopian importance fascistization the To explain process, it

9 maggio 1936:l'impero torna Roma a He also notes clandestineHe also communist acknowledgeing reports the notions Fascist of

Intervista sul fascismo Intervista 83

Indeed, Gentile notes the initial wide scepticism and low enthusiasm with

A History of Fascism, 1914 Fascism, of History A - nationalist rhetoricshould beoff. put temporaneously , Michael A. Ledeen (ed.), Ledeen Michael, A.

out rising the excitement of the Italians with the overall - , Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995, 234. 1995, Press, of Wisconsin University Madison: , 1945 [9 May 1936: The Empire Returns to Rome]

Rome: 1999, Laterza, 69. paganda A ofpaganda purposes. drive 77

Renzo Renzo De Feliceargues 80

The Duce’s physical 82

78 79

but werebut Through Through

which which

21 CEU eTD Collection Colonialism] on March 4, 2007, audio version available at: added to the to directedadded hate towards new a enemy – own”. succeeded where hisliberal successors tended to having Duceas public generally seeingthe opinion off, Italian propagandaeffort paid “huge love emotion”. and of political placethat took May in 1936. The aim ofthesemobilizations was to regime”. events (…) are blurry suggest and a mass raw of living bodies giving consent to the same while analyzing the pictures of theadunate in thenewspapers: “(t)he pictures of these and war emphasize to the unanimous consent towards Gentileit, suggests. masses, not the Duce, like if the regime wanted to show that it was with their will to wage the assembies listening to Mussolini’s speeches on the 5 the and proclamationwas announced ofEm the 1935.However,thelate culmination cameof events 1936, May early war’s end in when the ofcollection material valuable was culminatingorganized, in the - so 89 88 87 86 85 http://www.laterza.it/index.php?option=co 84 spontaneous”. Italians wore their Fascist dresses without a sense of discomfort and their acclamations were be apermanent state of the nation’s collective life”. camepopulation of state a to communion, Mussolini closest mystic which wouldhave liked to

(accessed on March 3, 2013) 3, March on (accessed

Payne, 234. Payne, Berezin, 123. Italy“, 84. Fascist Politics in of “The Theatre Gentile, Berezin, 123. Gentile, Angelo Del Boca, Guerra Boca, Del Angelo d'Etiopia. L'ultima impresa del colonialismo 89 Gentile a

The Ethiopian war achieved the emotional solidarity of the people with the regime, war the achieved with emotionalsolidarityThe Ethiopian the ofpeople the 85 9 maggio 1936:l'impero torna Roma a

Milano 2010., 243.

With these words Angelo Del Boca follows his description of the euphoria euphoria the of description Bocafollowshis Del Angelo With words these rgues that “it was perhaps at this point that the regime and the Italian

Payne notes that with the end of the war in May 1936 May in the thatend the notes ofwar with the Payne m_laterza&Itemid=97&task=schedalibro&isbn=9788849100259 [9 May 1936: The Empire Returns to Rome] , Lecture given

fail: Italy had won campaigna sizeable of its pire happened. Thepire newsreels of the vast 86 “the League of Nations and theliberal

“Maybe for thefirst time in their lives, th

and 9 and [The Ethiopian War. The La th May 1936 show just the just 1936show May give thepeople “afocus calledof“Day Faith” in 84

Berezin notes the st Feat of of Feat st

22 CEU eTD Collection exacerbated and exploited by the totalitarian regimes, allowing the feelings of the masses to process called fascistization. The irrational state of ecstasy during events of public ritual w mobilization” in aconstant education of themasses by the regimes, in the Italian case, a used these events for purposes of creating a “collective harmony” ofa state “perpetual in such an event, as well as frommasses the towards directed thestate. The totalitarian states democratic regimes rapresen it 90 have Italian approachto Gentile’s Emilio masses, into fits which of fascistization the community the and seen as one of themain driving forces in the process of thecreation of atotalitarian imperialist project of the gov of a conquering aiming forging society, at The Italian Fascist state was built as asingle- remarks Concluding I.7. regime. the with Fascist of state unity closest the comingto theand celebrating victory, assemblies oceanic 1936with ofhomogenization concentrated,May thein people culminating mass the ritual Throughoutcontributedto of theand rallies war, public purposes. events foreignItalian policyand the regime’s of exploitation outside pressure for propaganda Leader. its all,

Berezin, Berezin, 123. the Fascism of asaproject gradual the process of creating atotalitarian state. We that Ethiopian see the War the revolution” “relaunched people with by unified the Various 19 Various

purpose bring to a about feelingcohesive individualsparticipati among both the

century thinkerscentury and modernauthors agreethat the eventsof publicritual

erning erning party. The mass rallies as events of public ritual should be

ted”. 90

It was the apotheosis of wasthe apotheosis It Italian and, the Nation, above party regime fuctioning in the direction of a total

“newman” to totalitarian the and devoted

ng in 23 as

CEU eTD Collection of the agreewasauthors oceanic 1936 with ass towards the inwar A progress. culmination with occurred the official end of the war homogenization the ofpeople contributed to the the war, the speechesThroughout of theDuce, of the policyand exploitation pressureregime’s foreign f outside attend demonstrations and to inaugurations to. symposia, celebrations, commemorations, as such genre, of of various calendar events a given Stateand Party, the the imposedand strictrules on allpublic manifestations. Thepeople were purposes.its The regime fascistized the already existing rituals in theprocess of connecting Italy,public ritual in exploiting the by enthusiasmcreated as eventssuch Duce and Ethiopianthe of war 1935- be directed towards closer connection

Italian people to The Ethiopian War “relaunched the revolution” with people unified by the Italian Italian bythe unified War thepeople revolution”with The Ethiopian “relaunched The Fascist regime gave greater importance and even aesthetic value to the events of

the possible highest

emblies celebrating the proclaimedvictory the Fascis

t regime. state of enthusiasm most of and, importantly, attachment state with and the state, in the Italian of casethecult the

mass and rallies 36.

and theemotionsand canalisation of their them and the cohesive effects for other other

and creating, what creating, and or propagandapurposes.or events of public ritual ritual events of public in May

many many 24 CEU eTD Collection militia. “ Afr participants demandto to enrolled be in the departing armies to the Italian colonies in Eastern Pola, followed by several events in which rallies were organized in order to allow its organized from gatherings at and preceding This chapter will deal with two 93 92 91 ports. the to from Marchregion, and there ofJulian center the capital totby only sen provincial be Pola, train the bases in congregated the in to Trieste, the 1935. August and February between occurred mobilization ofsendingItalian expedition process ofmajority whole the and the the and embark “proletarian” Fascist wagea The ideologised to war. upcomingimage, the highly a war give to soon were be joined by the fascist blackshirt MVSN the Africa February1935, mobilizedin were army ofregular for divisions the Eastern The first Istria’s Soldiers Greeting II.1. on October 1935

Adunata delleAdunata Forze del Regime

See: Polson Polson Newman, See: Acronym for the Anthony Mockler, ica asvolunteers.ica The second group of events marked thevery start of the war: Peloritana and the celebration of the takeover of the historically town ofhistorically symbolic Ethiopian the oftakeover celebration the the and

ing

of soldiers on of soldiers ships took place in the Italian ports ofNaples, Messina and Gen 6 th . , stationed in Messina,, stationed in the and Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale Haile Selassie's War the very beginning of the Ethiopian War. The first group consists of mass of War.consists group Thefirst beginningofEthiopian very the the Italy's Conquestof Abyssinia,

May 1935 to greet departing soldiers from the provincial capital of capital of from provincial departing soldiers the greet to 1935 May

II.

The Initial Mobilization ” or the “Gathering of the Regime Forces”

, Oxford 2003., categories of 62 , inGavinana Florence. - 46 64.

93 events - 47.

In the Province of Istria, the soldiers

, the , the fascist official name of

that 92 , units, since Mussolini wanted to

the regime organized in Istria Since for the purpose of this purpose of for the this Since 91

The regular soldiers

on October 2 blackshirt blackshirt of Adua of Adua

ova t he he 25 nd ,

CEU eTD Collection and the industry workers. industry the and flowers, the GUF with their goliardic hat, as well as invitations to the Combattenti Giovanile respective headquarters the. participate were Fascioto ordered Theotherorganizations districtual groups of were Pola published in the journal, asking them to congregate a from 60 the based be reports. will onnewspaper part this documents, archival were of found departure the events in onthe norecord thesis 95 94 patriotic songs. the , marching and playing fanfare Theceremony bands were to prior headquarters ofthe start the ceremony, mass the linedupalong the streets,while the their soldiers in the congregation of the foAfter will ask r.” ofdominions wider conquest ofhonor binding the volunteerism of traditions the people of Istriato the new deeds that the unstoppable units towards enthusiasm” the thatwill “first of havehigh Istrian soldiers the 22 t for dispositions The onEthiopia. attack the series of mass rituals that were to happen in theProvince of Istria in thewake of Italy’s

l’Africa Orientale”, l’Africa

Ibid. la “Stasera cittadinanza dara` il entusiastico salute alsuo primo Camiciedi nucleo istriane partentinere per nd 1935.The announcement that read

heart, with passion chose its way of duty. of way its chose passion with heart, any which, without towardshesitation, unit a withof thisfirst agreater vision but itsNation in The Federal Secretary of theProvince Francesco Bellini’s o the proud volunteer soldiers andtell will of departure the in participate will (…) citizens the all admiration deep and pride great (w)ith The W on May happened22 on hat

fir (Youth with Fascio) fanfare, thetheir Fasc th st group of Provincial troopsdeparting the capital of wereblackshirts Pola the

Legion of the MVSN “ he gathering to take place in Pola take placein on to evening of gathering departure he the upontheir May Corriere Istriano Corriere Istriano 95

, May 22 May , nd

Istria s whats the nd

1935, p. 2. p. 1935,

announced departure their advance and in published ”. ”. 94 The ofdeparture thesesoldiers from opened Pola

them what is the grateful spirit of Pola and Istria what spiritPolaand of them is thegrateful

Corriere Istriano io Femminile

described as a“greeting of

(Women’s Fascio) with rders for theFascist which sawthewhich

(Veterans) t their 26 CEU eTD Collection enrolled as volunteers in the forces departing for East Africa. on evening of 28 endeavor, the May the local characte r. shown to the mass asan indivisible ofpart the Fascist colonial project in away to emphasize of of dating theancient Italians to Rome.history Istria back of Istria”. people emphasizing Istria’s role in Fascist deeds, “worthy ofmillenary the glorious traditions of the marching playedband.music bythe Thejournal describing article the events concludes by atgreeted 19.00departed, train Finally, acclamat PM,the byloud soldiers, Thepeople thetoo. departing soldiers, greet to present were ofandof Province,rolemodels bravery the utmost Nation. the dedication towards the railway station volunteer soldiers towards through city parade the joinedmembers of organization youth by 97 96 generation” new gatheringfascist was “ofis the th “without previous spontaneous, Dopolavoro 40

Ibid. Ibid. th

blackshirt legion did really imprint an important sense of need

The whole procession then arrived at then arrived station, procession railway The whole wherelocal the the fascistoffici that they masses theto propagandashowed the Indeed, their sons w (…) ones humbler the especially people, the (a)ll Indeed, whatIndeed, may prove that the massgathering of the departing greeting soldiers of the p anew inscribe to wants Italy where land away far that in represented tobe proud is Istria fascist and Italian

gave numerous gifts to gave to gifts numerous the food, soldiers, including cigarettes lot and headquarters inheadquarters Pola where

that are departing for Africa, they want to greet and bless them, and tell them that that them tell and them, bless and greet to want they Africa, for departing are that 97 , started Corriere at the 18.00PM.According to Istriano

Without any doubt, the wri age militaryand of civil glory

th , a gathering was held in the hallofProvincial the the in washeld gathering , a

“around sixty” . 96 ter here alluded to the continuation of the

ere ere

in the streets, because it wants to see see to wants it because streets, the in students from Istria asked to be The The

The The we Fascist , re going greet to trueheroes Corriere Istriano e specially relatives of the ions from the crowd and ions fromand crowd the to soldiers of Istria were

participate in Italy’s , s

of flowers. of flowers.

note d that that als als 27 CEU eTD Collection 14 the of the heroes manof in Istria. anew The element local e is drive the ofas thepresentationpublicofsuccess forging the the towards to wider the Fascist the Duce”, the Corriere Istriano Port’Aurea S ended Pola’s at Thegathering songs. patriotic and volunteeringyouth citycenter followed byprocessions bythe throughsingingof the Italy’s war effort against Austria volunteers withlocal who Maracchi,helped whonewthe volunteers Giovanni compared these of”.capable Thespeech wasfollowed one, byanother by held the fascistleader local in meeting,the he which fact in emphasized the that the “youth that could participatenot ready a youth vibrates among the thisIstriaof(…), ours “provesthat thisact the that fact underlined communiqués”, the result of “voices circulating in half a day”.ofwriter The the article 98 at “Ro 16.00,with departed time train the departure of 22 given. fromevening theonMay late gifts Differently blackshirts the the ceremony of farewell is led by the highest officials of the city, with short speeches and repeated amid “flowers thrownbalconies from and frenetic applauses” . Atstation, railway the the

p. 2.

“Gli studenti polesi chiedono in massa di arruolarsi per l’Africa Orientale”, l’Africa Orientale”, per massa arruolarsi in chiedono di polesi studenti “Gli

th the [FirstWorld] war,

Corriere Istriano

when the sailors from the “S. Marco” marine infantry battalion were departing. This time, sensibility towards momentItalian the that people is now into”. The second greetings to soldiers departing fromPola towards East Africa came on June A speech by dr.A speech professor Torcello, Brunone “one ofpromoters the of the gathering” led World models new youth. War,for role the fascist

describes it in a more austere fashion. The procession through the city is is themore aTheprocessioncity fashion. in through austere describes it or or thein Revolution, fascist felt the need to are show they what

concludes. - Hungary between 1915 and 1918. The speeches were were 1918.Thespeeches 1915and between Hungary man salutes and singing from the departing soldiers” singingfrom and departing man the salutes

This mass rally, spontaneous or not, can be seen seen be can mass not, This or spontaneous rally, mphasized in the r quare with “h with quare e - Corriere Istriano Corriere evocation of the local Italian 98 ails to the to Kingand ails

, 29 , th

May 1935, 1935, May nd

either either , this 28

CEU eTD Collection and the “Salute to the Duce” the journal underlined to “Salute bythe the and 100 99 The ended personally. gathering Benito to Mussolini veteran of the organization sent Pola that Fasci di Combattimento washeld gathering whichresonance proves that Istria is second noneto in the moments of (…) new battles”.The “ division students, new a groupIstrian asked to enrolledvolunteers be in as Africa Pola. in the “San previous, the the soldiers guess,excluding is thattheof not possibility departing second high regular troops, and the ideologyelement connected to the MVSN troopslacked here. A thatth wouldbe e guess One possible gifts. leading provincial, military and fascist officials greeted them officially, amid speeches and through the streets of the city amid acclamations by marched soldiers the improvisation”.Again, of intouching ritual happened “a from Pola departureaccompanying the of group the second of of the soldiers Marco” “San battalion present thein description of theacclamations. the farewell carry Orientale”, Orientale”,

Cor

“L’entusiastico saluto di Pola al primo scaglione di marina del ‘S. Marco’ partiti per l’Africa Orientale”, l’Africa Orientale”, Pola saluto partiti marina Marco’ per di del al di ‘S. primo scaglione “L’entusiastico

“Due Compagnie“Due del glorioso Battaglione Marco’‘San sono partite ieri a mezzogiorno per l’Africa riere Istriano 100 that heroism and that language of local At noonof 12 September A demonstration in which volunteerism was the topic followed. which in topic volunteerismwas the A demonstration

In this case, too, the event is missing both the local andideologized elements. highly local is themissing too, event both thiscase, In Marco Corriere Istriano Tevere”: the veterans from the FirstWorld War, in a new gesture of national

to to the fascist blackshirts, nevertheless, the citizen’s affection and emotions are , 15 ” were not from Istria, but th

June 1935, p. 2. p. 1935, June on the evening of 24 August evening on the , September 13 , , and , and involved a short speech, and the public ofreading the telegram

th th

, the Corriere Istriano 1935, p. 2. p. 1935, s e

gift of Istria towards theNation aswas in the caseof two events were organizedtwo eventswere for departure ofthe the

from other parts of Italy and only serving their duty duty their serving ofonly parts and other from Italy

in the large hall of the hall Federation large of the the in the people, while at the railway station . 99

Interestingly, this article does not

reported, a similar event Like in thecaseof the , in , in Blackshirtthe 29 CEU eTD Collection women of fascist organizations, friends and relatives present. The journal note present. Thejournal friends relatives organizations, and fascist women of Istriano “ the moduleswith being signed by 103 102 101 “ fascist and singingof playing the amid the atdeparted 15.55PM The train again leadingincluded ceremony and station, officials, the of friends At the relatives. farewell workers Corriere Istriano marchedand through the cityled by marching the of band the Dopolavoro the . According to congregated onDante Alighieri S of farewell occurred on September 30 employed be help to to workers the were Pola “Direct one onthem,including inscriptions wagons had their much smaller number. becauseof probably the greeted soldiers, of group people smaller thata fact the underscores des the already departed “ theemphasis rolemodelveterans,of the event, and the volunteering ofprevious of deeds Istriano 1

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, st Giovinezza

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, “I reduci polesi ed istriani chiedono unanimi di essere arr “Gli operai partenti per l’A. O. salutati da l’A. salutatiper da un O. partenti operai “Gli O.”, l’A. per istriani Volontari dei scaglione secondo del partenza “La cription is not that of a grandiose event such as the first departure in departure in the and journal first May, such the as ofevent grandiose a cription is that not Istria A third group depar ofA third people aIndeed, s , August 24 August ,

describe were greeted by flower throwing throughout their march towards the railway station.

”

L ”. egion were greeted upon their departure onSept departure uponwere their greeted egion 103 th

d econd, this timemuch smaller

, the workers “wore black shirts”. As in the case of departing soldiers, the The workers’ departureThe workers’ wasclearly ideologized, proof being of that their 1935, p. 2. p. 1935,

the ceremony taking place at Pola’s railway station, with leading officials, Istria

” blackshirts and the students who asked tobe sent Africa.to

the volunteering veterans. the volunteering quare Pola,in of front in the headquarters ofPrefecture, the ting for Afr for ting a fervidamanifestazione di popolo”, th the Italian war effort in thecolonies. . The of group hundred one fifty and workers

ica, ica, after theblackshirts and regular soldiers, group of uolati volontari nella Divisione ‘Tevere’”, ‘Tevere’”, Divisione nella volontari uolati

thirty 101 Corriere Istriano

ember 27 Two motivesTwo come of out this

volunteering blackshirts from volunteering blackshirts - Addis Ababa”. Corriere Istriano th . Again, the the Again, , September 28 ,

d The ceremony that the train , October Corriere Corriere 102

th hymn hymn

The The 30 CEU eTD Collection enr blackshirts, of merged the the gathering with importance when the askedbestudents to the objectives ar Italians work.Indeed, ofhuge all fruit his Head picks the with the writer’s claim that “the Duce forged thismemorable and beautiful force: and thus the of departing volunteers. the The of description the masses’ enthusiasm the in journal ends the station occurred with ahuge mass of people present, apart from theofficials andlatives re Marine cemetery and like on occasionthe of the departure of the first blackshirt troops in May. After the visit to the while at noon the ceremony at the railway station w they where the askedthat to be enrolled as volunteers had their departure date onOctober set 18 upcoming campaign. the in colonial black dress. The workers were local, which again presented to the mass Istria that had a role 106 105 104 local heroes at their graves. Istriancoast northern route, l’Africa”,

Ibid. per partiti istriani volontari ieri student ha salutato gli popolare manifestazione grandiosa commovente “Una volontari”, studenti degli partenza “La olled. The students were presented as the result of the “ Corriere Istriano The final two departures took pl twodeparturestook The final The description of the event is again described in a very detailed fashion in the journal, fashion the detailed in againvery a is in described ofevent The description the The report for the first time states that gatherings also at

Corriere Istriano all the stations along the route towards Trieste. The whole ceremony continued in the in Trieste. ceremony Thewhole routetowards continued alongall the stations w ould .” 105

make a “pilgrimage” to the tomb of local World War I hero NazarioSauro, hero WarI World tomb the make local to of “pilgrimage” a

al towns of Pirano and Capodistria, where the volunteers honored past volunteers the where Capodistria, and towns Pirano al of ordered themordered meet 9.30 to at front AM in ofCasa the Fascio del from , a march the city through amid acclamations”,the ceremony “fervid at , October 19 October , 106

The event carries a similar note with the departure of the first th

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, Corriere Istriano ace after the war started on October 3

, October 16 October , oul d start. th

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, e with Him in order to reach all 104 new man

took place along the railway alongtook the place

” creation rd . th The students The students . A notice . Ain notice , a fruit of 31 CEU eTD Collection the purportedthe Is of parade wasa volunteers, as to from enrolled asked be Province students which the 28, in rally subsequent of regime.the May Fascist aims the ofpedagogical of Similarly, the context and propagandaeventsoldiers, wasa Ethiopia that took place in the Province. The mass rally showcased and celebrated Istria’s blackshirt MVSN were forces greeted, was also the first event of public ritual related to followed a ritualistic pattern. and euphoric reaction of themasses to them. The events were similar in content, as if they Ethiopia. expressed their desire to be enrolled as volunteers for the upcoming campaign against Eastern Africa, and the remaining two were rallies in which groups of citizens publicly were the mass rallies prepared for the occasion of thedeparture of so 60 the Corriere Istriano 21 naturelocal of event. this Istria’s dedication to the regime. Also, the link with local heroes of the war underscores the 107 thengroup, studentsthe station, with the e resembledclosely previous the ones, a with march through the cityand offic

st “Un manipolo di Volontari e di Combattenti ha partito ieri sera per l’Africa Ori ieri l’Africa e per ha sera partito Combattenti di di manipolo Volontari “Un

when This wasnotThis the gatheringlast duringdepar a The first departure,The first happening on 22 May partofThis the chapter dealt nine with eventshappening mainly Pola, in seven of which th

Legion who already in fight [Ethiopian regionof]the Tigray with general Diamanti’s The newspaper descriptions of carried th theevents a

ceremony was prepared for thedeparture of theveterans. The article in the trian results of the forging of a new Fascist man and the Province’s wish to to wish Province’s man new the Fascist and of a of forging the results trian

nthusiastic sums up Istria’s gift in soldiers to the Nation: “Yesterday, the blackshirts of , the

flower of youth, our today the volunteers of war”. cheering frommasses clearly the emphasized.

in which which regionalput in the elementswere the in wider nd

ture. A furtheroccurred one onOctober 1935, which in Istrian members of the e emphasis on the enthusiastic entale”, 22 October entale”, ldiers to be sent to 107 ial farewell in the

The ceremony nd

1935, p. p. 1935, 32 CEU eTD Collection “ 22 May of was the rehearsal a students ofvolunteering the departure while the from Province, the minimized a fact in celebrated the been to probablydue fashion, similar pattern ushered in War, a patriotic tradition that Istria had to conti character was the celebration of the role model of thelocal fallen heroes of the First World participate in the overall wishes ofregime.mainThe the element in these first events of local 110 109 108 words “sound(…), screams siren the ofsame drum bells and by day rolls” adunata for signal the the broad radio newspapers theprepared communiqué n.10 regarding the East affairs African spread be to through EritreaItalian into the of Empire and Ethiopia, following King’s the consent,the Duce troops Italian would the day fo Kingthat llowing informed the The “Gathering of theRegime Forces” on waspreannounced II.2. he was meant to give inafternoon”. give the to meant was he speech that the Ducethetouchesto final the ongiving withworked that, Contemporaneously

foglio d’ordine foglio

Ente Italiano per le Audizioni Radiofoniche per Ente Italiano Ibid. Boca,Del Th The following five departures and of and rally the volunteeringveterans fivedepartures The following the followeda

of the Italian historian Angelo Del Boca nd e blackshirt troops’ departure. Adunata delle Regime Adunata del Forze Gli Italiani in Africa Orientale Africa in Italiani Gli caster

the f the ” (order” n. sheet) 141.

EIAR ollowing day, announcing day, t ollowing 110 by the first twoevents.by the soldiers However,the regular seem to have announced by the orders announced bythe , the Secretary of theFascistPart

, p. 391. p. , .

109 108

At 14.30 PM, from the microphones ofthe the PM,from At 14.30

In the early

of October 2 October of nue in the new the in r. nue colonial endeavo , after the signal was “ the given, signal , after heet n. 141 would be given at 15. n.141 at heet given wouldbe hat themilitary operations

hours 2 of October y nd Achille Starace announced that

September 10 September 1935

that start

they were not originally in various cities in various crossing th

1935 with the the 1935 with

the border ofthe border in anin event , Mussolini

30 of the . In . In started.

Italian the the 33 CEU eTD Collection fulfilled”. after “thirteen years of Italy’s wait to have its legitimate demands avictorious as nation – Italy’sneedsconquest minutes for summarizing colonial of rain” piazzas precedents” without 116 115 114 113 112 111 illuminated. and flags GUF adunata the arrangements coming from theprovincial nightlate occupie and gather at theselected places, orders for all of thefascist organizations (MVSN orders for part y members to work leave their implement the and organization resemblingpuppets negus the that“inadds some processionsthe marching lights under cities of while torches, in others - 569 Italy Fascist of Dictionary Historical support towards the Fascist regime of male children and adolescents. See “Youth Organizations”, in:

mobilizing students ages 18

Opera Nazionale Balilla Nazionale Opera Ibid,p. 393. Ibid,p. 392. Ibid. “Precise disposizioni della Federazione Fascista”,Federazione della disposizioni “Precise Acronym for the adunata 573. 115

designated for the ‘great concentrations’ The The In Rome, BocaDel describes, the mass assembled Piazzaat Venezia

. etc.) would The Duce appeared on the usual balcony at 18.45, and gave a speech lasting lasting eighteen speech balconya onthe gave 18.45,and usual at The Duceappeared 112

that wasdue Thedetailed soon. 17

1935 After thespeech, the crowds to bring their pennants, as well as asfor the theircityto well thewhole wrapped pennants, order be bring to in be given with three cannon giventhree be with shots, followedbydrum rolls Gruppi UniversitariFascisti d September 21 them while the speakers propagated

over “twenty million Italians, largely in uniforms, headed towards the towards the headed “twenty largelyuniforms, million Italians, in over 116 , the youth organization established in 1926 res - 28. See Ibid. See 28.

, PhilipCannistraro V. (ed.), Westport,CN: GreenwoodPress, 1982.,pp.

ation of the of the ation were onfire”. put

Corriere Istriano ofCorriere edition the

(Fascist University Groups), the regime organization

Federal Secretary of thePNF Francesco Bellini for were “too excited to “tooto thewere excited abandon piazzas intheadunata Province of Istria. Corriere Istriano places and quickly - point disposition ”. 111 113

Now, the paper willNow, upon paper touch the the

fascist and patriotic songs”. Del Boca , September 21

“to have a a have pl “to ponsiblefor the mobilization of included that the sign for the put on put st

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, their

, sirens and bells , the ace under ace Sun” the announced

“in of burstsspite

fascist uniforms

, Balilla in: in:

and until until and precise precise 114 34 , CEU eTD Collection the farmer gather to ordered at their headquarters. local Interestingly, the journal directivesincluded adunata the memberswhile who group vehiclesmotor of that ownedbe to participateready in to the “ ofedition the journal also included directives wo of various the fascistsyndical of organizations Again,Pola. they wer of organization thethe upcoming Now, gathering. precise orders were given to the members 118 117 in its October 2 schools, a cinema etc. various from andchurches local the c city,Rovinj. Aside the initial signalinformation at its Kandler gather in headquarters mobilization. moment of the in very oforganization the to Provincialthe Secretariat reported be should pertaining toma the membersthe ofFascio Femminile the specifically September 22

Vincenzo Ferrara

“Dalla Provincia”, Regime”, forze delle del la mobilitazione per Fascista Federazione della “Le disposizioni rk

places immediately after the sound , the daily newspaper, the ofadunata daily the With beginning imminent the Similarly, the September 24 22 The September regimes organization with their vehicles. s who were who s nd asked

117 1935, p. 2. p. 1935, nd

edition, theof with addition emphasizing a needtext the for Corriere Istriano to be ready in “marching mode” be in alpine and Concluding,to theirready hat. with belt ”, who were ordered to gather in the district headquarters district the in gather to whoordered ”, were le le organizations listed above. The decrees 118

members of theParty

edition ofCorriereedition the Istriano

Next, the members Bersaglieri theNext, the of

had had i vic tower and the siren from thelocal tobacco factory, the , September 24 th their

S published edition

treet, (Women’ organization) were asked

signal signal gather to and at Dante Alighieri rendez while the officers of the Balilla organization were . The marching of band the MVSN was th

1935, p. 4. p. 1935, -

vous pointvous set , which included, which the sounding of the bells for the ex arrangements

gave additionaldetails concerninggave - combatants, the district group note that “justified absences” , theFascio Casa del , like

units also on leave were regarding I regarding e obliged

to follow theto orders repeated the orders Corriere Istriano Corriere

in in all the citizens

stria’s second

to leave their their leave to S Diaz quare. This asked

S treet,

for for ,

35 to to CEU eTD Collection . adunata the illuminationofand allpublicoffices Province the in provinces, the including Istria. scenes, in the official structures Istriain andhow thegovernment Rome in situation saw the in pr be an event of greatest historical importance for the entire Nation. because The text says that the gatherings contributeto to t 121 120 119 date al September 22,explaining radio devices in all important squares and localities of theProvince before the dateof Pola to sent guage lan patriotic highly emphasized that the people’s participation in maximum participation in the adunatas 2 offices)

esented through the media. throughesented the It however,is, interesting to see was what beh thehappening ind

“Cittadini, imbandierate e illuminate part imbandierate le case “Cittadini, DAP, PP, 1935, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, 1935, p. 2. p. 1935, DAP, PP, 1935, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP,

ready [for set ]”. adunata the A telegram dated onthe SeptemberA dated telegram The public not just the not members and Party Militia willof the gather (…), all but Italians houses and participate – participate and houses illumi and flag day that on Citizens, people. Italian the for era of a new beginning they because joyful owning the say to and faith, of swearing its participation their with Duce the members andbeing theParty its of organization will feel bepresent, to theobligation give to

121 asked the Prefect

he he event with the ofhanging flagsnational and illumination ofhouses. the

tessera calls follow the to was expected

or not, are ready to follow any order of the Chief. (…) Thepeople will be will listen to the word so much waited for, the word which will signify thewill signify which word much for,the waited so the word to will listen that the date chosen is “for technical reasons, and not because it is a -

all all -

- 5 of Istria to request A - – 10/5 (Telegram regarding the installation of speakers) -

throughout Italythroughout would 5 in the adunata. - 120 10/3 (Telegram regarding the flagging and illuminat

An undated telegram from Rome ordered the flagging the from telegramAn ordered Rome undated

throughout thethroughout Province. Theorders 18 ecipando compatti all’adunata”, compattiecipando all’adunata”, th from the Ministry of the Press and 119

of gathering the installation of speakers connected to

on the occasion of occasion thethe announcement of have mor strictly

That e than ten millionten people than e to theworldto that all Italians, Corriere Istriano Corriere

what was intended to wasintended what s what thepublic was in the aim to

were mixed with

Propaganda Propaganda although not ion ofpublic , October nate your your nate

achieve 36 , CEU eTD Collection offices. same any relevant situation of emergency. performance ofadunata the “as soon as possible” te participate in the gatheringmembers as of theFascist Party. Also, the Prefecture is ordered to most fact w the that ofemployees to workofbodydue the regular the for the obliged . The telegram ofadunata occasion the on the publicofficials other and Pola in headquarters Prefect of Istria on September 21 123 122 organization to gather in the atrium of the hospital, while some hospital officials present at the by the hierarchies”.respective addition,In the decree absence considered the the be justified to will person work his“Tonoother until daily ends. post working in the service of this institution emergencies. station the power Also, ofmanagerthe is the stay ofallowedhospital to his at Amphit Secretary. institution were asked employees ofhospitalthe should the “ main hospitalPola, of ofcivilian the director

DAP, PP, 1935, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, impositions The archival sources contain a document a The archivalcontain 23 sources dated onSeptember Another telegram, sent this time from the Minister of the Interior 123 heater of Pola and the presence of there medics acouple of in case the presence

The orders detail the erection of a first aid te

regarding the keeping of a minimum ofat employees number allpublic in in headquartersthe of the

to attend the adunata legraph to the ministry of the Interior in Rome the details about the Rome details thein ofInterior to ministry legraph the the - - A A and theand approximate

- - 5 5 - - 10/7 (3) (Telegram regarding the work of public officials) 10/7 (1) (Telegram the regarding work of Prefecture officials) st , set the working guidelines for, set the ofPrefecture the 122 behave, due to the fact that all the employees of that

Another telegram Another

on the basis of the instructions ofFederal the ofinstructions the basis on the ”, detailing the or detailingthe Santorio”, Santorio adunata smallest

number of participants, as well as to note as note well to as number participants, of

(…) in conformity of the orders given given conformity(…) in oforders the

asks the non- possible possible , dated September 24 nt nt thein proximityof the number members of the regime

of needed personnel rd

compiled by the compiled bythe Buffarini to theBuffarini to of any possibleof any th ould

, ders applied theapplied

have to to have of

how 37

CEU eTD Collection swing and Telegraph operator reassured the Prefecture that all the operations closed: theatre the . The participationadunata telegram the in employees the and specifies theve cinema in Kingdom halls the the at moment ofannouncement the orderto in allow the public following day adunatthe adunata 127 126 125 124 possible the participationofarrangements allow makingall to its of orders gathering, by the clearly hadorganizations mind in the importance of places. at Also, topublic ready announcement be early radios the and for speakers ofneed the order Provinceof Istria. by theseriously both central government Rome, in well as the authoritieslocal in the come office stayshould and the neware immediatelyto until put orders given”. employees the offices ofProvince, telephone the the of outwork time ofnormalGathering the Telefonica delle Venezie of Venezias( the of Society division the toPola Telephone inthe sent Pola Prefecture A messageemployees it. in in operations

DAP, DAP, XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, DAP,PP, 1935, b: 281 f: XVII XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP,

that couldbe not inoverlooked the oftiniest corner the country. in thein of the event . adunata The official documentsofficial The mind disruptions in had possible The authorities the of A telegramdated on the September 22 PP, 1935, b: 281,f: XVII were ordered to compile alist of thepersonnel present at the event before 10 AM of the Provincein the of event the adunata

Ciscutti, cinemas Ideal, the and Garibaldi Umberto, Arena, The regime’s bring “twenty aimto million” Italians theto piazzas wasan ) obliged

- dated ondated September 18 - - - a. A A A A

124 - - - 5 tell us that the preparations for the gathering were being taken 5 5 5 - - - - 10/8 (Telegram the closure regarding of cinema halls)

10/5 (1) (Telegram regarding the work of telephone offices) 10/7 (2) (The Santorio Santorio hospital’s director’s orders) 10/5 (2) (Telegram regarding the work of STV telephone offices) the company that “in case of the summoning of the General ofGeneral the case ofsummoning the “in the company that 126

second message nd

decreed th

from the administration of the local Post the upcomingthe d strictly eventsan abided

dated on September the

the immediate closure of the all

and theand participationofmany

radio,

telephone and telegraph and telephone would One such example is

and Savoia and . continue in full 127

nues to be to nues th

from the Societa`

125 38

CEU eTD Collection Caesarian epoch”, the writer concludes. gathering, worthy and “An the superb unforgettable gathering. joined awesome, non- thousandsof the citizens plus article calculated the fascists present as as possible with the government’s aims order in to show their fidelity Fascism.to of rank lower the of moment the at available minimumpersonnel gatherings, employees the well itscontinuationof in the as workin best possible way with 129 128 loudspeakers were prepared advance. in Savoia, theCircolo Sala Umberto,the city Politeamamasses venues: the theater closed couldthe ch rea following Ciscuttithe , Fascist Federation thought about that possibility, and with “truly admirable regularity” the a of as for the Pola venue theAlthough weather Italian flags and at 16 the badnotes rainpouring the weather with day, whole in the wrapped but city wassoon age to various gender and “rushed bells thechurch and “scream” ofbeginning announced sirens the of the day. previous the Pola place in thattook events human possibility”. all’appello del Duce”, Duce”, del all’appello

Ibid. “Tutto il popolo di inquadratoPola nelle organizzazioni del Regimecon indomita risponde fierezza

The October 3 The journal informed its read that 16.45 notes at The journal wanted the organizations and bodies under under commandtheir bodies theand wanted organizations Corriere Istriano 128

rd .00 PM the people were ready placesat prescribed for the gathering. changed for the worse

edition ofCorriere the

adunata

, October 3 was dropped ofwas dropped the weather.Accordingly,because bad the members of the various who the members organizations spontaneously of wards their homes to wear their uniforms”. The journal ers that the idea ofthe old having Roman Amphiteather

129 25,000 of t Casa Balilla PM PM According to the journal, all this ofprocess gathering

1935, p 1935, the gathering was completed. The writer of wascompleted. Thewriter the gathering the , “thethe enthusiasmpoint highest of reached

Istriano . 3. he Comune of Pola (city and sor and of Comune (city he Pola

. Weadunata may assume tha At

and other places where the radios with

15.30 followed PM, cannon shots by

gives detailed a description of the to to . Peopleadunata of behave as in behave as t theofficials

r oundings

of the

line 39 ) CEU eTD Collection Corriere Istriano amalgamated and spirits in hearts higha out which ideal of songsloudspeakers, “which bythepatriotic hymns and playing through was accompanied 134 133 132 131 130 theater. was stretched to better hear and replied with a “To us!” ( able to hear Achille Starace’s scream “Salute to the Duce” and the people in the theater appearance of Mussolini the at balcony over Piazza Venezia waves of astormy sea”. At 18 mainthe event Piazzain Venezia alongBilucaglia othergerarchi with Prefect Cimoroni, the Federal Consul Bellini, Senator Chersi and MPs Maracchi and The fascist compositions. and the impatiently waited, CREMmarching ofScuole band the present byorganizations identified pennants their flags. and Duce’sAs speech the was being variou the bypeople, with filled being as totally described The theater is editors of the journal chose to describe the events in the main venue, the Politeama Ciscutti all’appello del Duce”, Duce”, del all’appello

Schoolsthe of Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. “Tutto il popolo di inquadratoPola nelle organizzazioni del Regimecon indomita risponde fierezza

The Duce’s speech was listened played byThe songs the orchestraalternated with the soundse th radio emitted from the simultaneously, the venues all all events at to the attend With impossibility the

Corpo Reale Equipaggi Marittimi Reale Corpo Equipaggi . 134 Corriere

The speech ended with invocations “Duce, Duce!” in the crowded “ A noi!

Istriano

mass was joined by the leading fasci ” understand the meaning of His words” His of meaning the understand ) ) like theones in Rome. , October 3

.30 in Rome, “invocationsto with the Duceresembling mighty , greeted byjournalall the notes. applause, an PM with “emotion with no limit” and the peop “soul the and le’s “emotionnolimit” with to , the three trumpet sound signals announced trumpetsignals the three sound , the rd , the Italian the infantry, navy in present Pola's arsenal.

1935, p. 3.

did 133 all possible estimates” .

. 131 The mass in thePola theater w

played continuously patrioticplayed sts sts the of province, the , reads the article in the 132 130

s regime

40 as .

CEU eTD Collection continued to continued dispersed 136 135 over Istria news arrived thegatheringthat of theforces of theRegime successful, was “giving 2 ofadunata October Corrierecountry, the Istriano the eventsthroughout with line around Fascist with of himse the leaderthe personality built line cult had Ducein the emphasized in its description of the events, with theemotions of themasses directed towards li in order, which burst passion blacksirts’ enabled and King, in the celebrated the courtyardshailing Duceand the bysinging sailors barracks premises where soldiers listened to the Duce’s and other military facilities such as the CREM schools. The radios were put in themilitary the at Sergia, throughwent the Kandler, Carrara hymns were repeated in a“spectacle of fabulous beauty, causing chills”. The processions processionsseveral withmarching the bands leading them. Thepatriotic songs and fascist Duce!’”.

Ibid. Ibid.

We seethat the journal describes the adunata The of in Polamasses’ fillingofstreets engaging the The gathering wasfollowedbythe A short notice in the October 3 October the in notice A short

Port’Aurea 136 by “truce a weather”.in bad the The emphasizes journal the celebrating fascist . Three visit to the military premises, and the “fascist

Corriere Istriano ne with the preparations described before. The extreme euphoria is clearly is clearly extreme euphoria The before. thedescribed with preparations ne celebrate cannon shots signaled endthe ofgathering the at 19.00

Square

nd from the chest of thousands upon thousands of men in arms: ‘Duce! ‘Duce! men arms: ofin uponthousands from chestof the thousands in the illum

1935 was a high point point Italy.in history high 1935 wasa the of Fascist

(Golden Gate, a Roman triumphal arch) where they slowly

describes also the events in themilitary garrisons of Pola, ships inated streetsinated of thecity. rd

edition ofCorriereedition the Istriano

streets and Oberdan the Largo speech. After the speech, the soldiers and as happeningas fashion in of extreme s

135 and soldiers fraternized in a cry of

wanted to show that the wanted show that to

claimed that from all Square

PM, but people PM, but people , to be joined joined be , to lf. As in in As lf. 41 CEU eTD Collection towns of Parenzo and Valle and are ofgiventowns Parenzo of the edition in journal main ofsmall Grego the Egidio square town. where severalschool, were radios Thegatheringinstalled. Tartini in the congregated Duce’sweatherand bad speech. the massafter Pirano, the In ignored underscores the enthusiasm ofmasses, singingof songs the with patriotic fascist too,venues, like premises, several problems in closed gather participants to Inweather the repetitive. Rovigno, the forced and Rovigno, Pirano, Istriantowns: following the in ofRegimeForces the Gathering regardingcorrespondences the ordersmarches onthe ofDuce”. the motive to delirious manifestations of patriotism 140 139 138 137 possible disturbances, ofdetails the of Italians in front of the radio the proof- is ofcentrally fashion, the of in smallest Italy, the every happeningcorner in event communities, in the absolutely same parti ofpeople the euphoria ofthe and happening gatherings the is location in repetitivedescribed a but fashion, again with emphasisonthe an put orderly summaries ofmain the event described in the Province’s capital, Pola. The events in each

DAP, PP, 1935, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, “Dalla Provincia”, “Dalla Provincia”, Ibid.

In accordanceIn with the Interior Minister’s earlierrequest to Prefectthe toprovide the ofThe descriptions the 2 events October S quare. ,adunata to give an In the small In Corriere Istriano Corriere Istriano 140 Orsera.

the Prefect Cimoroni sent atelegram on -

town of

speakers. - 5 The events about the e details in - , October 8 , October 5 10/7 (1) (Tele (1) 10/7 schools, approximate that adunata organized aimed for presence the ofmillions

Orsera, all the gathered people filled the elementary 137

th th

a theatre and cinema. In this case, too, the journal The Oc The 1935, p. 4. 1935, p. 3. gram regarding the work of Prefecture Prefecture officials) the of work regarding gram

138 number of participants number of participants in it, and to anynote ”, adding that adding ”,

Similar descriptions of the events for the tober 5 tober

1935 in the1935 in Province th

ended withmassended the filling the October 8 October edition ofedition thebrought journal

“(a) cipating it. in

ach the evening of October 2 October evening ofthe

unified strong and Istria

of these locations are th . 139

in the procession the in

The Italy are

shorter - wide wide 42 nd

CEU eTD Collection provoked. the victory in Africa, as w dailylocal newspapers. Press and Propaganda Alfieri October 1896. TheCorriere Istriano ofhands theof Menelik forces Emperor Ethiopian II during First the Italo- occurred”. Capital [Pola].” The Prefect also notes that “no incident of the slightest importance number andProvince] thousandtwenty alongthe hundred fivethousand one thirty the in the“although weather bad participants the raged everywhere”, in the manifestations of enthusiasm reached that noting 142 141 Africa, the regime organized a new event for the masses in Pola. symbolictown of Ethiopian Adua onOctober 6 Forces of the Regime, came thealleged As II. under his behavedline his in the jurisdiction under with regime’s expectations. leader. of thereception euphoric by events the mass, emphasis an onthe with adoration of the Fascist The Prefectan on put emphasis the regular happening of gathering Pola,in the and the

DAP, PP, 1935, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, XVII f: 281, b: 1935, PP, DAP, 3

some kind of continuation of the joy provoked by the regime during the Gathering of the of of regimeGathering theprovoked the joy bythe ofsome kind during continuation . The Takeover of Adua

that the adunata With arrival the of the news, the communiqué N. 14from the command Eastern in A possible conclusi 6 th

141 , on based telegrama throughout sent the

Cimoroni’s telegramcompletely 142 occurred in Pola and the Province “in maximum order amid delirious maximum amiddelirious “in theorder and Province Pola in occurred

Most likely, the regime wanted the both public likely,regimethe about wanted wider hear the Most to on is that on is ell as the propagandistic description of the celebration description the ofcelebration event the as propagandistic the ell - - A A

asking published two- a - -

5 5 - - 10/6 (Telegram regarding the special edition of local newspapers) 2 Oct. on the gathering detailing (Telegram (1) 10/10

the Prefect towanted show his to superiors the Province the publication of breaking news special editions of newsspecial all publicationofthe breaking euphoria in answer to the Italian capture of the highly

its apex with the Duce’s speech”, adding that th reflect page specialpage edition thelinked to news on , the the

provincial capitals by the ofMinister the site of the Italian s

the writing of the The news w

military disaster at the Corriere Istriano Ethiopian Warin adunata as nd

1935) announced on on announced

[in the

43 . CEU eTD Collection 1935, p. 2. p. 1935, the journal. Port’Aurea among rising the tension people’s contributed to Revolution the and of songs war played the “which ofvehicle the PM. Thepassage Maracchi Dopolavoro drove through the city announcing thatthe member parliament of the radio 145 144 143 the seat of the Prefect ended, and it made around acircle the center city arriving thePalaceat of theGovernment, the people towards Him that redeemed itand will made itgreat”. of mystical prayer a mass invocation, “an is shoutingofword“DUCE”bythe the subsequent the addingmass, journal, the thefrom ofwrites to sky” that the outcry “an enthusiasmrising the Fascist Nation”. The enthusiasm provoked by Maracc of strength and giver “savior ofDuce,the wasfollowedbythe praising the It town forever”. “military, political and moral” importance of the victory that “will give to Italy the Abyssinian the news to gave the ofvictory”. Nation the hearing it again in order to imprint in their soul with uneraseable characters the words that mass,which although “heard repeated it several ti S Federal vice Adua bythe

Ibid. Ibid. Maracchi“L’on. parla a diecimila ammassati cittadini Piazzain Port’Aurea”,

A procession of “citizens and soldiers” was formed after soon the “brief” speech Maracchi’s “improvised” speech remembered the 1896 humiliation startedThe event the with of reading the communiqué N. 14announcing theof capture

at 20 at and director and director ofCorriere the Istriano

143 saw an impressive crowd gathered. Never was thesquare so full of people”,writes

.00 PM. PM. According toCorriere the IstrianoAccording Oreste ecretary Luigi Bilucaglia “amid

ants in the procession thus “brought to “brought to procession thus the TheantsCimoroni. in particip 144

would speak Port’at the souls making possible that at makingpossible20.30 that souls mes

already , a truck with speakers owned speakers with bythe truck , a hi’s words words Duce on the hi’s provoked indescribable , would never become tired of of becometired , wouldnever 145 Corriere Istriano

Aurea

enthusiasm” of the ofenthusiasm” the

and S quare at

,October 6 det

Giovanni ailed the the ailed Piazza 20.30 th

44 CEU eTD Collection was written to him. letter sent from Africa by a soldier originating from the town, and a telegr of reading a public find the locations we for other described among eventsalready Portole, the a speech Dignano, evening.Fascio late In oflocal gaveinto the followed byjubilation the Secretary by processiona led the of band thepassed Salesian order through the town whole center, bySecretary speech of short a the listenedand to flowers and illumination. tricolo evening, late with the of kindne mass great aboutwords the endeavour”. African After “greeting the the to Duce the and King”, the Prefect was requested to make aspeech the theMoreover, ofIstrian journal. ofallthe Duce people”, writes fidelity an expression Headofthe Province greetingthe the of joyful a (…) and Pola asked the Prefect to thesend 148 147 146 repetitive.are Pula happening as described in the previous cases. from towns the of Levade, Umago, Visinada 20.00 after gathered people Rovigno,the In Abbazia. and the

“Dalla Provincia”, “Dalla Provincia”, Ibid. Corriere Istriano

were dispersed

The Adua victory was celebrated across theprovince, t at the Insmall mainoftown, town procession. the the followedbya square too, of ss”. The journal concludes the report pointing outcommotion continued thatthe into thepointing concludes report Thejournal ss”. happening happening

in groups, smaller with soldiers constantly being targeted by“demonstrations Corriere Istriano Corriere Istriano 147

in the smaller locations around the Province and the journal descriptions described eventsin townsPinguentethe of Portole, Rovigno,Dignano,

The October 11 October The 146

rs hanging fromrs windowsbalconies and embellishedmany with

, Octob , October 8 er 11 er th

. He agreed and “raised the enthusiasm with exalting edition ofjubilation theadds journal newsabout edition th th 1935, p. 4.

1935, p. 4. p. 1935,

148 and Orserawith samethe mode of celebration

Again

local

, Fascio smaller versions of themain event in PM in in PM

prof. Arcidiacono. Afterwards, Afterwards, prof. Arcidiacono. oo. The October 9 Vittorio EmanueleIII am reply message th

edition of of edition S quare quare 45

CEU eTD Collection and people the adoration ofDuce. the description of the initialCorriere , the Istriano adunata As case of the the in piazzas. open gathering the happeningthe in weatherpreventing bad events the had opportunityrepeat this time thatthe to people the without may here We add 2 October of patriotic songs and processions were thus repeated only four days after the “historical” events improvised fashi from Adua the thecaseof, the adunata enthusiasmwith the Ethiopian campaign after the initial adunata ofkind continuation of t 149 insorrow, relativeswhich had to cope with the departures forced of their young fa male Also,Africa. toIstra according the the Slavs in theJu on the first lines of combat inAfrica danger ofpossible havingsoldiers of thousands of Slavicethnicity Italian into harms put way time and the before the beginningofwar, at immediatelyafter Istra just the the weekly of theSlavic émigrés from theJulian March based in Zagreb, the evidence of any open rejection of these events there nomentionSince is ofSlavicresponse the the to eventsof initial mobilization, no and Reception Slavic The II.4.

1935

Orlović, - 36 According to the Zagreb Émigré Journal Journal Émigré to Zagreb the According 36 The Zagreb of6 oftakeover AduaThe celebration onOctober the Etiopski rat 1935. rat Etiopski nd

in in what one may consider as an example of attempted constant mobilizat on, but the event itselfwas rehearsed, it seems. playingof Thespeeches, - based journal reported on violent methods the Fascist Fascist journalon the regime againstbased reported methods used violent lian March to bring them as soldiers in the various units departing for departing units in various the soldiers bring them to as lian March - 36. prema pisanju zagrebačkog emigrantskog lista lista emigrantskog zagrebačkog pisanju prema 36. he keepinghe of the oflevel mobilization,

railway stations across the region were scenes of constant . 149

- Istra connected events were organized in a muchmore ], MA thesis, Pula 2012., pp. 22 pp. 2012., Pula thesis, MA ], in archival document the

emphasized t th

1935 can be considered as a of October 2 of October Istra [The Ethiopian War he of euphoria huge the - 23. public euphoria and and euphoria public s, the only the source s, is

Istra

focused onthe nd . Differently Differently . . However, mily ion. ion. 46 CEU eTD Collection in the building with th afterright the start of the Duce’s speech, an electrical blackout shut upthe radiosandspeakers fascist organizations to gather in the local Fascio Casa del . The article then describes how pointssirens churchsigna the and bells out article Slovenian inhabited intown of the Ilirska Bistrica, townofProvince the of Carnaro. The the pompous preparation resulted in failure”. in resulted pompous preparation - adunata mentioning article the short a bring does journal the unemployment. probablybecauseof voluntarily, departing of Gorizia from province volunteers the members. 152 151 150 and of events in enrolledProvince groups citizens asked be various aswhich to volunteers in before Province atWar. and ofthe ofimmediate beginning Ethiopian Istria the chapterThis with dealt two of sequences the phaseinitial of mobilization ofthe the public in II. Slavs. nation was entering a historical moment resonance had no whatsoever among theoppressed the one that but explanationreligious probable is event, regime. Italythroughout and regarded it as a typical example of propaganda grotesque by the Fascist Slavsexiled probablydid not take seriously the mass in the demonstrations Julian March and

“ Apih, Ibid,p. 32. 5 Kako so v Bistrici poslušali Mussolinijev govor“, govor“, Mussolinijev poslušali Bistrici so v Kako . Concluding Remarks

The first sequence, the mass rallies organized to thedeparting greet soldiers from the The editors

Italia, fascismo e the safe distance thesafefrom they were able to diminish the importancecourse, ofOf the 150

Nevertheless, the Italian historian Elio Apih noted three hundred Slovene hundred three Apihnoted ItalianhistorianElio Nevertheless, the 151

of Istra the antifascismo, antifascismo, e officials present unable to

did not comment not did 2 gatherings huge ofer the Octob pp.

- 325 326.,f. 17. 152 Istra

Reading this rather the mockingdescription, this Reading ,

October 11 ling timeling the various members of for the return the current, and thus “all that - th like fascist belief that the Italian

1935., 1935., related events p. p. 2.

, in the largely nd . However, 47 - CEU eTD Collection happened throughout s throughout happened werethat meant to provoke enthusiasmmasses. among the Beside well asof local fascist officials), joyful singing of patriotic and fascist hymns and processions being enthusiasmagain press emphasized bythe documents. and 2 of October afternoon late the placein took TheGathering event. huge for this masses the wide galvanized of every Fascist Party member in the event, while the local daily journal Corriere Istriano ofForcesGathering the of Regime the the to minimum went detail, ensuring the participation The significance. markingeventsofpreparations historical been the high for the General believed have thatwere to massdemonstrations to the wasurged participate in population Province implemented the in country.T whole the in of Adua. These the inwar, firsttakeover victory the the and celebration ofwar subsequent ofstart the Italy’s the First World War project of the creation of a“new Fascistman”, bu volunteers from theProvince were presented modelsas role resulting from theregime’s ofIstrianthe Italian soldier and underlining Istria’s role in the overall Fascist projects. The the war effort shows alargely local character. Themost emphasis was give of Adua onOctober 6 followedbythewas soon celebration of symbolic oftakeover town the Ethiopian the highly ofItalian leader Mussolini dimensionthe Benito in ofespecially its adoration capital ofPola)

The second sequence included the “Gathering of theRegime Forces” signaling the Both ofevents the nd

1935, and both archmaterialival both 1935, and and provincial the press(focusing onthe two events were less local in character, as the regime ordered them happen to emphasize the euphoria utmost and enthusiasm thatthe event provoked, maller communities in th , with eventsof the adunata

- country he involved listening to speeches (Mussolini’s through the radio as

in line with the regime’s expectations wide preparations for the preparations wide

the Province, with descriptions of descriptions them Province,with the ilding upon the myth of the local of upon mythheroes of local the ilding the

being rehearsed, with profound with profound rehearsed, being

s , “ Pola, adunata” n , and the, and general the two gatherings twogatherings the to .

the celebration The Gathering The Gathering were strictly

in a a in 48

CEU eTD Collection of Slavic ethnicitymaysoldiers onthe fight Ethiopian to have battlefields. disrega perception of these events mirrored in the writing in émigré fashionrepetitive

rd rd towards theFascis reflecting situationthe t

mass rallies, partly due to the emphasis they

provoked in Pola. Pola. inprovoked

circles showed a high level of In the end, the Slavic Slavic theend, In the on the possibility that possibility on the

CEU eTD Collection “as a“as sign of remembering the siege (…)huge a brought injustice upon toItaly, which all the around ordered and installment history” the plaques shame ofItalyofand world’s disgrace in organized kindthatsense. mobilization what masswere and in of rituals were the first news of Istrian soldiers killed in Africa exploited for further patriotic Emilio ofhands Piet General BonoMarshal de to stagnation evident in the regime’s to decision theshift command ofcampaign the from the successes that the Italians had in Ethiopia, the war entered a phase of slow progress and even campaign ofneed and mobilization victimization for. patriotic After t how exploited was that by the regimemass new and mobilizing rallies the crowds in a This chapter tackle will imposition the on ofbythe League and sanctions Nations Italy 153 November 18 damaging. slightly only be stageto early provedtheir in the sanctions although of injustice, was victim Societario nation member. The Fascistregime the called policy the “Siege by the League” ( international organization a onEthiopia, as towardsresponse Italy’s aggression sovereigna so by League sanctions Province towards the ofItaly the Nations in of Istria,culminating the in will deal subchapter This all with which the events related were the to imposition of economic San Nations’ League of the to Related Events III.1.

III. Italy Victimized: Responding tothe Sanctions andRemembering the - Del Boca,Del called “Day ofFaith” on December 18 The Grand Council of Fascism decreed onNovember 16 Fascism of decreed Council The Grand ) and aimed at rallying the Italians in a p 153 Gli Italiani in Africa Orientale Africa in Italiani Gli

th , when the sanc , when the

tions would be put into effect by the League, would be “a date effect League, date into “a put bythe would be tions wouldbe Fallen Ethiopia in - 464 pp. , 465. th

ns were imposed were ns bythe sanctio 1935. The

ro Badoglio.ro see Similarly,how we shall ropaganda alleging ploy that the country

ctions

that the upcoming of the date that

he initial, albeit rare Assedio 50 CEU eTD Collection only. products” ontheof insistence and buying goods “national foreign for theneed onselling ban them,against gave and instruction to owners the businesses, emphasizingof local the absolute ofsanctions, implementation claimed the of thewas Province that Istria ready to sustain itself Italians towards the regime. inconsensusof the marking point effectivelyand be spontaneous high a to it who claimed valuable metals, other a policysurprisingly popular according Del to other Bocaand authors, measures were implemented by the state. Also, what started was the collection o while buy products” citizenswereto of “National the urged only series austeritywhich a conti 160 159 158 157 156 155 154 of writes,receptions sanctionsthe report in towns Pirano, the the Rovigno.In and of Pirano sanctionswrapped in Italianflags. damn’” that reported the cityof greetedPola the November 18 squadristi motto the the repeated of Pola yesterday tricolors, in “Joyous see not any massThe November 19 rally. November 6 the products. readers avoidforeign warning to buying characters the VIPs, such as Gabriele D’Annunzio, as well ashigh Church prelates. November 19 typical andproducts. French English a smallby of followed list

antisanzionista in atto”, atto”, in antisanzionista donna donna nella nuova missione ad che essa laaffida Patria”,

See See example:for e` “L’Istria mobilitata contro le sanzioni”, Using the old Fascist slogan, the inscriptions often read “I don’t give a damn about…” ( le sanzioni”, contro difesa “Risoluta Ibid,p. 468. Ibid, p. 467, 469. Ibid,p. 465. “Festante di tricolori, Pola ha ripetuto ieri il motto degli squadristi: ‘Me ne frego’”, ne frego’”, ‘Me ieri squadristi: ildegli motto ha Pola ripetuto tricolori, di “Festante nents owe civilization”. 157 Surprisingly, November 18 inCorriere the Istriano published An article

Almost every edition of the journal started having inscriptions in black bold th

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, th

one were one being repeated. Corriere Istriano Corriere

155 154

Cleverly was theby enough, initiated drive officialshigh and

What followed was the so called “anti Corriere Istriano , November 12 th , the day ofimposition the of the sanctions onIt 160

th On November 21 159

number of the

th , 6 November, Corriere Istriano

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, Corriere Istriano See:

Corriere Istriano Corriere

Corriere Istriano th on November 6 on November

1935, p. 3. p. 1935, st , November 9 ,

the journal reported similar 158 , November 7 November ,

th Also, similar articles like 156

implementation of the

, November 7 Corriere Istriano - sanctionist” drive, in th

1935, p. 3. “La lotta Me ne frego dei

in an article titled th : don’t: a ‘I give , ahead of, ahead the th

1935, p. 3.; “La “La 3.; p. 1935, th f gold and and gold f

1935, p. 3. p. 1935, , aly, didaly, …) …) 51

CEU eTD Collection Piccole Italiane owhat the article writer commen from his grandma”. Similarly, a girl from the Piccole Italiane “spontaneous gesture” a occasions, all the parts of Italy to install f an in improvised fashion, althoughthe center in Rome probablycommand, did onprevious as the archival documentation, it possibleis to assume these that events in Istria were organized Dopolavoro Femminile school lectures were prepared to deal with the topic of the the sanctions, Fascio while 164 163 162 161 Federal Secretary of the PNF in the Province of Istria Bellini to the citizens to donate all the appearance soon. 27 fairly On November Capodistria. Club “ Football spon organizations’ The continued. Nation” Thesanctions. Corriere Istriano toNation donations spontaneous the started coming after soon the in implementation of the Istriano

Istriano

“Dalla Provincia”, “Dalla Provincia”, “Manifestazioni di solidarieta` e di alta comprensione continuano a Pola ed in tutta l’Istria”, ina l’Istria”, tutta ed Pola continuano e alta comprensione di di solidarieta` “Manifestazioni Ibid.

, November24 , November25 The usage of the sanctions for patriotic purposes started moreorganized a purposesstarted having for patriotic ofsanctions The usage the The following seem days have marked to been byimprovisation as News well. of

started collecting gold and silver. 164 contributed playingcontributed with hymns. marches patriotic and

of Rovigno will of Rovignowill imitate you”. Grion Corriere Istriano Corriere Istriano th th

taneous donations of material valuable to the State.For example, the 1935, p. 2. p. 1935, 1935, ” of Pola, the Istrian GUF and the rowing club “ club rowing ” Istrian GUF of the the Pola, and Balilla p. 2.; “Fervore di iniziative e di opera per resistere alle sanzioni”, alle sanzioni”, e resistere di per iniziative “Fervore opera p. di 2.; Corriere Istriano

member offered the small amount of gold and silver “he ofsilver got and member smallgold offered amount the , November22 , November21

ted: “Good Piccolated: Italiana wrote on Nove lags to mark the start of thesanctions. th , the , the nd st

161 163

1935, p. 4. p. 1935, 1935, p. 3. p. 1935,

Corriere Istriano

continued publishing details on various mber 22 Initiativestopublicize the “help towardsthe In In evenPortole, the Band ofMarching the

that thein town of Rovigno in a , you can be certain that all the

followed with the same act,

published an appeal by the published appealbythe an 162

Without evidence from Libertas

Corriere Corriere Corriere ” from from ” 52 CEU eTD Collection put on the church a plaque commemorating the sanctions with a biblical quotation. Also, the the Also, quotation. sanctions plaque with a commemorating the biblical a church onthe put priest, donated C all the andlocal ownedDon Zennaro, gold bythe Emilio silver go their give gift basis.”citizens and ona theto Nation ThePodestà daily sanctions how should the fought”. is be that “al said disposition approach Interestingly,the of its bythehomes alertedtrumpet. wouldbe to sounding a the ofsurrounding inhabitants while the byfascists”, would the“manned be cart Obviously, pass metal would scrap collecting the regimeitself, the Corriere by initiated and of more wasbecoming thatthe collection materials organized sign valuable Federal Secretary Bellini donated golden and silver objects in their possession. leading officials of the Province, the Prefect Cimoroni, parliamentarian Maracchi and the beingwere published.constantly On December 1 scrap metal in their possession. 168 167 166 165 pace regular determinedunited, vibrant”. and with enthusiastic activities occurring. In his words, the sanctionsmade people thelocal “more Podestà Comune. The onOreste Cimoroni December 10 sent from Podestà the collection of valuable material reflects what can be found i

Istriano

“S. “S. ilE. Prefetto presiede una riunione per il coordinamento della difesa contro le sanzioni”, DAP,PP, 1935, b: 264,f: V “Il carro della resistenza”, “Oro, argento, ferro alla Patria”, , November 27 Interestingly, the writingInterestingly, the ofdaily the journal theofof campaign about the Pola : “at theFascioCombattimentoand “at : di ,inDopolavoro in schools th

1935, p. 2. 1935, emphasized the fact l canl andpeople allhave the duty contribute to to collection.the That

Corriere Istriano of the Comune of Visinada to the ofProvince the to Prefect the Istria ofof Comune Visinada the - 1/3

Corriere Istriano

165 168 announced the Federal Secretary disposition that acart th

Meanwhile, new onMeanwhile, details more individual

He notes that the collection of and is gold goingsilver at a reported reported the eventsconnected to the sanctions in said the

through the mainofthrough Pola streets 2 onDecember , December ,1 167

, December ,1 that that the sanctions had a “plebiscite” asan effect st st

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, , the journal informed its readers that the st

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, n archival the documents. A report

reportedthat the headquartes the the headquartes

166 Corriere gold offerings

In a furtherIn a hurch andhurch 53 nd . CEU eTD Collection acco place to symbolic“Forqueue paraded gesture. (…) long several a of order that hours, (…) women in Nation, the was initi warnation at bydonating wedding their rings”. by the Fascist Party to mistically unify themselves in a marriage with the regime and the mass rallies were organized through hethat the concluding will “continue propaganda the incitement. activity ofand persuasion of successfulnature onNovemberthe gatherings the 17 of donation medalswar local bya veteran World WarI by is noted . the Podestà 172 171 170 169 the case of the Gathering of theForces of theRegime ( Gr the towards disgracefulthe machinations, Leagueist Istriagave and one only answer: of plebiscitary a love cities and provinces”. The journal underlines that “on the 18 othersister secondthe be emphasizingto d Istriaproved to an not that “Pola With Nation”, the December 18 had apex its on December 18 ofwords but victimization, also defiance. Finally, the campaign of and victimization defiance Corriere the in languageboth Istriano the propaganda, and

“Lo sposalizio dell’Istria con la Patria”, Corriere con la Patria”, dell’Istria sposalizio Istriano“Lo Ibid. Gentile, Ibid. mpanied sound bythe ofmusic”. rhythmed slow

According According to the journal, onDecember Pola 18 The So far, can note one asteady shift towards more organized anti

their wedding thewith rings in urn, columns smoke and of from rising torches Fascismo di pietra di Fascismo Corriere Istriano th eat Fascisteat Nation.”

in a long article published the following day titled “The Wedding of Istria Wedding “The thetitled published day of following Istria article long a in ated byQueenElena herself, first woman the ring give to her anin urn , p. 121. p. , th

. On that day, called the “Day of Faith” ( Faith” “Dayof the called day, . On that

described events described the of Day of the Faith happening on 172 out Italy in

170 in which “men and women were summoned were “menwomen which and in

, December 19 December , The ritual in Rome, in front of the Altar of 171 th

) onOctober 2 ) adunata “woke upcovered tricolors”.in As in

th th and the archival material shows

of one December, month since

1935, p. 2. p. 1935, and ontheand following dates, Giornata della Fede della Giornata

nd , the weather - sanctionist sanctionist He reports 169 54 ), ),

CEU eTD Collection people offering their rings, showing example to the rest of the rings, offering gathered their rest examplemass.people showing the to th fact that the first persons to commence the ceremony were the mothers of dead local heroes of example theQueen that gave was emulated using elements of patriotism, local evident in the “fragrance of ahighest poetry.” writes, journal the was euphoria thestrong as deed thatmen womenmake and to were a had the theNevertheless, day. whole asstrong windpersistedthrough helpful, the not was again 175 174 173 offic followed byother Federal Secretary himself was to follow in the offering act, “amid constant applause”. He was who to up had give to the of honor presenting themselves at due Pola to the weather. bad The from frompeasants rings Altura around hundred pot a “humble into whothe Bellini, dropped Grion Alfredomartyrs, Giovanni and Sassek. followedby They were Federal the Secretary first women the weresymbolic offer fashion, rings mothers to their ofthe fascist twolocal pot the wa theunder into,fire while rings wedding golden ceremony, orderly their in to religious mass fashion rings. wedding donate proceeded the wereladies “mingled in the same of act love womenwith of humble the withcommonpeople, while along the present Provincewere and personalities ofcity the of the article underlines thefact that in a “granitic mass of people” all the important participants in the ceremony filled the Cathedral to assist for the “pledgeful mass”. T Queen the from words touched the “up listeners Pola tears”. in to At10.00AM, the the

e “Fascist revolution”. The Fascist local and administrative heads were the second group of

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. highly symbolic act of Queen Elena on the Altar of tolls onthe the symbolicAltar Nation. and Elena actThebell ofhighly Queen

Outside of the cathedral a large melting pot was waiting for the people their drop people to wasfor meltingthe pot waiting large ofcathedrala the Outside startradio had at the 8.45AM,The ritual its with broadcast Rome ofevent in the and ials and their wives, such astheprefect Cimoroni and others.

173

s lit by young fascists. In In a byyoungfascists. lit s r origins.” After the

he writer 175 174

The The

55 CEU eTD Collection to give it to to give theto it nation. just golden ring andwhoher bought women, nineties, of woman by individual somea their in The concludes. touching writer describes several countries, journal the examples former allied of ancestors”.Theofferingshappened toDuce their amidrings the mockingofand hails the the city’s market in order to donate “th city. which would allow them to retrieve the steel rings that had been ordered to arrive in the and givinghusbands after “sacred their symbol” we they stayed The this in side young consorts ritual! thatwasparticipating person every in through individualize to the wanted victimizationcountrywaspassing journal the 179 178 177 176 emphasis on the participat concludes of Corriere thisNation ours”, the Istriano in Ducedid the miracle of examplethat an magnificent spiritual a sublime untameablefaith, expression of the due to illnesses, temporary absence . etc “The commonwoman was prevalent in the mass, a from prevented so were doing or new dothatona occasion would 900remaining either the in event, outcome”:and “successful a 7.300couplesofthe 6.400participated with of Pola, out cont collected.Thecollection were already rings two thousand wasweakness overcome bythe joy of sublime the [theyjustmade]”. gift passing out”. After their offering rite, “it is like new forces came to them and the short ofgates the Basilica like araging torrent”. Women came “half

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. 177

At 11.00, the journal notes, after two hours of the start of notes,ofstart the after journal “plebiscite”,two hours the moreAt 11.00,the than through “burst the continues. journal It the galore”, “people’s What followedwasa Soon afterwards, the journal writes, the journal from processionSooncame a women” afterwards, writes, of “commoner 178

ion ofion humbler people seems to wanting emphasize the of level

eir rings, the ringsof husbands, their as well as the re satisfiedre to get thepiece of paper inued until the late afternoon, untilafternoon, late inued the - crushed by the mass, almost 176 . 179

- It by

seems the like The journal’s - side by their side bytheir 56 CEU eTD Collection Sanvincenti, where 146 rings were collected in a helmet of a MVSN batallion. local offront the Fallenmonument due the war to in the so to bad weather, wasmovedit the to woman wasover ninety who years of too. age, In Pirano, the ceremony not did take place in notes some cases of put be into the melting pot washis of MilitaryMedal Valour.Capodistria, In too, journalthe - Austro bythe traitor (hanged as Sauro families of fallen World War Isoldiers including familythe of famous the hero local Nazario religious mass in the Piazzasottola Loggia several smaller Istrian cities and towns. In Capodistria, the ceremony took place after the theenthusiastic in country.ones help to the wish victimization was Italy going through, as the simplest women were allegedly the most 181 180 planned to take place in theCathedral of Pola, where the steel rings would be blessed after a organized of the ring ce event Istria steel onFebruary 23 Provin rings expectedof wasslower than had steel and postponed. be to them but the immediately, sheernumberof donors meant that productionthe of“millions” the receive a steel ring as a sign vanguardthe of“Day the Faith”, emulatingQueenElena’s symbolic gift. victimized the help country. to journal participationof commoncitizens, eager and the emphasizes widows, peasants February 23 February

“La “La solenne celebrazione alla cattedrale e “Dalla Provincia”, .Fascio Moreevents Casa del ar The December 20 All theAll donors of their weddinggolden rings received a receipt thatallowed them to rd

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, Corriere Istriano

fatigue th

edition ofCorriereedition the Istriano due todue the. The crowded situation journal notes the presence of a of gratitude by the state. The first wish of the regime was to give And again, the relatives and widows of fallen local heroes were local relativesfallen widows the and ofAnd again,

, December, 20 la distribuzione al Foro delle ‘fedi’ d’acciaio”, Hungarians in 1916). There, the first golden object to golden object first the Hungarians There, 1916). in e describede from andDignano small the townof . Theof bywidows donation ringswasled the and th

1935, p. 3. p. 1935,

descri rd bed the “Day of Faith” in in “Dayof the Faith” bed

1936. The ceremony was 1936. Theceremony was 181

The authorities inThe authorities the Corriere Istriano Corriere 180

Everywhere, , 57 CEU eTD Collection Femminile the ringstodonors show distributedwhothe be to had to receipts.their religious ceremony. the ringswould distributedmembers Afterwards, be bythe 184 183 182 country.The the rings to wedding their in donated Rome mainevent emulatingthe people December 18 followedbytwohowever, of organized masspublic ritual. First,events theon “Dayof Faith” was, help people withanda to the It the victimized donations. propag campaign nation urging 18 on November Th ofe League Nations. newspaper did not report similar activities in the ofrest theProvince. of forsacrifice the country, people the economicimposed victimized bythe sanctions bythe emphasis onthe the description put Thenewspaper again not giving. rings, time getting this 18 seemsmore nothing more than a austere rehearsal of the“Day of Faith” event on December allow them glory in the battlefield and a victorious return on in namethe Italy. ofand Bless God exaltand Nationthe of ours and itsfighting sons: we put new symbol the Bless that Nation. offered the to symbolof the love ohLord, “Bless, building onthe and of the townhall squareon the large a wasinscription install Italianflags Forumin describes,wrapped the occasion, newspaper was the the Forum. For steel tookalready fromthe fanfareCathedral the the blessed to rings fascists ofYoungthe the 16.00 CorrierePM, the Istrianountil

February 25 February

th Ibid. “Le fedi d’acciaio benedette sacerdotedal distribuite solennemente al romano”, Foro Ibid.

1935. Again, a a 1935. Again, religious ceremony was

To sum up, the imposition of the League of Nations sanctions in the Province of the Istria in sanctions of impositionNations the ofLeague To sum the up, The ceremony, “vibrant a of manifestation patriotism”, 9.00AM started at lasted and th to the donators at Forum at todonators the the of Pola.

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, th

1935, held in Pola and around the Province, and the1935, heldPola Province, when in around during sole a th

1935 was followed with no mass rally on that date, and with improvised improvised date, with and onthat nomass with rally 1935 wasfollowed

writes. After thereligious ceremony a procession led by

followed crowd bya open gatheringan in space, 182

. Bless.” 183

A line of tables awaited Corriere Istriano 184

This ceremonyThis

mn ceremony of the Fascio ed that read: , 58

CEU eTD Collection through. going partofpopula the poorer heroes, thefallen emphasized while enthusiastic press the and participation ofhumbler the Istrianlocal character, thewith vanguard in the donation drivebeing the relatives of local the included Faith” response country.The“Dayof help plebiscitary to the people, the and the compiled officials local by and the press emphasize theunifying effect thesanctions had on originalthe rings wedding receivedrings steel from Both documents State. official the 23 happenedPola in onFebruary offirst, rehearsal a the second, 186 185 from the Province of Istria that fell in the battlefields of Ethiopia. The three, all from the 60 duringwho died warthe in Ethiopia. material from the Prefecture of Istria contains a list of 29 soldiers from the Province of Istria from period campaign the in Janua the in Ethiopian died soldiers who numberof Bocaputs the Italian Del The historianAngelo Soldiers Istria’s Fallen III.2. Commemorating “From their shining example, Istria will drawmotivation for a more intense dedication to excerpts from letters they sent to their families. The article ends with theeditor’s words: be will to enrolled in and Africa heroismsupposed the in battlefield, even and published Bruno and Comisso from Thenewspaper articleGrisignana. volunteering emphasized their MVSN “ Legion th commemorating

DAP, PP, 1936, b: 280, f: XVII f: 280, b: 1936, PP, DAP, Boca,Del The The Gli Italiani in Africa Orientale Africa in Italiani Gli Corriere Istriano Istria e fallen soldiers were organized in Pola in and1936. in organized Pola April were February in fallene soldiers ” were: Ferruccio Babudri from Parenzo, Otello Chieregin from Pola tion, aiming to point out the level of victimization the countrywas the of level victimization the out aiming point to tion, -

onFebruary 12 - 5/2 (Report on the anti the (Report on 5/2 ry 1 ry , pp. pp. st

186 1935 to December1935 to 31 - 716

As the wasstill war going on, twoceremonies 717. th

announced the names of the first three soldiers

- sanctionist activities in the Comune of Comune of the activitiesVisinada) in sanctionist

1936 at 4.350. 1936 at rd

1936 when the donors of of donors when the 1936 185

The archival

59 th

CEU eTD Collection regime organizations, and soldiers from 60 the participationof the various ordered Secretarynewspaper the in Federal published by the Ferrucciodisposition and armyDiToma. Tamborini regular Enea The much who earlier: died mentioned Chieregin, blackshirt the ceremony wouldfocus ontwoother soldiers from the Cathedral in commemoration of three fallen soldiers from the city. In addition to the already and the sacrifice of best its sons not to be futile”. Italy, orderFascist in to victoriously conclude the arduous job i 189 188 187 soldiers from the Province of Istria were pointed out on that list: Teodoro Lazzarri from Pola, 27 interval February the between with “powerful a responded Corriere the description. ‘Present!’”, its finishes blackshirts was lined up, while an official read thethree names. After each name, the crowd squad firing of cathedral, a the of front In ofFallen”. “appeal the the offallen: rite the regime organizati religious rite. Thecathedral, the notes, journal with flagswas filled and pennantsof various Fascist organization Gino Pangher, who played a couple of classical compositions after the played fifteen- an by a org wasaccompaniedPavan, bythe monsignor mass, by theThe led firstin Cathedral. seats the present, were taking fallen the relatives the of Of citizens”. and plebiscitary participation byauthorities course, with huge, firings too.

“La commemorazione dei Caduti polesi in A. O.”, messa“Una in caduti Africa”, eroici istriani “Tre 188

in the morning 16 the ofin SundayMay On April 8 The ceremony took place with a religious mass, Fascist rite and honorary platoon On February15 solenne in suffragio dei Caduti polesi in A. O.”, ons. Theons. religiousofoverall ceremony the part wasfollowedbythe Fascist th , the Corriere, the th , Pola’s Corriere Pola’s ,

Corriere Istriano published of thelist deceased all Italians in the war in th

and March 30 th . According to the to Corriere Istriano. According announced a religious ceremony held be in to the Corriere Istriano , February 12 February , 187 th

Legion were ordered to attend the mass, th Corriere Istriano Corriere . With. bold letters, the names of three th , February 18 February ,

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, year old member old year young the of n which it committed herself; , February 15 February ,

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, 189 , the event “was th

1936, p. 2. p. 1936,

60 CEU eTD Collection for the country. It made part ofm country.Itthe madeforpart Sunday the an event presented to all the citizens of Pola, showcasing the sacrifice of three of its citizens regimemembers oforganizations. Interestingly, Africa. in the empha as notice The ceremony was planned to commemorate the fallen soldiers, aswell asworkers who died 14 Wednesday, April BabichAngelo from Vittorio and Pola Coslovich from Buie. 192 191 190 18 February onSunday them. ceremony, in held The first participate to organizations Corriere published Thedispositions before. the in Istriano assembled mass after eachname. 12 April ofedition journal the pattern, the lastthe th followed thethat included of reading names fourteen soldiers and of workers (including dead of orders the H. E. the Kingand Duce”, the Corrierethe Istriano gray- the wear to and pride them, Fascists. future the Heyoungsters “invited the to theenter Army enthusiasmwith and emphasized to the assembled youngsters the example thesefallen soldiers should give to sides. The masswas held by the chaplain of the Balilla was frontceremony in for Anthe of altar religious thearea it. open wide instead headquarters, 1.

“Rito solenne alla memoria dei Caduti in Africa Orientale”, in Africa Orientale”, memoria Caduti solenne alla dei “Rito Corriere Istriano marzo”, al 30 27 febbraio dal in Caduti Orientale Africa “I gloriosi nostri

assembled in the gym, with pennants and flags of Fascist organizations installed on its organizations installed of flags and Fascist onits gym, pennants the with in assembled The two events described were prepared in advance like many other mass rallies Because of bad weather, the ceremony was held in the large gym of theBalilla ree announced onApril 8 , April 12 April , th

in front of the headquarters of the in ofheadquarters front the th

1936, p. 3. p. 1936, green [colourgreen

192 191

th th ) with with ) a simultaneously “Present!”shouted bythe s] to ready emulate the deedsolder of brothers their at

announced a religi a announced sizes, it wasorganized for the mainly sizes, young ass in ass in Pola’s cathedral, and was followed by a Corriere Istriano

organization, don Scalco, who also organization, don Scalco, who also Opera Nazionale Balilla Opera Nazionale ous ceremonyous to due be held on 190

asked t

Corriere Istriano In In alreadyan pre , April 15 April ,

he members of regime writes. The Fascist rite th

19 , April8 36, p. 2. p. 36, - established th

in Pola.in

1936, p. p. 1936, th , was was , 61

CEU eTD Collection rehearsal on February 23 remarks III.3. Concluding clearly supports the notion of theregime’s pedagogical aims of creating a “new Fascist sacrifice of Istria’s soldiers to theyoungsters, the future Fascist generation. This second event placeTaking in the hea notdid happen in a althoughreligious building, it involved Catholic a religiousceremony. Fascist rite of thefallen. The second ceremony, on April 14 creating a “new Fascist man”. the country, presenting them asrole models as apart of the regime’s pedagogical aims of 18 on occurring February mostly of ceremonies religious character colonialwith campaignthe out level aimingthe point of the to victimization countrywas through. going participationof partofpopulation, enthusiastic theandemphasized humbler the the poorer vanguard in donation the drivebeing the relatives of fall local to the response country. The“Dayhelp the included Istriancharacter, local ofthe with Faith” emphasize unifying press sanctionsplebiscitarythe on effecthad the people, and withcountry culmination a in the “Day of Faith” onDecember 18 L ceremonial victimization of Italy and its people. a as regarded form be thatcould of of events with twocategories dealt chapter This

eague of Nations for propaganda purposes, rallying the masses to help the victimized th

and April 14 April and Early 1936 saw remeberance rallies celebrating the fallen in soldiers from Province the ofA period stagnation in campaign the saw regime using sanctions imposed bythe th . The two events were meant to showcase thesacrifice of Istrian men for dquarters ofdquarters the youth organization,Balilla it was meant to show the rd

1936.

Both official documents by compiled officialslocal d the an

th , did not happen on Sunday, and happen not onSunday,and , did en heroes, while the press th

1935, which a had man”. 62

CEU eTD Collection it in its advanceit in toward Aprilearly 1936. Aftervictories, thethese Italian army almost had noforce stopto opposing ofbattle Amba February, Alagi, late in and the battle of the lake Ascianghi,or Ceu, Mai in resistance: the so capitalEthiopian Addis Ababaon 5 May marked war, the notably byhuge a mass rallies celebrated, were how concluding they the with enormous by of end enthusiasmprovoked the deal chapterThis will with victories the the began Italians scoring Ethiopia in 1936in and 193 loud “Salute to theDuce”. Afterwards, the Fascist leaders of Pola initiated a procession which speech, the as theletter of from praise t Secretary of theIstrian GUF read dr. Arbanassi thecommuniqués again to thecrowd, as well thewhereassembled Largo at Square, wasOberdan stand a fromquickly erected, the which streets the newsthrough the propagated victory in the battle for the Endertà, usage of chemical weapons. Decemberin 1935,Italy wasagain gaining upper hand the in 1936, early thanks partly to the war, in the markeEthiopian periodofAfter a stagnation 1936. Battles the Early Celebrating in Victories,IV.1. Finally. 1936.

IV. Apotheosis ofthe Nation: Celebrating Victories andthe Proclamation of

Del Boca,Del The The La Guerra d'Etiopia Guerra La Corriere Istriano Corriere - called “Battle of Endertà” writes, waswrites, constantly interrupted and byapplause wasfollowed bya s s EthiopianAddisthe capital, Ababa. he Duce to the Italian commander in Africa Pietro Badoglio. Africa The Italian in the Pietro Duceto commander he ,

pp. pp. writes that after theofficial regime communiqués announced the

193 - 149

Three battles decisivewere in the crushing Ethiopian 150.

on February17

the Empire

th of Pola. At 19.00 PM of the same day, a mass a same the At19.00PMof day, of Pola.

and proclamation the ofEmpire 9 the onMay in mid fter fter of offall the announcement the - February, near February, near the Amba Aradam, the th , lorries with loudspeakers on board board loudspeakers on with , lorries d by an Ethiopian counter Ethiopian d byan

- offensive 63 th

CEU eTD Collection was followed by processions that marched through the city center. city through the marched that was followedbyprocessions gathering the thiscase, too, In the writes. of membersjournal League Nations, countries of the with satirical re when as followedhis well Indeed, booing mentioning ofEthiopians. speech ended the the The commandersofthe overal victory and latest the forces.glorify sameturnedto Afterthat,he bythe the Ethiopian spot at speech emphasized the sacrifice of 1895, when the army led by general Toselli was defeated the brought speechentire in gave written he a form, asMaracchi was also its director. The crowd’s galvanize hymns order to the The in enthusiasm,reported. journal the Fascists. Before thespeech given by the MP Giovanni Maracchi, bands played patriotic gather did in prescribedplace the in of spite the unfavorable decisions by their respective districtual organizations. in Port’Aurea Square to celebrate the event, while the Fascists were ordered to follow the killed in the latest battles, the blackshirt Giovanni Vellini was remembered. in theevent whereand smallloca speech Istriantownofa washeld, the Portole, hymns. the 197 196 195 194 Corriere the Istriano in Aspontaneous. notice Port’Aurea”, Port’Aurea”,

“L’entusiastica manifestazione popolare di ieri sera”, ieri di “L’entusiasticamanifestazione popolare “L’on Maracchi esalta la vittoria di Amba Alagi tra l’entusiasmo di tutta la cittadinanza adunata a adunata tutta di la tracittadinanza l’entusiasmo di Amba la Alagi vittoria esalta Maracchi “L’on Corriere Istriano “Dalla Provincia”, assembled crowd was invited to participate in and join with the singing of patriotic Corriere The subsequent celebration of the victory at the battle for the Amba wasnot for theAlagi battle at ofvictory celebration the The subsequent 194

In its edition of itsedition 21In February Corriere Istriano put comments in brackets when applauses interrupted MP Maracchi’s speech, as marks directed theat Ethiopian Emperor Selassie Haile and the sanctionist ,February 29 Corriere Istriano , March 1 March , th

1936, p. 2. p. 1936,

l campaign,l Pietro Duce Badoglio the and himself, of course. , February 21 February , st

1936, p. 2. p. 1936,

st , the Corriere, the Istriano st

1936, p. 4.

Corriere Istriano Corriere of February 29 of February 196

That evening, at 19.00 crowd at PMthe evening, That , February 18 February , th

weather, led by soldiers and asked the public to assemble public the asked

chose to describe the same 197

The The th

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, Corriere 195

ribeddesc Corriere l soldier l soldier 64

CEU eTD Collection onpublished 4 April Pola19.30PM. Port’Aureain at in Square again held would be followed,of Istria’s Rovigno.processions that in city the samemode of celebration, with a speech by the local Secretary of theFascio 200 199 198 organized. had war, the opportunityfeel to the regime’s successes through the g Istria, almost simultaneously with the commemoration of the local casualties in the ongoing itself, war the the elements. emphasis without of andthe local Pola people Nevertheless, TheIstria. eventsseem locally be to organized, thebut content of the gatherings focused on followed byprocessioncentersspeeches, throughofother the and Pola settlementsaround 2 October fascist organizations passed through the city center. pattern: led fromby usual procession shift a marching a and band various the members of wentItaly through on the march glory to in its history.recent ofThe end the gatheringnot did A further speech was given by the Prefect Oreste Cimoroni, who emphasized the hardships in Maracchi glorifyingEthiopia. byGiovanni deedssoldiers of the improvised speech Italy’s by Oberdan.followedbyan hymnsmarchingLargo were Thepatriotic played band the battle of Ceu, Mai an

April 4 April

“Il grande raduno del popolo di Pola per celebrare le vittorie delle nostre truppe in A. O.”, Corriere Istriano “Dalla Provincia”, th

More The further cause for celebration was the Italian victory over the Ethiopians in the 1936, p. 3.

1935 and 1935 and celebrationthe of the oftakeover Adua. Themode wasrepeated: or less, these celebrations mimicked the previous gatherings, the adunata

, A Corriere Istriano pril 3 pril th d the Corriere Istriano

said that ten thousand people assembled in the square and the adjacen rd

1936, p. 3. p. 1936,

, March, 3

1936, p. 4. p. 1936,

on April 3 on April

200 198

promptly announced that a gathering a that announced promptly 199

The report on the gathering onthe The report athering thatwere Corriere Istriano Corriere , and on 65 , t CEU eTD Collection numbers of participants. sheet concludedtheFederalthat Secretaries sho the Federal Secretaries the task to manage the events in their respective Provinces. The order organizations decreed event, forfascist which the was participation it mandatory, in gave and would the that announce signals sound the 1935gathering, of October the fornew dispositions a grand the 153 containing of events creation the Mussolini,ofEmpire, and the ofEmpire’Benito the to thus, Italian the ‘Founder and Vittorio III, king Emanuele ofto emperor oftitle ofgranting the Fascism’s decision the of 5 afternoon May onplay the “Radiant of May” 1915, when Italy entered Firstthe Wor The culmination of victorious events came in May 1936, called the “Radiant African May”, a IV.2. The “Radiant May”: The Apotheosis and Creation of the Empire 203 202 201 their respective headquarters at t were published in the same issue. The members of various organizations were asked to reach 1936. known leitmost- ofwell Rome”the is hills fateful on tha decisions tomore an even enthusiastic mass. Italian square that ‘Ethiopia is no every thirty listeningin million Italians morethan balcony to and Romanshis thousand under tofour hundred Duceannounced the at With“the event starting the 7.45PM, squares. to radio aroundItaly throughout listen the put main to broadcast through ofloudspeakers it and summonedbells masses the to Piazza Venezia in Rome listen to the to Duce’s speech and

“Le “Le per ladisposizioni grande adunata”, Ibid. Gentile, 202

The issue of May 5

Fascismo di pietra di Fascismo May 5 th

th were repeated. That evening,were That announced these repeated. on10.30PM,Mussolini , on of day theof the capture Ethiopian the capital, Ababa,syrens Addis 203 , 124.

th The Federal Secretary’s detailed dispositions for the event in Pola

of the

he issuing of the signal, only at the ofsignal, join issuing in masshe to the gathering w Italian’”. Corrieretriano Is Corriere Istriano

The Duce’sThe words the that “Empire reappeared 201

. The points included, as in the case included,the in as . Thepoints adunata Four days later, days afterofFour the Council Grand , 5 May uld telegramuld Rome to approximate the

published the ordersheetregime’s no. th

1936, p. 1. motif

of the“Radiant May” of ld War. In the late

beginning of the the beginning of

66 CEU eTD Collection installment at workstay secure to the continuity of operations. Thetelegram the illumination ordered and to therespond for call thewhile latest gathering, the only smallest number possible should Prefectures of Kingdom, t the including 5 TheMay weather. indeed becauseof bad occasion onthat used wasnot , but adunata - Roman huge weather. of bad case precautionsin advance took ofAmphitheater but Roman Pola, the 206 205 204 Fascists non and their uniforms, only to reach their local headquarters. After that, thestreets became full of describesbut thequick ord adunata the to while notingwhile emergency any worthy mention.”of communicate theapproximate numbers of participants, as well astheweather conditions, news telegraph of via beconcise proceeding methe should report onthe adunata commander ofCarabinieri the the to Romanit symbolcity’s among oftenthe as of Italians thecited the in Amphiteatre, the happen was firstgathering the event connected to empirethe the Province)

1936)

“Le disposizioni della Federazione Fascista”,della “Le disposizioni DAP, PP, 1936, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP, XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP,

The signal for the gathering foronMay the 5 The signal The archival material shows ahasty preparation but not less efficient when compared y and being partofLatin culture. being the y and

of flags on public buildings,of too. onpublic flags era monument dominating the city was planned to host the October the October host 2 to the monument citywasplanned era dominating of October 2 of October - party members,party reach to Amphitheater aiming orderlythe in fashion: erly motion ofFascists homes towards the their order in to on put - - nd A A

- - 1935. A telegram fromMinistry the of Interior sent to all the 5 5 - - 10/11 (5) (Prefect’s letter asking Carabinieri reports from localities in in fromreports localities Carabinieri asking letter 10/11 (5) (Prefect’s 5 May on officials public of work the regarding (Telegram (3) 10/11

division in the Province asked that “as soon as possible, “as as soon that in Provinceasked the division he Istrianhe decreed one, publicofficials should thatthe Corriere Istriano 205 th

Corriere Istriano 18.15PM.TheCorriere at was given

At thesame time,message a from thePrefect 206

- building Ethiopian wasto campaign that , 5 May th

1936, p. 3. p. 1936,

(…) and

nd 204

1935

th The The

67 th

CEU eTD Collection hymns of the [Fascist] revolution through the streetsofcity”. revolution [Fascist] through the the hymns of the after the end of theDuce’s speech an unend maximum becoming later and enthusiasm wasnoted, melting awayofgathering delirious, the that“After the happen”.reads to Thereport less than hour ofpeople one “took gathering the officethe same gave number of in participants adunata this thirtyas thousand. enthusiasticand thatPola ever saw”. Thenewspaper participantscounted the in this adunata redemption [afterWorld War I], the one from last night was certainly the most sp ceremony historical Forum. atthe “After afterwardsended the of which pennants, Fascist and in a fiery ra After its end, “the whole Arena, fantastically illuminated by the reflectors, seemed lighting up expressions.” the lighted, “which often highlighted the large satirical billboards held by soldiers (…) on which soon Reflectors were venue. large the people filled fashion the which but in orderly joyous speakers were installed. Flags were hanged inside the Amphitheater. officials and the pennants of the various fascist organizations of the city. Behind them 210 209 208 207 the announcing

DAP, PP, 193 PP, DAP, Ibid. Ibid. “Trentamila ierihanno persone acclamato il all’Arena Duce”, negus going to give to Italy and the world the awaited announcement (…)of glory and victory. The massThe to the listened Duce’s speech crowded inside the ancient Romanmonument. leading Province’s the host to Amphitheater order the in in prepared were Two stages The same event occurred all around occurred Province of all theThe same signals the Istria,with sound event armed forces armed confused Pola, in an fascist unique and Roman heartbeat of brotherly affection with all our

, [UK Foreign Secretary] eden [sic !] associatesand appear in most the appropriate y”. People started leaving venue People y”. the form orderto in holding torches processions 208 6, b: 280,f: XVII

adunat ,

209 gave way to an impetus of exaltation, (…) directed towards the Duce who is is who Duce the towards directed (…) exaltation, of impetus an to way gave

A telegram sent from theCarabinieri e . The - A

- Corriere 5 - 10/1 (1) (Telegram on the adunata 5 May of adunata the on (Telegram (1) 10/1 reported 8 onMay ing procession place, took singingwith of the Corriere Istriano th , als

corps of Pola to the Prefect’s that 7.000 people amassed in amassed 7.000people that 210 o noting that the process of process the o noting that

, 6 May The describesjournal the th

1936 in Pola) in 1936 th

1936, p. 3. p. 1936,

ectacular

207

CEU eTD Collection 1936, p. 3. p. 1936, manner, all enthusiastically applauding the Duce’s speech” with “normal public order”. public “normal speech” with applauding Duce’s enthusiastically the manner, all magnificient spectacle.” the houses and piers, aspectacle which “seen from thesea, took an appearance of i gathering mass inCathedral,the and feasting until late night in the town’s Riviera. Similarly, the followed to speech religious bya the Mussolini’s 3.600 with listening having participants, adunate consumed a flash”. in maintained”, people offered“that with wine free was,naturally, immediatelyassaulted and of Adua was oftakeover day made the mise onthe and “pro a Pinguente,where Visinada, without the number of participants, is described in the cities and towns of Pirano, Portole, to and thethe Rovigno, listened celebrating night.speech, continued Thesame into late event, 214 213 212 211 of northern Capodistriathe city Ant ofprogress celebration other in under fractions jurisdictions [of thatunit]”. telegram notes the processions and illumination of buildings in the village, with “normal hundr three with Istria, reported the to Prefect gathering the regular in headquarters , the of Dopolavoro the happenings throughout Province.the Thebrigade in the community of Cerreto, northern these communities followed the same pattern, since theevents were centrally controlled. from brought reports manynever Province so the localities in of Istria.Thecelebrations in

“La “La grandiosa manifestazione in inIstria occasione del raduno del popolo italiano”,

DAP, PP, 1936, b: 280, f: XVII f: 280, b: 1936, PP, DAP, XVII f: 280, b: 1936, PP, DAP, “Dalla Provincia”, ignana, the the ignana, Indeed, the Carabinieri the Indeed,

in Dignano, Uma Dignano, in n the coastal town of Fasana was followed seen before”by a “never illumination of Carabinieri ed peopleed participating it, Thein ofinhabitants”. totality “almostthe the Corriere Istriano 211

212 More details came in the edition of 9 May edition details cameMore the in

go, Visignano and Fasana. In Umago, In described Fasana. and as is Visignano event the go, Since reporting on the various gatherings started, onthe newspaper various the reporting Since

- - reported the “intervention of “intervention reported 500 in the around ordinary persons A A

- - responded theto Prefect’s request be to informed the about 5 5 f six thousand, along six participationof the with emphasisthe of - - , May 8 May , 10/1 (3) (Telegram on the adunata 5 May of adunata the on (Telegram (3) 10/1 5 May of adunata the on (Telegram (2) 10/1 th

1 936, p. 4.

th , with descriptions of the th th

1936in Antignana) Cerreto) in 1936 Corriere Istriano 213

, May 8 May ,

From From 214

69 In In th

CEU eTD Collection May 5 mode all the of in Provinces including Italy, Istria. A telegram from Duce’s office sent the on Further archival material shows aims Rome’s have thefollowing to days pass i ofwho hoursarrive probablytook to centres Comuni various the the faras as to the participationingatheringnote the of people residing in surrounding villages, confirmation from the local authorities. Telegram reports from the smaller communi shouldevent regularly inhappen the smallest ofcountry,fractions the asking diligently for its delirio telegrams Istrian between officials do not avoid emphasizing the enthusiasm ofthemass and close. drawinga to wasslowly gathering people frommore distant villages kept arriving in Portole in later whenthe evening, the kept illuminated along with “fires of joy in the fields.” Also, the letter points out the fact that windows whilewere the church, town’s ceremony religious marching bya the and band in applauses” after theDuce’s speech, which was followed the performance of theDopolavoro’s The Podestà [surrounding] and County”. 1500 persons“fromCastle the the Portole to the Prefect Cimoroni in Pola details theevents of May 5 decree. reported “optimal weather conditions” during the, as adunata thePrefect had asked for in his army”, glorious the the Duceand “extollingofKing,the the their individuals and 216 215

May 5 May

DAP, PP, 1936, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP, XVII f: 280, b: 1936, PP, DAP, , “in spite of its announcement at the last moment” resulted in the in participationof moment” resulted announcement last of the its , at adunata spite “in th Again, as in the case of theadunata 8 datedmessage onMay A longer

th 1936) 215

ordered theordered installationof Italianflags onbuildings onthe of 6 public days May

us reactionstospeech the byBenito aimed Mussolini. The regime again that the

- - A A

- - 5 5 - - 10/11 (7) (Letter from the fromthe (Letter (7) 10/11 (4) 10/1

(Telegram on the adunata 5 May of adunata the on (Telegram 216 th

sent from sent of October 2 of October

Podestà the the Podestà nd

ofPortole regardingthe gathering of 1935, the both press and the th of the small locality of th . The sender wrote that wrote sender . The .

1936 in Capodistria) in 1936

mentioned the “loud n a celebratory Carabinieri ties went

th , 7 70 th

CEU eTD Collection offices onMay 6 8 and 219 218 217 gathered three”. streetswhereprocession ofwent, Thepublic the the without Fascists along the inscription: “First the Austrian Empire, then the A procession was formedby led marchinga band, billboards and were held, of one had which regimevarious in the evening in organizations of front the Casa del Fascio orderofwas themilitary Savoy.Thenewjournal gathering, organizedwrites, byquickly Medalof the honour, military high of offera Mussolini to King’s bythe and Graziani newsthe of theof takeover the Ethiopian town of Jijiga by the forces of general Rodolfo sentiments that were totalitarian fascist nature.”in citizens’ of Pola best andexample the the firm, giving joy wasspontaneous “popular of continuedlate Thedescription theMay 6 into night. that patriotic fascistand songs played in werePort’Aurea while newSquare, processions formed Fascist heroes and those from theFirst World War. In the evening of thesame day, bands organized a visit to the Marine cemetery, where flowers were la onlocal id tombsof the followed by occasional speeches by theheads of these institutions. The “Manzoni” school of the writes,elementary songsjournal patriotic school, singing wasorganized, hymns and thatthe formed governmentin schoolvisited pupils, high city. buildings procession In a fromPola morning early order in to the continue celebrations.soon Thestudents, byjoined Istriano takeover of Addis Ababa) following May 5 following

DAP, PP, 1936, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP, “Incontenibile esultanza della gioventu` di Pola”, XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP, th

The The the of day 6 following May Indeed, “from dawn”. to dusk

writes that students from the Magisterial Institute filled the squares and streets of Corriere Istriano th

1936) th . 218

- - A A

217 writes that jubilation continued on continued thatjubilation writes 7 May - - 5 5

- - 10/11 (1) (Telegram ordering the flagthe ordering (Telegram (1) 10/11 10/11 (4) (Telegramregarding the working hours ofpublic offices Another telegram th Corriere Istriano , was marked by constant feasting. The Corriere 219

decreed holidayworkingfordecreed hours public

, byssinian one… isbyssinian notwo There May 7 th

events ends with the note endsthat the with events gingof buildingsfollowing the th

1936, p. 3. p. 1936, th , too, a

mplified by mplified by of Pola. APola. of 71 CEU eTD Collection Italy” the writer notes, while the Amphiteatre was seen as hard to properly illuminate in such from armyparticipatesoldiers in to “representing regular the asked the event, warrior installmentof and squares the loudspeakers in gatheringer oth locations for thisevent, too. byorganizations organized individualFascist local in the moreimproviseda manner. until evening,late the reports.continued journal decisionKing’s which thehonored Duce.A endedPort’Aureawhich at Square. amid There, acclamations, loud official local a read the 223 222 221 220 notes that the local Fascist Federation saw theForum astoo journal , the adunata venue a as for this Amphiteater or Forum the use decision to not the living of Fascist is thishighest in”. the Nation becomemoment that protagonists piazza their homes for the deserted own radio, to a privilege the thathad families passion”, the certainly have been ready after several days filled with events andgatherings. various should organizations wasagainthe ofhasty, Fascist but this event The preparation offices in the city. of the flagging illuminationand public in samethe decreed notice A second issue Mussolini. s new a to Forumlisten to the at 22.00PM assemble at of to Pola 5 the May 9 May the

“40.000 cittadini salutano l’avvento dell’Impero”,

“Un’altra grandiosa manifestazione in onore del Duce”, in Duce”, del manifestazione onore grandiosa “Un’altra DAP, PP, 1936, b: 281, f: XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP, Corriere Istriano announcement, although the preparation for the gatherings these for preparation the announcement, the days although The May 9 What followed was the “most solemn” of theevenings in this week of “fascist The regimeclearly aimed to have thepeople mobilized for several days after theMay th

1936 gathering) 1936 Corriere , 9 May 221 th

edition of the Corriereedition Istriano

A telegram fromthe Prefect to the Podestàs

th writes. Largowrites. Oberdan by was “clad in crowd”, black “thethe and

1936, p. 3. p. 1936, - A

- 5 - 10/11 (6) (Prefect’s telegram asking the loudsp installment of the telegram asking 10/11 (6) (Prefect’s

Corriere Istriano Corriere fter thefter gathering melted away, the jubilation 220 Corriere Istriano

carried a shortnotice calling thecitizens , May, 8

small number tolarge due the of , May 8 May , th

around the Provincedecreed

1936, p. 3. p. 1936, th

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, peech delivered by

was left to be

223

in order to order in Regarding eakers for for eakers 222 72

CEU eTD Collection The orders from the Federal Secretary asked the members of various regime organizations to regimeto various Secretarymembers organizations of the from Federal asked the The orders Te Deum a short period of time. 226 225 224 for celebration, the notes. reasons journal Ita conquering Corriere the night, owned bythe Fascist various organizations of the city.The jubilation continued intolate the throughns . It city,thistimewas followedbyprocessio adunata the lorries embellished using ofhailing the King,now the to and Emperor salute the Duce.It was the official end of the After speech,joy”. the armyan left general the of tribune to honour order the troops the Italian”. His last words (“Italy finally owns its Empire!” of proud the heart to every directly going “a as new journal Gospel, inIstrian described the initiated its proceedings,short while at 22.35the speech itself His wasannounced. are words speakersinstalled Pola. in At22.15, the radio announced thatthe GrandFascist the orchestra, as well as the chants from thepeople assembled in Rome, heard through the formingbayonettes awesome an line” around be reflectorsthe to square,“illuminating thousandsof installed the provided soldiers’ verymobilized, it difficult is findto goodplacein a Pola contain to them TheNavy all”. are becausewhen 40.000citizens narrow, too itself proved the Oberdan Largo “even the event celebrating the reappearance of anew Roman Empire.

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.

Announced on the Corriere’sAnnounced onthe speech by Before the the Duce,the mass to hear wasable theboth hymns played by The , a mass of thanksgiving for victo mass, a the of thanksgiving Corriere lian general Pietro Badoglio to the title of Viceroy of Ethiopia, created further writes. At midnight, a new communiqué announcing promotingannouncing ofthe writes. new a communiquéthe Atmidnight, counted the participants in this adunata 224

Interestin

gly, the symbol of Pola’s Romanity was not to be used for used be to not Romanitywas gly, the Pola’s symbol of edition of 8 May . 225

226

ry Ethiopia Pola’s in was organized Forum. th , on the morning of Sunday May 10 May of morning Sunday on the , ) were) followed “explosionby an of in Pola 40.000,in as noting that

Council th 73

a CEU eTD Collection prepared “post ofprepared honour” a participate in whileit, the officials representing theArmed forces would have a specially 229 228 227 founderofRoman the homageEmpire”. to “in of theRoman emperor August in front of theAmphiteatre, where an official placed awreath womenthe members by crowd. ceremony, “Present!”shouted followed bya the Afterthe Corriere the Secretary read the seventeen names of thelocal soldiers who died, and each name was speech, the local casu to After his victory happen. with allowing the The speech ended thanksgivingGoda to for victory “by Italy’s soldier” in Africa theeconomic in face of siegeby the League of Nations. ceremony,the religious of Pirano, Pisino, Dignano, towns Promontore. the Pisino, Rovignoand of inProvince, Pirano, happened the dedication endedevent. the and Augustus the to Fasc was followedbythe religiousceremony the Augustus, Templeof of the front in masswasput for the The altar ceremony. for the choosing ofplace the the in the Catholic, Fascist religious elements joined together, with the element of Romanity present present. were Cimoroni latest African war assembled. With them, the high Provincial officials, including the Prefect of Townmothers widows and both the Hall, the in First ofcombatants the Temple theAugustus, ancient of monumentRoman dominating the piazza. Under the arches the Forumdescribed, prepared and flags with torches, altar was an frontwith in of erected the

Ibid. “La solenne cerimo “Il‘Te Deum’perla vittoria A.in O.”,

The The Immediately beforemass the commenced, cannon 101 shots were fired. After the Corriere Istriano nia religiosa al Foro Romano”, al Romano”, Foro religiosa nia

of Fascio the Femminile 228 alties in the Ethiopian campaign were remembered, The Federal parroco

t the ceremony.t edition of May 12 May ofedition of Pola, Corriere Istriano Corriere Monsignor Angeli delivered apraising the speech Corriere Istriano

formed that procession a marched the to statue 227

, May 8 May ,

229 For the the For event, the journal onMay 12 th

It is interesting to see how this event had described how theevents of9 May th

1936, p. 2. p. 1936, , May, 12

1936, p. 3. p. 1936, ist rite for the fallen,

WorldWar the and

writes, all 74 th th

CEU eTD Collection a “participation so totalitarian that did not occur neither at the time of the celebration of the of celebration the at the time the did occurof neither not that totalitarian so “participation a in many of Visinada, and citizens Fascists along the villages manyof surrounding inhabitants events were clearly ideologically centralized, with noreport of elements local included. aroundoccurring Province the for the occasion of proclamation the ofEmpire. the Again, Salesian band played every evening between May 6 present, Thewere too. acclamationjoyful are Piranoemphasized. and In Pisino the members ofarmed the forces The events are 231 230 5 TheMay useful. Visinada sent to the Prefecture in detailingPola feasting the throughout early May will be songs. with the reading of the Duce’s speech again, as well as with celebratory sing case of the May 5 described in on Pola 10 Sunday,May the evening of evening 9 the May ceremony had speeches, including inscribed on it of parts given the speech byMussolini on membersother of Fascist organizations. Theplaque, which during wasrevealed short a by the Federal Secretary Bellini arriving fromPola, as well as by local Fascist leaders and consecration of t and castles of Istria”, had a plaque erected celebrating the birth of the “new Empire”. The the

“La “La lapide che ricorda la fondazione dell’Impero inaugurate a Fianona”, “Dalla Provincia”, Corriere 231 To conclude this subchapter, theTo Podestà concludethis the letterthat long however, is, worthy event A further

reported reported that thesmall eastern Istrian town of Fianona, “first among the cities all exactly similar: after the Duce’s speech, processions amid singing and he monumenthe gathering a had organized for the occasion, was which attended Corriere Istriano th th

th gatherings, the

, when the creation of the Empire was announced. The ceremony ended ended of Theceremony the wasannounced. Empire creation when the , Corriere celebration, the the celebration,

, May 12 May , described all the events after May 5 th Corriere Istriano , happenedeach in of these localities, too. th

Podestà 1936, p. 4. p. 1936, of mention due to its different nature.mention itsdifferent of to due On19 May

wrote, involve wrote,

th reported a similar pattern of events

and 8 and Corriere Istriano th d the d the participation of the . TheTe Deum th

in Rovigno, in thewhere of theof Comune , May 19 May , ing of patriotic 230

th Asthe in that wasthat

1936, p. p. 1936,

75 th

CEU eTD Collection following day, when all the schools repeated when speeches day, allthe the by following had ofComune Duce’s the of soldiers from Visinada that were currently in Africa. A further event took place the underscores. by processions which “untillasted the ea participationofpeople. four thousand involvedthe concludes, thethrough of center the town“amid ofmanifestations joy”.gathering, This the Podestà that passed “mighty” procession wasfollowedbya which mainsquare, the speech in Duce’s annexation Comuneof to this Italy [a 234 233 232 the and priest,local the the week consecrated to Victory and the Empire.” The event involved speeches by himself ofSun hadlight roletounder withthe himself afternoon the the “crown demonstration a that with “culminating” manifestations, 10 May 3AM. until continued that processions byhuge wasfollowed and enthusiasm an metwith “welcomed never before”, overall gathering that had the Duce’s speech as acentral point, the The Ethiopia. in war the during gatherings the to documentsrelated official thein Istria This is the children”. and firstwives time that we find mentionthe of the Slavic element in : Podestà the event was attended by the“allogeni took which place in the churchlocal onthe evening of May 6

manifestations)

Ibid. Ibid. XVII f: 281, b: 1936, PP, DAP, The letter emphasizes the fact that every evening had some form of joyous

The May 9 ofThe description the followsevents the with mentioning of religiousceremony a 233

gathering is also described, with an interesting note expressed by the described, bythe with expressed also interestinggathering an note is 234 Podestà

- A

- 5 - continues 10/11 (9) (Letter from the fromthe (Letter (9) 10/11 fter World War I]”. He detailed the listening to the , while themain focus were the wives and relatives th rly morning ofday the the 7”, letter sender ering organized bytheering Podestà , whengath a

frommost the distant villages with their Podestà 232

th ofVisinada regardingthe patriotic . This . This event, too wasfollowed

Podestà writes, was 76

CEU eTD Collection May 10 May on ofpersonally boasting he organized his the in seenhis event in clearly events Comune, that note teachers, with new process following lectures. ions the 236 235 and in descriptions theconfidential the ofgatherings in press, documents the reports compiled regime set the gatheringsup. Again, thatwere chain a of enthusiastic through days, mobilized through several allowing people to the taste apotheosis of the their country were strictly happening thethroughout Province.Thefascistorganizations constantly were officials confirmed in their reports. Also, the local authoritiesmade itso that the celebrations centrally organized and strictly controlled from Rome, in albeit a hastier manner, as some whole country. Similarly to the first gatherings that happened during the as war, the literature when suggests focusing onthe circumstances theyattend ininteresting itself,although cannot we currently confirm claims his see or under which thathefact participationof mentioned the the Slavs arriving from villages distant is Africato took prominent a role only i element, the involving emphasis onthe participationofwives relatives the and of soldiers sent and constant ofhis processions, the display local in Comune. speech,flags the Duce’s The ofcount the followedthe samein rest show it as to pattern

Ibid. Ibid. gorgeously illuminated. With the work of the FascioGiovanile embellished were There is noThere that doubt Podestà the uring(d) the period of manifestations, meaning from the 5 The events between May 5 tower, onthe four columns of the communal cistern and on S. Tomaso hill.

which involved a speech that he delivered. He detailed everyevent, delivered. involvedthathe Hewhich detailed single wanting speech a with ed, if they perhaps ifed, they policedid: under pressure? the tricolor flag, and in the evening the balconies of the houseswere

adunata and May 10 May and n the event organized bythe Podestà

clearly wanted to show hisefficientof lea thed of October 2 of October th

1936 of Istriamarked apex in the the 235

nd The The th

1935, the May1935, the 1936eventswere

to the 10 ’s letterPodestà ends with the

there were fires lit in the church thechurch in lit fires were there ry, with the listening to the th

[of May] all the houses houses the all May] [of 236

. And again, the. - contr olled 77 CEU eTD Collection event, which withlocal event, ended the described howmembers the of regime various organizations were “forced” to attend the nation”. “renegadereport ofethnicity,a be Thejournal claimed ofSlavic to Slovene the fallen the who soldier, blackshirt commemorating t fallen in war, there was a report dealing with the Fascist ritual in the Province of Gorizia no is there mentionthem of the in émigréRegarding journal. the commemorations for the December 18 we will again use the writings of the émigré journal Istra 1935andhalfof of 1936, first late tomass inProvinceof the population the Istria gatherings lack Again,with. the more with of in dealt chapter this Slavicreception usofevents the the to brings issuepointed out The last reception The Slavic IV.3. events. a document for the first time underlined the participation o officialsby local match, the with emphasis of the missing. people’s enthusiasmnever Lastly, 238 237 Slavs in the Julian March, the journal reported surveillance that on themwas heightened therepression against ofFascist In the narrating ofcelebrations. the context the backdrop bellschurch announcing the gatherings, while describing a completely different reality in the region. March soldiers from Julian 8Croat deaths ofand thereported journal the 22Slovene all,

Razpetu“ Razpetu“

Orlović, pp. 56 „Fašistična proslava v čast prvemu Goričanu, ki je padel v Abesiniji, slovenskemu odpadniku Fortuna

238 The The Regarding Regarding the eventsof 1936, May Istra the Istra

Istra , February 14 February , th

- 1935. The same applied to the to celebrations1935. Thesame ofvic the applied 58.

was silent about theanti

1936, p. 3. p. 1936,

Casa del F Casa del - depth sources dealing with the of sources the depth with receptions Slavic dealing - sanctionist rallies including the “Day of Faith” on ralliessanctionist on including“Dayof the Faith” ascio ascio renamed after the fallen blackshirt.

mentioned the Fascist processions and he editors namedas Fortunat Razpet from Zagreb. from f the Slavic population in the the in population f Slavic the

tories in early early in 1936, astories tu tu 237

78 In In CEU eTD Collection period of mobilization andperiod celebration from 5 May windows.their of while attacksdrinking oil, whocastor noted se hangwere on tho Italian not did the on flags the someout fact whothat did Slavs attend gatherings not the and suffered beatings forced celebrations. thegiving to importance for not assaulted physically the gatherings, and attend wasgiven to forced for gathering signal fields when the finish villagersworkin toabruptly their celebrations. to it, had According dur 240 239 but again prepared ideologically were organized EthiopianAddis the 10 capital Ababa) May up to center. city the through processions in engaging press,people gathered thethe in central square, listened to speeches, and dispersed after April) followed an already pre over asthe and announced officially proc Februarystarting in and culminating thewith euphoria in early 1936, May when the waswar Ethiopia, in Italians This chapterforscoredbythe of victories acelebration with dealt return IV.4. Concluding Remarks ’s Podestà allogeni contrast to the initial grand adunata the to initial contrast

„Prisiljena proslava ob zavzetju Adis Abebe“, Adis Abebe“, zavzetju ob proslava „Prisiljena Abebe“, zavzetju Adis „Po ing this period and thisperiodand ing the networkduring spy had the investigated kindthey what of behavior The gatherings in the so the The gatherings- in The Pola celebrations of three victories in Ethiopia (two in and early in in (two one Ethiopia February in victories of three celebrations The Pola

from“distant villages”participate in the message to the Prefecture. 240

Thus, forced participationThus, forced may the be answer to questionthe why did the Istra , May 15 May ,

- established pattern of mass gathering. After a short notice in notice short After a patternmassgathering. established of called “Radiant May” period in Istria formed an incessant

th on October 2 on October

1936, p. 1. p. 1936, lamation of the Empire happened.lamation ofEmpire the Istra , 22 May

and controlled from the government’s center center government’s controlledfromand the th nd th

(after the proclamation of the Empire). In

nd 1935, these gatherings were more hastily gatherings were 1935, these (after the announceme adunata

1936., p. 2. p. 1936.,

in Visinadain mentionedthe in

239

An article even points nt of the capture of ofcapture nt the while some were 79 CEU eTD Collection in Rome,in almost no element with local included. main Two gatherings (May 5 who various andpenaltiesfor those Slavs the gatherings, harsh ignored the mass rallies. community was under strict surveillance by the regime, with cases of forced participati Slav majority when the population factwas involved.It emphasized the thatmembers of the again emphasized the utmost euphoria andenthusiasm these rallies produced. andofmessages Presscontent report between confidential the provincialofficials locality. local police we people the untilgathered morning. early The events happened in the Province, whole and followed an established of already pattern forming processionsplaying and held music that Roman huge the - had which publicplaces, in of put one through speakers to speeches theMussolini’s listening involved

At last, the Slav émigré pressgave a completely different account on these gatherings re askedre to report to the Prefecture in Pola to detail about events in each era era

Amphitheatre in Pola Besides asavenue. that, the gatherings

and May 9 on in on in 80 th ) CEU eTD Collection rehearsal on February 23 celebration ofsubsequent ofsymboliciopian townof6 takeover Eth the the October Adua on of theRegimeForces” the at announcement ofthestart of the war on October 2 the Italian Empire was marked with oceanic assemblies 1936. May early in of and ofwar proclamation upto end official the the of events, when apex the right such campaign withbeginning May kickstarted1935 ofmass a series rallies that were- re and of soldiers gatheringsdeparture ofto enrolledvol peoplebe asking as Kingdom of Italy’s Province of Istria related to the 1935 This thesis has described and thoroughly analyzed all mass rallies that took place in the local regime officials, I found two main divisions in the events. First, th events.ose regimemain divisionsthe foundin First, I two whichlocal officials, were highly hardly a month in Istria passing without a mass rally related to the war in Ethiopia. Empire. WeItalian space a of that in year, a from see 1935 to 1936, May May the 10 ofdays consta were celebratedMay Aprilearly Februaryand 1936.Finally, victories 1936saw in several Ethiopian battlefields meant that new reasons for mass rallies were created, so several Italian on18 occurring February character mostly campaignof the ceremonies religious in colonial with from Province soldiers the country withcountry culmination a in the “Day of Fa League of Nations for propaganda purposes, rallying the masses to help the victimized 1935. A period of stagnation in the campaign sawthe regime using sanctions imposed by the

in orderin mark to the ofEthiopian Addisfall the capital Ababaand the proclamation of the Between these two periods, Istria saw achain of mass rallies, including the “Gathering Relying on the writing of the local regime of onthe local writing Relying the nt rallying and feasting, masseswith gathering incessantly from May 5 rd

1936. Early 1936 saw remeberance rallies celebrating the fallen th

and Apriland 14 Conclusion ith” ith” on December 18 - affiliated pressand reports of confidential affiliated th . At last, the return of victories in the

- 36 Ethiopia. colonial in war The th

1935, which a had unteers in thein unteers

n d occurring occurring th , the and

to May to May re wasre 81 th

CEU eTD Collection imitating themain rally in Rome, but with the emphasis of mostly local elements. improvised celebrations.victory The “Dayof Faith”event is somehow the in middle, departure of Istrian soldiers, commemorations fo events, regional initiated or even spontaneously improvised by authorities,local likethe celebrations, hastily prepared but not less centralized than thefirst one. The second were controlled fromRome for several weeks before its perfo gathering onOctober 2 Rome,the in as initial such centralized celebrations, anpropagandistic with ideological from centermeaningthe imposed oral history, shoul personal memoirs,on additionalarchival into and research, insight possibly and diaries letters, the warpeople towards the authorities. as the andthem actions, by theto regime’s well ignoring Slavs as repressiontowards bythe were both cases of allegiance to the regime by the local Italians and their complete dedication threat of sanctions. Wemay therealityassume that stands somewhere in themiddle: them participate in to under forced Slavs authorities ofProvince the the the Fascist that fact them, satiric diametrically different picture of the Fascist mass rallies in the Province. Either it ignored subjugated of silencedmajority and Slav Istria, pressthe from a painted emigration, of the the voice only government.contrast, In its and war countryat the people with the enthusiasm with which the masses reacted to them, underscoring the totalitarian allegiance of regime press andconfidential documents were describing the mass rallies. Both emphasize the

What is very important, but did not fit t not did into very but What important, is similarity the surprisingfinding the both notbywhich but is An that interesting,

ally mocked them, or when it mentioned them, the émigré press emphasized the mockedémigré mentioned press them,ally it them, the when or d focus on that aspect of the mass rallies analyzed in this thesis. - related massrallies of1935 r thelocalr casualties of thewar, and several his thesis’ research, theis real reception by nd - 6.

1935, meticulously prepared and 1935,meticulously and prepared Further workthatcouldFurther based be rmance, or the May the 1935 or rmance,

Such an

there 82 CEU eTD Collection of 1935 Istria in Province 1936. and did war the a mobilizationproduce constant by t theand canalisation of emotions their towards the war As progress. in ih whole the of Italy, mass rallies and ongoing purposes of creating a “collective harmony” o a state in ofproject a fascistization of themasses, which fits into Emilio Gentile’s approach to Italian Fascism asa process forces mainthe ofcreation in ofthe the driving a totalitarian communitythe and Istria in regards tothe mass rallies during the Ethiopian war. approach wouldalso help in better clarifying the position of majority population the Slav of

The education of the masses. se gradual process of creating a totalitarian state. mass rallies other events of public ritual in in Istria, and thus Fascist Italy of one as in general, seen be should

Throughout the Throughout

aimed thet at he regime through mass rallies in the Italian Ethiopian

f “perpetual mobilization” in the

The regime used he homogenization of homogenization he the people war, war, the speeches of the the Duce,

these events for 83

CEU eTD Collection and Slovene official names parenthesis). in of Istria ofProvince Map the

locations including thesis locations mentioned the in

( Created Appendix

by the author) bythe I

(Today’s Croatian (Today’s Croatian

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