International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (Ijseiro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Print version ISSN: 2392 – 6252 ISSN – L: 2392 – 6252

Online version ISSN: 2393 - 0373

Aims and Scope International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation wants to create a platform for constructive debate on the various tendencies and orientation in education sciences and social sciences thereby encouraging further research in these fields.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation is an open access and double blind peer reviewed international journal.

Publication Frequencey: 2 issues per year

Language of Publication: English

Abstracted/ Indexed in  Central and Eastern European Online Library (CEEOL)  Open Academic Journals Index (OAJI)  Global Impact Factor (GIF)  Academic Keys  J-Gate  Journal Seeker (Research Bible)  Journal Guide  Airiti  EZB Nutzeranfragen  PBN (Polska Bibliografia Naukowa)  INFOBASE INDEX  SIS (Scientific Indexing Services)  Gaudeamus  Cite Factor  Microsoft Academic Search  Academia Edu International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

 TEI (Turkish Education Indexing)  SIF (Science Impact Factor)  Efita  MIAR  Research Gate  I2OR (International Institute of Organized Research)  Yumpu  ROAD (Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources)  Google scholar  Scribd

Editorial Office International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro), Suceava, Romania Phone: +40 746 464 358 Website: www.ijsei.wgz.ro E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Editor and editorial board members do not receive any remuneration. These positions are voluntary.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Editorial Board of the International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro)

Editor-in Chief  Eşi Marius - Costel (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)

Editor Assistant  Posteucă Narcisa Loredana (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)

Editorial Members:  Bocoş-Binţinţan Muşata (“Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)  Oliynek Maria (“Yuriy Fedkovych” National University, Cernăuţi, Ukraine)  Pasca Eugenia-Maria (“George Enescu” University, Iaşi, Romania)  Emerson Clayton Arantes (Universidade Federal de Roraima, Brazil)  Petrovici Constantin (“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania)  Leow Chee Seng (Graduate School, II C University of Technology, Phnom Penh, Cambodia)  Nagy Rodica Mărioara (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Turtoi Maria (“Dunărea de Jos” University, Galaţi, Romania)  Paramita Acharjee (Karimganj, Assam, India)  Jeder Daniela (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Akbarov Azamat (International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina)  Balan Carmen Cornelia (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Mohammad Ali Kowsary (Hakim Sabzevari University, Iran)  Massari Gianina-Ana (“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania)  Gagik Demirjian (“Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute”, Gyumri, Armenia)  Kelemen Gabriela (“Aurel Vlaicu” University, Arad, Romania)  Oprea Crenguţa Lăcrămioara (University of Bucharest, Romania)  Barbare Inese (“Latvian Maritime Academy”, Riga, Latvia)  Trifu Alex (“Petre Andrei” University, Iaşi, Romania)  Maierean Andreea Raluca (Wilkes University, USA)  Behera Santosh Kumar (Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, India)  Tosheva Elizabeta (University St. Clement of Ohrid, Bitola, Macedonia)  Sabo Helena Maria (“Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)  Drăghicescu Luminiţa (Associate Professor “Valahia” University, Târgovişte, Romania)  Nika Maklena (University of Tirana, Albania)  Nedelea Alexandru (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Vancea Romulus (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Serdenciuc Nadia Laura (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Göndor Mihaela (“Petru Maior” University, Târgu-Mureş, Romania)  Frant Ancuţa (West University of Timisoara, Romania)  Gheorghiu Corina (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Anghel Alina (“Valahia” University, Târgovişte, Romania)  Pătruţ Monica (“Vasile Alecsandri” University, Bacău, Romania)  Caciuc Viorica Torii (“Dunărea de Jos” University, Galaţi, Romania) 3

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

 Chiriac Horia Constantin (“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University, Iaşi, Romania)  Ariton-Gelan Cristina (“National Naval Center for Studies and Initiatives in Education, Sport and Traditions”, Constanţa, Romania)  Emandi Elena Maria (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Danilović Jelena (University of Kragujevac, Serbia)  Bogoevska Natasa (University Ss Cyril and Methodius, Skopje, Macedonia)  Flandorfer Antoniu Alexandru (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Vujčić Jasna (Secondary School “Matija Antun-Reljkovic”, Slavonski Brod, Croatia)

Reviewers Team:  Anastasi Prodani (University of Tirana, Albania)  Maxim Ioan (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Gjinali Aida (University of Tirana, Albania)  Petrescu Ana-Maria (“Valahia” University, Târgovişte, Romania)  Seiciuc Lavinia (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Turturean Monica (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Pînzariu Cătălina (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Nedelea Marilena-Oana (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Zoltan Raluca (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Bujorean Elena (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Huţuleac Dragoş (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Bejinariu Corvin (“Eudoxiu Hurmuzachi” National College, Rădăuţi, Romania)  Terec Vlad Loredana (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)  Karina Stempel-Gancarczyk (Instytut Slawistyki PAN – Polska Akademia Nauk), Warszawa, Poland)  Mishra Shilpi (Dr., Khandwa, India)

Copy Editor:  Şaşalovici Narcisa - Maria (“Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania)

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

CONTENTS

Adapting and integrating alternative didactics in the teaching-learning-assessment system in relation to the concept of “disciplinary field” ...... 7 EŞI Marius-Costel

The emergence ofthe Sufiliteratureasthe balance ofpower in Media (An Analytical Study on The impact of Sanaee’s poem onthe emergence ofthe emancipated Media in Iran) ...... 13 MOHAMMADIAN Abbas SADEGHIMANESH Ali

Reaching Out Strategies for Higher Education Institution in Cambodia ...... 21 LEOW Chee Seng LEONG Wing Sum Vincent MAISARAH Ahmad SIAN Hock Seng MARIMTHU Nadason

The Social Clauses and the Euromeditteranean Agreements ...... 37 SAMI Aouadi

Semantic Features (Polisemi, Homonymy) In The Law Terminology in The Albanian And Greek Languages...... 53 SHEHU Eda

Transplanting Surrealism in Greece- a Scandal or Not? ...... 61 NIKA Maklena

Characteristics of Application of General Didactic Principles to the Specificity of Tactical, Operational and Strategic Military Higher Education ...... 69 COTÎRLEŢ Paul-Claudiu

Higher Education in Romania Compared to Other Signatories of the Bologna Reform ...... 79 LĂCĂTUȘ Florin – Adrian

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Reconstruction of Contents by Raported ToThe Idea of Didactic Transposition ...... 91 CUJBĂ Tiberiu-Octavian

The Concept of “Black Humour” at French and Greek Writers ...... 103 NIKA Maklena

The Role of The Greek Borrowings In Albanian Lexis ...... 111 DELIGEORGI Sofia

The Concept of “Autonomy” And Its Relationship with the Idea of Transhumanism ...... 119 TEREC-VLAD Loredana

Occupational Training And Family Relationships Of Students In Conditions Of Personal Crisis Experience...... 125 OLIYNYK Maria I PALAHNYUK O.V.

Editorial Policy ...... 135

Instructions for Authors ...... 136

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Adapting and integrating alternative didactics in the teaching-learning-assessment system in relation to the concept of “disciplinary field”

EŞI Marius-Costel “Stefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 13.01.2014; Accepted 13.02. 2014

Abstract In the current education system the importance and role of didactics (general didactics/ speciality didactics) and the didactic methodology of the teaching-learning-assessment process are well known. Therefore, beside several defining features that indicate the didactic dimension, in the sphere of education we note a number of issues that require a multidimensional approach to the learning contents. In other words, given the "scientification" of the contents, in the current education system they can no longer be taught / assimilated from the perspective of a single didactics. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explain, on the one hand, the idea of alternative didactics and, on the other hand, its role in the teaching-learning-assessment system.

Keywords: alternative didactics, teaching-learning-assessment system, educational pragmatism, learning contents, dynamic education

1. Introduction In today's society the fact that the knowledge process develops as a consequence of the disciplinary and methodological connections has become increasingly obvious. If at first the knowledge process developed in relation to the multidisciplinary paradigm (the dimension where knowledge was concentrated in one direction, in a disparate manner - Eşi, 2014, 44), nowadays it only proves its legitimacy based on interdisciplinary, pluridisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches. However, one shall see if such approaches are sufficient arguments for validating the process of “educational” knowledge.

Educational knowledge is that form of knowledge achieved in relation to the educational theories and methodologies. Although the concept of “knowledge” is pretentious in terms of what it expresses, in this context we shall use it as a notional and disciplinary reference point for assuming the idea of educational knowledge. In this context, we note that such “educational knowledge” acquires validity exactly by relating the contents it expresses to the inter-, pluri- and transdisciplinary approaches (where experiences are expressed through competencies (Niculescu, 2010, 181)).

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Specific literature provides a number of sometimes contradictory explanations (Nicolescu, 1999, 53) regarding these approaches, which somehow underlie the system of scientific knowledge. Moreover, in our opinion, analysing the educational theory from the perspective of an epistemological basis cannot but support the need for the relationship between epistemological didactics and intuitive didactics in the context of dynamic education (Eşi, 2014, 31-36). However, a normal evolution of scientific knowledge can be explained in terms that are becoming increasingly relevant in the contemporary education.

Of course, by this assumption we must not understand that the dimension of traditional didactics must absolutely be abandoned. Alternatively, we are taking into account the idea of improving the educational system (which is, in our opinion, an open system). Or, in such circumstances, as it is well-known, explaining a new paradigm by using epistemological terms can be justified to the extent that the (conceptual/methodological) scientific analysis is also judicious. Examples of such concepts are the following: “disciplinary field” (in relation to the concept of “tesseract”), “intuitive didactics” (we particularly refer to the concept of “intuition”), "complementary didactics" (the approach that refers to the perspective of disunification of didactics).

2. Pragmatic illustrations of the concept of "disciplinary field" required for the process of understanding the idea of alternative didactics As a relevant vector regarding the implementation of alternative didactics, dynamic education promotes and should promote scientific tolerance (the constructive, "positive" meaning of the word). In this sense, the activities initiated in regard to a theory on alternative didactics are translated into a multi-level dimension of scientific knowledge. Moreover, we cannot talk about a unique form of knowledge regarding alternative didactics, nor about more forms of knowledge (in the sense that a certain form of knowledge differs from another form, like, for instance, implicit knowledge is different from explicit knowledge); we should rather admit the existence of knowledge itself at n-dimensional level.

This assumption leads to the idea that alternative didactics must take into account the relationship between epistemological didactics and intuitive didactics and something more, namely something that adds extra knowledge through the quantitative/qualitative transition from a certain state to another. Perhaps in order to have a better understanding of such an idea, the best illustration would be provided by the concept of “disciplinary field”, (explained in relation to the concept of “tesseract”). Therefore, going somewhat beyond the multi-, pluri- and transdisciplinary perspectives and taking into consideration the idea of n-dimension, we could make a first step in justifying the education system of alternative didactics.

An argument that supports this idea is that the current didactics cannot entirely satisfy the level of understanding and applicability of the scientific contents. Thus, there are contents that need to be related to other concepts/specific terminologies/totally different specializations in order to be explained and understood. Interdisciplinary approaches are the most convincing example in this respect (where the conceptual and methodological transfer is accomplished).

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Therefore, the starting point for justifying our approach is the concept of “disciplinary field”, which refers to the area where the disciplines overlap based on the correlation between methodologies, concepts and applications. In our opinion, the disciplinary field is the result of inter-, pluri- and transdisciplinary approaches and their applicability at different levels of correlation. An approximate illustration of this concept can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1 – Illustration of the concept of “disciplinary field” Source: author’s own elaboration

In Figure 1, the arrows represent the directions corresponding to the n disciplinary dimensions. The common parts (that form the disciplinary field) are formed by the intersections of all the disciplinary fields, and also by the junction between the fields, no matter how far away from each other they are in the spatial illustration. The common and defining element that could allow the development of a disciplinary field is represented by the inter-, pluri- and transdisciplinary approaches/explanations themselves.

However, please note that in such an illustration of the disciplinary dimensions we can identify several disciplinary fields. The field with the strongest “magnetism” is the one that manages to generate the most powerful form of knowledge. In other words, we note the existence of the law of duality (also found in the logic of the terms/concepts); according to it, the more powerful is the intension, the less powerful becomes the extension. Therefore, the more numerous and powerful are the characteristics of a disciplinary field, the more intersections and unifications are there between the disciplinary dimensions. Of course, there may be disciplinary fields formed from fewer such unifications and intersections, with powerful intension. This is an issue that we shall analyse within a future rigorous research paper.

Therefore, our perspective regarding the understanding of these dimensions should go beyond the two-dimensional and three-dimensional frames (Figure 2). We could take as a starting point the four dimensional universe, which could be illustrated by relieving the concept of “tesseract” (“four

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

dimensional hypercube” - http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypercubecubes.svg), as well as its coordinates (Ramirez; Pérez -Aguila, 2002, 1-8).

Figure 2 – Illustration of the concept of “disciplinary field” in relation to the concept of “tesseract”

Source: adapted after http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypercubecubes.svg [accessed 22.01.2015]

The idea can be put into practice in a range of disciplinary dimensions (Pérez -Aguila, 2006, 1-13) or scientific applications (Sarma; Maccherone; Wagstrom; Herbsleb, 2009). Thus, in the educational process, an important role belongs to the forms of illustrating the disciplinary dimensions in relation to the idea of “disciplinary field”.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Figure 3 – Form of integrating and adapting the concept of “disciplinary field” to the educational dimension in relation to the idea of alternative didactics Source: author’s own elaboration

2. The pragmatic dimension of alternative didactics The process of disunification of the disciplinary fields requires a purely scientific and intuitive approach. In other words, we believe that epistemological didactics and intuitive didactics can contribute to the implementation of alternative didactics. In this context, the educational reality is made on the one hand of epistemological-intuitive structures through which different meanings and significances are pragmatically correlated and on the other hand of teaching-learning-assessment contents. Therefore, in our opinion, such a didactic situation requires a rational application of the scientific contents, which can be correlated with methodological strategies of assuming the future explanations that are specific to alternative didactics. These explanations become judicious given that the interpersonal interaction expresses specific communicational behaviours in terms of the didactic activity. Thus, assessing and reassessing the didactic concepts requires assuming new educational activities. Of course, the conceptual layering of the didactic process does not fully solve the methodological problem. Therefore, the application of the educational valences that are specific to the dimension of alternative didactics reflects the need for an open systemic approach that enables the understanding and application of the new contents. The need for alternative didactics in the contemporary education system is justified to the extent that the necessity of social utility synchronically translates the very idea of education. In other words, the correlation between society, education and didactics/pedagogy reveals the pragmatic nature of today’s form of implementing the educational strategy. Thus, the criteria for valorising the optimization sequences regarding the learning-teaching-assessment process are subordinated to the moral/social dimension, which is specific to dynamic education. Thus, the value system represents a specific level of organization through which the strategies acquire educational legitimacy. In this context, the role of alternative didactics becomes relevant and such an educational/didactic reality should be understood to the extent that the process of didactic materialization of the objectives assumed by the educational decision makers (teachers / trainers) is completed. Moreover, a proper understanding of the role and place of the methodological/conceptual/theoretical connections within the disciplinary field supports the implementation/development of alternative didactics. Assuming such a strategy enables the didactic process, while allowing the scientific contents to be approached from the perspective of a new methodology of the new didactics from the educational system.

3. Conclusions and proposals Regarding the disunification of the fields, we should guard against the principle according to which any form of connection is possible in any "possible world". We suggest seeing if a specific connection (from the category “anything can be possible”) can prove its validity as a disciplinary field of the educational sciences. Moreover, our concerns as didacticians should be focused mainly on the pragmatic nature of such a disciplinary field.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The axiological conditionings resulting from the process of implementing alternative didactics call for the methodological reassessment of the scientific contents. This is, in fact, a whole process of reassessing the programs that underlie the presentation/assimilation of the scientific contents. Therefore, the utility of alternative didactics is fully justified given that the teaching-learning- assessment process is assumed by all educational/social actors.

References: 1.Eşi, M. C. (2014). Didactica specialităţii. Curs universitar pentru programele de licenţă (Speciality didactics. University course for undergraduate programs), Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest.

2.Eşi, M.C. (2014). Problematici actuale ale didacticii de specialitate în contextul unei educaţii dinamice (Current issues of speciality didactics in the context of dynamic education). In Eşi Marius & Clipa Otilia (coordinators), Incursiuni didactice în dinamica educaţională (Didactic insights into educational dynamics), Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest, 31-36.

3.Nicolescu, B. (1999). Transdisciplinaritatea (Transdisciplinarity), Polirom Publishing House Iaşi.

4.Niculescu, R. M. (2010). Curriculum între continuitate şi provocare (Curriculum between continuity and challenge), Publishing House of “Transilvania” University of Brasov

5.Pérez -Aguila, R. (2006). Dimensional analogies: a methodology for introducing the study of higher dimensional spaces to computer science students. In IEEE Computational Intelligence Society - Chapter Mexico, 2(2), 1-13.

6.Ramirez, A. A. and Pérez-Aguila, R. (2002). A Method for Obtaining the Tesseract by Unravelling the 4D Hypercube. WSCG, 1-8.

7.Sarma, A.; Maccherone, L.; Wagstrom, P. and Herbsleb J. (2009). Tesseract: Interactive Visual Exploration of Socio-Technical Relationships in Software Development, Conference: Software Engineering - Companion Volume, 2009. ICSE-Companion 2009. 31st International Conference on Source: IEEE Xplore Website: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypercubecubes.svg [accessed 22.01.2015].

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The emergence ofthe Sufiliteratureasthe balance ofpower in Media (An Analytical Study on The impact of Sanaee’s poem onthe emergence ofthe emancipated Media in Iran)

MOHAMMADIAN Abbas Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

SADEGHIMANESH Ali Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Received 08.01.2015; Accepted 12.02. 2015

Abstract The present study is about the impact of Sufi literature onthe emergence ofthe emancipated Media in Iran. Literature was the most powerful media, when there was not television, radio and internet. As, media is an important tool for maintaining the legitimation of regimes, rulers were trying to make a powerful control on poetry and poets. Economic conditions, publishing and distribution situation and the other limitations were the reason of poets’ dependence on the rulers. The emergence ofSufiliteraturewas asthe balance ofpower inmedia. Sufi poets were so powerful, so they did not have to obey the rulers. Sanaee was the first raised Sufi poet that freed poetry from ruler’s control and balanced the power of Media.

Keywords: Sanaee, Sufi poem, Power in Media

1. Introduction The present study is about the impact of Sufi literature onthe emergence ofthe emancipated media in Iran. Nowadays, television, radio and internet are effective media for expansion of power of regimes(Doroodi, 2008). Because the media can maintain the legitimacy of regimes. Literature and especially poetry, was a powerful media, when there was not television, radio and internet; so legitimation of regimes was dependent to poetry. Hence, rulers were trying to control poets. Some rulers were trying to abet panegyrist poets. Poets needed the regimes too. Economic conditions, publishing and distribution situation and the other limitations were the reason behind for poets’ dependence on rulers. Sanaee (467- 529 Hegira)was the first raised poet that mixed poem with ideas of Sufi. He was enjoying the support of Sufi followers; so he did not have to obey the rulers; after all Sanaee has some poem about praise of rulers, he is also well-known as a critic and mystic poet.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

This study is done based on the following fundamental research questions: 1. How much did famous poets before Sanaee (467- 529 Hegira) depend on governments to preserve their works and how much the governors and dynasts used their works as a media for their own benefits? 2. Did Sanaee have an understanding about the purposes of governments supporting poets and what was his approach to preserve his works without government support? 3. Can we claim that famous poets after Sanaee, who composed Sufic-Mystical poems like him, used poem as a more popular democratic media and more free from governments’ restrictions? There are some hypotheses that come in response to these questions: A) Famous poets before Sanaee (467- 529 Hegira) heavily depended on governments to preserve their works and the governors and dynasts used their works as a media to spread and expand their acceptability and legitimacy among people. B) As Sanaee knew social condition very well, he did know the purposes of governments in supporting poets; he tried to integrate mystical concepts in his poems and attract and use support from people and Sufis instead of government support. C) Famous poets after Sanaee, following his mystical approach in poem, did not need government support as much as pre-Sanaee poets due to their social support and they could make poem which was an exclusive media just for governments and expansion of their hegemony more democratic; therefore we shall consider Sanaee Poem as the balancing factor of media power. There are 3 predicted stages to review and check these matters and prove guesses: - In first stage, the amount of dependence of some famous pre-Sanaee poets on government support and government use of their poem as a media would be reviewed. - In second stage, Sanaee’s life, his understanding about society and his method in freeing poem from government restrictions are reviewed. - In third stage, 3 famous post-Sanaee poets who composed sufic and mystical poems and used poem as a democratic media are reviewed. Research Literature There are lots of articles and books about Sanaee (467- 529 Hegira) and his status in Persian poetry; but there is no research focusing on my approach reviewing his poetry; nevertheless, there are some considerable research works reviewing Sanaee’s thoughts and works; The Lambast of Demeanour and In Lightness Continent both by Muhammad Reza Shafei Kadkani, The Hakim of Love Continent by De. Broyne and collection essays which are gathered in a book called A Distraught in Qazne.

2. Pre-Sanaee poets and Government using their Poems as a Media Before spreading printing industry in Iran, authors and poets should consider that due to the few number of literates and handwritten books, their works shall be read by prolocutors (speakers, speech-givers, orator or text-readers) for interested audience (Pournamdarian, 2008) and preserved and spread with the help of a powerful support like government. In Sanaee and Pre-Sanaee period, transcribing and preserving a handwritten book was so expensive so that only governors could do that; therefore, they easily could abuse this weakness and impose control over their poems and artistic work and use their poem as a media for increasing legitimacy and acceptability of their own power.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

People’s view and even some great speakers was so that they considered the poets as the server of king and his court; for example Nezami Aruzi Samarqandi (? – 560 Hegira), one of the 6th Hegira century famous Persian poet, not only he himself was a particular companion and friend of Qurie kings, but also he considered other poets as the king’s server (See: Nezami Aruzi Samarqandi, 2006: 8-9). Official Positions in King’s court like Poet Laureate or King Poet were some mechanisms in past Iranian dynasties in which, a reliable poet, server of king, controlled thinking and stylistic methods of poets under support of King Court (See: Marzabadi, 1972: 2). A Control that would teach and encourage poets to compose eulogies which would preserve and expand the legitimacy of king’s power and acceptability among people; indeed they wanted poem to serve as a state media like today’s state medias. Famous pre-Sanaee poets or his contemporaries are: Rudaki (329 Hegira), Daqiqi (died between 367 to 369 Hegira), Kasaee Marvazi (born in 341 Hegira), Farokhi Sistani (died in29 Hegira), Onsori (Hegira in 431 Hegira), Manuchehri (died in 432 Hegira), Anvari (died in 583 Hegira), Khaqani (died in 595 Hegira). All needed a powerful system by aid of which they could preserve their work; nevertheless, there are clear signs of government effect in their works; so that all abovementioned poets are famous for eulogy-composing; however, there were poets like Firdausi and Nasir Khusraw who tried their best to escape from state view and imposes in their artistic works but they were harmed and disturbed a lot due to this. In one holistic view, Pre-Sanaee Persian poem was in most cases dependent on Court and adulating power was one of its main concepts and it was used mainly as the government server. A brief review of Pre-Sanaee poets and its contemporaries shows a close association between poets and governments. We would review some famous poets whose poem were used as a media in control of governments. Rudaki (865-875 Hegira) famous as Bokhara and Samanian dynasty (See, Zarinkub, 2007: 12) adulated many kings like: Ahmad inb Ismaeil, Nasr ibn Ahmad, Abu jafar Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khalf ibn Leys, Makan Kaki, and Abalfazl Bal’ami who were all governors (See: Safa, 1993: 374/1- 376 and Dezfoolian, 2011: 41). He unavoidably needed government support and aid (See: Zarrinkub, 2007: 12-13). He was forced and perforce to deliver his poem as the server of government due to his economic condition and his interest to preserve his poetry. Daqiqi, 4th Century Hegira Poet, though famous for composing epic, Zarinkub researches showed that he started his poesy and poetry based on his time’s common regulations and laws of king eulogy, (See: Zarrinkub, 2007: 19-20). Kings adulated by Daqiqi include AbuSaleh Mansour ibn Nouh Samani (350-365 Hegira), Abolqasem Nouh ibn Mansour ibn Nouh (365-387 Hegira), Fakhr al Dola Ahmad ibn Muhammad, Amir Abu Sa’d Mozzaffar and Abu Nasr ibn Abu Ali Ahmad Choqani all of whom were from Samanian and Choqanian kings (See: Safa, 1993: 411/1- 412; Safa, 2007: 176; Dezfoolian 2011: 41). Farokhi Sistani, a famous poet in 4th and 5th Century Hegira (died in 429 Hegira), is one of the famous eulogy-composing Persian poet that adulated Ghaznavid kings in Ghaznavid dynasty (See: Zarrinkub, 2007: 48-49). He adulated Abu al Mozzaffar Ahmad ibn Muhammad Choqani, Soltan Mahmud Ghaznavid, Amir Josef ibn Nasir al Din Saboktekin, Amir Muhammad son of Soltan Mahmud, Soltan Masud Ghaznavid, Khaje Ahmad ibn Hasan Meymandi, the minister of Soltan Mahmud and so many other (See: Safa, 1993: 534/1- 539 and Dezfoolian, 2011: 45; Hashem pour Sobhani, 2007: 153- 154); in general he adulated 25 kings, and ministers (See Introduction by

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Farrokhi, 2009: 41) which shows that his poetry was used as a powerful media to expand legitimacy and acceptability of government. Onsori Balkhi (died in 431 Hegira), other pre-Sanaee poet whom is named the Absolute Master of Eulogy by some scholars and Ghaznavid dynasty used his poetry as a media (see: Safa, 2004: 128 and Dezfoolian, 2011: 44). Manuchehri Dameqani (died in 432 Hegira), one of the first half of 5th century Hegira (see: Safa, 1993, 580/1 and Introduction by Manuchehri Dameqani, 1984: 22 and Dezfoolian, 2011: 50). He travelled to north of Iran in his youth and went there to serve them a eulogy-composer in Ziarian government (see: Manuchehri, 2007: 20). As you see, most pre-Sanaee poems were used by government as a media to preserve their power and expand their legitimacy.

3. Sanaee Mystical Poetry, an Approach to Make a Media Independent from Government Majdud ibn Adam Sanaee (467-529 Hegira) was born in Ghazne, currently in east Afghanistan. Sanaee travelled to Balkh, Sarakhs, Neishabour and Harat in his youth and returned in his late years of living to his homeland, Ghazne; there he started collecting his moral and mystical poems. He had decided to proffer this poem collection to Bahram Shah Ghaznavid which was later called Fakhri Name, Elahi Name and Hadighat al Haghighat; Bahram Shah who respected Sanaee a lot tried many times to bring Sanaee to his Court, but Sanaee respectfully rejected his invitations and requests. Finally Sanaee died before finishing his Hadighat al Haghighat chapters due to illness (see: Shafi’e Kadkani, 2011: 14-17). Sanaee (467-529 Hegira) is one of few poets who composed poems in different domains and areas so skillfully and sophisticated; He was a powerful eulogy-composer, skillful critic in social matters and is the first poet who could have systematically brought Mysticism into poetry (see: Sharifian, 13: 27); it is said about Sanaee that there few poets that were skillful, pioneer and epoch maker like him in different areas, (see: Shafi’e Kadkani, 2009: 9). Shafi’e Kadkani designed 3 personal poles for Sanaee based on his poetry: a) Sanaee, Eulogist and Satire-Composer; b) Sanaee, preacher and Social Critic; c) Sanaee, dervish and Lover (see: Shafie Kadkani, 2009: 25). Reviewing his dark personality pole, we can say that he was a moderate and usual poet in eulogy, a kind of poetry that validated kings and expanded their support toward poets (see: Shafi’e Kadkani, 2009: 26); what made him a brilliant poet was his changing and spiritual evolution (see: Hashempour Sobhani, 2007: 168); in this period of time, Sanaee is a “social critic and moral preacher” (Shafi’e Kadkani, 2009: 29); his poetry in this period was such that there were no benefit for kings and governors to support it and they could not use it as a media in service of themselves. After Sanaee returning from his travels, he was recognized as a theosophist whose poetry was considered an independent media from Court; powerful figures like Bahram Shah who supported him and tried to make him their friend was not only due to his eulogies but also the authority and hegemony of the media Sanaee had; they perfectly knew that the obtained authority from this media gave him great status among Sufis and mystics and religious groups among people; therefore, they tried to excel their reputation and status by becoming his close friend (see: Broyn, 1999: 210). The media owned by Sanaee had gifted him a kind of authority that if he paid it in cash, he would not be deprived of his supporters’ aid. His supporters and power authorities knew well that Sufis and

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

mystical poem was a significant cultural capital and had a powerful support that invading it would harm invaders. Mystical poet which was seriously introduced after Sanaee’s emergence made it a more democratic media previously directed by governments and serving their benefits. Indeed though mystical poetry was finally compatible with Sufis and mystics interests, but as most Sufis and mystics became from public people and had more mutual interests like other people, this kind of poetry was considered as a more democratic media than government media; in addition, some Sufi groups had a system like government and powerful support from people; so that if a work was not supported from Court, it would be read among Sufis and in monasteries and would have opportunity to become immanent; on the other hand, due to their great significance among people, kings preferred not to invade their policy of thinking and freedom of the medias dependent on mystical poetry.

4. Profiting from Mystical Poetry as an independent Media, After Sanaee After Sanaee, some poets could make use of his method to advertise and serve against government. Most famous poets in this regard are: Attar (540-618 Hegira), Mowlavi (604-672 Hegira) and Hafiz (727-792 Hegira). Poets who were forced to seek king and court support to preserve their poems and adulate kings could then introduce themselves as a mystic poet and he was not forced to serve king and its court or adulate him to preserve his poems; it was just reversed and kings were forced to approach poets to get more reputation and fame for themselves. Now we would briefly review works of 3 poets to understand more about the changes in poetic themes after and before Sanaee: Attar (540-618 Hegira), Mowlavi (604-672 Hegira) and Hafiz (727-792 Hegira). Emphasizing on works of these poets and their comparison with famous poets Pre-Sanaee (467-529 Hegira), in which eulogy was one of the main themes, would show us that the way Sanaee opened was so much powerful in keep guarding poetry over powerful figures’ interests. Attar Neishaburi (540-618 Hegira) is one of the most famous poets in Mystical poetry and his skillful followers that sought a mystical route in all of his works and had a great status among his contemporary Sufis and mystics (see: Safa, 1993: 858/3-861 and Dezfoolian, 2011: 98). It is this status among Sufis and their support that let him to escape adulating powers and kings (Behzadi Anduhjerdi, 1972: 133) and not to use his poetry as a media and server of king. Attar clearly blamed eulogy poetry (see: Attar, 2007: 153) and his poems show that he is proud of not being in support of Court (see: Attar, 2004: 440). When a poet can become famous without king and court support show that the relations between power figures and poets had changed; since mystic poets having powerful support among Sufis no longer needed king’s attention by composing exaggerated eulogies. Molana Jalal al Din was born in 604 Hegira in Balkh and died in 672 Hegira in Qoniye (see: Foruzan far, 2010: 22 and 24 and Dezfoolian, 2011: 153). Molana was one of the poets under effect of Sanaee such that Shafie Kadkani named Sanaee Ghazals as the mother of Molana Ghazals in Divan-e Shams (see: Shafie Kadkani, 2011: 32). Considerable point about Molana here is that his poetry was independent from King and Court due to power social support obtained among Sufis and mystics; due to this fact Moe’in al Din Solomon Parvane, who was the most powerful king of Seljukian in Rome, participated in Molana sessions and meetings alongside Molana’s other disciples and were sometimes the address of his advice (Zarrinkub, 2005: 218); this sole issue show that relations between power figures and poets had changed.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Khaje Shams al Din Muhammad Hafiz of Shiraz (727-792 Hegira): He is one of the most famous Persian poet whose Mystical-Love Ghazals are among the most perfect Persian poems. Though Hafiz adulated some of governors and power figures in his period, he never let his poetry to become a media as a server of kings and courts. He culminated a kind of poetry which began with Sanaee and was famous to Ghalandari poem; there is some intellectual liberty and deviation from contemporary traditions, customs and ideas in this kind of poem (see: Shamisa, 2003: 115); due to this fact it is said that Hafiz poetry is the liberty route for Iranian souls which delicately and perfectly had broken taboo norms and criticized society in some of his poems (see: Shafie Kadkani, 2007: 50). Culminating this kind of poetry which was not compatible with interests of power figures like kings shows clearly that Hafiz was not impressed by government and also shows the formation of a kind of poetry which is a democratic media; this issue became obvious by the power of Hafiz in mystical poetry.

5. Conclusion: In a period when there were none of the current media, art was the most significant media tool under government’s control to expand their legitimacy and acceptability among popular people. The Art which had a dominant display among Persian speakers and was mostly under attention of governors was Poetry. Due to this fact, governors tried to keep poets dependent on Court and even some kings nurtured eulogy-composer poets in their Court. Poets also welcomed government support due to their poor economic condition and interest to publish and preserve their works. Sanaee as one of the poets who had an exact social understanding of his time (see: Namdar, 2005: 18), began a kind of poetry called Mystical Poetry which opened a new path for future poets. Mystical poetry was an opportunity for poets to get and obtain more support from Sufis and mystics who had powerful support among people and kings and power figures considered poets’ friendship as their reputation and fame. Due to this fact and independence of mystical poetry from Court, it became a more democratic media among people. Establishing Mystical poetry that can be regarded as a more democratic media than eulogy poetry challenged the absolute dominance of related medias to Court and balanced the dominance and support obtained from different medias in his period. An important issue which was impossible without constructing Sufi Literature.

References: 1. Bervin, D. (2008). Hakim of Love region, Translated by, Mahyar Alavi Moghadam, Mohammad Javad Mahdavi, Astane Ghodse Razavi Press, Iran, Mashad.

2. Behzady Andoohjari, Hossein, Attar, the admirer of poetry, the faculty of humanities journal, Tehran University, Vol, 3 & 4, pp. 133 – 146.

3. Poornamdarian, Taghi . Rhetoric contact and dialogue with the text (1387), Journal of Literary Criticism, Vol. I, No. 1, No. 1 serial, Ss11.38.

4. Doroudi, Fariborz. (2008). The Impact of the Media on the Power structure. The Book of the Month, No. 126, 2437.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

5. Dezfulian, K.. (2011). Index of Literary History of Persia, printing, Talayie publishing, Tehran.

6. Rudaki, J. Muhammad. (2003). Divan of poetry of Rudaki, correct description by Jafar Shoar, third edition, published by Ghatre Press, Tehran.

7. Zarrinkoob, Abdul Hussein. (2007). A convoy of Hilla, fifteenth edition, Scientific Press, Tehran.

8. Zarrinkoob, Abdul Hussein. (1385). Iranian Sufism in its historical perspective, translated by Mjdaldyn Keyvani, Second Edition, Word Press, Tehran.

9. Zarrinkoob, Abdul Hussein. (1384). Step up to meet God, the twenty-fifth edition, Scientific Press, Tehran.

10. Anonymous, (1388). Adam Mjdvdbn Court Abvalmjdvd Hakim ibn Adam Affinities with an introduction and table of margins to try and Ahnmam Lecturer Department, Seventh Edition, Tehran: Anonymous.

11. Sherifian, M.. (1386). Jamh¬Shnasy Sufi literature, first edition, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan.

12. Shafie Kadkani. (1390). MR, Tazyanh¬Hay conduct, Eleventh Edition, Publication Notices, Tehran.

13. Shafie Kadkani. (1387). MR, Qlndryh on, the metamorphosis of an ideology, second edition, published by word, Tehran.

14. Rudolf Barák style of of poetry, (1382), ninth edition, Firdous Publications, Tehran. Safa, Zabihullah, history of literature, (1383), Volume 5 volume, Summary Volume I and II, the tabloid Muhammad Torabi, twenty-second edition, published by Phoenix, Tehran.

15. Safa, Zabihullah. (1386). History of literature, 5 volumes, Volume III Khlash¬Yeighteenth edition, Firdous Publications, Tehran.

16. Safa, Zabihullah. (1372). Literature in Iran, (5 volumes in eight volumes), Volume 1 and 2, the twelfth edition, Ferdous, Tehran.

17. Safa, Zabihullah. (1387). Epic of Iran, Fourth Edition, published by Ferdous, Tehran.

18. Attar, Mohammad Ibrahim, (1386). A tragedy,modified suspension Reza Shafii kadkani, printing, publication, speech, Tehran.

19. Attar, Mohammad Ibrahim, (1383). Logic Conference of the Birds, modified suspension Reza Shafii kadkani, printing, publication, speech, Tehran.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

20. Fotouhi, Mahmoud and Mohammad Khani. (1385). AA, Shvrydh¬Yy in Ghazni, first edition, published by word, Tehran.

21. Farouki, Ali bin Jvlvgh Court farokhi Hakim al-Sistani. (1388). To try Muhammad Secretary context, Eighth Edition, published by pilgrims, Tehran.

22. Forouzanfar, Badiozzaman, (1353), Biography, criticism and analysis of Fariddun Sheikh Muhammad Attar, second edition, published by bookstore Dehkhoda Tehran.

23. Forouzanfar, Badiozzaman, (1389), Jalal al-Din Muhammad Balkhi Rumi's life known as Rumi second edition, book publishers, gamers, Tehran.

24. Marzabad, Varzaqan, GH, "poet laureate of Iran" (1351). Mjlh¬Y School of Literature and Human Sciences, Tabriz, the twenty-fourth year, serial number 101, Ss134.

25. Manouchehri, Ahmad Qvs, Manouchehri Damghani Divan, (1363), To try Muhammad Secretary context, Fifth Edition, published by pilgrims, Tehran.

26. Selection of Poems Manouchehri Damghani. (1386). The selection and description of Imam Ahmad Afshar, Eleventh Edition, published by Campus, Tehran.

27. Celebrities, K., (1384). Social characteristics Anonymous Poems, Journal of Persian Language and Literature, Dvrh¬Y nineteenth consecutive No. 75, pp. 18, 20.

28.Ahmed, Chharmqalh, (1385). Prosodic military, edited by Muhammad Qazvini, Second Edition, published by Jami, Tehran.

29. Hashempour Sobhani. (1386). Success, history of literature, first edition, published by pilgrims, Tehran.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Reaching Out Strategies for Higher Education Institution in Cambodia

LEOW Chee Seng Graduate School of IIC University of Technology, Cambodia E-mail: [email protected]

LEONG Wing Sum Vincent IIC University of Technology, Cambodia, E-mail: [email protected]

MAISARAH Ahmad National University of Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]

SIAN Hock Seng Professor, IIC University of Technology, Cambodia. E-mail: [email protected]

MARIMTHU Nadason Professor, IIC University of Technology, Cambodia. E-mail: [email protected]

Received 10.01.2015; Accepted 10.02. 2015

Abstract Education is increasingly a global business with rapid growth in both campus and distance learning facilitated by the Internet. The term “marketing” becomes controversy among educational practitioners when it involves sales, advertising and public relations strategy. Reaching out strategies is a process that can make positive contribution to both economic capital and social. This journal starts with background study of Cambodia. In the second stage, the journal starts to review education system in Cambodia from French colonial up to date. After understanding the education system in Cambodia, consumer behaviour towards higher education in Cambodia was analysed for both local and international candidates. The paper ended by proposing various methods for reaching out for Cambodia and global markets.

Keywords: Marketing, higher education, consumer behaviour, strategic marketing, marketing strategy.

1. Introduction

In the 21st century, education is a very important role in our lives. There is rapidly growing demand for a higher education in the world today (Schlager, Fusco, & Schank, 2002). A recent UNESCO survey indicated that institutions and governments spent about 6% of their overall budgets on educational marketing (Gibbs & Knapp, 2002). According to Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey (2012) 21

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

higher education is perceived as extremely important, and for most people a college education has become the necessary admission ticket to good jobs and middle —class lifestyles. Moreover, within this new, global, information-based society, the role of higher education has become increasingly crucial with regard to the social and economic development of a country (Newman, Couturier, & Scurry, 2010). The increasing demand for higher education, especially in the post-communist and developing worlds, has normally resulted in the transformation of the education system from being selective and competitive to being diversified (Altbach, 1999; Gibbons, 1998; Levy, 2006).

Varghese and Martin (2014) has critically observed that education is one of the top priorities of Cambodia. In addition, Hawkins (2014) reported in his studies ASEAN members have to strive to develop human resources in order to be able to compete with other members in its single market and production as well as in the common labor market and in the community of the participating nations. Lee (2006) pointed out countries such as Singapore, Thailand and Malaysia started to equip their national strategies and policies to be the international educational hub to attract their neighboring countries’ students. Blanco-Ramírez, & Berger (2014) revealed that it has developed its economic policies toward a knowledge-based economy through reshaping and restructuring its tertiary education to respond to globalisation of economic development. For instance, Huang, Raimo, and Humfrey (2014) reported that Thai government has formulated its educational policies to become an education hub in the ASEAN region to recruit more international students. At the same time, Jacob and Meek (2013) reported that Singaporean government has been making strides to become a hub for excellent education in Asia by attracting 15,0000 international students by the year 2015. All these nations have taken advanced steps to prepare themselves to attract international students. Cambodia has been undertaking plentiful transformation to balance the quality and quantity of education by establishing a wide range of institutions and implementing national strategies including the Accreditation Committee of Cambodia (ACC) in 2003, the National Supreme Council of Education (NSCE) in 2005, the Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment, Equity and Efficiency in 2003-2012, the National Strategic Development Plan Update 2009-2013, and the Education Law (Brehm, & Silova, 2014). All these agencies promote and regulate the quality of higher education for the Cambodia higher education. The Prime Minister of Cambodia supports the initiative to boost the education quality in Cambodia by setting up strategies and policies to strengthen the quality of teaching, of the curriculum, and of examinations in order to achieve recognition at regional and international levels. Sen (2011) in his case study reported that the government fosters the quality of education while at the same time trying to assure a balance of quality and quantity. While various strategies were done by the government to promote quality education, it is essential to understand the consumer perspectives on the higher education of Cambodia. This paper discuss about the consumer behavior towards having higher education in Cambodia. In addition, this paper focuses on strategies to reach out higher education in Cambodia.

2. Background of Cambodia Cambodia is a small country bordered by Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam and one side opening to the Gulf Thailand. In recent years, Cambodia has had a good economy and the country had enjoyed a healthy growth in the last some years. According to Try & McSweeney (2012), Cambodia remains 22

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

as agricultural exporter and rice being the main export item has provided significant growth to the gross domestic’s product in the recent years. However, Mao et al. (2014) reported that there are still a large number of people under the poverty line. The main cities of Cambodia are Phnom Penh (Capital), Battambang and Siam Reap are growth rapidly. Scheidel, Giampietro and Ramos-Martin (2013) reported that there is conflict between the local and national development goals but still with the government initiative and foreign aid there has been appreciable improvement in the health care and education in the rural areas. It is clearly shown that education still a main pipeline that contributes to the sustainable growth in Cambodia,

The religions believed in Cambodia are mostly influences by two religions Buddhism and Hinduism of India and Buddhism being the main religion in the present times. In Phnom Penh, Cambodia the income is relatively low for the people. The currency of Cambodia is Riel (KHR) (1 Riel = 10 Kak or 100 Sen) and is weak in the international foreign exchange market (1US$= 3,987KHR). Britto et al. (2013) reported that early childhood development and education systems and services development is strongly influenced by the national income.

Prempipat (2014) in the qualitative research to understand the consumer behaviour among Cambodian found that, the people of Phnom Penh desire for excellent education as they understand the importance of health and education in their path to achieve financial stability and sustainable growth in their nation.

The understanding of Cambodia background contributes to the research interest to further understand how to help higher education service provider to reach out their service both local and internationally. By providing quality education and the right business strategies, Cambodia education could benefit both local and international candidates.

3. Education in Cambodia Education in Cambodia is governed by the Ministry of Education and Youth in a national level. The objective of establishment of education policy is to promote quality education at all levels and ensuring the equal fair distribution of education to all citizen in Cambodia. Brehm, Silova & Tuot (2012) conducted an critical analysis and reported that the education system now focuses on the modern pedagogy such as science and technology, foreign languages to promote the internationalization of Cambodia education. Similary, Hayden & Martin (2012) also reported that the modern pedagogy is their main focus when developing syllabus in the higher education framework in Cambodia.

It is essential to understand the development of education system in Cambodia for us to develop the effective educational marketing strategies to reach the heart of people. Modern Education in Cambodia progressed slowly in the early 19 centuries. Clancy-Smith and Gouda (1998) wrote in their book “Domesticating the empire: Race, gender, and family life in French and Dutch colonialism”, the French colonial rulers did not pay attention to educating during colonialised that includes Cambodia. The first school was opened only at the late 1930s (VanSledright, 2002). VanSledright (2002) reported in search of America's past: Learning to read history in elementary 23

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

school. Teachers College Press. The education level of Cambodia started to development after Cambodia getting independence from France. The government of Prince Norodom Sihanouk started to develop the field of education between 1950s and 1960s. During this time, elementary and secondary education was expanded to various parts of the country. At the same time, Tilak (2003) reported that the higher learning institutions such as vocational institutions, teacher-training centers and universities were established. Unfortunately, Ayres (2000) describes the scenario and the progress of education and development that was thwarted by the Khmer Rouge regime.that moved education Cambodia to the “dark age”. During the regime of the Khmer Rouge from 1975 to 1979, Pol Pot's Communist leaning government disintegrated education in Cambodia (Clayton. 1998). During this period of time, Cambodia education was deteriorated (Gottesman, 2003; De Walque, 2006; Clayton, 2000). Ayres (1999) described clearly the scenario of education in Cambodia during that period of time. All national schools were closed down. Educated people especially teachers were the first victims of the Khmer Rouge's purging as they radically were preparing a massive indoctrination program for the youth. As the result, 90% of the teachers that time were killed while the rest fled the country or stayed in anonymity. At the same time, at least half of the written material available in the Khmer language was destroyed. The slogan of the time was "those who know more teach those who know less.". According to Becker (1998), during that period of time, many teachers were chosen among those without education level. Those teachers were only given one month short-term training and then assigned teaching jobs. With many buildings destroyed, classes were taught in shacks made of leaves with dirt floors or in some places instruction was given outside under the trees. The impact of this period of time was great and stopped the education development in Cambodia. In the later stage, Vietnam, who occupied Cambodia in 1980 as a result of Pol Pot's transgressions into Vietnamese territories, slowly re-integrated education (Walque, 2006). Unfortunately, the education system did not offer to everyone and only to children of civil servants. During this period of time, Vietnamese culture is the main lessons that were delivered in Cambodia education system (Duggan, 1996). Another social science studies. Smith‐Hefner (1990) found that education was not given much priority because the government was engaged in fighting a civil war with the Khmer Rouge and other two non-communists. Financial constraints, the needs of manpower to serve in the army and a centrally planned economy caused government to set quota and limits number of enrolment to upper secondary school, and universities. This regulation indirectly generated favoritism, and nepotism within the educational system as wealthy and influential parents either paid bribes or used their political power to secure seats for their children in these institutions (Clayton, 1999). All the factors slowed the development of education system in Cambodia. There were significant changes in the educational system after the Paris Agreements and the UN sponsored elections in 1990s. During this time, many new schools were construction as the country’s new election campaigning (Doyle & Johnstone, 1998). Ledgerwood, & Un, (2003) reported that the percentage of the national budget allocated for education has raised, reaching 7.7 percent in 2000 and 15.67 percent in 2001. According to Sripati (2012), the increase of education budget was spent to develop teachers’ manuals and student textbooks for grades 1-9. These new books have been printed in sufficient numbers for one book for every child in every subject. This is the first time children in Cambodia who had a chance to have one book individually.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

According to Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (1998), the educational level of teachers remains low where Six percent of Cambodia’s teachers have a primary education, 77 percent have attended lower secondary school, 14 percent upper secondary school and only 3 percent have a tertiary education. The basic education (Grades 1-9) in Cambodia comprises nine years and refers to three stages respectively, Primary grades 1-3, Primary grades 4-6; and the Lower Secondary Grades 7-9 ; Upper Secondary Education (Grades 10-12) comprises three years and is divided into two stages: Grade 10 ; and Grades 11-12. The Cambodia government has stated its commitment to achieve Education For All (EFA) by ensuring that all Cambodians children and youth have equal opportunity to access education by 2015 (MoEYS & UNICEF, 2005).

According to Tan, C. (2007) the Constitution of Cambodia states that free primary and secondary education shall be provided to all citizens in public school. A comprehensive constitution was formulated to protect and upgrade the life of the citizen through providing quality education to all. This is done through promoting the accessibility, affordability and availability education to the citizen. Currently, the objective of education in Cambodia is to produce quality workforce and human capital for Cambodia. Brehm & Silova (2014) mentioned that the constitution transforms to strategy through privatization policy in the mid-1990s. During this stage, universities were given opportunity to charge the students. This opportunity stimulates the growth of private higher education institutions in Cambodia.

The daily realities for both teachers and students in the Cambodian education system are very challenging. According to Akiba, Chiu, Shimizu, & Liang (2012), teachers faced inadequate salaries and the need to charge students fees for services. Teachers in Cambodia conduct additional tuition classes in order to sustain their living expenses as a teacher. The research findings also found that students faced inadequate facilities, large classroom size; sometimes travel times to nearby villages or towns, and high costs for their families. At the upper levels these problems are compounded by the need to pay bribes to pass the upper secondary level exams and to secure admission to universities (Brinkley, 2009). This is one factor that has contributed to the growth in private sector education. Currently, the constitution now promulgates a compulsory education for everyone (Power, 2015). All eligible students have free access to education for nine years. However, as much as it is put into law, providing this basic service is not widely enforced. Baltork, Mansoori, & Azad (2015) still found that Cambodia education still facing various challenges such as lack of qualified teachers, low student attendance in the rural areas still persist. In addition, salary as a teacher is low and this becomes a barrier to get a good teacher especially in the rural areas (Akiba, Chiu, Shimizu, & Liang, 2012). Accessibility to teaching materials is still a serious problem in Cambodia (Richardson, Nash, Chea, & Peou, 2015). All these challenges are put into consideration and currently Cambodia even looks into Information Communication Technologies in Education Plan (ICTEP) to boost the accessibility, affordability of Cambodia education.

4. The consumer behavior towards having higher education in Cambodia According to Prempipat (2014) survey, Cambodian household income remains low. As the result, they do not afford to attend university even the price is rather low. The government has taken

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

several initiatives to provide better the education is improving the overall education system in Cambodia but those in the rural areas still have the difficulties to pay the fees (Ahrens & McNamara, 2013). In addition, there are many factors that contribute to low enrolment especially in university and higher education (Chealy, 2009). Besides poverty, others obstacles for sending their children to universities include school distance and less job opportunity in Cambodia. Chaealy (2009) also added that Cambodian has the perception that education does not ensure job security and career advancement. As the result, higher education is categorized as not essential and they are not motivated to further their study in university.

Heng (2014) conducted a study to understand the engagement of the students and the intention to enroll to a university in Cambodia. From his research, in Cambodia especially in the rural area, families are sometimes reluctant to let their children go to school because they need extra hands to work in the fields or perform household chores. For instance, they need more man power for family involves in agriculture. Similarly, Chan & Ab Latif (2013) also found the same findings that the demand for higher education is low in Cambodia because of the opportunity costs of educating children. The parents may prefer that their children work after secondary school to supplement household income, do household chores or take care for their younger brother or sister. In their perspective education is not important and useless for their children and the most important is to work and earn family income.

Rao, N., & Sun (2011) conducted a stidy on preschool participation and school enrollment in Cambodia. From their research, one of the reasons the perspective towards higher education is negative in Cambodia is the parents may not have enough information to assess the return on an investment in their children’s education accurately. On the other hand, they may believe that jobs in the local economy do not require academic skills or that getting job depends more on personal connections than skills and they may feel that more competitive urban job markets are too far from community and family to consider. The findings were supported by King (2014) that he added that the parents may simply be unaware of the opportunities that exist, especially if they are uneducated themselves.

No, Sam, & Hirakawa (2013) conducted a study to understand factors of dropout among primary school children. In their research they found that most of them are live in a community that devalues education or frowns upon educating girls and they may be reluctant to violate social norms. Sommer et al. (2014) supported the findings that Cambodians have the perception that girls do not need high education. The inequality between genders contributes to the low enrolment of universities among female especially the postgraduate level. Therefore, the parent’s perspective and the consumer behavior of Cambodians towards the education in Cambodia still are still negative.

5. Reaching Out Strategies for Higher Education Institution in Cambodia Changing their Perception Even there is rapidly growth for the Cambodia’s economy; however the social gap is still very big. There are still lots of Cambodian face the difficulties in their life since their income still very low.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

So, how to attract student believe that they can change their living status with education is the main important thing. One of the strategies to build awareness among the Cambodia towards important of education is through advertise the message of importance of education in mass media in Cambodia such as advertise in social media, magazine, newspaper , TV, radio and others. The message of the advertisement should deliver to the Cambodians to create their positive perception towards education are such as education is important for development of a person, with good academic qualification will gain the good job opportunity and education enables them to have more welfare in life. This method was adopted from the intervention grounded of reasoned action approached that was reported by Bamberg (2006).

The private education providers should promote the education program by providing statistics to compare salary of the university graduates and non-graduate. By using statistic, students and parents could use their analytical mind to observe the differences and also the impact of the education for their future. Government must promote the importance of the education since pre-school, so that it may change their mindset. Most of Cambodian goes for school just to know the basic so that they learn the knowledge for their life. Such they learn about farming under agriculture, so right after they are independence in their life. But that is traditional way of thinking, government must educate the students the education not only for that but it may change your life with better job offer. The educators in Cambodia play an important role in build awareness and educated the Cambodians. Teachers have significant roles in encouraging students to continue their education and teachers should share the information of the values of education to the community. They should educated the Cambodians without a good education, they will be less likely to get a job in the competitive market and unable to support their families in the future. Moreover, a country’s citizens with high quality education can help to transform their country for the benefit. This is because quality education helps citizens work together to create strong, open institutions and societies. By adopting this strategy, an extra year of good schooling lifts a country’s yearly economic growth by 1%, making poor countries richer and, in the long run, less in need of foreign aid — and more able to trade. With this strategy, enable to create positive perception towards education in Cambodia.

At the same time, Higher Education Provider and Ministry of Education can provide testimonials of candidates who have successfully change their social status through education. By using these strategies, the parents and candidates can be motivated to further their studies in higher education level.

Financial Aid Several financial aid strategies can be applied by both higher education service providers and government. For higher education service providers, they can provide financial assistance such as low interest study loan, sponsorship, scholarship, discounted study fees or guaranty work after graduate. There are a lots of students wish to continue their study but due to the cruel reality, they have no choice to give up in order to survive not just themselves but also for their family. For government, they could set up an educational fund to provide loan to the qualified students who have passion and interest to continue their studies. This education fund provides zero interest to

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

assist the family members. This educational fund can be set up with the private sector who have foreign direct investment (FDI) in Cambodia. By using these strategies, Cambodia can provide more qualified workforce in the market. Those sponsoring companies could have obtained loyal and committed employees in the long run. Therefore, government programs providing incentives to poor students and teachers would help to increase the quality of education. In Cambodia, the vision of the Ministry of education, youth and sport (MoEys) is to build the capacity of human resources in terms of knowledge, skills, ethics, creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship to maximize the long term development of Cambodian society and economy in the globalization context. Therefore, the Ministry of education, youth and sport (MoEys) should create positive perception towards education in Cambodia by educated the Cambodians how important education in develop human capital and to develop a knowledge — based society within Cambodia such as organize events, campaign, conferences, talk and others in community to build awareness among Cambodians about how important of education for self- development and country development. The seminar should organized in the community especially in the rural area and brings out the message to them that education is the most vital thing in the development of a country and people cannot do anything without education, and their country cannot develop.

Flexibility of Study Cambodian students are facing difficulties of life instead of study. Flexibility will address of the needs of their students, such as long distance study, part time study. The flexibility study mode provide them to enjoy the flexible to attend class. They are not fully tie up for the class everyday that would cause inflexibility to perform their task. If the students choose for long distance class mean they are not required to attend the class unless assignment or exam since they can obtain all the knowledge through online coaching or pre recorded video coaching. It is totally different from the traditional way of class where they need to attend the class periodically from time to time.

Addition, part time study required students to attend the class after dismiss from their work on weekdays or during their day off on weekends. All of these also the solution for those students work or stay nearer as compared to long distance study. The online education does not reduce the quality of education because student can reduce the opportunity cost derived from travelling. The transportation system in Cambodia still needs to be improved and travelling time to the city such as Phnom Penh could be a barrier for them to enroll to the higher education in Cambodia.

Collaboration between Private and Government Additionally, the next strategy is the role play by the Sustainable Development Department (SDD) of FAQ and The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) who are inviting member countries, UN entities and civil society to join in the establishment of a new Partnership on Education for Rural People in Cambodia. This enables Cambodians who live in the rural areas have the awareness towards important of education and they are provided education opportunity. Following by, the states, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector should partner in Cambodia have to raise awareness of the crucial role played by education in the development and stability of a society by organized happening and campaign in their country.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Government Policy Currently, the hot issues that happen in Cambodia are child labour. According to Chae (2009), it is believed that Cambodia’s economic growth and progress is a contributing factor to the increasing number of child laborers. The huge demands of the construction industry is one example where it has pushed children to work in factories or brick kilns, foreclosing the option of school education for most of them. Moreover, most of the children in Cambodia are from poor family and they are force to earn money to help increase their family income in order to survive. One of the strategies to create positive perception towards education in Cambodia is to combine school education with child labour to ensure children obtain adequate school education.

Wells (2005) reported the views of Cambodian policy makers, who suggested that, provided it was not too hazardous or harmful, allowing some child labour was the most realistic approach to take to achieving this aim. This was because most policy makers believed severe poverty threatened families “survival and made children’s participation in their family’s subsistence activities inevitable” (Winstanley, Clark, & Leeson, 2005). As a result, flexible school operations to combine their work and education were seen as necessary. Therefore, the parents’ perception towards the education in Cambodia will change to be positive as their children can study and doing part time job to increase their family income.

Furthermore, the Cambodia government should try to provide more professional job opportunities such as lawyer, doctor, clerk, secretary, accountant, teacher and others for those are educated or have higher education qualification to create positive perception towards education (Chen, Sok & Sok, 2007). In addition, government also can provide high pay salary for those employees have higher education qualification in order to attract their attention and change their negative perspective towards higher education in Cambodia.

Low conversion rate The study cost is very high at certain area or country, so parents will sourcing for other alternate countries to sent their children for the higher education. So Cambodia fulfill the needs for those parents as the conversion rate in Cambodia is very low, some more the living expenses in Cambodia also significant low so parents can reduce parents’ burden for their children education. Example for now people choose to get their medical education will choose India, Ukraine or Indonesia due to low price. So University of Cambodia also can learn from this, and provide specialty course which it is more outstanding or at least similar level with others. So parents will feel pleasure to send their children there for good education with significant low price. Cambodia can use this as the key of promotion when conducting marketing strategies to assist the students and parents to understand the beauty of Cambodia education.

Be Clear about Who You Are Without sounding like a marketing manual, this is the key to unlocking what makes higher education provider in Cambodia to be unique. Higher Education Provider should prepare them to serve a solid brand identity. Identify the key point of different and how they can serve the education market differently in the global market. This can be achieved by understand the current standing of

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

education service provider in Cambodia through various methods such as a reality check, consumer/learner matrix, ansoff growth matrix and the Boston consulting matrix. These analytical techniques help education service provider to conduct a comprehensive marketing audit so that the education service provide is more confident towards their strategies. The educational service provider should evaluate their own strength and intrinsic and internal environment to design the specialty program that is different from other country. For instance, Japan well knows in technology field, so the candidates who love technology will certainly go Japan for their education. There must be some selling point to attract students, if not why they will choose to come aboard Cambodia for study. This may sound simplistic, but it helped us to distil an identity that lends itself to creating stand out marketing campaigns that are relevant to and understood by our target audience of aspiring young creative talent. At first, Cambodia could leverage the rich historical and culture background as the key of success. Higher Education Provider (HEP) could offer programs to assist researchers to understand the culture and historical background of Cambodia. In addition, Buddhism studies are also another unique program that could attract international researchers.

Draw on the Talent around You University is a place with full of talent. University marketing department should focus on the talent within their organization. By taking to their own students, the marketing team could have new idea how to reach the prospective candidates. In addition, by talking and focus group with the current candidate, university could capture useful information such as trends, fashions and subcultures they can tap into in order to engage prospective applicants. Maringe, & Foskett (2002) conducted a case study on marketing university education. In the case study they found many university invited student to take part in a number of marketing initiatives. The students have also been at the core of department planning and consulted on the design of marketing materials. In addition, Foster, & Sauser (2014) added that university should provided some attractive packages when students were assisting the marketing in the university. The remuneration package which may cover up from their basic need, study fees, transportation, living, security and others up to their future career path. A successful promotion must obtain certain amount of the targeted audience, by notice on the amount of people who approach for further information that lead to registration.

Get help from Social Media In this digital world, everyone is engage with social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Blog. Everyone spend lot of their time browsing and posting through all these social media webpage. So University of Cambodia should post their information in those pages as well. So everyone will stay connected with the latest update with them, more over this can create a huge social network. This social network will help to promote the University of Cambodia to others within the network. The networks will continuous growth with zero cost since people will share to others within his/her friends. The impact of social network is very big and efficient. Promotion- advertising, direct mail and exhibitions Education is positioned and aligned to general patterns of consumption. Strap lines and slogans are essential to create brand development to differentiate its offering from those other university. A slogan helps students to recognize the point of difference of the university. The created slogans are 30

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

used as the marketing tools for them to compete in market, the prospectus and Web site have taken a key role in the interface between the institution and its future students. There are various methods of communication and the use of advertising. The promotion mix includes the four key elements such as advertising, face to face promotions, public relations and personal selling. These methods are integrated to help reaching the heart of the students. However, direct marketing and also event and exhibition remain the main marketing communication should be applied by higher education in Cambodia. Direct marketing can be conducted with an educational counselor on a one-to one basis to help them choose the courses. It involves response advertising and can use all the media ranging from internet to letter especially for the context of Cambodia. Le (2014) describes a few guidelines to produce a good quality brochure such as use picture / drawing to illustrate the image, let the reader has a feel for the institution with which they are dealing; use real people undertaking the programme and knowledge they have acquired and always be realistic. Gibbs & Knapp (2002) provides tips for the course leaflets that includes, give the right depth of information; communicate the strengths; colour, design and photography; make the text accessible; clear focus to each page with a heading across the top; Highlight strength in bold large text; use space to avoid cramping text; summarise key facts in boxes or bullet point lists and use clear diagram to explain structures. Chiu (2014) explained that exhibition as a medium to bring the most active potential students to the university, allow university to demonstrate the service and produces and create atmosphere of dealing with the university. In addition, exhibitions enables university to handle objections directly and builds the brand as well as immediate commitments of the university. Gibbs & Knapp (2002) proposed that the exhibition should be distinctive; avoid barriers that stop visitors walk into your stand; position display near the edge; ensure the visitors understand your message in 3 seconds when past through your booth and use plants and foliage to soften the overall image.

6. Conclusion Presently, Cambodia still has a high illiteracy rate where 76.25% of men and 45.98% of the women have yet to know their ABCs (Courtney & Gravelle, 2013). The Ministry of Education Youth and Sport has a strategic plan in place and have already launched programs like the National Development Strategic Plan 2006-10, Cambodia Millennium Development Goals, and the Education for All National Plan 2003-2015 to give Cambodian children hope for a brighter future (Sato et al., 2011). Cambodia Government realizes the importance of education toward country development, so Government allocated more fund for the education which may help to increase the quality of the Cambodia education. This will help to improve the facilities of University, employ better qualify professor and will surely to improve the University world ranking. When the University of Cambodia improves their world ranking, consumer will be more confident to study in Cambodia. Last but not least, hereby wish there are more and more Cambodian students can go for higher education which help to improve their living social and Cambodia economy GDP. As discuss clearly in the context above, there are several recommendations that University of Cambodia can take in consideration in order to promote the education in Cambodia. Education can provide students a better exposure, knowledge, better career path but it also can provide government extra income for International student and skillful & educated workforce which may increase Cambodia economy growth. Even the propose methods are something very common in modern

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

countries. However, marketing education in Cambodia remains the traditional ways to reach the heart of local and international candidates.

References

1. Ahrens, L., & McNamara, V. (2013). Cambodia: Evolving Quality Issues in Higher Education. Education in South-East Asia, 47.

2. Aitbach, P. (Ed.). (1999). Private Prometheus: Private higher education and development in the 21st century. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.

3. Akiba, M., Chiu, Y. L., Shimizu, K., & Liang, G. (2012). Teacher salary and national achievement: A cross-national analysis of 30 countries. International Journal of Educational Research, 53, 171-181.

4. Ayres, D. (1999). The Khmer Rouge and education: beyond the discourse of destruction. History of Education, 28(2), 205-218.

5. Ayres, D. M. (2000). Anatomy of a crisis: education, development, and the state in Cambodia, 1953-1998. University of Hawaii Press.

6. Baltork, M. A., Mansoori, S., & Azad, Y. (2015). Content analysis of peace education as one component of global citizenship education in elementary textbooks. International Journal of Educational and Psychological Researches,1(1), 28.

7. Bamberg, S. (2006). Is a residential relocation a good opportunity to change people’s travel behaviour?: Results from a theory-driven intervention study, Environment and Behaviour, 38, 820- 840.

8. Becker, E. (1998). When the war was over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge revolution. PublicAffairs.

9. Blanco-Ramírez, G., & Berger, J. B. (2014). Rankings, accreditation, and the international quest for quality: Organizing an approach to value in higher education. Quality Assurance in Education, 22(1), 88-104.

10. Brehm, W. C., & Silova, I. (2014). Hidden privatization of public education in Cambodia: Equity implications of private tutoring. Journal for educational research online, 6(1), 94-116.

11. Brehm, W. C., Silova, I., & Tuot, M. (2012). The Public–Private Education System in Cambodia: The impact and implications of complementary tutoring.Education Support Programme, Open Society Foundations, Budapest.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

12. Brinkley, J. (2009). Cambodia's curse: struggling to shed the Khmer Rouge's legacy. Foreign Affairs, 111-122.

13. Britto, P. R., Yoshikawa, H., Van Ravens, J., Ponguta, L. A., Oh, S. S., Dimaya, R., & Seder, R. C. (2013). Understanding Governance of Early Childhood Development and Education Systems and Services in Low-Income countries. New Haven, CT: Yale Child Study Center.

14. Chae, Y.K. (2009). Is combining child labour and school education the right approach? Investigating the Cambodian case. International Journal of Educational Development, 29(1), 30-38.

15. Chan, H., & Ab Latif, A. A. (2013). Historical Perspectives of Business Education at the Higher Learning Institutions and Skills Development for Industry in Cambodia. International Journal of Learning and Development, 3(1), Pages-148.

16. Chealy, C. (2009). Higher education in Cambodia. In The Political Economy of Educational Reforms and Capacity Development in Southeast Asia (pp. 153-165). Springer Netherlands.

17. Chen, C. Y., Sok, P., & Sok, K. (2007). Exploring potential factors leading to effective training: An exclusive study on commercial banks in Cambodia.Journal of Management Development, 26(9), 843-856.

18. Chiu, Y. Y. (2014). A Study of Satisfaction Towards Event Marketing Audience Participation and Urban Identity-Examplified by the 2013 World Sports Dance Conference.

19. Clancy-Smith, J. A., & Gouda, F. (Eds.). (1998). Domesticating the empire: Race, gender, and family life in French and Dutch colonialism. Rutgers University Press.

20. Clayton, T. (1998). Building the new Cambodia: Educational destruction and construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979. History of Education Quarterly, 1-16.

21. Clayton, T. (2000). Education and the politics of language: Hegemony and pragmatism in Cambodia, 1979-1989 (No. 8). Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong.

22. Courtney, J., & Gravelle, M. (2013). Switching sides: The struggle between national identity and globalized pedagogy in the development of an early literacy programme in Cambodia. Citizenship Teaching & Learning, 8(3), 309-325.

23. De Walque, D. (2006). The socio-demographic legacy of the Khmer Rouge period in Cambodia. Population studies, 60(2), 223-231.

24. Doyle, M. W., Johnstone, I., & Orr, R. C. (Eds.). (1997). Keeping the peace: Multidimensional UN operations in Cambodia and El Salvador. Cambridge University Press.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

25. Duggan, S. J. (1996). Education, teacher training and prospects for economic recovery in Cambodia. Comparative Education, 32(3), 361-376.

26. Foster, R. S., Sauser, W. I., & Self, D. (2014). Marketing university outreach programs. Routledge. 27. Gibbons, M. (1998). Higher education relevance in the 21st century. World Bank. Retrieved 31 December 2014. from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED453721.pdf

28. Gibbs, P., & Knapp, M. (2002). Marketing Higher and Further Education: An Educator’s Guide to Promoting Courses, Departments and Institutions, Kogan Page: London.

29. Gottesman, E. (2003). Cambodia after the Khmer Rouge: Inside the politics of nation building. Yale University Press.

30. Hawkins, J. N. (2014). Higher Education and Quality Assurance: Some Observations. In Measuring Quality of Undergraduate Education in Japan (pp. 3-16). Springer Singapore.

31. Hayden, M., & Martin, R. (2011). The education system in Cambodia: making progress under difficult circumstances. Symposium Books.

32. Heng, K. (2014). The relationships between student engagement and the academic achievement of first-year university students in Cambodia. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 23(2), 179- 189.

33. Huang, I. Y., Raimo, V., & Humfrey, C. (2014). Power and control: managing agents for international student recruitment in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, (ahead-of-print), 1-22.

34. Jacob, M., & Meek, V. L. (2013). Scientific mobility and international research networks: trends and policy tools for promoting research excellence and capacity building. Studies in Higher Education, 38(3), 331-344.

35. Jacobs, B., Ir, P., Bigdeli, M., Annear, P. L., & Van Damme, W. (2012). Addressing access barriers to health services: an analytical framework for selecting appropriate interventions in low- income Asian countries. Health Policy and Planning, 27(4), 288-300.

36. Le, T. K. L. (2014). Content marketing as part of direct marketing campaign: Cross-media content creation for a marketing pack.

37. Ledgerwood, J., & Un, K. (2003). Global concepts and local meaning: human rights and Buddhism in Cambodia. Journal of human rights, 2(4), 531-549.

38. Lee, M. N. (2006). Higher education in Southeast Asia in the era of globalization. In International handbook of higher education (pp. 539-555). Springer Netherlands.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

39. Levy, D. C. (2006). An introductory global overview: The private fit to salient higher education tendencies (Vol. 7). PROPHE Working Paper.

40. Mao, N., Grunfeld, H., DeLacy, T., & Chandler, D. (2014). Agriculture and tourism linkage constraints in the Siem Reap-Angkor region of Cambodia.Tourism Geographies, (ahead-of-print), 1-18.

41. Maringe, F., & Foskett, N. (2002). Marketing University Education: The Southern African Experience. Higher Education Review, 34(3), 35-51.

42. MoEYS & UNICEF. (2005). Expanded Basic Education Programme (EBEP) (Phase II) 2006– 2010: A joint MoEYS/UNICEF proposal submitted to Sida. Phnom Penh: Authors.

43. Newman, F., Couturier, L., & Scurry, J. (2010). The future of higher education: Rhetoric, reality, and the risks of the market. John Wiley & Sons.

44. Niles, S. G., & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. E. (2012). Career development interventions in the 21st century. Pearson Higher Ed.

45. No, F., Sam, C., & Hirakawa, Y. (2012). Revisiting primary school dropout in rural Cambodia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(4), 573-581.

46. Power, C. (2015). Education for All–A Quiet Revolution. In The Power of Education (pp. 45- 68). Springer Singapore.

47. Prempipat, N. (2014). Consumer Behavior in Cambodia. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 3(1), 1-21.

48. Rao, N., & Sun, J. (2011). Preschool Participation and School Enrollment in Cambodia: A Longitudinal Study. In The 2011 Society of Research in Child Development (SRCD) Biennial Meeting, Montreal, Canada, March, 2011.

49. Richardson, J. W., Nash, J. B., Chea, L., & Peou, C. (2015). Where to From Here? Analysis of Cambodia’s 2009–2013 Information Communication Technologies in Education Plan. In Globalization, International Education Policy and Local Policy Formation (pp. 157-182). Springer Netherlands.

50. Sato, J., Shiga, H., Kobayashi, T., & Kondoh, H. (2011). “Emerging Donors” from a Recipient Perspective: An Institutional Analysis of Foreign Aid in Cambodia. World Development, 39(12), 2091-2104.

51. Scheidel, A., Giampietro, M., & Ramos-Martin, J. (2013). Self-sufficiency or surplus: Conflicting local and national rural development goals in Cambodia.Land use policy, 34, 342-352.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

52. Schlager, M., Fusco, J., & Schank, P. (2002). Evolution of an online education community of practice. Building virtual communities: Learning and change in cyberspace, 129-158.

53. Sen, H. (2011). Keynote Address at the Conferment of Certificate and Degree to Graduates of the University of Human Resources on August 11, 2011, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. [Online] Available: http://www.cnv.org.kh/ (Decemeber 31, 2014)

54. Smith‐Hefner, N. J. (1990). Language and identity in the education of Boston‐area Khmer. Anthropology & education quarterly, 21(3), 250-268.

55. Sommer, M., Ackatia-Armah, N., Connolly, S., & Smiles, D. (2014). A comparison of the menstruation and education experiences of girls in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia and Ethiopia. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, (ahead-of-print), 1-21.

56. Sripati, V. (2012). UN Constitutional Assistance Projects in Comprehensive Peace Missions: An Inventory 1989–2011. International Peacekeeping, 19(1), 93-113.

57. Tan, C. (2007). Education reforms in Cambodia: issues and concerns.Educational research for policy and practice, 6(1), 15-24.

58. Tilak, J. B. (2003). Vocational education and training in Asia. In International handbook of educational research in the Asia-Pacific Region (pp. 673-686). Springer Netherlands.

59. Try, P., & McSweeney, P. (2012, July). An Analysis of Paddy Supply Chain Management in Cambodia. In IV International Symposium on Improving the Performance of Supply Chains in the Transitional Economies 1006 (pp. 381-389).

60. VanSledright, B. (2002). In search of America's past: Learning to read history in elementary school. Teachers College Press.

61. Varghese, N. V., & Martin, M. (2014). Governance reforms in higher education: a study of institutional autonomy in Asian countries.

62. Wells, D. (2005). Best practice in the regulation of international labor standards: Lessons of the US-Cambodia textile agreement. Comp. Lab. L. & Pol'y. J., 27, 357.

63. Winstanley, D., Clark, J., & Leeson, H. (2002). Approaches to child labour in the supply chain. Business Ethics: A European Review, 11(3), 210-223.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The Social Clauses and the Euromeditteranean Agreements

SAMI Aouadi Tunis El Manar University, Tunisia E-mail: [email protected]

Received 28.01.2015; Accepted 10.02. 2015

Abstract This paper addresses the topic of social clauses through the European Union’s trade agreements with the Arab countries, considering first the degree of presence of social clauses in these agreements, and second, the repercussion on the economic and social conditions of these countries, and especially on workers’ fundamental rights when social clauses are poorly included or totally absent. It provides a quick overview of the key ideas in the ongoing theoretical debate on the relationship between economic development and social clauses, as different specialists, international organization experts and academic researchers still disagree.

Keywords: Social clauses, trade agreements, economic development, Euro-Mediterranean partnership.

JEL classification: R11, R58

1. Introduction Despite economic progress and increasing openness that characterizes today almost all of the developing countries and the Arab states in particular, there was no significant improvement in the promotion of workers’ fundamental rights or in the respect of fundamental labor standards. In this globalization process characterized by the emergence of the society of information and knowledge and by social protest movements against injustices and against the restrictions of rights and liberties, the debate on international trade agreements and social clauses has been relaunched. In fact, in 1994, the World Trade Organization has failed to integrate the social clause in the Marrakech agreement and I.L.O. efforts to enforce its standards and treaties still need more attention and further endeavor to achieve this goal.

The European Social Observatory (The European Social Observatory, 2008), (2008) reports that "In spite of stunning development in international trade, most of the workers saw no improvement in their living conditions and their efforts to get their share of the growth benefits are met with resistance or repression." It also asserts that "the idea of including social terms in international trade must use trade expansion as a tool to enhance workers social rights."

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The social clauses are a set of procedures included in trade agreements, which obliges the concerned countriestorespectinternational labor standards and which are used in case these standards are infringed. ILO has included these fundamental labor standards in eight core conventions on the respect of trade union rights (87 and 98), the Abolition of Forced Labor (29 and 105), of child labor (138), and of discrimination (100 and 111), and has promoted the respect of these standards through the Declaration of Principles of 1998.

We note that the clause is only concerned with basic labor standards without the other social aspects such as the minimum wage guaranteed, social security, vocational training, retirement and occupational safety as these are covered by other ILO agreements. Distinction should be made between social clauses in the private and public sectors on the one hand, and bilateral or multilateral social clauseson the other hand, and also between negative clauses(sanctions: preventing market access) and positive clauses (providing preferential procedures to facilitate market access).

However, socialclauses are contractual by nature and are only a moral commitment as stated in the final declaration of the World Trade Organization in Singapore conference. They enable the States to assess the respect of social clausesand intervene when necessary, without specifying the mechanisms of this "humanitarian intervention" (Granger and Siroen, 2006), However social clausesarenot legal duties or obligations, as breaching them does not lead to prosecution and are rather left to the discretion of theinvolved parties. It is also worth noting that the European Union supports social clauses but opposes sanctions in case of violations. One EU expert considers that the Social clause is one of the several conditionality clauses in international agreements, which links goods entry to markets with the respect of law in the producing country .This means that it conditions a privilege given to a country by the respect of rights as enshrined in social, environmental or human rightsclauses.

The purpose of adopting social clauses in international trade agreements is to preventsome international companies from moving out their production units from their original countriesto other countries where International Labor standards a”re lower, thus allowing these companies to reduce production costs and increase profits .Thiscan lead to closing down facilities and dismissing workers in the country of origin. Developing countries which allow a lower social coverage are merely "business centers" for international companies. Therefore, with the objective of modifying this global division of labor and reducing the migration of factories fromindustrialized countries to the socially tolerant developing countries, WTO has tried since its inceptionin 1994 to include social clauses in its agreements. However, it has failed in this endeavor because of the resistance of developing countries, which consider that social clausesare in realityprotectionist measuresbenefiting to therich countries and that they were not ready with both their public and private sectors to bear the consequences of applying social clauses both on financial balances and also on a set of privileges meant to boost export and attracts foreign investment but in factbased on low wages and precarious labor relations.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Controversy therefore started between those in favor and those against the insertion of social clauses in international trade agreements, and this controversy has also reachedtrade unionsand civil organizations in the Southern and Northern countries, despite their agreement on many issues such as combating racism, discrimination, and liberal globalization. However, WTO’s failure to include social clauses and transferring the issue to ILO,as the competent body to do that, did not prevent the conclusion of different social clauses in regional trade agreements such as the European Union’s agreements with some NAFTA countries (North America’s Free Trade Agreement) or with Mercusor. Some of these clauses provide for the respect of labor standards and others forthe development of human rights, social dialogue or environmental protection. Social clauses were embedded with new principles, approaches and concepts such as the OECD guiding principles and the concept of corporate social responsibility or the Global Europe strategy principles adopted in 2006 or Europe 2020 or the United Nations Global Compact initiative. However, ITUC considers the “outcomes of social clauses as poor because most of these cannot be implemented, and therefore environmental clauses are merely declarations of intent and commitments to “make more efforts” (International Trade Union Confederation, 2008).

Regarding the European Union, it seems to be alternating between a socialcontract approach based on the fundamentallabor standards included in the old generation of agreements, and a new approach based on sustainable development which includes but goes beyond labor standards. Hence, it should be appropriate to consider to what extent is the European Union eager to include social clauses in its agreements with the Arab countries, as well as the consequences of Euro- Mediterranean partnership on basic labor rights and on development in these countries.

2. Euro-Mediterranean trade agreements and social clauses 2.1. Barcelona process: content and recent development Following the conference of Barcelona in 1995, the European Union has pushed its twelve south Mediterranean neighbors to accept a joint project that would be implemented progressively over12 years in Tunisia). The project was named the Barcelona process and it relies on a pragmatic approach to the very different economic relations and situations of these countries. Most of the Mediterranean countries have ratified individually free trade agreements with the European Union. Algeria has signed a partnership agreement in September 2005, Egypt in June 2004 and ended the negotiation about agriculture trade which has ended in 2008, and Israel has signed a partnership agreement in June 2000.

Jordan has signed a partnership agreement in May 2002 and Lebanon in March 2003. Morocco in March 2000 and Tunisia in 1997.Palestinian Authorities have signed a transition partnership agreement in July 1997. The collaboration agreement with Syria was however not enforced for political reasons since 1977, but negotiations have been conducted in 2009 and the agreement was signed in 2010, whereas Libya has started its partnership agreement negotiations since November 2008 (Brondel, 2010).

Euro-Mediterranean partnership relies on a four-dimensional infrastructure, as it is multilateral, regional, sub-regional and bilateral. The euro-Mediterranean strategy relies on three axes. The first is vertical and consists of bilateral relations between the European Union and Mediterranean states.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The second axis is horizontal and aims at promoting south/south relations and the relationships between the European Union and sub-regional integration areas such as the Arab Maghreb Union and the Gulf Cooperation Council. The third axis concerns the financial and technical procedures which aim at promoting economic reforms in the partner countries.

The bilateral dimension of Euro-Mediterranean partnership appears in a network of agreements including those addressed to the Mediterranean countries of southern Europe and aiming at establishing a customs unit to prepare their integration in the European Union. These countries are Cyprus, Malta and Turkey. Other agreements concern the south Mediterranean countries, namely eight Arab countries and Israel which is granteda special status.

Whereas the project pretends to create a large zone of peace and development, and unlike the full integration program proposed to the southern and eastern European countries, Portugal, Spain then Malta and Cyprus, the European project for the south Mediterranean countries is based on a purely trade dimension as it relies on the progressive creation of a free trade area between all these countries and the European Union. Therefore, the concept of economic integration as a process creating mutual consistent and harmonious institutional dynamics between the parties, and shall aim at boosting trade, production, innovation and creation. We notice then, that the European project addressing the south Mediterranean countries does not focus on these objectives but is rather limited to a traditional vision of economic integration through trade liberalization based on the principle of comparative privileges which gives the project a static nature.

There is indeed a big difference between the two integration process approaches. Whereas the extension of the European Union and the integration of other states is based on a strong institutional integration which unifies or brings closer the economic and political objectives of the different European union’s countries, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership project is based on the idea of rehabilitation and on the possibility to catch up, and these are two different concepts in terms of content and consequences on the integration principle which is based on the harmony of objectives through institutional convergence and co-evolution.

And what has made these visions about the future of the European Union’s relations with the Arab Mediterranean countries more easily accepted is the disintegration of the political and economic ties in these countries. The Arab countries, rather than proposing another approach and another vision to the European part, have preferred to negotiate individually. Therefore, the partnership agreements that have been contracted have a purely commercial content which ends the privileges of Arab exports (especially the Moroccan) in European markets, and starts the application of the principle of reciprocity by removing quantity and customs barriers for the access of European goods to the Arab markets. Hence, given the poor results achieved, the European neighborhood policy of 2004 has tried to give new impetus to the Barcelona process. It seeks to set up a network of free trade areas between the north and the south on one side, and the south and south on the other side, and to “achieve economic integration/complementarity” beyond trade liberalization. The example is the establishment of common regulatory bases between the Euro-mediterranean partners. The European Union has also announced the creation of the “Union for the Mediterranean” in 2008, and it also

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

seeks to develop the concept of partnership by imagining the “rank” of privileged partner or advanced partnership, but this actually did not change the mercantile nature of its real economic relations with its south partners as evidenced by the impacts recorded in the Arab countries especially the non-oil and the Maghreb states due to the historical tie of their economies with the European Union.

2.2 Brief assessment of the economic and social consequences of Euro-Mediterranean partnership on Arab countries These visions which have guided the Euro-Mediterranean partnership would naturally not have significant development effects on the economies of the South countries in general, and the Arab countries in particular. This is clear through the results recorded since the conclusion of the first partnership agreement with Tunisia in 1996, either in terms of increase of foreign indebtedness, or in the decrease of Arab countries share in international markets or the weakness of foreign investments, added to the worsening of the problems of industrial countries due to foreign competition and the resulting unemployment increase (Sami, 2004).

The impacts we shall consider do not all result from Euro-Mediterranean partnership and it is difficult to determine and distinguish its factors in an accurate way as their reasons are interrelated. Some of these are related to partnership, such as the flow if imports, exports, local and foreign investment and public deficit, others are related to the consequences of the development model that has been followed since the eighties and which relies on the “Washington agreement”, that has proved its limits and which is no longer able to provide a genuine development of the economic infrastructures in Arab countries, and some others result from both such as growth, unemployment and public indebtedness pace.

Maghreb countries are the best example to study as their agreements with the European Union are old and because of their strong economic ties with the EU. In this regards, we shall rely on the study of Dr. Sami Aouadi (Sami, 2001) on Maghreb countries, eight years after the implementation of the first partnership agreement with Tunisia. The study is based on several indicators summed up as follows:

Foreign debts increase Even if this cannot be explained by the partnership impacts only, we notice that this partnership did not decrease the indebtedness of contracting states. Despite the difficulties that foreign indebtedness causes to these countries especially that they are about to re-structure and upgrade their industrial and institutional fabric to address the consequences of partnership agreements, the demands of the Euro-Mediterranean partner countries to decrease their debts to the European Union’s countries throughout re-investing and recycling into economic projects did not have any effect.

Decrease of International market shares Foreign trade in Maghreb countries is importantly focused on the European Union markets. This focus has become even more significant after the ratification of partnership contracts as Tunisian exports towards the EU have increased from 63% in 1990 to 80% in 2011 and in Morocco from

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

68% to 74%. An official Tunisian study has confirmed “an important increase in the value of imports from the European Union to the Tunisian market, reaching the annual average of 12% in the period 1997-2000 against 5.5% per year in the past period of 1993-1996, whereas the pace of imports from outside the EU did not exceed 1% a year for the same period.” Besides, Maghreb countries shares not only of the global trade but also of the foreign trade of EU countries have decreased. Whereas international trade has regularly developed with an annual rate of 5.4% in the period 1980 – 2011, and European foreign trade almost the same development (5.3%), the shares of Maghreb countries of international trade and for the same period have decreased from 2% in 1980 to 0.7% in 2011 and their share of EU foreign trade from 4.7% to 2.1% in the same period. Therefore, the impact of partnership agreements on the exports sector of partner countries has stopped at the level of good intentions and the theoretical possibilities of free trade policy.

Weakness of foreign investment flows Along with the decline of foreign trade, direct foreign investment flows have also decreased during the last decade in Maghreb countries, especially if we compare the period before the partnership agreements and the present period. Whereas at the global level the movement of capitals has known a regular development in the last decade, due to the liberalization procedures and economic globalization, the Maghreb countries shares of the total global foreign investments have decreased from 0.04% in 1990-1995 –that is before Euro-Mediterranean agreements- to an average of 0.02% in the years 1996-2011. It seems therefore that this partnership has made foreign investment reluctant towards the Maghreb countries despite their engagement in economic globalization and all the measures and incentives adopted to promote their capacities to attract direct foreign investment particularly in Tunisia and Morocco. If we exclude the privatization operations of public institutions (portfolio investments), we note that the volume of these investments is weak and does only represent a small part of public investment (10% in Tunisia). Therefore, saying that by becoming part of these partnership agreements these countries would become more attractive to foreign and especially European investments is only an announcement effect and a mere idea among others spread by the new liberalism and its global institutions.

Arab governments have to realize the necessity to ask the European Union to provide incentives for European investments in their countries and especially to provide guarantees for these investments to build the European investors trust.

Employment and Unemployment Fierce global competition in the countries which removed customs protection barriers led to major difficulties for industrial countries and the loss of thousands of jobs. A study conducted by the Tunisian employers’ organization has shown that partnership agreements shall lead to the destruction of one third of the industrial fabric and the loss of 120 thousand jobs. Therefore, as foreign investments decreased, and so did public investment due to the state withdrawal from economic activities as recommended by international organizations, and as private investment weakened because it could not face global competition, it is normal to have increasing unemployment rates in the Maghreb countries after their engagement in Euro-Mediterranean partnership.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

In 1994 the unemployment rate was around 14% in Tunisia and jumped to 18.5% in 2011, and one of its new specificities is that it affected new categories, namely youth and university graduates. In Tunisia, the unemployment rate among the youth under 25 reached 33% for the year 2011. It is also worth noting that unemployment obviously leads to social misery but also represents a threat for social protection systems as it urges the states and employers to adopt more flexible labor legislations, in the form of fixed-term contracts and more lenient redundancy procedures,as well asthe closure of institutions on the grounds of economic difficulties. The revision of the Labor Code in Tunisia falls in this same orientation.

Public deficit and the decrease of social transfers It is obvious that the suppressions of customs duties results in a decrease in thestate budget’s self- resources and in the aggravation of budget deficit. Statesdo not have several solutions to address this issue. If the government wants to resort to the economy for management expenditure, it is blocked by the administrative procedures and bureaucracy. If it chooses to reduce development expenses, it affects the economic infrastructure in a period where production companies are in dire need of support, of modernization and upgrading to cope with global competition. The States therefore adopt two main solutions which consist in foreign borrowing and in the reduction of social transfers. In Tunisia, budget losses arising from the suppression of customs taxes and VAT on imports -as per the partnership agreement- amounted to 1500 million dinars in 2001, which represents 3.4% of GDP. At the completion of the free trade area, this loss has amounted to 2740 million dinars, which is more than 5.4% of GDP, approximately half the development budget for the year 2011. The Tunisian government has tried all possible solutions to heal the public deficit, mainly: - Privatization of public companies -Adopting a 10% VAT to compensate for the decreasing customs duties -increasingVAT to 18% and generalizing it -Resorting to external borrowing (30% of budget resources) -Increasing the minimum ratios of income tax and corporate tax. -Decreasing consumption subsidies from an average of 5% of GDP in the early nineties to less than 1% presently. -Commercializing several public services that used to be provided free of charge, such as some public health services. We also note that these procedures arenon-social and unpopular as the tax burden on consumption and the reduction of social transfers mainly target workers and low-income groups. The horizon of this policy is therefore clearly blocked as it would sooner or later have to cope with the limits of endurance of popular categories, and hence, the issue of social performance of the free trade policy which hasa serious strategic natureas it is closelylinked to the political and social balances in our countries.

Weakness of the European commitment and financial cooperation The most eloquentevidence of the European commission’s indifference towards the concerns and priorities of our countries as well as its unique interest in opening our markets, is the following extract from the Tunisian government’s official report: «The European Commission has not fulfilled its promise , as it did not provide the additional resources required by the countries

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

engaged in the Barcelona Process and which would help them diagnose the projects to enable them face the consequences of applying the partnership agreementand accelerate the integration of their economies in the European economy and thus reduce the gap between the two sides as evidenced by the EU experiences with some members such as Spain, Portugal and Greece. The aspirations of Tunisia, and in general of all the south Mediterranean countries, to increase the quota allocated to Southern Mediterranean countries during the coming period, as it is the case for Central and Eastern Europe countries was not respectedby the European Union, which has recently decided to maintain that share, and even reduce it for MEDA II period (2000- 2006) ». The same study confirms that, in general, cooperation with the EU «remains below the level of the objectives determined within the agreement and does not cover many important sectors in Tunisia».

The study shows that «cooperation in the industrial field ... did not quite live up to the agreement’s objectives... and does not fit within theupgrading programs ... besides, even if European investments have positively developed in Tunisia in the last years, it was mainly due to the efforts made by Tunisia to create an enabling environment ... and it was hoped that the European Union would pursue a more serious policy to direct European investment towards Tunisia in particular and the southern Mediterranean in general ... in the field of scientific research and technology which is also enshrined in the partnership agreement as one of the cooperation priorities with the European Union to meet the aspirations of Tunisia ... the cooperation remainedlimited to participations in Euro-Mediterranean meetings and events.» The study concludes that: « in fact, the modest results of the cooperation in the previously mentioned fields apply to most of the other sectors, in particular to agriculture, transports, telecommunications and information technologies, energy, tourism and other services ...»

Some analysts consider that the fall of dictatorial regimes during the Arab Spring did not change anything. "In November 2012, the head of the Tunisian government has signed an agreement with the European Union in order to be grantedthe status of " advanced partner ", and the aim was only to ensure financial support and get political back up for his political party, just as the previous regime used to seek support from Europe for its oppression policy against Islamists.... The analyst concludes that "the partnership agreement does not contain anything justifying theterm " partnership"or"advanced partner ", pointing out that in 2011, the Arab countries have only received 43 billions of foreign investment, that is 28%, which represents a sharp decrease of 47.8% compared to 2010 (Hamila, 2014).

The partnership effects can be summarized as follows 1. Decrease of budget resources due to the suppression of customs duties: * Increased consumption taxes * Increased payroll taxes * Decrease of social transfers * Reduction of the development budget * Deeper regional disparities * High deficit of the state budget as a result of the pressure of increased food subsidies costs, necessary to maintain the purchasing power without a significant payroll increase (competitive price system).

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

2. Growing foreign competition in the domestic market * Closing facilities * Dismissal of workers * Mounting unemployment * Aggravation of social vulnerability * The emergence of informal sector and smuggling * Reduction of social transfers

2.3. Euro-Mediterranean trade agreements and social clauses In general, on a global level, trade agreements which contain social clauses have remarkably developed during the last two decades. According to an ILO study (2013), until June 2013, 57 free trade agreements have been concluded,against 21 in 2005, providing for social actions related to labor, 40% of which include conditional social clauses which lead to economic sanctions in case of breaching. Most of these clauses are found in agreements between the United States and Canada. The remaining 60% of these agreements with social content include 'promotional'concepts relating to labor, but do not provide for economic sanctions. These often represent a framework for dialogue and partnership and are mostly found in agreements of the European Union with some partners. The organization considers that these terms have nevertheless led to an improvement in the labor legislations and to the respect of the right to organize in southern countries such as Morocco, Oman and Bahrain.

Within this context, the final declaration of the founding conference in Barcelona on November 28, 1995, mentions the contracting states commitment to "develop the rule of law and democracy in their political system ... respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and ensure real and legitimate practice of these rights and freedoms, including freedom of expression and association for peaceful purposes and freedom of thought and individual and collective worship without discrimination of race, nationality or religion." It also states the need to "respect and ensure the respect of diversity and pluralism in the societies of these countries and promote tolerance and fight racism and xenophobia."

Concerning the EU in particular, the new generation of agreements contains a section on sustainable development that includes social and environmental clauses, in the context of the recent evolution of the EU new trade strategyadopted in 2006 under the name "Global Europe ". These new agreements are based on the most important global texts in the social and environmental fields:

In the social field • Basic conventions of the International Labor Organization. .Decent work agenda • Ministerial Declaration of the United Nations Economic and Social Council.

In the environmental field • Kyoto Treaty

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

• Johannesburg plan for sustainable development European agreements invite partners to: • The actual consecration of its contractual social obligations • Engage in new social standards • Make national legislation consistent with their international obligations.

However, these objectives have regulations which allow the partner countries the possibility of amendment which means a kind of sovereignty over their social legislations but not to use this to attract investment. In order to achieve these goals, the European Union relies on the principles of cooperation and coordination without any other binding mechanism. Among the most prominent agreements containing a section on sustainable development, there are the agreements with Korea (2011), Singapore (2012) and such a section is not included in any agreement with the Arab states. However, the agreements with Peru and Colombia have faced strong resistance and the European Parliament threatened not to ratify themif social and environmental clauses are not developed, and the civil society organizations opposed these agreements after the death of trade unionists in Colombia. These events have prompted the EU to adopt a roadmap as an additional element to these agreements. The French Minister of Commerce has then presented the five following proposals for the development of social and environmental clauses in the free trade agreements: • A better assessment of the sustainable development chapter using a strict impact assessment approach.

• A better monitoring of the implementation of social and environmental clauses with a stronger participation of the civil society.

• A better cooperation with labor and environment international organizations.

• More participation of institutions with the integration of elements related to the social responsibility of enterprises within the sustainable development section in free trade agreements.

However, one of the European Union experts in international disputes recognizes the limitation of conditional clauses in the European Union agreements, especially after the agreements of "Cotonou" where social clauses have been included in a “democratic clause," considering this operation "conditional diplomacy," and sees that the end of the agreements of Cotonou have emptied this diplomacy from its effectiveness, saying that the European Commission seems to be abandoning conditional c and it seems that there is a trend towards optional social clauses or "social labels", considering these as a private social clauses. He also states that the dominance of the neo- liberal tendency on the European Commission has prevented the legalization of these clauses.

According to the researcher Canda Muhammadiyah (2014), "the trade dimension is remarkablyadvanced in Euro-Mediterranean relations. The trade agenda has the utmost interest, while labor policies and the issue of working force mobility in the region, wages and social protection, do not receive the same attention at the regional level..."She also confirms that" Employment and labor issues and topics have not been included in the trade policy-making process both at the level of the Arab states as well as at the level of the Euro-Mediterranean area. There was

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

therefore no interaction nor coordination between policy- making process specialists on employment, and trade-related policies and did not engage together in dialogues or joint meetings within the Euro-Mediterranean framework until today, " and she adds that" the Arab parties participating in the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership didnot discuss enough their own common labor policies yet... ".

3. Economic and social impact of the weakness of social clauses in the Euro-Mediterranean trade agreements 3.1. Theoretical debate about the relationship between social clauses and economic development It is a controversy between those who believe that the application of social clauses and incorporating them in international trade agreements is a protective measure for the benefit of the companies in industrialized countries and aims at undermining the comparative privileges of developing countries which are based on exporting intensive and low- wage labor force, and those who believe that exportsbased on low costs and wages because of the absence of social clauses do not lead to the accumulation nor favor the emergence of genuine sustainable privileges based on quality and innovation.

In an a study of the Organization of European Cooperation and Development (OECD) on international trade and basic labor standards, there is an analysis of the relationship between trade and competitiveness, growth and basic labor standards. This study concludes that the failure to comply, partially or totally, with basic standards in any country is not considered a critical factor to support the competitive privilege with regard to increasing the share of international trade or attract direct foreign investment. There is a positive interaction between the liberalization of international trade and the application of basic labor standards. * Recurrent arguments in favor of including social clausesin international trade can be summarized as follows: - Basic human rights must be respected, regardless of the economic development and the country productivity level. - Social dumping threatens economic development and social peace on the long term in the South and North countries. - The maintenance and effectiveness of social norms require a minimum of incentivesand sanctions adopted in the worst case. * Those who are opposed to social clauses (including many from developing countries), present the following arguments: - Social clauses are mainly demanded by rich countries to disguise protectionist purposes - It is not a good way to remove any defects in the competition system and it is limited because restricted to certain specific products; - It only sanctions the developing countries which do not have the option of changing the producing country in case of violation of social norms; - It represents new restrictions on trade, and this violates the freedom of international trade; - It only applies to exported products.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Mustafa Abdullah al-Kafri (2002) believes that "linking trade issues with international labor standards is a form of clear intervention in internal affairs, and it affectsthe sovereignty of the state in particular in developing countries where child labor exists and the working conditions are not suitable and this shows us the danger of social conditionality." He adds that the social clause... will not be able to protect the rights of workers, neither in developed countries nor in developing countries. The effects are uncertain for several reasons, including: - The weakness of the relationship between trade and labor rights standards. - Trade sanctions contained in the Social clauses could be counterproductive by harming workers in developing countries instead of helping them. -These sanctions may also increase the barriers impedingthe access of products from developing countries to global markets. - Social clauses apply to production sectors intended for export only, and these sectors provide only a small part of job opportunities. - The sanctions stipulated by social clauseswould not help fighting poverty. - Social clauses could be a powerful tool fora rich and big country, but for a small developing country, the impact of such a clauseis very weak. Trade sanctions may therefore have more devastating impacts on a small country exporting only some commodities.

The researcher thinks that "what is needed to protect workers' rights and improve their conditions in developing countries is not a social clause but rather the increase of investments and economic growth, which create more job opportunities, along with stronger national laws. This is added to the adoption of specific standards by the domestic private sector and by foreign companies." Regarding theenvironmental social clauses, some industrialists in big countries who are subject to strict rules are bothered by the competition of producers in emerging industrialized countries which are more flexible. They therefore threaten to outsource their production in these countries and this would have a negativeimpact on global environment. In this context, two pressure groups in developed countries are opposed: trade unions which seek to protect the national labor force from the competition generated by outsourcing inemerging countrieson the one hand, and human rights organizations which have moral and social motivations.

In academic circles, the debate on social clauses remains of great interest, especially the issue of the relationship between trade and labor conditions. Baghawati (Granger and Siroen, 2006) stood in particular against the establishment of international social norms, stressing the need for a diversity of labor standards consistent with the diversity of developing countries situations and the different distributions of production factors and income differences.

The charge of social dumping launched by France and the United States is merely an attempt to increase the production costs insouthern countries and reduce thecompetition of their products. This attempt is based on a false understanding of the competitive reality of developing countries. The relative privilege of developing countries of using unskilled labor force is not only the result of the reflection of low prices on economic development and the abundance of unskilled labor. Many studies show that since the entry of developing countries’ industrial exports to the global markets within the framework of handling policies, this export capacity is still relying on low costs by virtue of the lowwages conferred by policies of incentives and exemptions and the absence of

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

social legislation guaranteeing the rights of workers. The competitiveness of these countries has remained of the price competition type, growth did not progress and therefore unemployment increased especially among graduates and this has kept the internal and external economic balances dysfunctional especially by resorting to external indebtedness.

The absence of social clauses did not urge industrial companies to look for a genuine system of comparative privileges based on excellence in international competitions and to win markets thanks to a competitive quality based on high productivity and on the efficiency of productivity and to develop manufactured products and improve their quality thanks to the control of technology and research and development (RD) policies.

The crisis in the textile sector in exporting countries such as Tunisia and Morocco, following the dismantling of multilateral conventions and the strong entry of Chinese textiles to global and in particular European markets, highlights clearly and explicitly that the price competitionprospect is limited and it does not allow insoluble privileges nor a sustainable and lasting economic growth. The countries that have remained in a price competition system have paid the price of their inactivity and the non-adoption of a quality and innovation-based competition which is not opposed to social clauses guaranteeing social workers' rights and decent work. We should nevertheless understand the World Trade Organization’s waiver about including the social clause in 1994 " economic and social diplomacy" to push the developing countries to open their markets to Western goods and dismantle the protectionist system. The West would, in return, ignore social clauses and continueto use an artificial system of comparative privileges and competitiveness based on the overlooking of social rights and even on social dumping. Is it possible then for the Arab countries, especially those which are not part of the Arab spring, to keep relying on this competition in light of growing social movements and protests in the post- Arab Spring situation? And in light of the developing countries’race to reduce the social system ceiling in order to attract foreign investment and promote export. This race has taken a variety of forms, such as tax exemptions and the over-burdening of state budget with social expenditure, all of which has caused the remarkable unbalance of public budget in developing countries. However, what has been noted is that the absence of genuine partnership in international trade agreements did not stimulate the adoption and respect of social clauses but rather supports the arguments of their opponents. This has also prompted some locals to consider that the corporate social responsibility is the future of, or an alternative to social clauses.

3.2. Repercussions of the weakness of social clauses 1 / Seeking to maintain exports and internal profitability - Internal profitability is not used for investment but rather for real estate speculations - high state budget deficit under the pressure of the rising costs of subsidies on food products in order topreserve the purchasing power without an important increase of wages (price competition system). 2 / Rising subsidy costs on food - Higher taxes on wage income. - Higher taxes on consumption; - Emergence of the informal economy and smuggling .

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

- Reducing social transfers, social vulnerability; - Reducing the budget of equipment: deeper regional disparity. 3/ Maintaining price competitiveness -Continuing an unsustainable competitive system threatened with competition or the international bidding of social systems; - Blocking the establishment of a competitive system based on quality and not encouraging scientific research and the employment of high skills and competences.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations • Despite the economic progress and openness to the world in almost all developing countries, especially the Arab countries, there was no marked improvement of the evolution of the fundamental rights of workers, and of the adoption and respect of fundamental labor standards. • Undoubtedly, neo-liberal free trade policies cause on the one hand labor fragility in industrialized countries, and on the other hand labor force exploitation in developing countries. • Whereas the EU enlargement and integration which is based on a sound institutional integration uniting or bringing closer the different economic and political goals of the various EU countries, the Euro-Mediterranean partnership project is based on the concept of upgrading and on the possibility of catching up, and these two concepts totally differ in terms of content and repercussions from the integration concept based on a harmony of objectives achieved through convergence and co- evolution. • What has actually made it easy to pass these visions of the future of the EU's relations with the Arab Mediterranean countries is the disintegration of the political and economic ties of these countries. These should have proposed another approach and another vision to the European part, but have opted to negotiate individually. The result was that the partnership agreements have a purely commercial content that puts an end to the preferential privileges previously enjoyed by Arab exports in particular the Maghreb ones in European markets, as well as the beginning of the application of the principle of reciprocity. • Arab governments must realize that they need to ask the European Union to adopt incentives and measures in favor of European investments in their countries and in particular to give their guarantees for these investments to build the European investors trust. • Integrating a social clause in international trade agreements can be a mechanism for ensuring the globalization of justice and to promote international solidarity towards the predominance of the global financial authorities. • The absence of social clauses did not push industrial companies to look for a genuine system of comparative privileges based on excellence in international competitions and able to win markets thanks to the competitive quality based on high productivity and onproduction efficiency and to develop manufactured products and improve their quality thanks to technology control and research and development policies (RD). • The countries that have remained in the price competition system of have paid the price of their inactivity and the failure to adopt competitive quality and innovation which are not in contradiction with social clauses that guarantee workers' rights and decent work. • Is it possible then for the Arab countries, especially the non-rentier ones, to keep relying on this competition in light of the growing social movements and protests in the post-Arab Spring

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

situation? And in light of the developing countries’race to reduce the social system ceiling in order to attract foreign investment and promote export. • Trade agreements and investment agreements must contain binding social and environmental clausesconnected with dispute resolution mechanisms, and developing countries must equally be assisted to improve labor standards. • An international campaign must be conducted in order to include non-protectionist social clausesin trade agreements and investing to ensure the basic as per ILO Conventions as well as an equal benefit for all peoples fromtrade globalization. • A social developmental clauseor global social clause that respects national specificities must be developed. • A social clause must be based on the basic standards of the International Labor Organization, and it must not provoke distortions in the labor market but rather create an appropriate legal framework to improve the functioning of the labor market and delete deformity • A social clausemust not threaten the system of privileges in developing countries, neither their exports and growth but rather stimulatetheircapacities to gaingenuine privileges based on quality and innovation and not on low wages which have a socially, politically and morally blocked horizon. • In order to include binding social clausesin international agreements, all the countries must feel that they are winning and not losing in the process, and that's what did not happen in the WTO agreements of Marrakech in 1994, because it was signed to lure developing countries withunfair commercial agreements and in return rejected social clauses. • The most effective way to improve working conditions is economic growthand not trade sanctions. • Fundamental human rights must be respected, regardless of the economic development and the level of productivity of the country; • Social dumping threatens economic development and social peace in the South and the North on the long term. • Maintaining and effectively implementing social normsrequires a minimum of incentivesand, in the worst case, sanctions. • What is needed to protect workers' rights and improve their conditions in developing countries is not the social clause, but also the increase of investment and economic growth, which createmore job opportunities, along with strong national laws, and specific standards to be adopted bythe local private sector and foreign companies.

References

1.Brondel A. (2010). "Libre-échange de l’UE et sécurité alimentaire des pays du Sud : contexte et panorama des accords”, CCFD-Terre Solidaire – Mai.

2.Granger; C.; Siroen G. M. (2006). La clause sociale dans les traités commerciaux, Eurisco, Universié, Paris Dauphine.

3. Hamila, E. B. (2014). "Du processus de Barcelone à l’accord de partenariat privilégié”, Leaders n°31. 51

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

4.International Trade Union Confederation (2008). “ Les syndicats et les accords bilatéraux”.

5.Muhammadiyah, C. (2014). " Les accords du partenariat euro-méditerranéen et la zone de libre échange euro-méditerranéenne”, Organisation internationale du Travail, Beyrouth.

6.Mustafa A. K. (2002). " Domaines du développement et du progrès social et économique”, Afro- Asian Peope’ss solidarity Orgnisation, n° 81, Juillet, Caire. panorama des accords” - CCFD-Terre Solidaire – Mai.

7.Sami, A. (2001). L'accord de partenariat avec l'Union européenne: les résultats de la phase écoulée et les perspectives futures”, Forum organized by the UGTT, Septembre, Tunisia.

8.Sami, A. (2004). "Réalité- du partenariat euro-méditerranéen”, Forum organized by the UGTT from 6 to 8 May, Algeria.

9.The European Social Observatory (2008). « Les clauses sociales dans le commerce mondial ».

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Semantic Features (Polisemi, Homonymy) In The Law Terminology in The Albanian And Greek Languages

SHEHU Eda Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Tirana, Albania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 27.01.2015; Accepted 08.02. 2015

Abstract Aspects of semantic features in the Albanian lexicon, and in particular the aspects of poly- semantics and homo-semantics have been the scope of studies either in isolation or in interaction with one another, but as well they have been studies in relation to many other phenomena such as: the root of the meaning (Thomai,2009), synonymy (Islamaj, 1985) etc. A study of these two phenomena which are closely inter-related is both of theoretical and practical value. In particular, the practical value is directly related to the compilation of explanatory and translation dictionaries (Thomai, 1972), which serves as an interface of the semantic structures of words.

Keywords: Law Terminology, Albanian Languages, Greek Languages

1. Introduction During these last sixty years, the issues of the phenomena of poly-semantics and homonymy, as well as those pertaining to synonymy have been regarded as semantic phenomena from another specific aspect of the lexicon, such as the terminology, which deals not just with their occurrence in the terminology lexicon, in its entirety in the context of all knowledge areas, but as well in terms of the specifics of the operation within a specific knowledge area, such as: in economy (Pasho, 1986), medicine, mechanical engineering, and agriculture. For both of these phenomena, in addition to synonymy, there are a number of works and monographic studies that have been published and as part of the theses work carried out in Albania and Kosovo. In light of these extensive works, whose special scope of study are these two phenomena, and based on the topics covered in them, we will review their appearance in a specific field of knowledge, such as: the legal terminology in the Albanian language.

A specific aspect that will be covered in this text is the appearance of the aspects of polysemy and homonymy in the Albanian language compared to the same phenomena in the Greek language, in order to identify the commonalities and specificities of both languages in this terminology. The conduct of such a review is of interest in comparative terms in two languages which are different more or less from the typology, structural and semantic aspects, as two separate branches in the Indo-European family, but as well possess common features, in particular as regards the terminology. Since the semantic features in terminology, in particular polysemy point out the construction mechanism of words through the terminology process, of building simple words into 53

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

terms, then the review of this mechanism in both languages assists in determining the models that shape the terms which are identified in the Albanian and Greek legal terminology. This helps in the use of these models in the activity for processing the terminologies of the relevant areas in both language, as well as in the work for the compilation of bilingual terminology dictionaries, Albanian- Greek, and Greek- Albanian. This is indispensable both in the case of consistency of the semantic structures of equal importance in both languages, as the most frequent instance, as well in the case of inconsistencies of the polysemy structures from one language into the other. As it could also be the case when one unit that marks two concepts in one language it could have two equal values for each concept in the other language, such as for e.g.: in Albanian e drejta1 (as a norm) = gr. το δικαίωμα and e drejta2 (as an area of activity) = gr.το δικαίο.

Semantic features, when displayed as one side of the difference of content, where the base of its organization are the elements of the content itself, such as polysemy, homonymy, acquire special importance in the legal terminology. Tehy are important in discovering the mechanisim that conects the terms with the concepts (Duro, 2009), in particular when this inter-relation is viewed from the perspective of the respective knowlede areas. Since a part of the terms are based on common words, then this perspective can be used when understadning the relations of the words with the meanings and of the terms of teh concepts. This means that semantic phenomena in their majroity in terminology are perceived also from the perspective of the conncention of terms with the words of generic lexicon.

The latter also looks into the mechanism for the formation and functioning of the terms themselves, in particular when they refer to the words of general lexicon on which bases they are formed, but also based on the concepts which are marked by the terms given within the respective field or in different fields, such as, as polysemy: e drejtë (general word.) ( in Greek. το δικαίωμα )– e drejtë (as a legal term) (το δικαίωμα), ligj (fiz.) (gr. ο νομος) – ligj (drejt.) (ο νομος), si homonime: qëndrim (fj. përgj. “ndejtje në këmbë”) (gr. η στάθμευση) – qëndrim (drejt. “sjellje ndaj një akti”) (η στάση), shtet (drejt. “organizim politik”) (gre. ο κράτος)– shtet (drejt. “vend si territor …”) (gre. το επικρατεία). In the Greek language, one notices similar of equal formation models, but as well differences, such as in the case of : shtet1,2 in Albanian and ο κράτος and το επικρατεία in Greek. However, it is pretty clear that the semantic method of formation of terms is a very qualitative one, since in these instances the native source language is directly used. As can be clearly deduced for terms created based on the meaning of common words such as: e drejta1 → e drejta2 (το δικαίωμα1 - το δικαίωμα2) they are clearer and make more sense while displaying the special context that they describe. They serve to display an important aspect of the functioning of the terminology, since this would be the way for connecting any terminology with its base, i.e. native language. However, common words, although constituting the bases for any terminology, in the further process of extension and improving on the knowledge, they acquire new meaning, which leads to a mix of the boundaries of concepts due to various associations created by their external form both for common words such as: ndalim, goditje (as common words), as well as in the shape of terms such as: ndalim2 (meaning arrest) and goditje2 (as in the case of a criminal group), ndalim (mechanical) (for the car), goditje (sports) (striking the ball), which is also true for the Greek language, with different Greek common words.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

A main feature of these units that come usually from the general terminology is that while they become part of the terminology system they keep the relationship with the (concept) of common words (Feka, 1986), i.e. they are part of the general lexicon of both languages, mainly from the active form: lirim2 (η απόλυση2) (from prison) related to the word lirim1 (η απόλυση1), goditje (το πλήγμα) (e një grupi kriminal), zbardhje (η διαλεύκανση) (e vendimit) related to the term goditje (το πλήγμα) and zbardhje (η διαλεύκανση) etc. As terms they constitute the basic terminology concepts, serving on one hand to create word compounds, while on the other hand they have the potential to create new concepts such as: zbardhje (η διαλεύκανση) (e ngjarjes) → zbardhje (η διαλεύκανση) (e vendimit). In addition, another very important aspect related to them is that for the most part they are also used in other terminologies, such as: ndalim (η απαγόρευση) (i makinës) etc, and this gives them a generalist aspect which connects in a system terminologies with one another, such as for e.g. ligj (ο νομος) (drejt., ek.,fiz.), zbardhje (το άσπρισμα) . As such they are motivated to the highest degree, since they are clear and understandable, but on the other hand, relating them to common words they display concepts up to an undetermined degree, thus touching upon one of the most important features of the terms such as one-sided meaning and accurate. However, it is important to reiterate that the conceptual meaning of a good share of them is evident in other micro areas where these words have specific connotations related to a given field, such as: “Vendimi dhe zbardhja e tij” (η απόφαση και η διαλεύκανση της).

In the above mentioned examples, given the comparative context in both languages, one may notice that the intrinsic forms of the terms, composed of common words almost coincide. This is also related to the universal features of concepts, which make the terminology researchers to find in the respective languages similar or same forms for the concepts. In some other instances this compliance of the intrinsic forms in both languages may not be appreciated, but still there is a certain degree of closeness. The concept is identified through another sign such as: hartim1 (i tekstit) and hartim2 (i ligjit), in Greek: η εκπόνηση1 (του κείμενου) and η εκπόνηση1 (του νόμου).

2. POLYSEMY The most specific occurrence of polysemy in the legal terminology is the most differentiated transfer of meaning within the same unit, which could be a word, and a term. For instance, the lexical term ndalim1 (as a common word “an action to cause someone or something not to move”) (in Greek - η απαγόρευση1) is related with the word ndalim2 of the concept “as an action of making somebody not move for the purpose of detaining him”, which in Greek corresponds with η απαγόρευση. In this case, the concept of the term ndalim2 is related with the meaning expressed from the sign as a word ndalim1. Between them there are differentiated meanings from each-other, which motivate the link between the word ndalim1 with the term ndalim2 from the law terminology. The link between these two markers shall be referred to as external polysemy for the terminology, since for this terminology, the word as an external element belongs to the general language, whereas the term built on the bases of the common word, as intrinsic, since it is now a term. This is also the case, in humbje1 (e një sendi) as a word (η απώλεια1) and humbja2 (e së drejtës) (η απώλεια2), as a term, përdorim1 (i një fjale) (η χρησιμοποίηση1) and përdorim2 (i forcës) (η χρηση2). Some of them, for e.g. ndalim3 as a term may express the concept of “detention for a 55

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

brief period”. In this case, since we have to do with transfer of concepts within a sign, as a term, which as a phenomenon we may refer to as internal polysemy for terminology. As such, we may consider: e drejtë2 (e drejt.) ( ο δίκαιος2) which expresses the concept of “a legal possibility to do something” derived from the common word e drejtë(a)1 (to express a thought) (το δικαίωμα1) and e drejta3 (drejt.), as derived from e drejta2 (drejt.) which expresses the concept “field of law” (ο δίκαιος2), shfrytëzim2 (e drejt.) (η εκμετάλλευση1) which comes out in the context of shfrytëzim i njeriut, derived from shfrytëzim1 (as a word) and shfrytëzim3 (e drejt.) (η εκμετάλλευση3) which comes from the context shfrytëzim (i postit).

Looking into other instances of the appearance of polysemy as external (transfer meaning-concept) and intrinsic (transfer concept - concept) may be observed in the distances meaning → concept and concept → concept to words and terms, which can be insignificant or very insignificant, even ndalim1 (απαγόρευση1) si fjalë – ndalim2(απαγόρευση2) , as a term and respectively ndalim3 “detention” with a relatively big conceptual difference, as a term”. By the same token, with clear differences, we can see kërkesë1“diçka që kërkohet të bëhet” (η αίτηση1) and kërkesë2 “shkresë për të kërkuar diçka” (το αίτημα2). In other instances the distance represents a major detach with obvious transfer, such as polysemy may be perceived as homonymy in the boundaries of terminology. This leads to the fact that the same sign can be distinguished as two signs (terms), with different concepts, even though sharing the same root from which they. falje1 (gabim) (η συγχώρηση1) falje2 (dënimi) (η χάρη, η αμνηστεία), forcë1 (pune) (η δύναμη1)– forcë2 (fiz.) (η δύναμη2), forcë3 (e armatosur) (ένοπλες δυνάμεις3).

Since polysemy is about fine shades of meaning within the content of the concepts expressed by the same term in both languages, then in order to find out the conceptual distances expressed in the polysemy terms it is necessary to analyze the meaning of concepts in their depths and connections. In this case, the conceptual structure of the term may be built as an analogy to the contextual structure of the word, drawing on the polysemy connections of the term, the same as those of the word. However, between the polysemy of the term and polysemy of the word there are distinct differences, since the difference of the concepts within a sign at the term such as: ligj (fiz.) ligj (drejt.), as in Greek ο νομος1– ο νομος2 is more distinct than the differences between shades of meanings in the words, which integrate different shades of meaning, as may be included in the unit ligj taken as a word in the context “fjala e tij është ligj për mua”, while in Greek: ο νομος “ η λέξη του είναι νομος για μένα”

However, considering ligj1— ligj2 (" ο νομος1" and " ο νομος2") as a word would be done through two meanings, hence it does not matter how distant or close they are from each-other, they are accepted as displays of polysemy. While in terminology, in the context of the expression of concepts between ligj (fiz.) and ligj (drejt.) there is a big difference, such that they may be considered as two distinguished signs. This would be the same as if for each of these two objects ligj1 (ο νομος1) and ligj2 (ο νομος2) there could be two different signs. This means that the acceptance of the criterion of distance in terminology leads to what can be accepted as a phenomenon of polysemy in general language should be considered as homonymy in terminology. 56

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

From this perspective, the boundaries between these two semantic phenomena, at concept level mingle with one another, and taken on relative and subjective values. This means that in terminology, as a division bases between polysemy and homonymy should be the juxtaposition of the features "i afërt/'i largët" (κοντινός, διπλανός/μακρινός). If there is a prevalence of the feature "close", then we have to do with polysemy, if instead we have the aspect "far", then the phenomenon is linked with homonymy. It goes without saying that this criterion is quite relative and subjective, and hence the establishment of the differentiation between these phenomena depends on the perspective of the researcher. Thus, for e.g. the term ndalim expressed two different concepts from each-other, but in some cases even the boundaries may be undefined: ndalim1"veprimi për ta ndalur, për të mos lëvizur më tej” and ndalim2 "veprim për ta mbajtur për një kohë”. In both these cases there is a phenomenon of polysemy, because the difference between concepts is so insignificant that the boundary is very difficult to be defined. In a more distinct way, the term gjykim carries two concepts, which are identified in the following comparison of the relevant concepts: a) "Veprime të gjyqtarit të një ndërhyrje në sport" (=gjykim1) (η διαιτησία1) dhe b) "Veprime të gjyqtarit në gjyq…" (=gjykim2) (η εκδίκαση2)

Here, in difference from the first case, we have to do more with the phenomenon of homonymy, since we have to do with concepts which are far from each-other, and which are used in areas which are different from each-other: gjykim (sport) (η διαιτησία) and gjykim (drejt.) (η εκδίκαση).

The proof in this can be if we are to compare the sign gjykim in Albanian, which marks two concepts: 1.”evaluation, intervention” and 2. "an assessment of a deed…”, with their equal sign in Greek, and for which concept we have two signs: 1. gjykim (ndërhyrje) = η διαιτησία, wherease for 2. gjykim (fajtori) = η εκδίκαση2

3. HOMONYMY In difference from the general lexicon, where the boundary between polysemy and homonymy is more defined, which comes out as well in the analyses of the semantic structure of words in a dictionary, “Fjalor i 1980”, where we have to do with homonim fletë2 (=gjethe) (το φύλλο1) dhe fletë2 (fletoreje) (το φύλλο2 ), in terminology it may be easy to note that in the most generic case, polysemy is being perceived as included in homonymy (Loshi, 1972). This is particularly the case when the distance between concepts of the same sign is clear (Duro, 1995). Here we can use the exmaples referred above, as the external polysemy, such as for e.g.:zbardhje1 (fj.e përgj.) (το άσπρισμα1, η λεύκανση1) and zbardhje2 (e vendimit) (drejt.) (η διαλεύκανση), but even when concepts expressed by one sign belong to different fields, such as for e.g: zbardhje3 (tekstil) (το άσπρισμα1) and zbardhje2 (e drejt.) (η διαλεύκανση), gjykim1 (i ndeshjes) (sport.) (η διαιτησία1) – gjykim2 (i çështjes) (drejt.) (η εκδίκαση2)).

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

In rare cases, as mentioned above we have to do with pure homonyms such as: firmë1 (ek.) (η επιχείρηση1) – firmë2 (drejt.) (η υπογραφή2), azil1 (fj. përgj.) (το άσυλο1) – azil2 (drejt.) (το άσυλο2), gëzoj1 (ndjej gëzim) (fj.përgj.) (χαροποιώ1)– gëzoj2 (të drejtën) (drejt.) (απολαμμβάνω2).

In a summary, the above mentioned phenomena, of polysemy, as well as of homonymy, in the legal terminology may be perceived as inter-related from the point of view of distance in meaning, which could serve as the bases to set the boundaries between them. However, in most of the instances, it would depend on the point of view of the study, which could be very relative and subjective, in terms of putting them under one category or the other.

1. Pure polysemy is the case when concepts are so close to each-other that in some cases it would be difficult to distinguish among them. In the majority of the cases, it may be accepted as internal/intrinsic polysemy (within the field of the legal and administrative style), which is also given in the word that serves as the contextual cycle of the term, such as: zbardhje1 (e vendimit) – zbardhje2 (e çështjes), shfrytëzim1 (i rastit) (η εκμετάλλευση1) – shfrytëzim2 (i postit) (η εκμετάλλευση2).

2. Mixed polysemy, whereby the boundary between the polysemy and homonymy is difficult to be established: humbje1 (e sendit) (η απώλεια1)– humbje2 (e së drejtës), in Albanian and η απώλεια1 – απώλεια2 in Greek.

3. External homonymy related to the boundary between the concept of a common word and the term concept: zbardhje1 (fj. e përgj.) (το άσπρισμα1)– zbardhje2 (e vendimit) (η διαλεύκανση).

4. External Homonymy between different fields: zbardhje1 (tekstil) (το άσπρισμα1)– zbardhje2 (vendim) (η διαλεύκανση).

5. Pure homonymy, where the distinction among concepts is clearly cut, such as: firmë1 (ek.) (η επιχείρηση1)– firmë2 (drejt.) (η υπογραφή2), azil1 (fj. përgj.) (το άσυλο1) – azil2 (drejt.) (το άσυλο2).

It is important to view homonymous relations in terminology from the point of view of their formation, since in their majority they are generated in the process of new shades of meaning (terminology) of common words, i.e. creating terms with them.

In this case, within one sign there are together the common meaning in the specialized concepts through which the distance in meaning is generated. This distance between the meaning and the concept is generated since the specialized concept is linked to a new object, which in its concrete occurrence (mainly in terms of form or function) is clearly distinct from a common object. From this perspective, the difference in objects leads to a division of the sign into two planes, such as: gjyqtar (i ndeshjes) and gjyqtar (i aktit). Even though the transfer of a sign from one plane to the other (i.e. from the meaning to the concept) takes place on a common base due to the difference of two contents, it should be interpreted as two different signs (Markovin, 1970), which coincide in

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

form, but are clearly distinct in terms of content. This move of the sign from one content to the other may continue further, including in their field other concepts, due to their proximity within the existing concept. Hence, homonymy, as a phenomenon in terminology may be perceived as external, when there is a difference in the meaning of the word and the term concept such as: zbardhje1 (fj. zakon.) and zbardhje2 (vendim) (e drejt.), në gr. το άσπρισμα1 and η διαλεύκανση2. And internal, when there is a difference between expressed concepts by the same sign as a term, in the boundaries of the field such as: e drejta2 (drejt. “si normë”) and e drejta3 (drejt. “si fushë veprimtarie”), in Greek το δικαίωμα1 -το δικαίωμα2.

The above mentioned presentation of cases of homonymy serve to show that in the intrinsic homonymy not always units are equal from one language to the other. On one hand this indicates the distance in terms of concepts of homonymous signs, whereas on the other hand it is an indication of the trend of the terminology in one of the languages, or in both, to break the homonymy, in a way that can give the concepts in a differentiated fashion. This breach may be natural or the terminology researchers during the standardization of terminology aim at ensuring equality in a concept and a term through breaches in homonymy, such as: gjyqtar1(sport) – gjyqtar2 (drejt.) → gjyqtar (sport) – gjykatës (drejt.), in Albanian which corresponds to the Greek model: η διαιτησία (sport) and η εκδίκαση (drejt.).

Cases of the presence of the homonymy and its breach may be observed in its existence in one language and failure of such existence in another, which may come out during comparison of both languages mutually. The most typical of cases being when homonyms in one language correspond to two different signs in the other language.

4. Conclusions As a conclusion, it is important to point out that the phenomena of polysemy and homonymy in terminology, which emerge as a link between shades of meaning of words and concepts constitute models which are almost the same in both Albanian and Greek languages. They also express the same mechanism for the generation of terms based on common words. Cases if deviation from same models that guide the work that needs to be done, to break the polysemy or homonymous structures of the term, when it is loaded with concepts, introducing another unit (as newly created or found in the language).

References

1. Duro, A. (2009). “Termi dhe fjala në gjuhën shqipe”, Tiranë.

2. Duro, A. (1995).Minimizing the negative effect of homonymy in LSP ,IJTF Infoterm 10th European LSP Symposium, Vienna.

3. Feka, Th. (1986). Vëzhgimi mbi leksikun terminologjik në “Fjalorin e gjuhës së sotme shqipe” (1980), “Sf”.

4. Islamaj, Sh. (1985). “Çështje të homonymy në gjuhën shqipe”, Prishtinë.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

5. Lloshi, Xh. (1972). “Rreth disa shfaqjeve të ndikimit të homonymy në gjuhën shqipe” në “Studime mbi leksikun …” (1), Tiranë.

6. Markovin,V. (1970). “Ideologiçeskie slovari”. Izdatelstvo Moskovskogo Universiteta, 1970. Pasho, H. (1986). Vështrim mbi disa shfaqje të shumëkuptimësisë, të sinonimisë … në terminology e ekonomisë në gjuhën shqipe, “Sf”.

7. Thomai, J. (1972). Mbi mënyrën e pasqyrimit të sistemit të kuptimeve dhe të përdorimit të fjalëve në “Fjalorin shpjegues të gjuhës shqipe” në “Studime mbi leksikun.”, Tiranë, 1972.

8. Thomai, J . (2009), “Prejardhje kuptimore në gjuhën shqipe”, Tiranë.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Transplanting Surrealism in Greece- a Scandal or Not?

NIKA Maklena University of Tirana, Albania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 26.01.2015; Accepted 10.02. 2015

Abstract Transplanting the surrealist movement and literature in Greece and feedback from the critics and philological and journalistic circles of the time is of special importance in the history of Modern Greek Literature. The Greek critics and readers who were used to a traditional, patriotic and strictly rule-conforming literature would find it hard to accept such a kind of literature. The modern Greek surrealist writers, in close cooperation mainly with French surrealist writers, would be subject to harsh criticism for their surrealist, absurd, weird and abstract productivity. All this reaction against the transplanting of surrealism in Greece caused the so called “surrealist scandal”, one of the biggest scandals in Greek letters.

Keywords: Surrealism, Modern Greek Literature, criticism, surrealist scandal, transplanting, Greek letters

1. Introduction When Andre Breton published the First Surrealist Manifest in 1924, Greece had started to produce the first modern works of its literature. Everything modern arrives late in Greece due to a number of internal factors (poetic collection of Giorgios Seferis “Mythistorima” (1935) is considered as the first modern work in Greek literature according to Αlexandros Argyriou, History of Greek Literature and its perception over years between two World Wars (1918-1940), volume Α, Kastanioti Publications, Athens 2002, pp. 534-535).

Yet, on the other hand Greek writers continued to strongly embrace the new modern spirit prevailing all over Europe. They had to find a new fresh reality, contrary to the Greek one during the period between two World Wars. Transplanting the movement, philosophy and surrealist literature in Greece would shake once for all the stony and invincible foundations of the Greek traditional literature and perspective of the time.

2. Beginnings of modernism in Greece as a response to the reality of that time Kostas Karyotakis, the decadent poet of 20’s would be one of the first writers to reflect the anxiety of his time, crossroad of the Greek society between two wars, with his latest work “Elegy and Satyrs” (1927). The pessimistic poetry of Karyotakis would not last for long because modern poets 61

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

realized very soon the need for a new dynamics, enthusiasm, a vital elan inspired by a new myth. To complete this new journey for Greek literature, they had to launch parallel steps to the latest developments of the western poetry and find the way to reconcile the present with the past and bring those two concepts to a modern synthesis (Elefantis Aggelos, Promise of Impossible Revolution and bourgeois in Greece between two World Wars, Athens 1976). Above all, the Greek had to be liberated from any standards “in order to penetrate the endless and latent depths of reality” (ibid, p. 73).

3. Initial reactions of the critics and press of that time for the emergence of surrealism in Greece As it occurs in every aspect of life and not only in literature introduction of something new and unique causes a “scandal”. The same would also apply to surrealism in Greece. Transplanting it in the Hellenic Republic would cause various reactions which were naturally translated into the so- called “surrealist scandal” (Trivizas Sotiris, Surrealist scandal, a chronicle of expectation of the surrealist movement in Greece, Kastanioti Publications, Athens 1996, p. 27).

The official introduction of surrealism in Greece was the publication of “Furnace” by Andreas Embirikos (1935), although it was preceded by publications and occasional efforts for surrealist productivity. After the publication of this surrealist anthology, the Greek critics started to immediately react. In “Free step”, the journalist N. Giokarinis published a satiric chronogram titled “New poetry”, elegantly describing his reactions while reading the book: “You read five sentences and suddenly you feel as if you have swallowed one after another two sea-urchins and the room walls draw nearer, they only approach each other to turn around your head...this man has instilled in me what all poets of Greece and the whole world have not caused to me. I cannot get this book out of my mind. I want to understand it well, to penetrate the meaning of its phrases, to ultimately resolve the enigma printed in thousands copies of the most elegant book published in recent years in Greece. I often become angry because I cannot understand Greek words put one after another. People, he is a wizard, he is the Satan, a medium, he is a terrible and dangerous person.” (N. Giokarinis, New poetry, Free Step Newspaper, 9 November 1935).

One year later, Embirikos, member of the French surrealist group responded in this way to the daily newspaper “Kathimerini”, where a journalist called Kostis Bastias asked him to define the revolutionary character of surrealism: “ (...) Other forms of art last for a long time. Surrealism is still new. At that time he launched a highly persisting research. To be more precise, he adhered to the revolution both in political theory and dialectic materialism....” (Kathimerini Newspaper, 30 March 1936). His answer was not quite explanatory for the public when some years later, another poet, late admirer of surrealism posed the question: “Is surrealism a communism art? Noone can answer this question” (Papatsonis Takis, Surrealism and I, in the magazine Nea Grammata, Volume VII, 1945, No. 5-6, pp 340-346).

Greek criticism has generally believed that surrealism was nothing else but a work of absurd and paradox. Some even propose the creation of a common line to be protected from “this tide that may destroy the intellectual life of the country and provoke even a deeper confusion” (Note of the Editorial Office of the Magazine New Greek Literature, No. 6, May 1938, p. 235). Some finally 62

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

decided “they did not have to waste so many efforts as it was about a transitory fashion, whose proponents were negligible” (as above, No. 7, July 1938, p. 236).

A feature of all these texts was confusion, ignorance and doubt. At that time all writers who did not use expressive traditional tools were baptized as surrealists and were cursed. In the meantime, in absence of a reasonable seriousness, those texts were contradictory at a very low level because bad words, mocking or rude terms were used.

Yet, there were some who succeeded to understand the new atmosphere in Greek literature such as the critical approach of transplanting surrealism in Greece from the social perspective, of Petros Orologas, the critic from Thessaloniki published in 1940: “ (...) Transplanting of surrealism in Greece occurred very late with the only concern related to the artistic adaption. Our literature has not encountered phases that can justify a similar reaction; (...) and our society did not have the experience of a psychic crisis to potentially cause a similar reaction as the one caused by surrealism. Surrealism in Greece is the late adaption of some souls and probably of some distinguished temperaments. It could be adapted to a group of narrow-minded intellectuals rather than an influence and diversity and a strict application of the theory. (Orologas Petros, A movement between two World Wars, Thessaloniki, 1940).

In November 1935 the magazine “Nea Grammata” published for the first time the poetry of Odysseas Elytis, who “was close to surrealist without being a surrealist”, and whom it probably owed the only texts protecting at that time the surrealist movement from attacks of various philological and pseudo-philological circles. Some months later, in March 1936 Elytis returned with the translation of eleven poems of Paul Eluard. This test of translation of Elytis concurrently corresponds to the first complete presentation of one of the pioneers of French surrealism for the Greek reader. His double presentation would be in his favor and criticism would be harsher with him. Elytis was baptized as a surrealist contrary to the fate of Embirico. Hence, Kleon Paraskos in “Nea Estia” and Petros Spandonidis in “Macedonian Days”, with the excuse of criticism of two books, spoke about surrealism and reached common conclusions: “Surrealism is based on the musical concept of human personality and seeks to musicalize the word; it has nothing but the value of an effort, attempt, experiment, contradictory logics. Surrealism dissolves the social character of art. Surrealist poetry cannot reflect human unconsciousness but is a result of the conscious intervention of the poet (Trivizas Sotiris, Surrealist scandal, a chronicle of expectations of the Surrealist movement in Greece, Kastanioti Publications, Athens 1996, p. 42).

In June 1938 it was published the first poetry collection “Do not speak to the driver” by Nikos Engonopoulos. Intellectual circles and official criticism were cold and indifferent to the book. However, that did not apply to various journalistic and pseudo-philological circles, who believed they had found in the person and work of Engonopoulos the Achilles’ heels of surrealist. That was the same reaction they had to “Furnace” of Embirikos but the latter seemed to be saved by his social and economic status while Engonopoulos surrendered defenselessly to his critics. The first reaction to the book of Engonopoulos emerged from an anonymous note of To Brady, titled “Fight, attacking trauma of grace”: “The outcry surrounding surrealist movement in France also influenced Greece, 63

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

where different ignorant individuals attacked surrealism although they did not understand it at all. Those neologists had started to mock surrealism. Yet, a new poet arrived, Nikos Engonopoulos, to fight beauty for this noisy movement in the volume titled under the Greek reality “Do not speak to the driver”.” (Kalamaris Nikos, Letter addressed to the director of Nea Fylla, in the magazine Nea Fylla, No. 3, 1937, p. 56).

4. Positive feedback of criticism On the other hand, some of the critics managed to recognize and appreciate the qualities of surrealism and Greek writers. The first one who evaluated the book of Embirikos was Stratis Mirivilis: “We should confess that to date poetry has been an exceptionally melancholic issue for all of us....a poetry collection that can dispel melancholy and suddenly and sufficiently cause joy to the man, had not existed to date. Accordingly, we do not have this collection in our hands. Its title is “Furnace” and the type of poetic use deriving from “Furnace” is “surrealism”. It is French because it is about a French kind. What is surrealism? I have to admit that I have not realized what it was about. However, I hope that poets who deal with this specialty do not know anything more. As far as I can draw a conclusion, surrealism means more or less the following: you are sitting in an office, grab a pencil and a piece of paper and let your hand write whatsoever...”Furnace” is a beautiful precious book as a book of pleasure. Anyone can spend endless hours of reading. Our time is so sordidly fatal...” (Mirivilis Stratis, Surrealism, Proia Magazine, 30 April 1935).

The poet and critic Mitsos Papanikolaou, referring to the poetry of Odysseas Elytis, writes: “Surrealism elicited words from their utilitarian definition, thus creating a wonderful poetic space where access was denied from logics and knowledge” (Papanikolaou Mitsos, Poet Odysseas Elytis, in the literary magazine Nea Ellinika Grammata, Volume II, No. 72, 16 April 1938, p. 7). Tellos Agras would adopt a different approach to surrealism. He appears to be one of the rare critics in Greece that had realized the significance of new movement and its revolutionary character, whose purpose was to destroy individualism, “further exploring with the view of development of inner miracle for each of us but common for everyone” (Interview with Tellos Agras in the literary magazine Nea Ellinika Grammata, Volume II, Number. 72, 16 April 1938, p. 12). Above all, he admires the surrealist for his efforts to liberate poetry from any rhetoric (from which the Greek poetry suffered) and recognizes in him the only really dynamic trend of modern poetry.

Another approach would be provided by Giorgios Theotokas, who had identified in surrealism the attributes and symptoms of “a crisis of Western civilization”. He had already written about this crisis a number of articles without any literary character in Nea Grammata (Theotokas Giorgos, Social Issues, in the magazine Nea Grammata, Volume II, 1936). Referring to this crisis, he seems to provide the following advice: “Firstly, try to understand me and then wait because in Greece the news arrive always late. As a result, what is foreign and new should be rather considered as a theoretical inversion than a constructive manifestation; accordingly, creative effects are expected to occur” (Theotokas Giorgos, What is surrealism, in the literary magazine Nea Ellinika Grammata, Volume II, 2 July 1938, p. 1).

For the great Greek poet Giorgos Seferis, surrealism is equal to a poetic school that applied changes at the level of esthetics through the application of automatic writing and reliance on the

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

unconsciousness. In the translated work of Thomas Eliot “Waste Land” in Greek language in 1949 Seferis noted: “At all times Eliot has been paid the highest tribute that anyone can ever receive in Europe. I also believe that by most of the people he is not considered as an insane articulating irrational words or as a “surrealist” taken out of the insanity of fabrication of puns to disorient rational and wise persons”, (Seferis Giorgos, Second Prologue (for Waste Land), in Essays, Ikaros Publications, Athens 1974, p. 25) where we can clearly understand that the poet of Generation of 1930s gives a definition of surrealism that the surrealist is someone ironizing everything and has only one purpose: to astonish the bourgeois.

Nikos Kalamaris would publish a key text clarifying the misunderstandings on the emergence of surrealism in Greece. It is particularly focused on the dual existence of surrealism as a theoretical and action movement, thus proving he was one of the few Greek creators who had understood the dual requirement introduced in principles of movement, revolution in art and in life: “Yet, surrealism is not only theory but also a practice and it is impossible to be perceived only through studies. There is no theory without practice. There are two sides of the same coin. Neither surrealism, nor an accurate assessment of the artistic past can exist without a surrealist movement. In 1933 I stressed in one of my lectures the need for embracing surrealism but the result I had achieved was external, namely it was realized in a way that clearly allowed the theoretical assessment of the importance of surrealist innovations but it was not sufficient to give me the pleasure caused by astonishment without which art remains dead. Only surrealism can fully demonstrate such an astonishment, therefore only surrealism produces works of art but the surrealist art also requires a surrealist atmosphere, namely there is a need for surrealist movement.” (Kalamaris Nikos, Letter addressed to the director of Nea Fylla, in the magazine Nea Fylla, No. 3, 1937).

5. Efforts of Greek surrealists to convince the reader and Greek criticism about surrealism values Going through these dangerous paths, surrealism in Greece could not be registered as a “movement” or “group” and neither as a common creative-journey. Even in few cases where some creators had joined some magazines (for instance the case of “Pali” magazine 1963-67), the project was too hard to be defined as “shared” (Valaoritis Nanos, Modernism, Vanguard and Again, Konstandinios Publications, Athens 1997). On the other hand, there are no political and social visions with the military character of French movement and neither a Dada movement. However, in 1938 a collective publication titled “Surrealism 1” appears to fill the lack of a surrealist magazine in Greece. It is about a book of 67 pages containing translated texts of the poems of Andre Breton by Andreas Embirikos, of Salvador Dali by D. Karapanou, of Paul Eluard by Odysseas Elytis, of Benjamin Peret by Nikos Kalamaris and of Tristan Tzara by Nikos Engonopoulos. This small book intended to introduce surrealism in Greece also contains some part from the First Manifest of Breton, translated in Greek language. Furthermore, his second publication “Surrealism 2” will include selected poetry from Greek surrealist poets, as well as a bibliography of the surrealist literary products in Greece until 1938.

Further, the lecture organized by Embirikos two months prior to the book-lecture circulation, as reminded by Elytis “given in front of some rude citizens who were listening displeased, ...” (Elytis 65

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Oddyseas, Open Letters, Ikaros Publications, Athens 2009, pp. 256) was not sufficient to prepare the ground. Theoretical support to such a daring attempt as the publication of a surrealist poetic collection was inadequate and the reaction of national elite was expected and to some extent, justified.

The “Philological Surrealist Group of Athens” (1935), in its effort to publicize this movement in Greece, decided to publish the literary magazine titled “Art and Letters” and a number of artistic books under the general title “Surrealist Voice”. “Nea Grammata” continued with other poetry publications and surrealist texts evincing a new poetic concept striving to break and contradict the tradition. In an article dedicated to those poems, the Greek poet and critic Nikos Pappas wrote: “The Greek poetic vanguard managed to transplant modern trends of the West (...) but on the contrary, it gave them “an Hellenic character, an Attic transparence (...) Greek landscapes, Greek subjects” (Pappas Nikos, Vanguard of Greek poetics, in the daily newspaper Kathimerini, 12 October1936.)

In the first post-war years, surrealists had been featured in the magazine “Nea Grammata” and “Tetradio”, founded by Andonis Vousvousnis, in cooperation with a famous group of poets such as Giorgos Seferis, Andreas Embirikos, Nikos Engonopoulos etc. Criticism would continue to attack surrealists who were accused “of discrediting Greek poetry abroad”. Another serious magazine was published in 1946, this time in Thessaloniki, “Koxyli” to publish poetry from authors of that time, as well as poems by Paul Eluard, Rene Char, Robert Desnos, James Joyce etc. The presence of translations of surrealist authors in this magazine clearly demonstrates that its collaborators were well-versed with that movement. It lasted only two years but it basically constituted a literary event of special importance in Greek literature because its group was homogenous and was characterized by a major interest for the new poetic expression and world of unconsciousness.

6. Conclusions and suggestions In conclusion, we can admit that Greek surrealism continues to be one of the most crucial esthetic and artistic provocations in the young Greek literature and still continues at present time. The surrealist scandal was caused due to two main grounds: on one hand there was a lack of theoretical information on surrealism and on the other hand surrealist poets wished that surrealism in Greece would acquire Greek dimensions, clearly based on the Hellenism myth. To further elaborate our analysis, we would state that these poets, rebelled from their social status and Western rationalism, despite their efforts failed to clearly formulate their poetical-ideological commitments because Greek poets misplace poetic identity with the national identity. That was exactly the origin of two major deviations of surrealism in Greece: absence of self-movement and return to national myths. It is proven what the Greek poet and critic Nikos Pappas had stated “The Greek poetic vanguard managed to transplant modern trends of the West (...) but on the contrary, it gave them “a Hellenic character, an Attic transparency (...) Greek landscapes, Greek subjects” (Pappas Nikos, Vanguard of Greek poetics, in the daily newspaper Kathimerini, 12 October 1936.) and Prof. R. Jouanny when he drew the attention that: “Greek coasts are for the Greek poets what Parisian boulevards were for the French surrealists: places where miracle could be produced ...” (Jouanny R., Aspects of

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

surrealism in the works of Odysseas Elytis, in Book abroad, vol.49, No. 4, Autumn 1975, University of Oklahoma, pp. 685-689)

References

1. Argyriou, Αlexandros. (2002). History of Greek Literature and its perception over years between two World Wars (1918-1940), volume Α, Athens: Kastanioti Publications.

2. Elefantis, Aggelos. (1976). Promise of Impossible Revolution and bourgeois in Greece between two World Wars, Athens 1976.

3. Elytis, Oddyseas. (2009). Open Letters, Athens: Ikaros Publications.

4.Jouanny, R. (1975). Aspects of surrealism in the works of Odysseus Elitis, in Book abroad, vol.49, No. 4, Autumn 1975, University of Oklahoma.

5. Kalamaris, Nikos. (1937). Letter addressed to the director of Nea Fylla, in the magazine Nea Fylla, No. 3.

6. Mirivilis, Stratis. (1935). Surrealism, Proia Magazine, 30 April.

7. Giokarinis, N. (1935). New poetry, Free Step Newspaper, 9 November.

8. Orologas, Petros. (1940). A movement between two World Wars, Thessaloniki.

9. Papanikolaou, Mitsos. (1938). Poet Odysseas Elytis, in the literary magazine Nea Ellinika Grammata, Volume II, No. 72, 16 April.

10. Pappas, Nikos. (1936). Vanguard of Greek poetics, in the daily newspaper Kathimerini, 12 October.

11. Papatsonis, Takis (1945). Surrealism and I, in the magazine Nea Grammata, Volume VII, No.5- 6.

12. Seferis, Giorgos. (1974). Second Prologue (for Waste Land), in Essays, Athens: Ikaros Publications.

13. Trivizas, Sotiris. (1996). Surrealist scandal, a chronicle of expectation of the surrealist movement in Greece, Athens: Kastanioti Publications.

14. Theotokas, Giorgos. (1936). Social Issues, in the magazine Nea Grammata, Volume II.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

15. Theotokas, Giorgos. (1938). What is surrealism, in the literary magazine Nea Ellinika Grammata, Volume II, 2 July.

16. Valaoritis, Nanos. (1997). Modernism, Vanguard and Again, Athens: Konstandinios Publications, Athens.

17. Kathimerini Newspaper, 30 March 1936.

18. The Magazine New Greek Literature, No. 6, May 1938.

19. The literary magazine Nea Ellinika Grammata, Volume II, Number. 72, 16 April 1938.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Characteristics of Application of General Didactic Principles to the Specificity of Tactical, Operational and Strategic Military Higher Education

COTÎRLEŢ Paul-Claudiu Bucharest University, Romania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 28.02.2015; Accepted 08.03. 2015

Abstract The paper entitled "Characteristics of Application of General Didactic Principles to the Specificity of Tactical, Operational and Strategic Military Higher Education” wants to develop the educational and instructive character of all teaching activities, and to ensure the achievment of objectives provided in the millitary education programmes. It covers three sections and four subchapters, all of them dealing with notions, principles, rules and examples that will help with the methodical preparation of young teachers. If studied and applied in a creative way, the thesis will provide a scientific background and it will ease the work done by both the teachers and the student- officers. Also, this paper tries to answer to a desire regarding tactical, strategic and operative education that concerns the synthesizing, systematization and generalization of the positive experience coming from teachers and teaching committees. Seeing as this is a first attempt to present such particularities, I would like to state that the thesis in question is open to changes and improvements, and also I would be grateful for any suggestions or observations from the people that study or use this paper, in order to improve the teaching of such an important and specific learning process.

Keywords: Military education, information, didactical principles, Tactical, Operational and Strategic Sector

1.Introduction As graduate of the National Defence College - series XXII- I have managed to develop my capacity of analysis and synthesis of contemporary political-military phenomena, of military scenarios and actions at an operational and strategic level, and I have drawn practical conclusions necessary to the organisation, planning and deployment of military actions at a tactical and operational level. Therefore, I could submit to your attention, in the most concluding and pertinent way possible, the characteristics of Romanian military education in the context of involvement of general didactic principles. National Defence College aims to provide a modern process of multidisciplinary and multinational education, with a view to assimilating correctly the national and international safety problems. The education process is deployed with the observance of European requirements, in

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

agreement with the syllabi of similar institutions from abroad and under the conditions in which Romania promotes its interests starting from the current condition of the international system and our status of NATO and EU members (For exemple, you can se Figure 1).

Figure 1 Source: http://edu-news.ro/rusia-va-reintroduce-cursurile-militare-si-patriotice-in-scoli/

To ensure a high level of quality of the learning process, the National Defense College invites teachers from abroad to hold classes for the students. The people invited come from prestigious universities from the US, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, Israel or other structures of the EU and NATO, and have been praised for their very well documented and extremely interesting lectures. The National Defense College undergoes its obligations covered in the International Activities and Bilateral Cooperation Plans, and also works on developing ongoing programs, as well as expanding and diversifying its international relations so that it will help raise the level of quality and efficiency regarding the educational process.

2. Higher Military education Military education is provided by the State, it is part of the national education system and has its own personality and identity, which is compatible with the educational systems of other NATO states armies. Its objective is to train, specialize and perfect the military personnel required by the Romanian Army and other internal or external beneficiaries. The higher military education institutions available are: the "Carol I" National Defense University, Bucharest; the Technical Military Academy, Bucharest; the "Nicolae Balcescu" Ground Forces Academy, Sibiu; the "Mircea cel Batran" Naval Academy, Constanta; the "Henry Coanda" Aerial Forces Academy, Brasov; and the Medicinal Military Institute, Bucharest.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

2.1. Military higher education- understood as a complex process of permanent education promotion

It presupposes that those who are learning to appropriate in the time and effort unit the necessary amount of knowledge, capabilities and convictions, materialized in behavioural changes, with a view to increasing social efficiency of activity performed and developing human personality. From a practical point of view, it imposes, together with continuous improvement of the content, the radical improvement of teaching and learning methods and forms used. As a result of the fact that the assimilation possibilities of intellect are relatively limited, it is imposed that the methodological orientation of the learning process to the direction of transmitting to those who are learning not necessarily factual, perishable knowledge, but especially laws, principles, norms, rules, etc., combined with the intellectual working technique, composing thus a complex structure which is open to knowledge, adaptable to learning, as well as to settling the tasks incumbent on them after the completion of studies.

For the fulfilment of this desideratum, it is extremely important that one does not aim at accumulating some quantitatively spectacular knowledge, risking to remain non-functional just because of abundance, but at forming and developing the skills related to the study and settling the training and fight action problems; the safe orientation of student-officers and course attendants in the contents of national military doctrine, by the appropriation of a systematic and coherent vision on the formation of general tactical, operational art and strategy, placed in the context of our military history and of the war of the entire people for the defence of the motherland. As a result, the tactical, operational and strategic education, even if it has a strongly integrative character, its purposes representing the development of student-officers’ personality, the consolidation of their developed ideas on the world and life, is particularized, compared to any other type of higher education, mainly by the general purpose.

It results that this type of education acquires its specificity just because it uses specific knowledge, operates with specific techniques and technologies, and finally fulfils specific fundamental tasks: training of command service members and of the general staff necessary for our armed forces. But not only this. Within the elaboration of educational documents and within the performance of sequence by sequence learning activities, models of the various forms of fight actions are used, the members of the teaching staff carrying out an activity of elaboration and teaching imposing higher education, didactical experience, creativity, the ability to provide to this type of education its fundamental characteristics: selectivity, realism, design-research and education of student-officers in the spirit of love of their motherland and their country.

On the other hand, the deployment of educational process within Tactical, Operational and Strategic Sector, and its optimization are not designed anymore without making appeal to the knowledge made available by sciences such as: psychology, neurophysiology, mathematics, economics, cybernetics, and sociology. At present, efforts are made worldwide for the optimization and expansion of learning possibilities. These diligences are justified because today, more than ever before, intellectual training and education of the new generations, as well as adult recycling, asserts as one of the decisive key factors of progress.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

2.2. Learning theories Obviously refer to a multitude of issues, on which points of view are formulated, representing modes of action, of influencing the educational process according to some pre-established purposes. There are theories regarding the appropriation of knowledge by memorization or which emphasize the development of an independent thinking; other theories refer to the relation between trainer and trainee, or refer to the “psychological model of learning”. For example, as regards this model, theories are contoured, such as the associationist or the Gestalt ones (German origin word meaning phenomenon, form) or that of creative learning (heuristic).

What is especially interesting related to these theories is the essence, namely finding those action modalities by which the members of the teaching staff manage to form officers who are able to face the fatal or life, society needs. Military higher education must develop the personality of student- officers by the accumulation of information and its systematization, by comprehension and solving problems similar to those occurring on the battlefield. These, all the more so as, no matter how improved and even sophisticated the studies tactical, operational and strategic models are, they cannot reproduce the totality of conditions the present and future modern battlefield features. That is why a creative thinking system must be formed for all student-officers, being characterized by receptivity, flexibility, fluidity and originality. The training of military service members must aim at developing their capacity to act in frequently changing varied circumstances, permanently promoting the novelty.

The well-known pedagogue Alfred Binet asserted that “intelligence is pluridimensional and it cannot be measured by a single test. The accumulation of knowledge based on memory, for example, does not mean intelligence”. A lack of memory, noticed Binet, can be associated to a lot of reasoning, as a real fool can also have a good memory [Binet Alfred,2002]. Jean Piaget shows in his turn that: “…the real integrity of the individual in this world of mutations depends, in a determined extent, on the success of forming some creators, some innovation spirits. The individuals capable only to repeat what they have learnt from the previous generations are irretrievably doomed to failure.”[Piaget Jean,1973]. Piaget’s assertion is based on the scientific fact that the central nervous system (brain) works as a whole, being prone to integrate, to unify the activity of its various sectors. The new information, to the extent to which it is understood, is subject to a process of systematization, ranking and grouping; it becomes functional, can help to the settlement of problems, only if it is assimilated, integrated by human mind. Being mechanically, individually appropriated, without being understood or understood with great difficulty, the information thus acquired is rapidly lost, does not enrich intellectual sources. It is thus important to know not only “what” is learnt, but also “how” the student-officers are learning, in what why does it engage the intellect, their entire psyche. The conclusions drawn from the various theories on learning are used in defining the didactic principles of learning, after which all instructive actions shall be guided.

3. Didactic principles Didactic principles are “methodological categories” and have the mission to be indicative and normative milestones for the correlated action of all sides of the educational process. These principles provide, if they are observed, the efficiency of modelling the person who learns,

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

according to educational purposes. Thus, didactic principles must be observed both in the planning of objectives and structure of knowledge, and as regards the selection of instructive-educational methods and education means.[Bunescu and Giurgea, 1982]. As it also results from the definition, the principles are setting out the parameters of learning process and need an active participation, full of initiative and creativity both from the members of the teaching staff and from the learner. The principles are indicative prescriptions (Eşi, 2013, 309-314) and this is precisely why, based on them, one can act very freely, both in choosing and applying the instructive-educational action methods and procedures.

In contemporary didactics, the principles of the educational process are systematically treated. All converge toward the same objective. This is why the efficiency of each of them is conditioned by the consideration of the system as a whole; the infringement of some of them minimizes the positive effect of the others. Didactic principles can be grouped according to certain criteria. I shall bring forward the ones I consider they can act in such a specific field of tactical, operational and strategic military higher education.

3.1.Principles with reference to the objectives of instructive process

A: Integration of education with the training process of troops and with the scientific research This principle represents one of the fundamental directions of tactical, operational and strategic military higher education, its application becoming the guarantee of forming some personalities with a large scientific horizon, but also with real creative and investigation skills, able to integrate actively and competently in the educational process, to contribute to social progress. The dominant requirement imposed by this principle consists of the fact that, instead of an activity of assimilation and storage of some already elaborated cognitive models, a pedagogical endeavour must be installed, which can trigger the knowledge “production”, namely a process of search and discovery of truths, of effective practice of knowledge. According to this principle, in the practice of knowledge transmission, there must be achieved conditions such as: presentation of information must be made in an interdisciplinary manner; student-officers be engaged in exercises of integration and discovery of knowledge and of its application at the same time; provision of well-balanced combination of theoretical learning with the practical activity; specific control of social relationships within the group of student-officers (it is about the stimulation of active participation of group members in the process of their own training).

I consider that, within the Tactical, Operational and Strategic Sector, there is the appropriate organisational framework providing the accomplishment of requirements of this principle. However, it is necessary that all the members of the teaching staff intensify their searches so as to find some scientific solutions, for the organization and performance of fight actions under the specific conditions of our country, to deepen the preoccupations of introducing in the educational process, to a greater extent than up to present, the positive expertise from the commandments and units of our army related to the deployment of training and education process. Student-officers should be more attracted into the mixed teams of scientific research, thus offering them the

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

possibility to appropriate an efficient research methodology, to develop skills and passions. The graduation theses should be immediately related to the troop training process, and should be competently guided so as to find viable solutions that can be exploited in practice (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Source: http://edu-news.ro/rusia-va-reintroduce-cursurile-militare-si-patriotice-in-scoli/

B: Accessibility principle This principle provides that the training be performed so as the integral appropriation of knowledge become possible. Therefore, we have to take into consideration the level of thinking and intellectual training of those to whom knowledge is thought. First of all, it is about the language used by the learner. As the knowledge communicated in a known foreign language is not accessible, the knowledge of mathematics, military technique and doctrine, topography, management automation, etc. does neither become accessible if a specialty terminology is not held. It is not possible that an entire terminology system be introduced all at once. It is necessary that the sense of the words or of any symbols be gradually elucidated, the listener being each time put in front of a restrained number of terms or symbols that are totally or partially unknown. A rule of accessibility consists in the provision of an optimal distance (in the sense of its possible running) between language, volume of knowledge, intellectual abilities of learners, the information content, the logical structure of the things communicated by the members of the teaching staff; in effect, accessibility means didactical communication skill. The accessibility in the learning process does not equal the position exactly at the level of comprehension and intellectual development of student-officers or even below their level. Communication is instructive when it obliges the subjects to be active as regards the

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

appropriation of knowledge and their interpretation. What is too easy and well-known does not stimulate learning.

A difficulty degree must be permanently preserved in instructive relationships, taking at the same time all the measures so as the student-officers be able to surpass the said difficulties. To conclude, as regards this principle, it is necessary to make clear a rule which imposed itself over years. It is about the rule “from easy to difficult, from known to unknown or from simple to complex”. This rule was regarded in the spirit of an inductivism and narrow empiricism, to a univocal direction. We know the senses of the objective knowledge process as a process of continuous passage from practical to abstract and vice-versa, so that the optics of these rules changes, too. Sometimes, the learner is put in front of an inductive knowledge, but sometimes starts deductively from the problem to decipher its practical sides. In the same way, the rule “from known to unknown” cannot be generalized. It is not always good to do so. There are things which, regardless the effort, cannot be known by the update of some old cognitive connections. The same question mark is raised around the rule “from simple to complex”. One thing can be simple for human knowledge, as a whole, but not simple for adult’s knowledge or, sometimes, a complex problem, if it is based on the knowledge, abilities and skills, thoroughly appropriated by student-officers, can become simple for their knowledge.

C: Principle of Provision of active and conscious characteristic of the learning process This principle is oriented, within the tactical, operational and strategic education system, against formalism, mechanical and fragmentary reproductions, against superficiality. Basically, it is requested the creation of some conditions so as the listener understand exactly and up to the end the taught and studied information, to distinguish the essential from non-essential, the general from particular and be able to implement his/her knowledge. The learner must be attentive, to notice, to reproduce in writing the things learnt (by his/her own words), to imagine as many versions as possible of treated situations, to reason methodically, reaching to high levels of abstraction and generalization, without remaining the prisoner of some special situations, to be able to materialize his/her general knowledge, to guide him/herself according to them in the practical work.

Learning is conscious when one reaches a perfect correspondence between form and content, in the sense that the trainer does not control only words, action modes, but also the meanings, their signification, being capable to create personal formulations, to extend them on some new situations, to develop them creatively. Learning is not only a purpose in itself, but a means of reaching some life objectives, more or less remote. In this train of ideas, awareness coalesces with the more general principle of unity between theory and practice. Practical experience brings important contributions and suggestions to the comprehension and development of some ideas by reporting with ideea of “intuitive didactics” (Eşi, 2014, 87-92 ); a thinker shows that we understand well only the things done by ourselves. In conclusion, any learning considers the practical results.

D: Formative principle This principle requires that the learning process be not restrained only to the “informing” act, but also to educate, namely to form to the individual those skills, abilities, attitudes necessary to understand, to put and solve problems, to implement the knowledge acquired. Formative principle 75

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

requires that we don’t lay emphasis on the volume of information stored, but to aim at developing the appropriate operations, knitting together some work systems, allowing the student-officers to activate autonomously and efficiently in a certain field on indefinite period; being trained according to certain requirements, armed with appropriate capabilities and being supported by a strong motivation, the learner passes from training to self-training, providing him/herself a progressive evolution.

E: Thoroughness principle This principle presupposes the provision of integral appropriation of a certain object of study and especially the most important knowledge; provision of memorization and prompt reproduction of knowledge, thus the development of a systematic and durable experience in the respective field; consolidation of intellectual and practical work habits, education of abilities, and structuring of all these in an assembly of professional mastery. Thoroughness principle presupposes thus the comprehension of the material, its selective and essential interpretation. In this sense, emphasis is laid on repetition as a means of durable memorization and on exercises or training by which habits are acquired, all these taking into consideration the rules of repetition and exercise highlighted by psychology.

3.2. Principles with reference to the problems of contents

F: Principle of inner unity of teaching This principle is achieved by the conception of the object of study as a system in which knowledge is rigorously interlinked, allowing their exposure in continuous flow. These cuts that are achieved by lectures, applications, consultations, must be successively correlated and integrated so as learning be achieved not by a sequence of lectures or lectures – discussions, but under the form of a unitary course.

G: Principle of knowledge grading In the sense of its distribution in sequences aiming at staggering from lesser to more, represents an unavoidable didactical need. It is known that one cannot assimilate all of a sudden, but knowledge must be appropriated link by link so as to gradually come into possession of a knowledge chain.

H: “Logic of subject” principle As regards this principle, question marks are raised. In the field of pedagogy, one speaks of a didactical logic that is different from that of science, which makes some correlations and adopts a sequence that should make the object more accessible; it is possible that such a practise be indicated in compulsory secondary and lower secondary education, where the assimilation of scientific notions is mainly based on practical, simpler things, gradually reaching to theory. In the military higher education, where the human material has another quality (has a psychological development step in which theoretical thinking is very well represented), the members of the teaching staff must observe science rule during course teaching process. The third group comprises those principles that act in relation to learning methodology. 76

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Specialty literature formulates eight didactic principles in this sense: 1. Correlation between informative units, corresponding intellectual methods and operations 2. Optimal alternation between practical and abstract 3. Modelling 4. Mutual correlation and control of knowledge 5. Systematization 6. Problematization 7. Motivation 8. Combination between group activities

I shall not further insist on them, but I have to highlight that it is strictly necessary to take into consideration the above mentioned principles within learning activity. Starting from the fact that the principles form a system, it results that they shall not always have the same weight in the deployment of educational process. In relation with the effective moment, the learning strategy is defined, establishing the hierarchy of principles so as to reach some purposes. There are no didactical recipes and they must not be searched. “In each particular situation, one has to adopt the strategy offering most guarantees for the optimal fulfilment of the proposed objective. This is practically didactical mastery”. [Popescu-Neveanu, 1971]

4. Conclusions and suggestions: Up to here, I have presented the learning principles. It is necessary to integrate them, presenting also some ideas meant to contribute to the development of education efficiency deployed in Tactical, Operational and Strategic Sector, namely to show some education conditions, as follows: Gradual, extensive learning, distributed on longer time intervals is much more efficient than compact, intensive learning, characterized by the agglomeration of a high volume of knowledge on small time units. So as intensive learning become effective, learning cycles must be supported by applicative internships intensively requiring knowledge and habits intensively appropriated. If a vast and difficult learning content is appropriated, it must be practically applied as a whole during the periods immediately following the learning process. The development of some new capabilities has increased efficiency if they are carried out under the following conditions: - Acceptance and eagerness to learn from the person that must learn - The learner must be motivated - The learner must be oriented toward the learning task by action models - It is necessary to be used the most appropriate and relevant learning materials - The learner must be offered the possibility to practice what he/she learns - Learning methods and information media must be varied, precise, so as to avoid psychic fatigue - The learner must have a certain satisfaction from the learning process itself ; he/she must be rewarded for the manifestation of the behaviour expected by him/she - The learner must know from the beginning the level of performances expected from him/her

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

- Any learner must be convinced that there are various learning levels, each requiring time and different techniques. Finally, another extremely important condition refers to the person teaching others: to be always an optimal learning and behaviour model and, as he/she is never satisfied by the progress of his/her scientific education and methodological capacity he/she has at a given moment, conforming to the principle according to which, the intellectual (creative human being) is condemned to look for perfection even if he/she does not find it, his/her effort is sublime.

References 1. Binet, A. (2002). Psihologia raţionamentului, Bucharest: IRI Publishing House.

2. Bunescu, V. , Giurgea, M.(1982). ”Principii de organizare şi desfăşurare a procesului de învăţăţământ”. Didactica, Bucharest: Didactica si Pedagogica Publishing House.

3. Eşi, M. (2014). ”About the Idea of an Intuitive Didactics and the Role of Intuition in the Activity of Teaching and Learning Assesement”. In International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation, No.1, 87-92.

4. Eşi, M. (2013). ”Simulation And Solving Didactic Activities Through Elearning”. In Conference proceedings of "eLearning and Software for Education" (eLSE) (Conference proceedin gs of "eLearning and Software for Education" (eLSE)), issue: 01 / 2013, pp.309-314.

5. Istrate, Elena, Risnoveanu Adriana (2005). Didactica Specialităţii, Bucharest: Universitatea Nationale de Aparare Publishing House.

6. Mihalache, Catalina, Didactica apartenentei.Istorii de uz scolar in Romania secolului XX, Iasi: Institutul European, Publishing House.

7. Piaget, Jean (with Herivan, M.), ”Piaget sau destinele pshihologiei”. In Meridiane pedagogice,Bucharest: Didactica şi Pedagogica Publishing House, 154-166..

8. Popescu-Neveanu, Paul. (1971). Bazele pedagogiei militare, Buchares: Military Publishing House.

9. Website: http://cnap.unap.ro/invatamant.html [accesed to 11.01.2015].

10. Website: http://dmru.mapn.ro/?pag=invatamant [accesed to 12.01.2015].

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Higher Education in Romania Compared to Other Signatories of the Bologna Reform

LĂCĂTUȘ Florin – Adrian “Ștefan cel Mare” University Suceava, Romania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 27.02.2015; Accepted 03.03. 2015

Abstract The essential motivational purpose, primary to the writing of this study, is to deliver the conceptual framework of higher education in Romania and elsewhere. The approach of this educational stage should not marginalize the early stages, otherwise very important for education. Regarding the description of other higher education systems, the selection of signatories to the Bologna Reform was made randomly, based on available specialist material. The paper largely describes the acceptable conditions for accession to higher education in Romania and the states used as examples. In its penultimate point, the current research brings as a contribution the implementation and effects of the Bologna reforms in the initial training of teachers in the education systems of the signatories previously mentioned, as a comparative approach. The conclusions put an end to this paper with the expectation that it has managed to describe the approachable higher education.

Keywords: system, higher education, Bologna Reform, allowable conditions.

1. Introduction The educational system is the main constituent of the institutional system of education, including specific institutions, which accomplishes educational goals through management focused on the coordination of formal and non-formal influences. In the narrow sense, the education system comprises the paradigme of schooling institutions, on which runs the specific educational process, with a priority to pupils that are between 3 and 18 years, but with openings to permanent education. The education system has a national and historical character, in other words, it evolves and develops in relation to the development of physical and cultural specificities of each country. The education system ensures to solve one of the most difficult and important social and human issues: education and training of the young generation, the labor force and the professionals (Eşi, 2011, ). Therefore, naturally, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that: "the greatest and most difficult problem to which man can devote himself is the problem of education".

The functions of education system are: a) Cultural – training for assimilation and development of cultural values; b) Social – training for free incorporation into the social activities and social life, leading to the development of contemporary social characteristics;

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

c) Economical – training, developing the personality of the educated one, trained in an equable way, concordant, according to his distinct particularities, at his own and social expectations point.

The education system include: a) An input stream which is composed of human and material resources, namely: the teaching staff, pupils, students, school buildings and facilities, material and technical facilities and money funds; b) The educational process which employs the full set of resources, in order to achieve the educational objectives, in this way combining three educational functions that are essential: teaching, learning and evaluation; c) An output stream representing the system`s product, persons which are: educated, trained, equipped with the skills and attitudes provided by the collective demand for education.

The national education system includes the following levels: a) Pre-school education (kindergarten): junior, middle group, large group and preparatory school; b) Primary education: classes from I to IV.

Secondary education, which contains: a) Lower secondary education, divided in two succeeding cycles: gymnasium, grades from V to VIII, and the lower high school or arts and crafts classes: classes from IX to X; b) Upper secondary education: the secondary education cycle of high school, classes of high school XI-XII / XIII. Preceded, where appropriate, with the year of completion; c) Post-secondary education (post-high school); d) Higher education (superior): university and postgraduate education.

The specifics of various levels of structure: a) Primary education - focused on acquiring general knowledge of instrumental account (acquiring the skills of writing, reading, calculus, introduction to specific languages); b) Lower secondary education – acquiring basic general knowledge (fundamental knowledge of the main fields of knowledge); c) Upper secondary education/high school - general knowledge orientation to specific areas of knowledge (science, social sciences, technology, economics), with an opening towards the optional courses in a specialist field of study; d) Vocational education - coordination to acquire qualified knowledge necessary to practice a particular profession; e) Higher education /university - focused on deepening of specialized theoretical and practical knowledge in a particular field.

In any country higher education is the moment of truth for its entire society. Therefore, I must mention that this paper will only deal with a part of the education system, namely higher education, without trying a minimization to the importance of others.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

2. The frame of higher education system in Romania Education is what supports us and it enables us the opportunity to go beyond what life teaches us, and also enables us to know things and places that may, at first glance, seem inaccessible. The establishment of the European Higher Education Area in which education systems and diplomas are synchronized is the main aim of the Bologna reform, which was signed in June 1999 by the European ministers who dealt with education. Creating a common European area for higher education is very important when we consider the opportunity to study, to work or to live in another country, other than the native, thereby ensuring ourselves a common space for a continuous development and cultivation.

We can never work in a foreign country where the education system is totally different from our country or if diplomas are not recognized in the country where we want to go. There are, of course, previously to the implementation of the Bologna Reform, a possibility of recognizing the diplomas, but this depended very much on the country and the university, of agreements made by those countries with Romania. It is now much easier, because through the Bologna reform a new European university system was formed, allowing all students to have access to mobility because diplomas are common and the education system becomes a uniform one. European Higher Education Area has developed quite a lot lately, which can only make us pleased, considering the number of students who took advantage of this new cultural dimension. In recent years, our country has greatly increased the number of people who enroll in an institution of higher education, in order to subsequently get its benefits in terms of the labor market. Increased demand from students automatically led to an increase in universities, thus leading to a presence of private education in the Romanian education market. All this led to a large competition among universities, which triggered an economic development for some institutions.

But the Bologna Reform was referring not only to the internal competitiveness, but more on a global scale, so as to reach a uniform and unique education system which would lead to a further competitive development, for both students and educational institutions. Education symbolizes a portion of what we are today, beginning with our culture. It is therefore important to know how to organize it, to make sure it will not turn into failure. The Bologna Reform pointed very important outlines, but now it depends on each of us to know how to apply them. Each student has the opportunity to choose their field of study and a university in which he wishes to study in. There is no longer an obstacle to study abroad, but regardless of your choice a set of principles established by the reform must be followed. This option of choice involves a development of our society in which we live in, because mobility means change, it means improvement, it means new. This "new" or a rather desire to learn additional things and discover new cultures, to be in contact with them, always in search for things, proves that we are a nation that wants go beyond the country’s borders for a continues both material and spiritual development. The fact that a Romanian student has the opportunity to learn a portion of his studies or to continue them in another country is a plus for the entire Romanian society. It is a recognition of his personal merits and national merits, because we must not forget that behind all these statements signed between states stands the interest for national development. The fact that a following the education reform it was decided that university studies must be structured differently from the old system, as follows:

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

a) Undergraduate studies/Bachelor studies, lasting 3 or 4 years: minimum 180 and maximum 240 credits (medicine or architecture studies are exempted from this rule). To obtain a bachelor degree 180 credits are required for most majors. Bachelor studies will provide broad qualifications, on fields of study. The graduates of this cycle can enter the labor market or can continue their studies through the master's degree studies. This system will enable quick resolution in the shortage of skilled labor in rural and disadvantaged areas. b) Master's Degree studies, lasting 1-2 years, and a minimum of 60 credits and a maximum of 120 credits. The minimum cumulated period of the cycle - I (undergraduate/bachelor) and second cycle II (master) will be 300 transferable credits (ECTS). Academic detailed qualifications (specialties/majors) will be placed at the master's level, eliminating the current fragmentation existing at undergraduate studies level with numerous specialties, contracted and too early. c) Doctoral studies with a length of 3 years. Gradual transition from the current system based on individual coaching of PhD students to the doctoral schools system and their development. Romania is among the first countries that signed the Bologna Process. Thus, Romania is participating in the Bologna Process right from the initial starting of this process, the signing of the Bologna Declaration in 1999. From then until now, Romania has voluntarily assumed aligning its higher education policies with objectives and policies promoted by the Bologna Process. As a result, the higher education system in Romania has undergone a series of fundamental changes, through making a compatible legislation, promoting national public policies, the founding of new institutional structures, regulations and policies at universities.

Overall, in the ministerial announcements can be found a number of essential principles intended to define the nature of the Bologna Process, and that by accepting / signature by the Romanian representatives of those releases have gained a worth of national commitments.

These principles can be identified by reading press releases and refer to the following: a) Inter-governmental cooperation; b) Cooperation with non-governmental structures at European level; c) Full assumption of the reforms generated by the Bologna Process at both national and institutional level; d) Aligning national practices with the objectives and policies of EHEA; e) Insertion of teachers and students in applying the Bologna Process and the development/strengthening of EHEA.

The social awareness of education: access, participation and completion of studies. The concrete objectives that Romania has taken in the Bologna Process over time regarding the participation and access are: a) Establishing quantifiable targets to enlarge the access to higher education and take appropriate measures for achieving those objectives; b) Increase graduation rates and time cover of studies in higher education; c) Increasing the participation of underrepresented groups in higher education;

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

d) Providing the Bologna Follow-Up Group (BFUG) national strategies, action plans and measures to evaluate the effectiveness.

3. The higher education system in the European Union ECTS – The European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System - was created in the late 80`s in order to facilitate the movement of students from one university to another. The EU encourages the study periods at partner universities. It is the opportunity for students to learn for a semester or an academic year in another European university and will then return to his university, where they can finish their studies and where, upon graduation, receive a diploma. In this way, the student benefits from continuity of studies, while he has access to educational vision, a new academic, cultural, social and linguistic environment. This is the type of student mobility within the Socrates-Erasmus program. But there are also obstacles in their path. In recent centuries, an important power of progress was the independence of universities. On an academic level, it also meant different evolution from one university to another or from one schooling system to an alternative of specialization, of plans and curricula, of rating systems and rating traditions, academic calendars, etc. Each of these differences create barriers in the communicational approach between universities through student mobility. The return to his home university often means difficulties in synchronization (different periods of start/end of the semester) and difficulties on the recognition of performance made by the student in the associated university - the latter being the most difficult to overcome. It was the framework in which ECTS design was initiated.

Implementation of the ECTS system. Synchronization of education in Europe is a necessary clause in order to improve exchanges between higher education institutions. Thus to ensure implementation of this new system, at a European level, the Bologna Declaration was a necessity in order to find a common ground between different institutions of higher education. This way the ECTS system has implemented, with the purpose to promote recognition of studies done abroad, new tools such as marks/grades and credits. Although it had been used in programs such as Erasmus, Bologna has made it to become a European identity. In fact, each European institution belonging to the countries that joined in, this process will need to reform the system by incorporating the use of ECTS credits for foreign students and for any non-mobile students. System`s methodology is based on three concepts: (a) Informing students about the study courses of universities; (b) Mutual agreement between the student, the institution he is visiting and the main institution; (c) The use of credit as a common point for this project. In fact, the methodology has three key elements: the educational program, the learning agreement, otherwise known as your application, and the report card. Countries that have adopted the Bologna reform were numerous, and together wish to improve the European education system. Each of the participating countries have attempted to reform the education system and fold it to the principles established in Bologna. In some countries the system was easier to implement because the two systems, both the new and the "old" found some common points. On the other hand, we must remember that when they accepted this challenge, each had pursued the goal of reform: a European education, unique and which functions under the same criteria. We all know that it's hard to change something with which we are accustomed, but on the other hand it’s worthy to do what we can when the ultimate goal is an advantageous one. The general principles of reform have been 83

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

implemented in almost all countries. But in order to highlight the differences, I propose to analyze a group of countries inside the European Union as an example.

France The admission to higher education in France is very similar to the Romanian one. High school ends in the twelfth year of study with a Baccalaureate diploma (different from the Romanian one, but equivalent).

The university system is organized uniformly according to the Bologna process: a) 3 years of undergraduate education - Bachelor Degree; b) 2 years master`s education - master's degree; c) 3 years doctoral education - PhD.

French higher education diplomas are structured according to the Common European organization - LMD shown above - which take into account, in order to award a diploma the validated years or semesters of study, beginning from the admission in higher education and the correspondence between them and ECTS credits: a) Bachelor = 6 semesters = 180 ECTS (Baccalaureate + 3 years); b) Master = 10 semesters = 300 ECTS (Baccalaureate + 5 years); c) PhD = 16 semesters (Baccalaureate + 8 years).

The French higher education system is characterized by the coexistence of two sectors, the selection and non-selective.

The first cycle of higher education, 2 years long, is founded on the principle of non-selection, in the idea that any young man who passed the general baccalaureate is entitled to enter the desired university.

The second cycle, which corresponds to the Bac + 3 years (License/Bachelor) and Bac + 4 years (Maitrise) is especially for university pathways. It is possible that the second cycle can be followed after the succeeding of the first cycle, through obtaining a general university degree (Bachelor of General Studies - BGS), after obtaining a UDT (university diploma of technology), and fewer cases of a BTS (technician brevet).

The third cycle is symbolized by the Bac + 5 years, two types of diploma: the first is DESS (specialized higher education diploma) and the second one is DEA (Postgraduate Diploma). Unlike other European education systems, the advantage of the French system is that national diplomas are delivered at the end of each school year (Bac + 2. Bac + 3, Bac + 4, Bac + 5).

Germany In education, Germany has recently made numerous changes in order to adapt to international requirements. In Germany the structure of the education system is different from that of the other EU countries because here Länder are responsible with structuring, accreditation and recognition of educational institutions. Because of increased competitiveness in the education system throughout

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

the European area, Germany took measures onto the education system, and particularly on its quality. They have also formed specialized organizations aimed mainly in education quality monitoring, a continuous evaluation of both teachers and students, to ensure that education remains a center of interest for students. This continuous concern for quality has led, in the year 1998, to a national project on quality management, which stipulated the creation of a network of experts and experienced teachers and the unification of organizations specialized in the quality of higher education which operate at a regional level. Those who want to study in Germany have the possibility to choose between several forms of higher education. such as universities on the one hand and technical universities and colleges on the other hand, which are based on the assimilation of materials from a practical and less theoretical point of view, the so-called Fachhochschulen. If the first two types of faculties are found everywhere in Europe, as for the Fachhochschulen, they are more a particularity of the German university system. Study in a Fachhoschule is divided into two parts. a) Grundstudium - basic theoretical training; b) Hauptstudium - specialization and practice.

The first step before applying for admission to one of the faculties in Germany, is to ask for the Diploma Supplement, which Romania has introduced it since 2005, which is centered on the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), with the 60 credits corresponding to one year of study. This diploma supplement is recognized throughout the European Union and may be written in English, German and French. But those who have graduated several years ago and want to continue masters or doctoral studies in Germany, can apply for a Diploma Supplement to the university who have finalized in, but also with another graduation diploma, where notes can be equated with transferable credits. The German grading system is different from the Romanian one. Such differences were prominent across Europe, which is why for a greater transparency in terms of grading, the European grading system was developed. German grading system comprises grades from 1 (high) to 5 (insufficient). Regarding the Bologna reform, we can say that in Germany the number of students attending a master immediately after qualifying as bachelors has increased. However, it is very important that there is a correlation between the new education system and the labor market, as this could be a real problem in the complete implementation of the new education system. Germany, similar to other countries that have signed the declaration, enjoys the advantages it offers: student mobility and the opportunity to study at universities abroad.

Italy University level studies in Italy is recognized throughout Europe and the rest of the world for its high specialization and competitiveness. We are talking about the country with the oldest university in Western Europe, namely the University of Bologna. It is the place of birth for the new university system that applies in Europe, which bears his name - the Bologna system. With no fewer than 58 state universities, 17 private universities, 3 technical universities and 12 specialized institutes, Italy is a top option, especially for those who want to benefit from quality education and a quite generous funding. Furthermore, the internationalization of their education systems has paid off, currently with two institutions that are dedicated to foreign students. Similar to Romania, education in Italy is based on the Bologna system. Thus, higher education is structured on three levels - bachelor, master

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

and doctorate. A limited number of masters ("Laurea Specialistica / Magistrale") have as an access condition the high school diploma and an entrance test, therefore making the bachelor's degree not necessary. Such masters are in fields of study such as medicine, veterinary medicine, dentistry, pharmacy or architecture. The length of these studies is more than an ordinary master, taking 5 to 6 years, depending on the field of study. Italian university system held, in 2001-2002, a reform that treat one of the major problems of the Italian system: late age for completing university studies was 26-27 years, and was more advanced than that of other European students. Were thus redefined types of diplomas, different classes (final diploma attesting the accomplishment of complete or a portion of the university education), and general regulation of credit. In addition to this problem, Italy is considering, like all other countries, quality assurance in the national education system. Thereby, in 1999 CNVSU was established, being responsible for quality assurance in higher education. The committee has published documents and proposals for the national university quality assessment. The national quality assurance system includes a system of accreditation and certification or similar procedures. Italian legislation allows universities to provide academic qualifications. Both ministerial decrees (509/99 and 270/04), referring to the reform of academic studies, establish that universities in Italy may grant diplomas together with foreign universities. The rules governing the procedure for granting final qualification are internal regulations of each university, and are clarified through inter-university agreements.

Belgium As we all know, Belgium is made up of two communities: the Flemish and the French. Although the two communities have their own management system, application system of higher education is common to both. In Belgium, compulsory education lasts until the age of 18. The education system is divided into four levels: nursery: from 2.5 to 6 years (not compulsory); primary education: from 6 to 12 years (compulsory), secondary education from 12 to 18 years (compulsory); higher education: 18 years + (not compulsory). Higher education is open to young people who have successfully completed the general or technical cycle of secondary education. Belgian colleges and universities offer students a wide range of options. The Bologna Declaration has led to a radical overhaul of the higher education system in Belgium. Signed by the European Ministers of Education in 1999, the statement was intended to harmonize higher education in the European Union. This resulted in Belgium to a differentiation between bachelor's degree (general education lasting three years) and master's degree (a specialized course which lasts between 1-2 years). The results are measured in ECTS credits, bachelor estimated at 180 ECTS credits, while a master's degree is rated in between 60 and 120 ECTS. Within this system, 1 ECTS credit means 24 hours of study. French and Flemish communities have taken all necessary measures for the integration of Belgian education into the European higher education. Another problem is the deepening of competitiveness in higher education institutions by adopting the funding. Higher education institutions in the French Community of Belgium belong to one of the three systems, depending on the type of competent authority: a) The French Community system (French Community is the competent authority); b) The subsidized official system (The competent authority are the municipality, associations, provinces or any legal entity operating under public law); c) Independent subsidized system (competent authority is a legal or an individual entity which is functioning under private law).

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Analysis on implementation of quality management in the educational institutions showed that there are however many different points between the two communities in Belgium, although the general principles are the same. Quality is one of them, because according to this analysis, each of the two communities have different institutions of evaluation. Therefore, the first challenge for the education system in Belgium is also a national one. Because in order to align with the international system, they must first move on from the national level. Although the principles are common to the two communities and diplomas are similar, there are still disagreements between them. Nevertheless this will only increase competitiveness both nationally and internationally, which is very important in developing the new European university area.

Spain The Spanish education system is based on the Constitution from 27th of December 1978, which laid the foundation of a centralized higher education system, on the one hand proclaiming the autonomy of universities and establishing a distribution of powers between the state and the autonomous communities.

In Spain there are several types of educational institutions: public universities (50), which are organized under the law of 21th of December 2001, private universities, religious universities, also foreign educational centers from Spain and private centers. The institutions in charge of evaluation and quality assurance in education are: a) “National Government through the Ministry of Education and Science, responsible for the coordination of problems in higher education; b) The governments of the 17 regions, responsible with public universities; c) Universities based on the principles of autonomy.”

The higher education system in Spain has been modified in order to comply with the decisions provided in the Bologna Declaration in order to create the European Higher Education Area. The organizational system based on university cycles has also been implemented here, similar to other countries. The structure is different from the previous one because the new university courses are not equivalent to the previous ones. The main difference between the two systems is that each cycle automatically lead to an official diploma. At the end of each cycle a diploma is issued, according to the study period. The access to a faculty can be done if the interested person is in possession of a Graduate upper secondary education title (graduated 12 classes) or its equivalent and if he holds and passes an exam. The curricula must have at least 240 credits (generally over 4 years). At the end of the faculty he will prepare and submit a final project. The access to master studies is enjoyed by the people who hold a university degree (Spanish or issued by another state of the European Higher Education Area). The study programs have 60 or 120 credits in general (throughout 1-2 years). At the end of this cycle he will prepare and submit a final project which will ensure between 6 and 30 credits. To participate into a doctoral program in the training period, he must meet the same requirements as for master studies. To participate in a doctoral program during the research period, it is necessary for that person to be in possession of a formal academic master. Also, there are people who can participate if: a) Have approved 60 credits included in one or more academic masters;

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

b) They are graduates of faculties in which they received more than 300 credits.

Doctoral thesis will consist of an authentic research prepared by the candidate. In preparing this thesis, the candidate will have the support of one or more doctors with experienced accredited research.

4. The implementation of the Bologna process and the effects occurred in initial teacher training from Romania and other signatories members. Comparison presentation. If within the previous chapters we referred to the influences of the Bologna Process on higher education, specifically on students, in this chapter we will focus on the training of teachers by the Bologna Process. Legal regulations in the initial teaching training varies from one state to another, depending on the pedagogical traditions of that country and the implementation stage of the Bologna Process regulations. As far as the teachers training curriculum in all countries goes, it includes compulsory and optional courses, specialized and pedagogical courses. They sum up in a total of at least 30 credits; the number of hours in practicing varies from state to state and from a training program to another. Status of teachers varies from country to country, in some countries teachers are civil servants (Greece, Germany, Luxembourg and Malta), in others they are not.

As far as the status of implementation regulations of the Bologna Process goes, it is stated that we have managed to identify very few relevant informations, but synthesizing the data obtained, we make the following clarifications: 1. In Bulgaria, the main problems concern the low mobility of students and teachers, the main successes were identified in implementing SECT and in modernizing curricula; 2. In England, there are still various flexible routes for initial teaching training in which schools have an important role; depending on the provider and the forming program, duration of studies fluctuates. English education is connecting itself to the Bologna Process regulations; 3. In Slovenia, implementation of the Bologna Process regulations has led to flexibly the initial teaching training and a replacement of early specialization in a large number of disciplines with fundamental skills which facilitate continuing professional development; 4. After the implementation of the Bologna Process regulations in the higher education from French, IUFM had become university structures and didactic studies have begun to function according to SECT; starting with the 2010-2011 academic year, the three-cycle structure will operate entirely in France also for initial training of teachers.

As it is known, today in Romania, the initial teacher training is structured on two levels. It is being offered by faculties (for specialized disciplines) and by TTD (for pedagogical and methodological disciplines). After graduating Levels I and II, those who followed them receive a certificate of competency for each level of teaching, funding for Level I is being assured from state funds (for budgetary students) and students; the costs for Level II are borne solely by the students and there is no budgeted for this purpose.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

5. Conclusions Throughout the paper, it can be easily seen that there is a desire for a standardization of the European education system. This uniformity is based on a union between the European countries for a better understanding and development at all levels. It is an important step in order for Europe to be an integer and it can presently be discussed about a development and an increase in both economic and social terms. By aligning the education system and through the Bologna Reform, the first step towards a united Europe was largely achieved. As early as the development period of man in school, he is free to move throughout Europe to study without the fear that when returning to his native country his studies will not be recognized. Due to reform in education system, the diplomas are now similar in most European universities. This is a very important step when we talk about interculturalism. There is now an opportunity for each student from the countries who have signed the Bologna reform, to study in a university outside their country of origin. By using this we can talk about a direct interaction with people who belong to a different culture and which are based on different values. It is an opening to interculturality and a step towards novelty. The mere fact that we are suddenly in a foreign country makes us first think of a way to survive, afterwards we realize that it is a different culture from our homeland, but which could be as interesting and as beautiful as ours. Of course that people we interact with put a mark on the view of things that we discover. That is why, it is very important, when it comes to interaction with people that belong to different cultures to have a dialogue. Dialogue is at the base of interculturality and the one that supports to form the European area. Bologna reform is a primary step towards an intercultural methodology, because it has set out to uniform principles in the education system and gave any student, regardless of the country of origin an opportunity to learn and exploit the potential of EU members. All these principles that were established at the university level could be a basis and a starting point for all other areas, ensuring success for a united European Union. The final qualifications of the Bologna reform and their recognition abroad remains the core purpose of each state participating in the creation of the European Higher Education Area. For it to be truly successful in every way, every state, every university participating in this program must take into account all the principles set out in Bologna and respect them throughout the process. Otherwise, in the event that one of the countries does not comply with the principles, the whole process is compromised, because it requires a general cooperation, both at European and national level.

References

1. Antonesei, Liviu. (2000). University management, Iasi: Polirom Publishing House.

2. Codorean, Ioana Gabriela. (2009). Initial training of teachers from Romania in European context from the Annals of The West University of Timisoara, the series of Sociology, Psychology, Education and Welfare, Volumes 15/1, The West University of Timisoara publisher.

3. Eşi, M. (2011). „The education of future and the integrating dimension of the new learning technologies”. In The education of future and the integrating dimension of the new learning technologies, pp.574-781.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

4. Iucu, Romiţă, Bumbu; Pânişoară Ion - Ovidiu. (2000). Forming didactical personnel (Teacher training), Bucharest: UMC Publisher,.

5. Iucu, Romiţă Bumbu. (2004). Forming didactical personnel (Teacher training). Systems, policies, strategies, Humanitas Educational publisher, Bucharest.

6. Todorecu, Liliana Luminiță. (2009). Implementation of the Bologna Process in Romania: Research regarding the education in technical university, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Bucharest, scientific advisor Prof. Univ. Dr. Romiţă Bumbu Iucu;

7. National Alliance of Student Organizations in Romania. (2009). Implementation of the Bologna Process in Romania: Students Perspective, WebsitE: www.anosr.ro, [accessed on 01.11.2015];

8. ARACIS. (2007). Guide to external evaluation of the Teacher Training Departments, www.aracis.ro, [accessed on 11.01.2015];

9. Apostolis, Dimitropoulos. (2007). The Bologna process and teacher education structures in Europe: Creating a European Teacher Educational Area, Website: http://entep.bildung.hessen.de, [accessed on 12.01.2015].

10. Comşa, Mircea; Tufiş, Doru Claudiu; Voicu, Bogdan. (2007). Romanian university system. Reviews of teachers and students, http://www.osf.ro, [accessed on 01.11.2015].

11. Drăgulănescu, Nicolae. (2002). Standards for quality assessment in higher education from Romania, http://www.calisro.ro, [accessed on 01.12.2015].

12. Website: www.dppd.uvt.ro [accessed on 12.01.2015];

13. Website: www.edu.ro [accessed on 12.01.2015];

14. Website: www.unibuc.ro [accessed on 12.01.2015].

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Reconstruction of Contents by Raported To The Idea of Didactic Transposition

CUJBĂ Tiberiu-Octavian ”Stefan cel Mare” University Suceava, Romania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 06.02.2015; Accepted 12.02. 2015

Abstract In order to contextualize the theme discussed in this article is presented briefly the historical development of educational sciences from the Didactica Magna to Postmodern Didactic, then localized reconstruction of contents in Didactics of specialty between discursive strategy and argumentative performance. Reconstruction of contents by reported to the idea of didactic transposition, the main theme of discussion of this article, is analyzed in relation with didactic speech, which has the role to put into practice in the classroom the idea of didactic transposition. Didactic speech, mediated by computer, is a current reality at the present time, as generalization in the educational process. Reconstruction of contents is placed on the axiomatic background of curriculum paradigms because changing paradigm has the effect of change the architecture of didactic speech to present in classroom the scientific contents reconstructed by didactic transposition. Finally, some conclusions are presented.

Keywords: didactic of specialty, didactic speach, reconstruction of contents, didactic transposition

1. Introduction General pedagogy is a speculative science, because obtained the "epistemic dignity" by fulfilling certain conditions (Cucoș, 2014, p. 445): -It has subject to interrogations (phenomenon education); -it has investigative tools, methodological type; -it has, the principles as the regularities and domain rules; -it synthesizes reflections into consistent theories. We do not believe that pedagogy is an art (only in special cases when the teacher is an artist of the word, writing pedagogy expressive, like literature, (we can say that JJ Rousseau is an artist educator). Those who say that pedagogy is an art, make confusion between education and the science which aims at education – pedagogy (Cucoș, 2014, p. 444). There is and another opinion on this topic (Compayré, 1889, p. ix): Pedagogy and education, like logic and science, or like rhetoric and eloquence are different though analogous things.fulfilling certain conditions.

2. From Didactica Magna to Postmodern Didactic Although teaching is one of the oldest human activities, pedagogy is relatively recent. She appeared only in the XVII-th century form of principles and rules that streamline the art of teaching and was developed into four historical stages: classical pedagogy, experimental pedagogy, education

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

sciences and science education. In contemporary pedagogy didactics was interpreted as a "theory of curriculum" or a "general methodology", which includes" all legal principles, rules and procedures applied equally, different training situations". Historically, in parallel with pedagogy, we talk about the traditional didactics (centuryXVII-XIX), the modern didactics (century XIX-XX) and curricular didactics or postmodern didactics (Stanciu, 2003, p. 91).

2.1 Classical pedagogy Although teaching is one of the oldest human activities, pedagogy is relatively recent. She appeared only in the XVII-th century, in the form of principles and rules to streamline the art of teaching. In the XVII-th century is very important for the development of Western thought. It the century of Galileo, Descartes, Newton and Leibniz, when the foundations of scientific civilization, which will increase the gap between Europe and the rest of the world.Is the moment of birth of baroque and the revival of the classical ideal in the literature (suffice it to mention the myriad of great classical authors of the 1660 and 1685: Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Pascal, Bossuet and La Fontaine). In pedagogy, the XVII-th century is the century of Comenius, Locke, Bacon and Ratke. Without explicitly use the term "pedagogy", these authors were occupied primarily by streamlining methods of school organization and the formulation of general principles of didactic art.în a time of prosperity of science, when all fields transform under influence of rationalism, education can not remain outside the current. Especially since in XVII-th century has greatly increased the number of schools and students (eg. only in Flanders there were over 200 schools) and was founded new educational institutions, first normal school (Reims, 1685). In all probability the word "pedagogy" first appeared in 1495 Robert dictionary. He was subsequently used by Calvin ("L'Institution Chrétienne en 1536") with the purpose of teaching God common to both Christians and for Hebrew. French Academy officially recognized until 1762 this term.

“Didactica Magna” (Comenius, 1657), defines didactic even in presentation pages. The Great Didactic setting forth The Whole Art of Teaching all Things to all Man or A certain Inducement to found such Schools in all the Parisheis, Towns, and Villages of every Christian Kingdom, that the entire Youth of both Sexes, none being exepted, shell Quickly, Pleasantly, Thorougly. Become learned in the sciences, pure in Morals, trained to Piety, and in this manner instructed in all things necessary for the present and for the future life, in which with respect to everything that is suggested. Its Fundamental Principles are set forth from the essential nature of the mater, Its Truth is proved by examples from the several mechanical arts, In Order is cleary set force in years, months, days, and hours, and, finally, An easy and sure Method is shown, by wich is can pleasantly brought into existence. Let the main object, of this our Didactic, be as follows: to seek and to find a method of instruction, by which teachers may teach less, but learners may learn more, by which schools may be the scene of less noise, aversion, and useless labour, but of more leisure, enjoiment, and solid progress; through which the Christian community may have less, darkness, perplexity, and dissension, but on the other hand more light, orderliness, peace, and rest.

2.2 Experimental pedagogy After political and industrial revolutions of the XVIII-th century, pedagogy is called "science education" and begin to seek scholarly place in the city. Education for training, discipline, culture or education as ditinguished from year, whose chief aim is to share knowledge, defined receives recognition from Kant (Compayré 1889, p. 339). Like so many others generous spirits Mirabeau 92

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

(1743-1791) cherished the dream of the most complete liberty of teaching. These searches proved more difficult than hoped, because they extended until today. Although some believe that the XIX- th century was "golden century pedagogy" mere proclamation of "science education" was not sufficient. This dissatisfaction is very clear from the famous critical history of pedagogical doctrines boock by Compayré first edition published in 1883, which noted that the same mixture discordant which our contemporaries incriminates whenever relates to pedagogy. From now on, after his divorce from traditional pedagogy (embarrassing for some, because remembered of our origins craft) began a long identity crisis. It is a crisis of uprooting, alienation of failure to adapt. All the time period that followed was a long and exasperating for teaching the fundamentals search: in philosophy, psychology, in their theoretical research or utopia. Experimental pedagogy has long been synonymous with research in education. Using the experimental method, which had proved successful in psychology laboratories, it was hoped to discover scientific laws, irrefutable evidence of the legitimacy of the new science. As can be seen from the following description of pedagogical research field, made by Claparede in the article "Pourquoi les sciences de l'education" (1912), experimental pedagogy was more dependent on psychology. In short, experimental pedagogy had to deal with: the development child's individual psychology student, intellectual and working methods. "Pampaedia" was found by chance in 1935, only on teaching issues. Let's remember that this article Claparede has a special historical significance for our context: he uses for the first time the term "education sciences", but equivocally alternated with science education and experimental pedagogy.

2.3 Educational sciences Mialaret proposes a wide array of educational sciences, including: a) Science studying the general and local conditions of the educational institution (history of education; educational sociology; school demographics; economics of education; comparative pedagogy); b) Science studying the relationship pedagogical and educational act itself; c) Sciences studying immediate conditions of the educational act. Epistemologically speaking, use of plurals science education, we send the distinction between monodisciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary. There are three levels of integration: -monodisciplinarity refers to independent discipline, taken in isolation; -pluridisciplinarity involves several disciplines juxtaposed only working; -interdisciplinarity already behaving integrating language as a common axiomatic. The project unified science of the nineteenth century (Spencer, Willmann, Cellerier, Bain) was monodisciplinary. The project Sciences education, developed between the years 1960 and 1970, led to pluralism referential, but have not passed the stage multi-disciplinary. We are in the last stage of integration the interdisciplinarty, but was identified a new stage of integration called transdisciplinarity.

2.4 Science education This form is, in terms of terminology, the desire of specialists who want to concentrate all scientific experiments related pedagogical education in a unified form, widely recognized, thus enshrining the status of science, by highlighting two necessary elements: a object of study and its own scientific research method, by which the academic community it can recognize the title of science. 3.Didactic of specialty between discursive strategy and argumentative performance 3.1 Didactic speach

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Didactic speech as a means of communication with educational values is located in a specialized field of pedagogy called philosophy of education. Philosophy of education would have the concern query educational process in terms of three parts: existence, knowledge and values. They open three research areas in three regions of the praxis: ontology of education, epistemology of education and respectively axiology of education. Look carefully at the second field can locate didactic speeach because education epistemology is the theoretical field interested in the possibilities and limits of knowledge educational phenomenon, the specific pedagogical research, of the foundation of the explanation pedagogical criteria, of the logical and rhetorical analysis of educational discourse (but also of pedagogy), of the consistency and congruence rules of pedagogical theory etc.; (Cucoș, 2014, p. 447). Schematically, marks the route followed are: Pedagogy-→ Philosophy of Education -→ Epistemology of Education -→ Didactic Speech Foundation from which derives, philosophical theories of the knowledge is the answer to the first question of the fundamental problem of philosophy: the relation between matter and spirit (consciousness). At this factor of derivation of the concepts the knowledge we add the answer to the second question of the fundamental problem, namely: if the world may or may not be known. This is gnoseology (or, gnosiology), from the Greek gnōsis a word for “knowledge”. Any philosophy or branch of philosophy concerned either with solving problems about the nature and possibility of knowledge, or with delivering knowledge of ultimate reality especially in so far as this is not available to sense-experience. “Gnoseology” is an archaic term and has been superseded in the former sense by “epistemology” and in the latter sense by “metaphysics”.

3.2 Didactic of domain and developments in didactic of specialty An educational system can be effective only if they relate strictly to a purely rational evaluation without affective valence. Building an own methodology and experience depends on that person (self) built. It is an argument to understand teaching specialty in general without the error hasty generalizations (Eși, 2010, p.7). From the same author we find that didactic specialty has two dimensions: discoursive strategy and argumentative performance. An analysis of the discursive strategy was carried out along the following lines: 1. Communication and discursive evaluation (with two issues: 1.1 Didactic communication and discursive strategies and 1.2 Specialized language in education advantages and disadvantages) and 2. Significant attitudes on the dicursiveness level (with two aspects: 2.1 Discursivity in the didactic process and 2.2 Discursive paradigms in understanding the didactic process, with concrete examples of projects lessons in philosophy, logic, economics). Argumentative performance was analyzed to see how it is necessary a didactic of the specialty on level of education. The conclusion reached is that an educational system, located between discursive strategies and argumentative performance, can not fully prove efficacy only if the original actors involved in this process engages making a product, which is obtained recovery rules socio- educational on the education methodology level. New pedagogical in purpose, employ argumentative performance in the teaching strategies Moreover, fundamental sources used, generates an effort to rationalize the teaching field. It is in this fact lies pragmatism of such educational system. Through didactics of specialty education is a field that requires above all of the responsible and performance skills. Follow place and role of disciplinary areas, finally be brought clarification on educational content from authors, occur in the literature: Muşata Bocoş, Sorin Cristea, Mihai Stanciu, Constantin and Dorina Sălăvăstru.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

3.3 The principles of modern didactics in connection with discursive strategy In connection with the didactic speech on the side of discursive strategy it is interesting to recall the principles of modern didactics (Eși and Sabo 2013, p. 75), so that, in the process of didactic communication these principles to be adapted to each specialty, according to the actual didactic situation: Cognitive and metacognitive factors: Principle 1) Learning is an active process voluntarily pleaded personal and social; Principle 2) Subject engaged in the act of learning aims to create interpretations and configurations.concrete in the area knowledge gained regardless of the quantity and quality of available data; Principle 3) The construction of knowledge, the new cognivive structures is achieved through integration prior knowledge; Principle 4) Learning is significantly favored by the use of strongly structured strategies. Affective-motivational factors: Principle 5) The influence of motivation on learning; Principle 6) The role of intrinsic motivation. Principle 7) The main function of motivation is to support the learning effort. Factors of personality development: Principle 8) Opportunities and constraints in education. Personal and social factors: Principle 9) Social and cultural diversity, flexible thinking, social competence and moral development; Principle 10) Social acceptance, self-esteem image and learning. Individual differences: Principle 11) Learning becomes more productive if observed differences individual and cultural; Principle 12) Learning is accompanied by certain social cognitive filters. This will take account of the psychogenetic piagerian constructivism, of the theory development in stages of the concepts and mental operations after JP Galperin.and paradigm formal/informal of environmental education.

3.4 New paradigms in relation with the argumentative performance Didactic speech, on the side of argumentative performance, is influenced by the teaching innovation and new paradigms in education reality. Epistemological analysis of the concept of didactic and thus the general didactic and didactic of specialty send to a reassessment of a scientific nature. Didactic (general/specialty) become effective extent that it relates to educational realities and has a positive feedback. New paradigms have appeared since the legitimacy problem of knowledge requires a consistent relationship between society and education, the importance of novelty in a new paradigm. Context new values (new educations) refers to axiology. Correspondence shall be addressed sociol- methodological, scientific interpretations on didacic epistemological limits of educational paradigms. Currently, educational paradigms are: the paradigm of monodisciplinarity, the paradigm of multidisciplinarity, the paradigm of interdisciplinarity the paradigm of transdisciplinarity. These paradigms have effect in education formal, non-formal and informal. Didactic communication and didactic speech adapts to student-centered strategies or teacher-centered strategies. We present some aspects regarding the use of argumentative didactic speech in the learning process: 1. Sentences vague and ambiguous sentences: "Students from the Faculty of Food Engineering like cakes/tortures" (“Studenților de la Facultatea de inginerie alimentară le plac torturile“). Inrerpretation of linguistic accent on o or u available in romanian language. 2. Objective and subjective sentences. Objetiv sentences are scientific sentences (example: Theorem of Pythagora) Eample of subjective senteces: "When the Incas were driven out of Romania" 3. Interrogative sentences and moral-programmatic sentences (examle: "It is not good to copy at exam" or "I have to be fair when assessing"). 4., Compound sentences and categorical sentences (example for categorical sentences: "No teacher is not bad."). 95

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

When it is argued must built an arguement whose conclusion must be the sentence for which it is argued. When contra-argued must built a contra-arguement whose conclusion must be the contradictory sentence that wants to deny (reject) (Eși and Sabo, 2013, pp. 24-59). a) Premise indicators: because, as, since, for. b) Conclusion indicators: therefore, thus, resulting, in conclusion, hence, then consequently. c) Connecting words ( in addition, from the fact that, on the one hand and on the other hand, the first, second, while also, unlike X, in agreement Y, we can say that the first argument, a second argument that you bring). Several issues related to the role of thought principles in didactic speech and language errors: 1) The principle of identity: every object is identical with itself at the same time under the same report. Gives thinking clarity and precision. 2) The principle of non-concordance: two contradictory sentences can not be (at the same time and under the same report) both true. Gives thinking coherence, consistency and the ability to distinguish truth 3) The principle of third parties excluded: two contradictory sentences can not be (at the same time and under the same report) untrue. Gives thinking coherence, capacity decision making rigorous. 4) The principle of sufficient reason: to accept or reject a sentence should have sufficient reason (satisfactory basis). Gives thought coherence based on the arguementation, foundation reasoning

4.Reconstruction of contents by reported to the idea of didactic transposition 4.1 Didactic transposition In the Fig. 1 a Pedagogy (Teaching principles) is placed on the 6th level over of Discipline (e.g. Mathematics) placed on the 5th level. Extending exemplification, physics, chemistry and other sciences are established with mathematics on the level of disciplines. It is, and the place of the didactic, on the 5th level, togheter with Discipline (e.g. Mathematics), in the scheme of Chevallard.

a b Figure 1. Didactic transposition: a) Levels of didactic co-determination as proposed by Chevallard (2002), related to the components of (mathematical) organizations (Winslow, 2010, p. 14); b) Scheme of didactic transposition (M. Develay, 1992 apud Gheordunescu, 2010, p. 6)

Inside of pedagogy we find didactic transposition by using the following scheme: Pedagogy→Theory and methodology of curriculum→Curriculum contents→Didactic transposition

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The aim of didactic transposition theory is to study the factors that make school mathematics different from research mathematics. After giving a brief account of it, we study the main issues that have been debated since the theory’s existence: the definition of such notions as school knowledge and noosphere, the means of studying and defining "taught knowledge" accurately, the theory’s field of application, the possibility of discovering working rules for the educational system which might limit the ability to act on this system. Then, particular phenomena which appear when applying this theory to the teaching of physics are considered. Lastly we set out the most recent developments of this theory, which allows a more general debate on the questions of transformation and transfer of knowledge in society (Arsac,.1992, p. 107).

Through his study of the historic developments of the notion of distance in the XX-th century mathematics, and the attempts to accommodate it in various domains of school mathematics, Chevallard exhibits the two basic steps of the didactics transposition, which have since become known as external and internal didactic transposition (see fig. 2).

Figure 2. External and internal didactic transposition (Winslow, 2010, p. 5)

External didactic transposition, from scientific knowledge to school knowledge, is achieved by resetting on the five coordinates, nominated by Verret in 1975, while studying a sociological phenomenon that extends beyond school and they are the following: 1) desincertization (see fig.3a), 2) deepersomalization, 3) programmability, 4) advertising of knowledge (concept taken from Daniel Hameline, Du savoir et des hommes. Contribution à l’analyse de l’intention d’instruire, Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1971) and 5) control of aquisitions. External didactic transposition is to transform scientific knowledge and practices in school programs, corresponding currriculum type formal (written, prescribed). It is that aspect of the curriculum explained in numerous documents that direct teaching-learning processes, and in which are listed the school contents to be transmitted, education plan, curricula, etc. It exists as an expression of prescriptibility and programmability in learning (Perrenoud, 1998, p. 489). Internal didactic transposition, from taught knowledge to learned knowledge is achieved in school didactically performed by each teacher in the classroom. Internal didactic transposition consists in transforming curricula in lesson projects which corresponds to real (taught) curriculum. It is the aspect of the curriculum that covers all the knowledge, skills, attitudes updated effectively in taught by the actors involved in the process (teachers and pupils). These two are distinct because they operate, respectively outside the school (in what Chevallard terms ironically the noosphere, the “thinking circle” around the school (see fig. 3. b), and inside it (e.g. as teachers struggle to adopt and adapt a new curriculum in actual teaching). The study, offered in Chevallards book, of a part of the didactic transpositions involved in the history of “modern mathematics” in school reforms of the late 1960’s, clearly offers a French perspective.

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

From the academic knowledge at the school-type knowledge is reached through a process called didactic transposition. This concept, developed by sociologist Michel Verret (Le temps des etudes, 1975), was introduced in teaching mathematics by Yves Chevallard and Marie-Alberte Joshua (1982) in the work Un exemple d’analyse de la transposition didactique: la notion de distance, printed in Recherches en didactique des mathématiques, 3/2. Grenoble, La Pensée Sauvage. Historically, the germs of the antrolologicl theory of didactic ATD are to be found in the theory of didactic transposition TDT whose scope was at first limited to the genesis and the ensuing peculiarities of the (mathematical) “contents” studied at school; from this perspective, ATD should be regarded as the result of a definite effort to go further by providing a unitary theory of didactic phenomena as defined in what follows (Chevallard, 2012, p. 2).

a b

Figure 3. Didactic transposition: a) Comparison between structure of the academic knowledge and structure of the taught knowledge - Desincretization is able to delineate taught knowledge of academic knowledge (Robinault, 2012, p. 27); b) Noosphere (Robinault, 2012. p. 21)

4.2 Reconstuction of contents Reconstruction of contents is achieved by didactic transposition. Theory of Didactic Situations TDS (Bousseau, 1998) requires to show the didactic triangle that exists in classroom: Teacher–Contents- Pupils. Now it si necessary to speak about the didactic contract because after his negotiation starts the transfer contents in classroom through a didactic speech. The concept of "didactic speech" has a comprehensive extension because all interactions m are set in the educational process aimed at the most general possible: transmission and reception with educational messages, given the complexity of reality expressed, this concept may be conferred on a wide range of meanings: notification, exchange, relationship, sharing, make known, presentation, transmission, participation, influence, control, opportunity, fostering the exchange of ideas. Therefore, a complete definition, universally accepted, it is difficult to build. However, we can say, first, that the speech teachers understand the whole process through which exchange information and meanings between teachers and pupils/students that are in a specific educational situation.Through didactic speech expresses a reality, presented as objects, phenomena, facts, relationships, feelings etc. Discursivity observation results of of the phenomenal world, sharing ideas, contractual-polemical aspect of the texts marks deeply the profile and the process of the current science and of the various corelativly social practices, as in the case of education process At the interpersonal level, communication is the mechanism by which human relations exist and develop, so all symbols and means to convey in space and time preserve them. Of course, we can talk about didactic speech in terms of "influence" or "action" taken in order to cause changes in the

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

personality of the pupils because we can not reduce significantly to the simple transmission of information (Albulescu, 2009, p. 5).

4.3 Reconstuction of contents computer-mediated E-Learning introduces advantages such as: attractive form, personal rhythm and involvement. On the other hand, the use of skills and abilities unaided human factor is a disadvantage. Communication technologies do not allow the same degree of interactivity as interpersonal communication, but development of educational software tends to blur the differences because they serve complementary functions: information, exercises, assessment, modeling (student is faced with a particular event or private data), utilities (provides support construction of text, graphs), simulation (outside real situations).

One of the main problems teaching institutions meet in this respect relates to the gamut of available e-tools and their broad range of complexity of use. To take just one example, in its “25 Tools Programme”, The Centre for Learning & Performance Technologies Web site puts forward the following list of 25 e-tools: 1) Web browser; 2) Email tool; 3) Instant messenger; 4) Social bookmarking tool; 5) RSS reader; 6) Real-time messaging tool; 7) Online Calendar; 8) Office suite; 9) Mind mapping tool; 10) Start page tool; 11) Blogging tool; 12) Web authoring tool; 13) Wiki tool; 14) Photo hosting and sharing tool; 15) Presentation hosting and sharing tool; 16) Video hosting and sharing tool; 17) Collaborative presentation tool; 18) Podcasting tool; 19) Screen capture/casting tool; 20) Polling and survey tool; 21) Web meeting tool; 22) Live broadcasting tool; 23) Social networking tool; 24) Course authoring tool; 25) Course management tool. A small number of remarks are in order here. Firstly, it is striking that most if not all of these tools are not specific to education, and that their relevant didactic uses remain to be conquered. Secondly, it is very likely that many people in the field of education will not make sense of each and every item on the list: “new” education is really new (see Cucoș, 2014, pp. 461-466). Thirdly, as concerns functionalities, there is some overlapping between all these tools: for example, forum discussion tools, which often showed up in the literature on e-learning at the turn of the twenty-first century, have been since then subsumed within tools like cours (Chevallard, 2008, p. 167).

4.4 Curriculum paradigms axiomatic framework for reconstruction of contents Didactics is the part of pedagogy that studies the principles, methods and forms of organization of the educational process. The using of the paradigms is specific of the philosophy. With the advent of postmodern didactics, curriculum type, the using of the paradigms in pedagogy has expanded greatly, creating a whole literature. At present, we can say that the curriculum paradigms use to guide the contemporary education, serving to a more efficient application of didactics in the problem of knowledge. The success of curricular theory is determined by its impact on educational practice (Prodan, 2013, p. 183). The teacher E. Păun, signals influence in education of the different paradigms and presents many similarities between the paradigms listed and the characteristics of modernity and postmodernity. Modernity is associated in relation with rational and technological paradigms, because that give value at the socio-organizational theory, the economic aspects and at the systemic approaches in education. Postmodern theorizing include (Prodan, 2011, p. 31): historical perspectives (reinterpretation, subjective experience of history); aesthetic perspectives (artistic dimensions of the human person) social criticism (construction and deconstruction of truth

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

and knowledge); cultural analysis (critical negative impact of modern technology on the human psyche and the environment); radical eclecticism (critical discourses construct and deconstruct): cosmological discourse (personal and universal harmony search). Deepening the problems paradigmatic, E Joiţa proposed redrafting using "the update and the development of a system of paradigms" in order to enhance the status of pedagogy as normal and mature science. In the famous book "Undestanding Curriculum. An Introduction to the Study of Historical and Contemporany Curriculum Discourss" W. Pinar et al, granted early times, a focus on the use of the concept of paradigm in the curriculum (Pinar, 2004, p. 15-23). The first paradigmatic construction “Didactica Magna” is focused on “a universal art to learn all everything" (Comenius, 1970: 7). It took for a long period of reflective maturation of the human spirit that the problem adequacy of knowledge to the object of knowledge to be able put in perspective of the development and the criticism of the philosophy. This process of cognitive maturation has led to the formulation of problems and solutions "paradigmatic", means the methods, the scope, the guarantees and the value of the knowledge of which man is capable. Pedagogy has a new mission: to provide teaching paradigms and methodological ideas suitable for education postmodern (Ilica, 2010, p. 1).

5. Conclusions and sugestions With regard to the theme addressed the following conclusions are drawn: -Knowledge transmitted through the school will have to keep a convenient report both academic knowledge, characteristic of the scientific community, but also with the knowledge that became common (or trivial) to ensure, in this way, a sedimentation of the new. Knowledge taught in school, is subject to a process of erosion, wear "physical" and "moral". Physical wear occurs when what is taught does not correspond to new data of knowledge. Obsolescence occurs when knowledge is trivialized a presentation surplus, their massive. A knowledge that everyone possesses or not help anything, not worth to be present in school plans (Cucoş 1996, p. 70). -Axiology is a field that can direct didactic transposition to make educational contents more useful for sociocultural system. Given this perspective (Develay M. 1992, p. 25 apud Cucoş, 2014, p. 506) is indicated to take into account at didactic transposition and axiological idea when reconstruct the contents, respectively, need to adjust at the school knowledge and the values claimed and claimed by the makers (see fig. 1 b); -Didactic speech lies between discursive strategy and argumentative performance. Reconstruction of contents is guided by the axiomatic framework of the paradigms of curricula. These limitations and guidelines apply and where reconstruction content is performed by reference to the idea of didactic transposition. -Didactic transposition is interpreted as diactic engineering. Reconstruction of content computer- mediated in didactic speech is interpreted as linguistic engineering (Ionescu, 2010, p.1). -Didactic transposition exhausted almost all topics in mathematics. Today expects new topics in scientific research of mathematics, but these rarely appear. Situation is similar in most subjects taught in schools. In these conditions didactic transposition finds applicability in religion (Polidor and Stigal, 2012, p. 5) or in interdisciplinary scientific fields that have a higher rate of occurrence of new topics to which can apply the didactic transposition.

References 1. Albulescu, I., (2009). Procedee discursive didactice, Curs, Facultatea de psihologie,

100

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Universitatea “Babeș-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca.

2. Arsac, G., (1992). The evolution of a theory in didactics : the example of didactic transposition, in Recherches en Didactique des Mathématiques ISSN 0246 - 9367 –RDM Vol. 12/1, pp. 107-130 Website: http://rdm.penseesauvage.com/THE-EVOLUTION-OF-A-THEORY-IN.html[accessed 29.01.2015].

3. Brousseau, G., (1998). La théorie des situations didactiques en mathématiques, Grenoble, La Pensée Sauvage http://www.unige.ch/fapse/life/livres/Brousseau_R1998_A.html [accessed 26.01.2015].

4. Comenius, J. A., (1970). Didactica Magna, Publicată la Amsterdam, 1657, în limba latină, în vol. Opera Didactica Omnia (Opere didactice complete), Traducere, note, comentarii și studii de prof. univ. dr. Iosif Antohi, București http://vesteabuna.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/jan-amos- comenius-didactica-magna-public-pdf.pdf [accessed la 22.01.2015].

5. Compayré, G., (1889). The History of Pedagogy, 2d Edition, Published by D. C. Heath & Company in Boston https://archive.org/stream/historyofpedagog00compuoft#page/n5/mode/2up [accessed 23.01.2015].

6. Cucoș, C., (1996). Pedagogie, Editura Polirom, Iași.

7. Cucoș, C., (2014). Pedagogie, Ediția a III-a revăzută și adăugită, Editura Polirom, Iași.

8. Chevallard, Y and Joshua, M. A., (1982). Un exemple d’analyse de la transposition didactique : la notion de distance, Recherches en Didactique des Mathématiques, ISSN 0246 - 9367 – RDM, vol.3/2, 1982 LaPensee sauvage, Grenoble, pp.157-239. Website : http://rdm.penseesauvage.com/Un-exemple-d-analyse-de-la.html [accessed 25.01.2015].

9. Chevallard Y. and Ladage C., (2008). E-learning as a touchstone for didactic theory, and conversely. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 4(2), pp.163-171, website: http://www.editlib.org/p/43380 [accessed 29.01.2015].

10. Chevallard, Y., (2012). Teaching mathematics in tomorrow’s society : A case for an oncoming counterparadigm, Procedings of 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education ICME- 12 (Séoul, 8-15 juillet 2012) http://yves.chevallard.free.fr/spip/spip/IMG/pdf/RLChevallard.pdf [accessed 29.01.2015].

11. Eși, M. C., (2010). Didactica specialității între strategii discursive și performanțe argumentative, Editura Universității “Ștefan cel Mare” Suceava.

12. Eși, M. C. and Sabo, H. M., (2013). Procesualizare și conceptualizare didactică în științele educației, Editura Efes, Culj-Napoca.

101

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

13. Gheordunescu, D. M., (2010). “Studiul obstacolelor şi al erorilor în didactica modernă. Particularizări pentru matematica din gimnaziu”, Teză de doctorat, Coordonator Științific. prof. univ. dr. Ioan Neacșu, Facultatea de Psihologie și Științe ale Educației, Universitatea din Bucuresti http://www.unibuc.ro/studies/Dumitra/TEZA REZUMAT.pdf [accessed 28.01.2015].

14. Ilica, A., (2010). O pedagogie, Editura Virtual, Merlin IT Consulting Ltd. London. Website: http://books.corect.com/ro/books/prewiev/745/pdf [accesed 31.01.2015]

15. Ionescu, F. S., (2010). Aspecte ale discursului didactic mediat de calculator, Referat, Facultatea de litere, Universitatea „”Babes-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca, Website: www.cdmures.ro/cmsmadesimple/uploads/file/rev8sp/llbrom7.pdf [accesd 31.01.2015].

16. Perrenoud, P., (1998). La transposition didactique à partir de pratiques: des savoirs aux competences, Faculté de psychologie et des sciences de l’éducation Université de Genève in Revue des sciences de l l'éducation (Montréal), Vol. XXIV, n° 3, 1998, pp. 487-514, Website: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/SSE/teachers/perrenoud/php_main/php_1998/1998_26html [accesd 26.01.2015]

17. Pinar, W. F., (2004). What Is Curriculum Theory? Louisiana State University Lawrence, Erlbaum Associates, publishers Mahwah, New Jersey London Website http://www.khuisf.ac.ir/DorsaPax/userfiles/file/motaleat/0805848274.pdf [accessed 25.01.2015]

18. Polidoro, Lurdes de Fatima and Stigar, Robson. (2010). Didactic transposition: from scientific knowledge to schol knowledge, Cibertecologia, Revista de Teologia&Cultura, Ano VI, no.27, 28 February 2010, pp.1-6 Website: ciberteologia.paulinas.org.br/ciberteologiaen/DidacticTransposition [accese 30.01.2015].

19. Prodan, G., (2011). Paradigma curriculumului în societatea modernă şi postmodernă, Support de curs pentru specialiştii în curriculum, Universitatea ‘’Eftimie Murgu’’ Reşiţa, Website : http://www.smc.roedu.ro/index_htm_files/suport%curspdf [accesed 14.01.2015].

20. Robinault, K., (2012). Transposition Didactique, Cours, Université Lyon 2 Website : www.ouvrir-fichier.com/ouvrir-fichier-ppt-con [accessed 29.01.2015

21. Stanciu, M., (2003). Didactica postmodernă, Editura Universității “Ștefan cel Mare” Suceava.

22. Winslow, C., (2010). Anthropological theory of didactic phenomena : some examples and principles of its use in the study of mathematics education, Proceedings annual conference of the Finnish Association for Research in Mathematics and Science Education, Oct.2010 http://www.Anthropological theory of didactic phenomena.pdf [accessed 07.01.2015].

102

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The Concept of “Black Humour” at French and Greek Writers

NIKA Maklena University of Tirana, Albania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 29.01.2015; Accepted 12.02. 2015

Abstract In the article in question, it will be analyzed the concept of “black humour”, one of the four main pillars, which sustained the surrealist creativity. In more specific terms, they are: automat writing, insane love and objective chance. As one of the strongest expressive means of surrelist writers, black humour turned into their symbol in order to better convey the objection against the reality of time. Colorations of black humour will be analyzed in comparative platform at the following writers: Francis Picabia, Jacques Rigaut and Nikos Engonopoulos, who converge into a common thematic point – death. Through the analysis of several parts selected by them, I will also reveal the similarities in expression, poetical images used, but on the other side, their particularities as well.

Keywords: Surrealism, black humour, poetical image, death, unaware.

1. Introduction The first resource of this term’s origin in English humour derives from the theory of Hippocrates on "body liquids". According to such medical theory, there are four mixtures in the human body, where each of them is related to the prevalence of one of these four liquids. When a hamonic mixture of such liquids exists, the man is healthy and in good mood (humour)...

Several people cannot fairly perceive what role jokes and humour play in their lives, even though Freud called it a display of the unawareness (Z.I. Siafklekis, From the night of lighting to the poetry fact, Epikairotita Publications, Athens, pp. 93). It exists a category of people for whom humour is dangerous on the preservation of “seriousness” and of a hypocritical facade. Definitely here it is the analysis of Mikail Bakhtin (Bakhtin, M.M. (1973) Questions of Literature and Aesthetics, (Russian) Progress Moscow, 1979), a famous Russian critic, which assists us. He stipulated the role of “carnival” element, subversive spirit (Valaoritis Nanos, For a theory of writing, Eksandas Publications, Athens 1990, pp. 165), as the necessary fallen world, as a recreation, as an alternative, in comparison with the seriousness of scientific ideology. Hence, life is neither a farce, nor a continuous tragedy –but an alternating tragicomedy. It is the serious among the ridicule and the ridicule among the serious.

103

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

2. Surrealist humour and its significance In a particular way, surrealist humour, the so-called black humour often has a tragic shade. Humor which uncovers, such as the irony of Socrates, the infinity, the empty, the unmeasurable, the opening of endless opportunities beyond the narrow boundaries of daily life, the vincible.

Surrealist humour originates from Comte de Lautreamont, Alfred Jarry, Jonathan Swift, William Blake, Arthur Rimbaud, Edgar Allan Poe, Charles Baudelaire. In continuation, there were its first followers Raymond Roussel, Guillaume Apollinaire, Marcel Duchamp, Francis Picabia, Tristan Tzara, the Italian and Russian futurists and formalists. Through Roger Vitrac and Antonin Artaud, it passes to Eugene Ionesko, Samuel Beckett, and it comes to us in another form at Franz Kafka and James Joyce. In general, all modernists have adopted it.

In 1939, “Anthology of Black Humour” circulated, which is a shelter of an aesthetical and moral attitude towards modern spirit. Breton in this anthology collected extracts from the texts of Fourier, Lachenaire, Poe, Allais, Baudelaire, Carrol, Lautreamont, Swift, Picabia, Peret, Sade ( Z.I. Siafklekis, From the night of lighting to the poetry fact, Epikairotita Publications, Athens, pp. 93) etc. – i.e. from writers who had no connection with surrealism. He inferred that he had found it at almost all the predecessors of surrealism. We can surprisingly convince ourselves that it does not exist a great poet or prose writer without humor, and even the “surrealist” one.

Relating such tragic humor, I can mention Salvador Dali, who, when being introduced to surrealists, was in a “psychotic situation” and laughed at large when they talked to him. Later, he told them that he had seen each of them in a hat with the form of a wavering cake.... The laughter of psychotics is tragic, because it is not controlled. The laughter of Nitzsche, when he got crazy or the laughter of the gotic satanic hero Melmoth was a clear grimace. Surprisingly, the climate of surrealism is somehow more general than we think it is. Modernism, part of which is realism as well, created its humor, with a rare sensibility which converges into a certain humor which is not missing in the works of cubism either, of Picasso, Gertrude Stein and many others.

If the automat writing is a way for the creation of a connection between the internal and external reality, black humor, as a technique, serves to the purpose of surrealists in order to reconsider their relations with the traditional literary creativity, by establishing a space where polemic and mining prevail as means of literary expression and elements of social behaviour.

The term humor is used by Breton time after time in different texts, such as “Situation surrealiste de l’objet” (1935), “Limites non frontieres...”(1938), “Dictionnaire abrege du surrealisme” (1938) and infers the preference of surrealists for such expressive means. To him, black humor is the absolute revolution of the soul. According to Breton, humour turns without doubt into the expression of triumphing subjectivity, in his connection with daily life, meanwhile such triumph is temporary and in no way eventually solves the antitheses and objections with social space. Such brief survival of objective humor, as well as the use of the same epithet for the casual, encouraged Breton to use the term black humor for the first time at the “Anthology”. Annie Le Brun writes very accurately that: “Black humour in relation to objective humour are the same acknowledgement of the insufficient perception of the world and beggining of the reaction on

104

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

which awareness of life slams” (Annie Le Brun, L’humour noir, at Entretiens sur le Surrealisme, Paris et la Haye, 1968, pp. 14).

Pleasure and reality are two images directly affected by the process of black humour. Breton at the text of the “Anthology” shall seek at Freud psychological dimensions in the functioning of the black humour. In particular by making use of the work of Freud “Humour and its connections with the unaware”, observes that: “Humour does not have only the liberating part and economic element, but something greater and more sublime...Greatness definitely aims at the triumph of narcism...” (Z.I. Siafklekis, From the night of lighting to the poetry fact, Epikairotita Publications, Athens)

The value of humour is definitely found in this process of distancing from reality and expresses the impossible adjustment of man with the conditions of his existence. In this point of view, black humour appears as a self-protection means against any oppressive environment. The use of the black surname, shows in this manner the game with death, which does not come but to highlight the negation of the real regarding the human existence. The satiric dimension of the black humor function is obvious. It eliberates from sweet sensualities each residual of romantism and at the same time induces literature towards the lost originality. Insight of humour allows poetry to find readibility. The same as at the automat writing, at black humor, linguistic expression is found under continuous doubt, regarding not only its “rules”, but also its own structure. Use of black humour creates new association states, where logical irregularity of language and its expressive force lose the opportunity to convince the reader, or at least lead him to a concrete orientation selected by the writer.

Contrary to automat writing, where the unaware has the primary role, in the case of black humour we have a preliminary aforethought and logical organization of the absurd, by continuously and systematically referring to reality. Black humour assumes perfect acknowledgement and use of real details of daily life, history, geography and definitely literature. Certainly that a work containing black humour should mean without doubt a coherence with the reader. He is invited by the writer to give a new meaning for the text, because he has to perform herein a critical-active reading, not only with the aim of work’s comprehension, but also its framing into his personal mythology. This argumentation may be difficult if we take into account the words of Marco Ristic that: “Humor in its contact with poetry becomes the extreme expression of spasmadic antithesis” (Lecherbonnier Gerard Durozoi-Bernard, Le surrealisme, Paris, Larousse 1972, pp. 212). And, in the case of black humour, the eliberation of self – continuous request of surrealists in numerous forms - , is made through the work of art.

3. Comparative analysis from selected extracts of Nikos Engonopoulos – Francis Picabia – Jacque Rigaut Let us study several texts where death is the main theme and at the same time the main resource of black humour, where inclinations for the autoirony and the automining of the self are created. The question is about texts with strong autobiographical elements, where surreality is created by means of special expressive means. In these texts, death is described not as a kind of antithesis solution

105

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

between the internal and external reality, but as a passing and overcoming stage into the surreal world, where the individual is released from the rules of conventional reality. It is not the question for texts with metaphysical purposes. On the contrary, the question is about the most serious form in discussing the omnipotence of the self, as well as the absolute character of literary creativity.

Let us first see a text of Nikos Engonopoulos from the summary “Don’t talk to the driver” (1938):

“Evening Maria”

The other day after my death, or better of my murder, I took all the newspapers to read so as to learn as much as possible details about my execution. It seems that they took me to the tripod under strict attendance. I was wearing, it infers, clothes in yellow colour, latticed scarf and a hood. My hair looked like brush, maybe that of a painter. Then they threw my corpse far away, into a bog, where sometime it was the limer of French Descartes and where, many years ago there was also food for predacious poultries and the shelter of a so- called prostitute Evterpi...And the only useful thing, which I happened to read those days, was a long letter of the Italian Guiliam Tsitzi, my only friend of heart, whom I have never known and for whom I still doubt if he exists. In a few words, the whole content of this letter was as follows hereunder: “You are”, he used to say, I definitely mean Polikseni, “you are an old gramaphone with bronze funnel down a black fabric. (Ikaros Publications, Athens 1966, pp. 66-67)

In this text, the actuality of narration is identified already with the overcome time, which also creates the first impression for the reader. In a realist style, the narrator presents details of his death, by balancing his words through events and real characters. The real purpose of the narrator is to organize within logical narrator structures an entirety of elements without any logic connections between them. The result is that it is created a system of relations between the deepest and opposite situations, which in combination with the small expanssion of narration, create to the reader the explosive feeling of a tragic blind alley. In general, the bling alley as a motive of black humour creates the feeling of boundaries of self opportunities.

Herein, irony is the determining element of style, with a double purpose: on one side it allows the narrator to distance from his object, i.e. self and on the other side to be reinforced the credibility of the text, notwithstanding the obscurity of its simasiologic function. Irony becomes a functional element of a surrealist writing. The surrealist humour maintains certain forms of the real in order to better transmit the surreal. At “Maria of the evening”, the forms of the real are present, but it is also clear the orientation of the writer towards the surreal, the internal reality. Narrative technique serves only to a strategy: highlighting of the individual’s interior and his connections maintained with the real (external reality). This is transmitted by means of strong symbols selected from the reality. However, the metaphores used are those which create the feeling of avoidance from the common code of communication and at the same time justify as well the innovatory character of the text (her hair was the same as brush, maybe that of a painter...). The use of poetic images and interposition of proper nouns (existing or not) creates an alegoric meaning of the text.

106

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The same interpretation I would also make about the painter and poet of Cubane origin Francis Picabia in his text entitled “Cold eye”, which is included in the “Anthology” of Breton:

After our death, we should have been placed inside a sphere. Such sphere should have been made of wood particles in different colours. They would glide us to take us to graveyard and the gravediggers would look after, would wear transparent gloves, in order to remind lovers of the memories of fondling, For those who would like to enrich their furnishing with the objective acknowledgement of the correct existence, crystal spheres would exist, through which someone would not distinguish the determining bareness of his grandfather or his twin brother! Tracks (impure waters) of smartness, a lamp for the war with barriers, people look like immovable eye corbies, which take their impetuosity on corpses and all the redskins are station chiefs!(Anthology of Black Humour, volume A, Aigokeos Publications, Athens 1982, pp. 169)

Contrary to Engonopoulos, the intensive illustration of the text does not match with a system of symbols, but underlines objective situations by aiming at their general acceptance. Love, family, society in general are some of the meanings to be highlighted by the poet. At narration level, the analogies with the text of Engonopoulos are obvious. Cronic continuation on which the process of impressionism is based and where the continuation of “metaphysical life” starts from is the same. Description, the basic function of narration, is herein based on real elements or those which seem to be real, heteroclit regarding the form and absurd regarding their place within the poetic image. In the text of Picabia the impression of the reader is reached from the first phrases and escalated, such as in the case of Engonopoulos. Consecutive poetic images do not make anything else, but give greater simasiologic sense, by including as well the title, which is a distance from the content of the text itself.

Time and death are the two basic meanings in the texts of this kind and which are put in doubt by the surrealist creativity. Awareness of the antithesis life – death and its humourous consumption strengthen the confidence in connecting things and lead the individual to a distanced doubt of the world. Because, in essence, the word surrealist is nothing else, but a fundamental change of the point of view by which the individual perceives the material reality. In this case, black humour proves such connection of the individual with the reality, without avoidance towards automat writing or hyperbolas of crazy love and the poets use the technique of black humour within a language absolutely “logical” such a comunication where the arbitrarity of the image is linked with a relation reason – consequence, by providing this way the complete surprising of the reader.

Black humour nourishes the unexpected, by giving this way the possibility to writers to exploit to the maximum their imagination, released from the reconciliations of a normal writing. As in any forms of surrealist writing, even here, the image is the space where the limits of writing and his importance are judged. Both distant realities which coexist at this one, are not linked with one another consciously, such as in the case of the automat writing, but through traditional means of

107

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

written communication. In their case of Picabia - Engonopoulos the freedom of creation is found in the selection of symbols and situations with which narration and the unexpected are realized. The concrete symbols of Engonopoulos and the general situations of Picabia are the two aspects of the same message, which is elaborated and organized with the same technique.

Even in the text below of Jacques Rigaut, which is introduced in the same category with the above two texts, we have almost the use of the same technique:

The first time I committed suicide was in order to bother my girlfriend. This virtuous creature did not accept persistence to sleep with me, by withdrawing into regrets, as she said, to betray the love of her life. I did not know if I really loved her, I doubt that fifteen days away from her would have particularly reduced the need I felt for her; her denial irritated me. How could I go over? Did I say that she felt deep and continuous love about me? I committed suicide to bother my girlfriend. I forvige myself about such suicide when I take into account her young age in this season of aventure. The second time I committed suicide was from laziness. Poor, having a kind of disdain fro any kind of work, I committed suicide one day without any conviction, the same as I have lived. They keep rampage to me for this death, when they see what kind of bloomed view I have now.

The third time... I will make you the honour of not telling you the other suicides of mine, it is sufficient to accept to listen even this: I went for sleeping, after an evening when my gloom was more concerning than any other time....I stood up and went to find the only weapon of the house, a small pistol which one of my grandfathers has bought, filled in with old cartridge...I laid down in my bed, I was bare in the room. It was cold. I hurried up in order to stay under layers. .... Then I supported the weapon on a small table, by laughing maybe with a little seriousness. Ten minutes later I fell asleep. I think that I made an important little observation, as much as ... Definitely! It implies that not for a single moment I really meant to shoot myself for the second time. Important was that I had taken the decision to die and not that in reality I died !(Anthology of Black Humour, volume B, Aigokeos Publications, Athens 1982, pp. 156-157)

Herein, the action of commiting suicide is extended in meanings, hence it is the self which takes the decision for this initiative. This text is presented as classic, without using daring images. The effort of the narrator is in order to explain and justify consecutive suicides, by highlighting in this manner the dissatisfactions of daily life, feebleness of communication, lack of ideals and in general of purposes and ambitions. The language used is real within a surrealist frame. The logic of absurd may be easily understood by the reader, because the events are simple, with full transparency. Contrary to the above two texts, it is highlighted the real life of the individual. The whole strategy of Rigaut is based on the humorous investment of events “which could have happened to each of us”.

However, on the other side it should be highlighted the fact that the suicide for surrealists is a different meaning from that of the romantic ones. The subject herein is not jostled towards death by

108

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

an unredeemed passion or dipped into full melancholy. Suicide of surrealists is the most sublime expression of social agresivity.

4. Conclusions In the texts of black humour, an important role is played by opposite situations or opposite argumentations by which the writer explains the concrete attitude of the individual and his innovatory relation with the external reality. These situations often originate from the world of dreams and hence we encounter another dimension of dream contrary to that of automat writing. Image of death and its approximation with humourous technique, showing of individual’s relativity and mockery of any senses of external world are the main conditions for the creation of the surreality which these texts aim at.

Black humour, as Yvonne Duplessis also states: “Not only introduces us into the world of imagination, but furthermore gives us the opportunity to achieve a philosophical concept of the world, according to which a logic larger than another would join the world of dream with that of the reality” (Duplessis Yvonne, Le surrealisme, Paris, P.U.F. (serie que sais-je?), pp. 24)

At writing level, black humour is one more case for surrealists in order to reconsider and strengthen theri expressive means. Having nothing in common with romantic and symbolists, with the exception of using several symbols, the writers of these texts are the pioneers of a modernism product, which adapts elements from happenings, from self-improvision, but also as a figurative collage about the approximation of two distant realities. More than any other technique, the texts of black humour preserve, maybe owing to their existential dimension, unchanged their diacronic message in form, as well as in content, by proving what Breton used to say at “Vases Communicatives” (1932) that: “Poets gave us the possibility to accept, following centuries and allowed us to wait inducement offered in order to re-establish again the man in the center of the universe” (Breton Andre, The communicating vessels, the interpretation of dreams, Aigokeros Publications, 1982, pp. 129)

Is is definitely such inducement in the heart of surrealist expression which, in black humour, touches the highest peaks of explosion, which is certainly not expressed only by literary means.

References

1. Annie, Le Brun. (1968). L’humour noir, at Entretiens sur le Surrealisme, Paris et la Haye.

2. Bakhtin, M.M. (1973). Questions of Literature and Aesthetics, (Russian) Progress Moscow, 1979

3. Breton, Andre. (1982). The communicating vessels, the interpretation of dreams, Aigokeros Publications.

4. Duplessis, Yvonne, Le surrealisme, Paris, P.U.F. (serie que sais-je?).

109

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

5. Engonopoulos, Nikos. (1966). “Evening Maria” Ikaros Publications, Athens 1966.

6. Lecherbonnier, Gerard Durozoi-Bernard. (1972). Le surrealisme, Paris, Larousse.

7. Valaoritis, Nanos. (1990). For a theory of writing, Athenes: Eksandas Publications.

8. Siafklekis, Z.I. (1982). From the night of lighting to the poetry fact, Athens: Epikairotita Publications.

9. Anthology of Black Humour. (1982). Volume A and B, Athens: Aigokeos Publications.

110

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The Role of The Greek Borrowings In Albanian Lexis

DELIGEORGI Sofia University of Tirana, Albania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 29.01.2015; Accepted 12.02. 2015

Abstract The purpose of this study is to distinguish the Greek borrowings in Albanian language and to define their role in the layers of the Albanian lexis. Even though Albanian is an Indo-European language, this fact does not mean that its entire lexical fund stems from its mother language Illyrian. The contacts and the relations with the other nations have brought even influences on the language. Borrowing the words in Albanian has come as a necessity to nominate an object or a concept under some certain historical and linguistic circumstances. The types of the borrowings and the historical periods which mark the access of these words in Albanian lexis are clearly specified in the study. Every historical concept is provided with examples, which are encountered in the dictionaries but even in the dialects of different regions, or with old words which are used in daily life.

Keywords: Greek Borrowings, Albanian Lexis, word borrowings, lexis of a language

1.Introduction Albanian and Greek people, whose languages are Albanian and Greek respectively, are two of the oldest nations in Europe. They are settled in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and have had direct and multidimensional contacts of several aspects (such as: historical, military, geographical, economical, cultural, language, psychological contacts) for more than 3000 years. One of the Indo- European languages which is still alive is even Albanian language, which faced successfully all the challenges. This is an indicator that our predecessors preserved it generation after generation as one of the most valuable possessions, they inherited from their ancestors. Preserving their own national language, they could escape the assimilation from the conquerors who replaced each other in our territories over the centuries (Cabej, 1997: 227). The determinant role of the Greek people, of the Greek culture and of the Greek language not only on the development of the other Indo- European peoples’ culture, but even on the culture of the other nations in Europe and all over the world is obvious. After both these nations became independent from the Ottoman Empire and created their own nations (the Greek nation at the beginning of the XIX century and the Albanian nation at the beginning of the XX century), they brought contacts of a new status during the two last centuries. We can notice a significant increase of the efforts made by the scholars and the supporters of the Albanian culture to translate into Albanian the peaks of the Greek culture and to bring into Albanian the history of the Helen nation and particularly to translate into Albanian the old and the new Greek literature.

111

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Both Greek and Albanian are part of the family of the Indo-European languages, which are genetically close to each-other and have been used in territories from India to Europe since the ancient times. This family includes languages which are still alive, as well as languages which have died, which have connections and share common features. This language family is divided in many branches and sub-branches. Greek and Albanian create separate branches and do not have any relations with any other language.

2. The relation between the Greek and Albanian languages The languages of this family but even the other languages create different relations with each other, based on historical, geographical, cultural factors, etc. The relations of Albanian with Greek are very complex and have lasted for a very long period of time; they probably started in the pre- ethnical phase of these languages, in their pre-Balkan cradle and have continued without interruptions through the ethnical period until nowadays. On the other hand, these relations developed under different historical and cultural circumstances, such as their simple contacts as neighbours as well as the ethnical symbiosis and mixtures in some regions as a consequence of the displacement and the emigration of their populations (Mansaku, 2004: 109). The studies carried out during these two last centuries have highlighted the common features these two languages share according to the Indo-European aspect. But the studies have been very important particularly for Albanian language because there have always been discussions regarding its origin, linguistic type but even its position in the Indo-European language family. In the XIX century, many authors (A. Shlajher, G. Shtier, Dh. Kamarda, etc.) positioned Albanian between Greek and Latin, but closer to Greek. They reached a wrong conclusion, because they could not distinguish the borrowings that Albanian language has got from Greek and Latin, from the words of the inherited fund and referred to the borrowings as words of the Indo-European heritage. . (Mansaku, 2004: 109)

Synthesizing the scientific achievements of many research studies on Albanian language, Prof. Seit Mansaku, one of the contemporary and among the most popular scholars of the Albanian language history, emphasizes the fact that: “All the scholars have already accepted the fact that Albanian language is a branch on its own in the family of the Indo-European languages, which does not have any specific relations, let alone any derivation (origin) relations, with any of its sister languages in our continent”. When we accept the fact that Albanian is an Indo-European language, we should not imply the concept that its entire lexical richness is part of the old Indo-European fund heritage. During the years, the relations with the other nations have brought even influences on the language. Based on the source, the Albanian language lexis is divided in two main layers: its own persona layer and the borrowed one. We are emphasizing these facts regarding the place and the language type of Albanian, of its personal and borrowed layer of its lexis, because one of the relations of Greek language with Albanian are the borrowings, the words the languages have exchanged between each other.

We cannot analyze the phenomena that turn up during the process of the borrowings, which might not belong only to the lexical-semantic aspect, but even to the phonetic, syntax, word-formation aspect, etc., as long as we do not know the type of the relations between these two languages

112

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

because “the first task addressed to the scholars who deal with the Albanian-Greek language relations is to distinguish the proximity ties in the Indo-European aspect in the borrowing relations” (Ibidem, 109).

2. Word borrowings Being based on the typical linguistic criteria but even on the extra-linguistic ones the borrowings from Greek create an independent paradigmatic group within the layer of the Albanian language borrowings. They have attracted the attention of many scholars including not only linguists and Albanian language scholars, but even historians, archeologists, ethnologists, etc. As far as the category of the borrowings is concerned, they are divided in (word) borrowings and (idiomatic) borrowings. However, in this study, we are going to focus only on the word borrowings. a. Word borrowings: The presence of a considerable number of words which originate from the old Greek in the documented Albanian language is the testimony of the early and the long contacts among the old Greeks and the Albanians’ great grandparents. In the chapter “Greek Borrowings”, where the relations of Albanian language during its historic period are treated, Prof. E. Çabej accepts three layers of Greek borrowings in Albanian language: the old Greek borrowings, the medieval Byzantine borrowings, new Greek borrowings, which respectively belong to the periods he divides even the history of Greek itself. According to him, “Greek language, which was documented in the written form in the XIV century BC, is generally divided in three periods: in the old Greek, in the middle Greek and in the new Greek.” Even though they are in a small number, about 30, the borrowings from the old Greek have a special interest not only for the history of Albanian language but they have also got even the greatest semantic developments, particularly in the expansion of the semantic structures and in the word-formation and the stylistic skills. They entered in early times and Albanian language inherited these kinds of borrowings from its mother Illyrian.

So, lakër lakën were taken from the old Greek; even the followings come from the old Greek: lákhanon, mokër mokën, mekhané, makhana, which result to be even in Latin, macchina; presh – prason from the old Greek, but pras comes from the new Greek. The rotation in lakër, mokër etc. is a sign of the old forms (Cabej, 1976: 48). The influence of the old Greek in Albanian language is noticed specifically in the field of plants, especially of the kitchen plants and the trees. Among the other examples, here we can mention: kerasia-qershi, péponon-pjepër, pjepën, lakhanon-lakër, lakën, lapathe-lëpjetë, prason-presh. Prof. E. Çabej explains that: “these borrowings reflect a cultural influence of the old Greek language in our country. It is noticed that these borrowings are relatively just a few in numbers. But the others which come from the middle and the new Greek are much more in numbers. In some cases, it is difficult to make a precise distinction among the old, the middle and the new elements.”(Ibidem) b. The borrowings from the middle Greek and the borrowings from the new Greek compose the second and the third historical group of the Greek borrowings in Albanian. A considerable part of these borrowings belong to the time of the Byzantium studies, which continued up to the middle

113

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

time the Greek influence of the antique time. Byzantium, which united in an inseparable unity the Hellenism and the Christianity with the oriental world, influenced equally on the peoples of the Balkan on the social, economic, cultural and religious field. According to Prof. E. Çabej “we can categorize the Greek borrowings in Albanian language – medieval or new – even with the assistance of the accent. So, the words farmëk, kallm, qefull, which belong partly to Geg dialect and partly to the Arbërishte spoken in Italy, are older borrowings than the respective forms of the southern Tosk dialect: farmak, kallam.” Here, we can mention come main thematic (conceptual) fields with the borrowings of these two periods. ( Çabej, 1976:. 48-49)

Borrowings which belong to the religious sphere, such as: manastir, at Budi munështir, at Bardhi as well, in Calabria monoshtir, in Skrapar and close to Gjirokastra they are names of places: Munështir, kallogjer, the older version is kallogjën, kallogjër, ikonë, even older korë, with rotation; potir qelq (glass), at Buzuku and Bardhi putir. Translations from Greek, influences from the eastern church, are even the expressions Ujët i bekuar, Java e Madhe, which exist even in the Northern part, which is catholic. They are present even in toponomastics among the neighbourhood names Ajazëm in Shkodra, the name of the village Sebaste in the north, which in the south is Sevasteri of Vlora.

Borrowings which belong to the traditions and customs. We are mentioning some examples related to the traditions of birth and marriage, which are closely connected with the church, such as: poganik, poganiqe (a celebration which is organized on the third night after the birth of a boy); mirat (the three fairies which determine the luck of the baby on the third night after its birth); prikë, at Budi përqi. Even the expression vë kurorë, which is spread all over the Balkan, according to N. Jokli is a translation from Greek of the Byzantium church. The Byzantium impact is particularly influential in the wedding customs among the Albanians of Salamina in Greece, as it was noticed even by the Albanian-Greek scholar Petros Furikis (1878-1936). In the death customs, the following are included fron, thron among the orthodox population in the Arbëresh colonies of South Italy, for example: Milosao of De Rada.

Borrowings which belong to the social life. We can mention here: gjini, gjiri, gjeni, gjëri (even at Buzuku, Budi and Bardhi at the colonies of Italy), frati (unity, brotherhood) (at Buzuku and Bardhe), qefali (chairman, leader), pronë, flamur, simahuer (assistant in a murder); aspër (money). Borrowings which belong to craftwork, for example enemi from Greek anemi, peovol (net). Borrowings which belong to the life in the house. Let’s mention tagar, gaforre, llukanik, magjiri (kitchen). Borrowings which belong to gardening, plants. Among the others, we can mention perivol (garden), (even at Buzuku LIV, in Toskë, in the colonies of the Arbëreshë of Italy), trendafil, dhjozmë, define. Borrowings which belong to hunting. Among the others, we can mention skile (fox), skifter, gjeraqinë. Borrowings which belong to human body, clothes, jewelry. We can mention: kurm (body), in the dialects of the southern part and of the colonies: tipar, i pastër, stoli, stolis, benevrekë, which has travelled through all the Balkan languages. (Ibidem, 48-49)

114

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Apart from the borrowed words, some suffixes from the Greek source have also entered in Albanian language. They have been added to the roots of the words whose source of origin is not Greek. We would like to mention some of them: (Ibidem, 191-302) -it: gjirokastr-it, labov-it, libohov-it etj. -jot: himar-jot, mallakstri-jot, delvinjot, sarandjot etj. -omë: balt-omë, bur-omë, kredh-omë, zez-omë, valomë etj. -is: kallaj-is, paj-is, përrall-is, rast-is, tigan-is, vaj-is, përsëri- is, uj(ë)-is etj. -os: ajr-os, barr-os, breng-os, brum-os, çelnik-os, damk-os, fund-os, gjak-os, hekur-os, plag- os, tym-os, vend-os, vul-os etj.

The lexis of a language develops and changes continuously. The same thing happens even with the lexis of Albanian language. It was processed and is still being processed, it was enriched and is still being enriched responding to the requests of the economic, social and cultural development of the country. It has been completed and is open to enrichment with new words, expressions and meanings, or even with borrowings when they are required by the language agreement in society.

At the moment the borrowings from Greek enter into Albanian, just like all the other borrowings in the other languages, they go through morphological changes and later on they change and develop in all the other language subsystems (phonetics, word-formation, semantics, etc.) gaining other important values such as: semantic values, emotional values, stylistic values, paradigmatic values, substitutive value or skills. As the foreign words enter our language, they may go through changes in their form and structure. Albanian language gets the foreign words and processes them like its own words. They keep on developing, become units of its vocabulary and face the concrete historical conditions which determine Albanian language lexis development in general: they become producing roots. However, “the words which are produced in this way are Albanian language formations and are not considered borrowings.” (Thomai, 2009)

As we have mentioned it even before, Albanian language (but even Greek) borrowed foreign words (has borrowed from Greek in our case) if these words determined a new notion (they are taken from Greek along with the notion), if they introduced a new nuance of meaning which was not determined by the Albanian equivalents or if a special style required them (particularly the international terms). This means that the Albanian word did not enter from the beginning with all its lexical structure, but with just one meaning and mainly with the most important one. For example: the noun πάστρα (η) (cleanliness), has entered in Albanian in the function of an adjective i pastër - clean, or as an adverb pastër (cleanly). Meanwhile the abstract noun pastërti – cleanliness is an internal formation of Albanian from the adjective. In Greek the opposite process has happened: the adjective has been formed from the noun.

If we stop at the following words, these lexical reports are noticed: words in modern Greek/words in modern Albanian: πάστρα (η) / pastërti,-a (cleanliness) 1:3; παστρεύω / pastrój (clean) 1:10; παστρικός / παστρικός 4:16. It is obvious that Albanian is a polysemic language (there are 6 meanings in Greek but there are 29 meanings in Albanian for those three words which create a

115

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

word-formation semantic field. So, there are 23 meanings more in Albanian language.). The words that have entered in Albanian language from Greek in different periods of time have been taken along with their semantic structure from Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη; Λεξικό της νεας ελληνικής γλώσσας, με σχόλια για τη σωστή χρήση των λέξεων ερμηνευτικό, ετυμολογικό, ορθογραφικό, συνώνυμων – αντιθέτων, κύριων ονομάτων, επιστημονικών ορών, ακρωνυμιών; με αξιοποίηση τού γλωσσικου αρχειου; Αθηνών, 2002, as a dictionary of the big format and as one of the most qualitative published in Greece so far. While the respective words in Albanian with the developments and the full semantic structures have been taken from Dictionary of Modern Albanian Language, Tirana, 1980, as the dictionary with the most complete semantic structures in standard Albanian language. In case there are similar meanings in the structure of the meaning of the words, this is related to the parallel developments in each language, becoming an indicator of the common features these two nations share with each other in the material and in the spiritual world.

The Greek borrowings which particularly belong to the history and not to modern times have their own place in Albanian language lexis, because they are used based on the values they have brought, such as semantic, word-formation, expressive, stylistic values, etc. In the consciousness of the young, contemporary user, they are not treated as borrowings; therefore they have to be treated as Albanian language richness. The word-formation, semantic, paradigmatic, stylistic developments, etc. indicate their worth. Nowadays, we have lexical borrowings particularly from English, mainly in terminology but even in the general lexis, borrowings which enrich Albanian language. But a big wave of words is coming towards the standard Albanian language. The power of this group of words gets bigger as the borrowing is intermingled with the neology. It can be said that the borrowed words are often even the most unstable ones because of neglecting the Albanian word consciously or unconsciously.

3.Conclusions Tens of other words have interfered (entered) from Greek, such as: cuks (burns), farmakos (poison), feks (shine), gremis (drop), honeps (like), karfos (setlle), kakaris, katandis (take it to a critical position/state), kolis (attach), kopanis (hit the clothes with a log to wash them), kuis, kumbis, kumbisem (support the body or the head), lips (throw away), lajthis (male a mistake unconsciously), llahtaris (scare somebody to death), llogaris (calculate), mbodhis (prevent something from happening), miros (to oil the body with blessed oil), mirosem (get better), moleps (make something dirty, to transmit an illness to somebody), nanuris (make a baby fall asleep singing a lullaby to him/her), ormis (fix, prepare), pikas (notioce), pleks (mix, intermingle), piks (attach), psonis (buy), qëndis (sew), qeras (treat somebody with drinks and cakes), qeveris (lead), skalis (inscribe), sos (finish something), stis (set up), stolis (ornamate), tagjis (feed), taks, taksem (promise), tendos (lay), tromaks (scare somebody, vithis, vithisem (tear down, destroy), zalis (faint), zilepsem (envy) etc.

References: 1.Çabej, E. (1976). Disa probleme themelore të historisë së vjetër shqipe, në “Studime gjuhësore”, Prishtinë, III,– Some Fundamental Issues of the Old Albanian Language History

116

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

2.Çabej, E. (1976). Huazimet greke te “Marrëdhëniet e shqipes në periodën e saj historike” në Hyrje në historinë e gjuhës shqipe, në “Studime gjuhësore”, III, Prishtinë, 1976 – Greek Borrowings at “Albanian Language Relations in its Historical Period”, in Introduction to Albanian Language History. 3.Çabej, E. (1976). Hyrje në historinë e gjuhës shqipe, II, Tiranë, 1976 - Introduction to Albanian Language History II.

4.Çabej, E. (1977). Ilirishtja dhe shqipja, në “Studime Gjuhësore”, Prishtinë, 1977 – Illyrian and Albanian Language.

5.Çabej, E. (1984). Për pastërtinë e gjuhës shqipe, në “Gjuha shqipe”, nr. 3, Prishtinë, 1984 – On the Cleanliness of Albanian Language.

6.Çabej, E. (1977). Problemi i autoktonisë së shqiptarëve në dritën e emrave të vendeve, “Studime gjuhësore”, Prishtinë, 1977 – The issue of Albanians’ Autochthony Under the Light of the Names and Places.

7.Çabej, E. (1982). Problemi i burimit të popullit shqiptar e të gjuhës shqipe, “Studime gjuhësore”, - The issue of Albanian People and Albanian Language Source.

8.Çabej, E., Studime etimologjike në fushë të shqipes, bleu I, Tiranë, 1982 – Etymological Studies in Albanian Language I .

9.Çabej, E., Studime etimologjike në fushë të shqipes, bleu II, Tiranë, 1976 - Etymological Studies in Albanian Language II.

10.Çabej, E., Studime gjuhësore, I, Prishtinë, 1976 – Language Studies I.

11.Çabej, E., Studime gjuhësore, II, Prishtinë, 1976 - Language Studies II.

12.Çabej, E., Studime gjuhësore, III, Prishtinë, 1976 - Language Studies III. Μπαμπινιώτη, Γ, Λεξικό της νεας ελληνικής γλώσσας, με σχόλια για τη σωστή χρήση των λέξεων ερμηνευτικό, ετυμολογικό, ορθογραφικό, συνώνυμων – αντιθέτων, κύριων ονομάτων, επιστημονικών ορών, ακρωνυμιών; με αξιοποίηση τού γλωσσικου αρχειου; Αθηνών, 2002

13.Çeliku, M. (2009). Vepra “për pastërtinë e gjuhës shqipe, Fjalor, 1988, dhe fjalët e huaja në përdorim, në Çështje të shqipes standarde, Tiranë 2009 – Work “On the Cleanliness of Albanian language, Distionary” and the Foreign Words in Use in Issues of Standard Albanian.

14.Mancaku, S. (2008). Objektivitet shkencor dhe qëndrim kombëtar në veprën e E. Çabejt, në “Studime albanologjike, I, Gjuhë”, Tiranë, 2008 – Scientific Objectivity and National Position in the Work of E. Çabej in the “Albanological Studies, I, Language”, Tirana, 2008.

117

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

15.Mancaku, S. (2004). Probleme të historisë së gjuhës shqipe në dritën e marrëdhënieve të saj me greqishten, në “Seminari ...”, Prishtinë, 2004, 22/2 – Issues of Albanian Language History under the Light of its Relations with Greek, in the “Seminar ….” Prishtina. 16.Mancaku, S. (2007). Tradita e shkrimit të shqipes dhe “Formula e pagëzimit”, SF, 3-4, 2007 – The Tradition of Albanian Writing and “The Baptism Formula”

17.Mann,S. (1992). A historical Albanian Dictionary, Prishtinë.

18.Thomai, J. (2005). Leksikografia shqipe - trashëgimi dhe perspektivë, në “Leksikografia shqipe - trashëgimi dhe perspektivë”, Tiranë, 2005 – Albanian Language Lexicography-Heritage and Prespective.

19.Thomai, J. (2009). Leksikologjia e gjuhës shqipe, Tiranë, 2009 – Albanian Language Lexicography.

20.Thomai, J. (2001). Leksiku dialektor e krahinor në gjuhën shqipe, Tiranë, 2001 – Regional Lexis in Albanian Language.

21.Thomai, J., Një shtresim i leksikut nga pikëpamja e normës letrare, në “Norma letrare kombëtare dhe kultura e gjuhës”, 1, 973 – Layering the Lexis Based on the Literary viewpoint.

118

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

The Concept of “Autonomy” And Its Relationship with the Idea of Transhumanism

TEREC-VLAD Loredana Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania E-mail: [email protected]

Received 29.01.2015; Accepted 12.02. 2015

Abstract Medicine has a lot of principles that need to be complied with especially when it comes to saving the life of the individual and, at the same time, respecting his rights. Today there are increasingly more cases of malpraxis either because these principles are not fully complied with or out of negligence. We believe that one of the most important principles of medicine is autonomy, whereas it is essential for the individual to act in accordance with his principles and values or those of the society where he lives. In this paper I shall analyze the concept of autonomy and its relationship with transhumanism. I shall argue that within human enhancement - whether cognitive enhancement or human enhancement - the individual must be autonomous and must be able to decide regarding his maximum benefit. We believe that human bioenhancement is a project that – when put into practice - could have negative consequences, since moral enhancement is rather seen as a danger to the freedoms and autonomy of the individual.

Keywords: Autonomy, transhumansim, medicine, human enhancement, cognitive enhancement

1.Introduction ”Man, as the subject of knowledge, can transform almost anything into an object of the cognitive act: nature, his corporality, even the laws of his own thinking [...] but there always remains something that is less transparent to investigations” (Manea, T., 2003). Analyzed from different points of view within philosophy, man and his rights have been widely discussed; today we are again facing an attempt to define man, but from other perspectives: ethical, bioethical, medical, transhumanist, etc., but especially in terms of the relationships between the individual and the idea of good life, autonomy, freedom, right.

In antiquity, the concept of autonomy had political connotations. In medical practice, autonomy involves the patient’s free access to any information regarding his health; it is the realisation of the rational consciousness related to the individual freedom (Crăciun, P., Vicol, M.C., Turliuc, Ș., Astărăstoaie, V., 2012, pp. 21-30). As we all know, science and technology have developed and so have the risks that the individual has to face when it comes to using them. It is not only about mass 119

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

destruction weapons, but also about the life of the individual, especially when using the new technologies within medically assisted human reproduction. In Nick Bostrom’s view, transhumanism is not a dogmatic philosophy, but rather a cultural movement that supports the transformation of the human condition for the purpose of its improvement and enhancement (Bostrom, N., Roache, R., 2008); the view on technology is, thus, interpreted in terms of the development of the new technologies that could help the individual overcome his biological limitations, thus enabling such a post-human reality (Bostrom, N., 2001). We believe that once the new technologies have emerged within the life of the individual, they have altered his existence (both in the private and the public sphere).

Nowadays, democratic promises are increasingly affecting us in the sense that each individual wants to have their freedom respected and to have the state interfere in his private sphere as little as possible, or to have the privilege of being able to decide regarding the person he wishes to vote for or whether he wants to have children or not, etc. We all agree that, if we could choose how our child will be like, we would decide to choose high intellectual and physical abilities, outstanding aesthetic qualities, or - at least during adolescence – obedience. These wishes – if we can call them that - are now unachievable since currently there are no technologies that could replace the aggression gene with a gene of obedience, nor can we make them more beautiful than nature can. In this context, we believe it is necessary to feature the autonomy of the individual, which is an aspect that, in our opinion, could be violated, especially when it comes to using the new technologies within medically assisted human reproduction. The philosopher who explicitly formulated the principle of autonomy was Immanuel Kant, who believed that free will is the supreme principle of morality (Massini Correas, C.I., pp. 487-504) and "the sole principle of all moral laws and of the duties corresponding to them [...]. The sole principle of morality consists in the independence from all matter of the law and in the determination of the freedom of choice as a simple legislative universal form” (Kant, I., 1972, pp. 121-122).

The principle of autonomy is considered to be:

- The basis of moral duty, which lies in the practical reason of the subject expressed by its own laws (Croitoru, R ., 2006, p. 9)

- In order to become the basis of duty, practical reason must have universal value (Croitoru, R., 2006, p. 9)

For Beauchamps and Childress, the concept of autonomy means self-determination, which is achieved without the control and interference of other persons and is correlated with the exercise of choice, individuality and originality (Beauchamps, T., Childress, J.F., 1994): „some theories of autonomy feature the traits of the autonomous person, which include capacities of self governance, such as understanding, reasoning, deliberating, and independent choosing […] some writers argue that autonomy is a matter of having the capacity to reflectively control and identify with one’s basic

120

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

(first order) desires or preferences through higher level (second order) desires or preferences” (Beauchamps, T., Childress, J.F., 2001).

2. The concept of “autonomy” in postmodernism The debates regarding autonomy in the postmodern period bring on different specifications of the concept of autonomy: on the one hand, respecting the privacy of others, protecting confidential information, obtaining informed consent, etc. Julian Săvulescu makes a clear distinction between the Kantian and Millian view of autonomy and believes that "the individual should be encouraged to make rational choices that would improve his authenticity and quality of life [...] and certain choices, no matter how destructive they might seem, are sometimes essential for the individual in the construction of his own life and well-being” (Sandu, A., 2012). Given that science and technology have developed extremely fast, the individual is morally obliged to use the new technologies in a rational manner, as they can seriously harm the mankind by reporting witheducational experience (Esi, 2010, 41-50). It is not only about atomic or biological mass destruction weapons, but also about the application of the new technologies within medically assisted human reproduction.

As mentioned previously, in a not too distant future could science and technology could bring out the latest developments in the field of genetic engineering, and thus we shall be able to decide what kind of children to have: we believe that the great majority would like to have healthy, physically and morally improved children, with outstanding qualities. We have not yet asked ourselves how we shall relate to those children. Will they be treated in an instrumental manner or shall we treat them like our parents or grandparents treated their children? Obviously this question is difficult to answer because the differences between generations (not to say between centuries) regarding the way of thinking and the prejudices are obvious. Another issue that should be raised is related to the way the enhanced generation could treat their children. We obviously cannot know that; however, we can clearly assume that, from the moral perspective, the future generations will be morally improved since this is the only way that we ca use the resources of the earth and the new technologies rationally.

Julian Savulescu believes that we need moral bioenhancement, and this can only be achieved through the interference of the new technologies, since “a project of understanding and changing the human behaviour is an urgent priority" (Persson, I., Săvulescu, J., 2014), and "if we had some extremely effective techniques of moral bioenhancement and increased the use of traditional moral education, we could determine the motivational states of people (if the doctrine of necessity rules the field of human behaviour). However, this would not mean that these people are not responsible: people can be responsible for the way they act and react in different situations, even if someone else has determined the way they will react in those situations” (Persson, I., Săvulescu, J., 2014).

However, we believe that human bioenhancement involves the modification and alteration of the individual and entails many risks: firstly, the autonomy of the individual: mental alteration means 121

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

that he no longer has autonomy over his own person and his actions: he is programmed to carry out only moral actions. We have in this situation the idea of the “human values by reporting with sterotypes” (Esi, 2010, 140-146). But what if this situation were to turn, and we would use moral bioenhancement in order to overpower a certain segment of the population (soft slavery) (Terec- Vlad, L., Terec-Vlad, D., 2013) or, why not, in order to overpower a human race. Therefore, the transhumanist proposals regarding human enhancement and cognitive enhancement can be questioned given that the freedom and autonomy of the individual could be substituted.

Human bioenhancement could be a starting point, especially when talking about the tendency of the individual to destroy the planet, or to build biological and nuclear weapons; however, we cannot improve a race at cognitive level only out of the fear regarding the new scientific findings that could entail various consequences. However, Persson and Savulescu believe that “some children should be subject to moral bioenhancement just like they are now subject to traditional moral education” (Person, I., Savulescu, 2014).

Paraphrasing Vasile Astărăstoae, we believe that “the sleep of bioethics produces monsters”, given that any violation of the bioethical principles entails serious consequences. The paternalistic attitude of a parent wishing to have a morally enhanced child contradicts the principle of autonomy, because once the children are programmed to act in a certain way, their right to decide no longer exists.

3. Conclusions and suggestions In this paper we have analyzed the concept of autonomy and we have discussed several issues related to the freedom of the individual, given the fact that the transhumanist proposals of moral bioenhacement are questioned because, in our opinion, they violate the fundamental freedoms of the individual on the one hand. We believe that, from the perspective of the democratic rights, we have the possibility to choose whether we do harm or good, but under no circumstances can we create human puppets with the help of the new technologies only in order to support a project that could subsequently be considered the beginning of soft slavery.

References

1.Bachelard, G. (2010). Filosofia lui NU (The philosophy of NO), London: Universe Publishing House.

2.Beauchamps, T.; Childress, .F.. (1994), Principles of biomedical ethics, New York, Oxford University Press.

3.Beauchamps, T., Childress, J.F., (2001). Principles of biomedical ethics, 5th Edition, New York, Oxford University Press. 122

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

4.Crăciun, P., Vicol, M.C., Turliuc, Ș., Astărăstoaie, V.. (2012). Autonomie versus paternalism în internările nonvoluntarem (Autonomy versus paternalism in non-voluntary hospitalizations) Romanian Journal of Bioethics, Volume 10, no. 4, pp. 21-30, available at: http://www.bioetica.ro/index.php/arhiva-bioetica/article/view/244/416, visited on March 25, 2015 Bostrom, N., (2001), What is transhumanism, available at http://www.nickbostrom.com/old/transhumanism.html, visited on March 24, 2015.

5. Bostrom, N., Roache, R.. (2008). Ethical Issues in Human Enhancement, New Waves in Applied Ethics, eds. Jesper Ryberg, Thomas Petersen, Clark Wolf, Pelgrave Macmillan, pp. 120-152, available at http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/human-enhancement.pdf, visited on March 24, 2015.

6. Croitor. R., (2006), Datorii morale în limitele kantiene ale rațiunii (Moral duties within the Kantian limits of reason), Bucharest: All Publishing House, 9.

7. Esi, Marius Costel. (2010). Legitimizing the Educational Experience in the Context of the Didactic Methodoogy. Revista Romaneasca pentru Educatie Multidimensionala (Year 2, No 4, August, 2010), Lumen Publishing House.

8. Esi, Marius Costel. (2010). Promoting the Human Values Beyond Prejudice and Stereotypes. Educational Sciences Series, 62 1A, 140-146.

9.Massini Correas, C.I.. (2015). Existe un principio etico de la autonomia? Consideraciones a partir de la bioetica contemporanea, Anuario de la Facultatd de Derecho de la Universidad de La Coruna, 8, pp. 487-504, available at: http://ruc.udc.es/bitstream/2183/2328/1/AD-8-27.pdf, visited on March 24.

10. Manea, T., (2003), Filosofia contemporană și bioetica (Contemporary philosophy and bioethics), Romanian Journal of Bioethics, Volume 1, no. 2, available at http://www.bioetica.ro/index.php/arhiva-bioetica/article/view/269/457, accesed on March 23, 2015.

11. Parsson, I., Săvulescu, .. (2014). Neadaptați pentru viitor. Nevoia de bio-ameliorare morală (Un- adapted for the future. The need for moral bioenhancement), All Publishig House, Bucharest.

123

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

12.Sandu, A.. (2012). Etică și deontologie profesională (Ethics and professional deontology), Lumen Publishing House, Iași.

13.Terec-Vlad L.; Terec-Vlad, D.. (2013). Ethical aspects within human cloning, Procedia-Social and Behavioural Science, vol 92, 920-924.

124

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Occupational Training And Family Relationships Of Students In Conditions Of Personal Crisis Experience

OLIYNYK Maria I. "Yuriy Fedkovych" National University, Cernăuți, Ukraine E-mail:

PALAHNYUK O.V. Yuriy Fedkovych" National University, Cernăuți, Ukraine E-mail:

Received 28.01.2015; Accepted 13.02. 2015

Abstract On the basis of theoretical and empirical research there were analyzed the features of relationships of students’ occupational training and family relations in the context of the personal crisis experience. The main factors influencing the formation of professional and personal “I-concept” are singled out. The peculiarities of the development of the academic and occupational mobility of future professionals (including preschool education) in conjunction with students’ family relations are determined. The urgent directions for further research of the identified problems in the context of international cooperation of Chairof Pedagogics and Psychology of Early Childhood Education of the Department of Education, Psychology and Social Work of Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University are defined.

Keywords: professional training, occupational mobility, academic mobility, personal crisis, a professional “I-concept”, psychological readiness to family relationships.

1.Introduction Social development is characterized by activation of the human factor, especially in solution of information and globalizationmatters. In its turn, the development of science at European level in the direction of integration and internationalization of knowledge contributes to the development and implementation of new approaches to the content of qualified specialists’ training,their skills development, deepening and broadeningof their professional knowledge and skills.

2.Statement of problem. Modern social life is characterized by swift changes in different areas of life. The scientists claim that Ukrainian society is experiencing a systemic crisis caused by a number of factors that needs a thorough investigation.

125

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

This area of science requires deepanalysis of all factors of future professionals’ training, including the field of early childhood education that is directly related to the formation of a mature personality. Moreover, as students are formed under conditions of social changes, it is the youth environment that is their indicator. Spiritual and cultural development of the student youth is carried out in the conditions of a vacuum of values, where society totally cultivatesgains and cynical pragmatism. Public neglectingof basic rules of morality completely demoralizes the society and the youth is in the first place.

It is important to consider, firstly, that the statistics shows that majority of our countrymen marry for the first time at the student’s age (21-23 years old). Secondly, students are actively involved in the occupational training, which aims to upgrade the effectiveness of three aspects: academic quality (professional and general cultural and personal-developing components), competitiveness and occupational mobility of a graduate student in the labor market. In its turn it leads to involvementin implementing of international programs of mobility to provide employment in the international market of services and improvement of the training quality.

The question arises: how personal crisis which the majority of students suffer from affects their family relationships and occupational training. In addition, the impact of family relations on training of each spouse of young family, and especially on the development of professional and academic mobility of future specialists is still topical.

3.Purpose. The purpose of this article is to study the peculiarities of family relations impact on students’ training in terms of their personal crisis experiences.

4.Analysis of recent publications.Analysis of the problem under study requires an examination of research findings in different scientific branches. As the obtained results show, important aspects of implementation of educational technologies are covered in the scientific works related to the study of opportunities to improve the educational process of higher educational establishments - Yu.Babanskyi, V.Bezpalko, S.Honcharenko, I.Zyazyun, N.Talyzina, R.Khmelyuk, M.Yaremchenko, connected with the computerization of education - B.Hershunskyi, M.Zhaldak, Ye.Mashbyts, V.Monakhov, with the implementation of a modular approach to the educational process - A.Aleksyuk, K.Vazina, V.Okon, J.D.Rassel, Ye.Skovina, A.Furmana, P.Yutsyavichene and others. This demonstrates the urgency and constant attention to improving of the system of staff training, especially educational staff training in early childhood education. It is necessary to draw attention to the study of mobility in various aspects. Thus, occupational mobility is highlighted as an integral part of social life (B.Hershunskyy, B.Mitina, I.Yanzhul, B.Barber, Yu.Venikh, E.Gidens, P.Sorokin); the formation of occupational mobility of futurespecialists in various fields of activities: economic, educational, administrative, etc is considered. (O.Dementyeva, Ye.Ivanchenko, N.Kozhemyakina, R.Prima); the problems of social, educational academic and other kinds of

126

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

mobility are analyzed (N.Vasylenko, L.Danylova, M.Dmytriyeva, I.Khorev, L.Horunzha, L.Suschentseva, O.Scherbak, M.Talanchuk, S.Kuhel); the relationships of education, career and social mobility of young professional are studied (Kh.Huna, Sh.Fitzpatrick).

However, the researchers directly analyze various factors of occupational training and activities. Thus, we note that T.Yu.Lohinova researched the impact of spouses’ professional employment at the level of conflicts in family relationships. Psychological peculiarities of influence of spouses’ profession on their family life were generallyexamined by V.L.Sysenko, W.Harley, A.Shyshkin.

In this context particular attention is paid to the study of family and professional life of student’s family (K.M.Oganyan, A.I.Kopytenkova, L.V.Kartseva, G.I.Klimantova and others). A.V.Sydorenko, studying the problem of students’ psychological readiness to family life, called thischaracteristic the most important index of students’ social maturity and mental health. The problem of young people’s psychological readiness to the conjugal relationshipswas reflected in the works of V.M.Byzov, O.B.Kiz, I.S.Kon, F.Y.Kochkarova, G.A.Koshonko, P.A.Reshetov, V.G.Postovyi and others. Boys’ and girls’ preparing to family life wasa subject of study in the research of P.P.Blonskyi, I.V.Dubrovina, Ye.I.Zritneva, V.O.Sukhomlynskyi and others. Formation of qualities of future family man as an aspect of person’s social identity formation was researched in the works of V.N.Vershinin, O.L.Zvereva, V.A.Kan-Kalika, O.Ye.Levanova, L.M.Pankova, V.O.Sysenko. Psychological and pedagogical foundations of students’ preparing for family life were examined by I.L.Arabov, V.I.Barskyi, N.S.Vereshchagina, I.V.Grebennikov.

In studies of M.I.Alekseeva, E.F.Achildiyeva, L.F.Burlachuk, T.V.Govorun, I.V.Grebennikov, S.V.Dvoryak, I.V.Dubrovina, D.V.Lutsyk, A.M.Prykhozhan, S.Tselmer the following aspects of young people’s readiness for marriage are examined:aims, insight, motivation, skills and personality traits of a family person.A.P.Karasevych, L.A.Korostyliova, T.L.Levytska, G.Navaitis, L.M.Pankov, T.S.Zhurbytska, E.G.Eydemiller, L.B.Schneider and others comsidered the issues of students’ psychological readiness to a family creation.

Considerable attention was paid to the problem of marriage and family relations, in particular there were analyzed psychological compatibility and emotional adaptation of spouses in the first years after marriage (M.M.Obozov, T.N.Trapeznikova, P.M.Jacobson and others), factors influencing men’s and women’s satisfaction with marriage, roles distribution in the family (Yu.E.Alioshyna, L.Y.Gozman),there was studied the effect of values and partners’ marriage and family guidelines for future marital interaction (L.I.Moroz,Yu.E.Alioshyna, G.M.Dubchak, T.V.Hovorun), psychological analysis of divorces was conducted (L.Z.Serdiuk). We studied the psychology of emotional relationships: A.A.Bogoslovskyi was interested in sympathy and mechanisms of its occurrence, L.Y.Gozman and N.I.Azhgikhina examined the dynamics of emotional relationships from attraction to love. Foreign psychologists who are interested in intimate interpersonal relationships, studied the nature of the phenomenon of love, developed and supplemented its 127

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

typology (A.Maslow, R.May, E.Fromm and others), investigated the causes and manifestations of neurotic love (S.Freud, K.Horney), the impact of models of relationships that existed in the parent family on the marriage relationships (E.Berne and others). Determinants of young people’s choice of civil marriage were explored by O.Ya.Klyapets. In addition, the researchers demonstrated that the precondition for psychological well-being of the individual is the satisfaction with marriage that fully promotes personal development.

However, scientists have shown that the harmony of family relationships is a reliable factor in the social environment, family sustainability index to destructive influences. And one of the evaluation criteria for this indicator is satisfaction with the marriage, which creates a favorable socio- psychological climate in the family - emotional background that directly or indirectly influences the ability of the subject to carry out their professional activities (V.V.Zlahoduh).

5.Analysis of the research results. Generalization of the obtained results of theoretical investigations and focus of our research interest in the problem of occupational training in general, and early childhood education in particular, accompanied by the development of issues of academic and occupational mobility prompted us to pay attention to the study of family relationships in this context.Becauseoccupational training of students (and not only Ukrainian) is often implemented simultaneously with the formation of their marriage and family relationships.And this, in its turn, requires an examination of the characteristics of mutual influence ofthese student lifeareas.

It is reasonable to note that at the present stage of the national education reforming in Ukraine priority task is improving ofthe occupational training of future teachers, including specialists of preschool profile. After all, teachers are due to perform the tasks posed by modern society to preschool programs, in particular the formation of physically healthy and harmoniously developed personality with high moral and ethical qualities that will allow it to serve as a carrier of culture, active subject of social relations, able to training in educational establishments, further self- development and self-realization (Бурова, 1999, 6; 12, p. 21-34).

Training of future specialists, who would be able to establish a democratic style of relationships in work with children or students,is possible in the conditions of introduction of a stepwise system of training. The process of specialist’s stepwise training, able to work in the field of early childhood education, requires higher educational institutions teachers to use innovative technologies in the teaching of the course of regulatory, professional and educational disciplines, techniques that form the student’s ability to learn independently, think critically, manage their cognitive activity, transform the acquired knowledge in important life competence [6; 7, p. 21]. Of particular role in this process is the use of personally oriented technology aimed at developing of an active and creative personality of the future specialist who can independently build and adjust their teaching and learning activities. The staff of the Chair of Education and Psychology of Early Childhood Education, Department of Education, Psychology and Social Work of Yuriy FedkovychChernivtsi

128

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

National University is busy with implementing of innovative technologies aimed firstly at the formation of future preschool teachers’ personal qualities that will help master meaningful, mature teaching position, be able to take a fresh formulating educational goals and achieve them, have the ability to see individual abilities of children and teach according to their characteristics, possess technologies, innovative forms and methods of training; be able to personal creative development, reflective activities, have innovative competence. The latter is a system of motivations, knowledge, skills, teacher’s personal qualities formed on the basis of awareness of innovative educational technologies, proper mastery of their content and methodology, high culture of innovation in educational work, personal belief in the need for a pedagogical systems oriented to innovation activity, and therefore to the search for new approaches to future educator training (Інноваційні пошуки в сучасній освіті, p. 71-75,'12, p. 57).

It should be noted that the sources of willingness to innovative activity reach issues of personal development, professional orientation, education and self-education, professional self-identityof educator.

In this context, we find conclusions of O.H.Losiyevska and V.V.Losiyevskyito be interesting who studying the impact of features of family education for future professional determination of students, concluded that the most important external factor is the parents’ influence on shaping of students’ professional determination. In addition, the authors examine the concept of “professional self-determination” as a complex process that has many factors influencing its development, in particular such external factorsas: macro-and micro-society; internal factors: personal motivation, individual and typological features, peculiarities ofa value-semantic sphere, peculiarities of“I- concept” - that must be considered in a real choice situation (Бодров, 2001).

It is theoretically proved that in the present conditions there is need to study the factors that shape the future professional aim. It is shown that the most important external factor is the parents’ influence on shaping of a professional determination of students. The parents’opinion plays a very important role, often crucial one. In fact, parents’ attitude towards work in general, statements about different professions, stories about their own work, voluntary or involuntary attitude to work is “accumulated” in children’sconsciousness and subconsciousnesssince early childhood and affect determining of their future when they are older children (Баранова, 2001). This effect is directly related to the relationships that exist between parents and childrenwithin the family. Effect of interaction style of parents with children has far implications and defines their lives. Factors that are initially external, in the process of child-parent relationships gradually become a gain of the child’s consciousness and subconsciousness, convert into individual characteristics of the child, manifested in his abilities, interests, values, attitudes, motives, that is become internal factors, related to professional choice. Above all, parents’ influence is also manifested in the formation of “I-concept” of students, which includes both professional I-concept, which plays a significant role in the occupational training and activities of future professionals.

129

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Of special significance is the problem of the role of professional “I-concept” in the modernization of national education, while updating occupational mobility issues as an integral part of occupational training and educators. It must be mentioned that the latteris not studied enough both in Ukraine and in the EU countries. The analysis of occupational mobility studies in classical fundamental works by P.Sorokin (professional and social-class categories), S.Ozhegov (general scientific level), B.Mescheryakov (position of psychological approach), L.Danylova (economic approach), I.Shpektorenko (management approach), N.Vinnyk (socio-psychological approach) showed that occupational mobility is formed in social, academic, cultural, socio-cultural and professional environment. Scientific studies give reason to believe that the term “mobile professional teacher” means an individual who is able to improve, to respond flexibly to new demands and conditions of existence, to adapt to them (L.Amirova); person that owns sensitivity to innovative changes in education, the ability to the internal mobilization of own resources in order to adapt to the educational environment that is constantly changing (L.Horyunova). There is no doubt that the pedagogical conditions of occupational mobility should be an integral part of the strategy of training of future pre-school teachers, which is actively taken into accountby the Chair of Pedagogy and Psychology of Early Childhood Education through the introduction of courses “Fundamentals of Academic Mobility” and “Technology of Occupational and Pedagogic Mobility”as well as participation of undergraduate and graduate students in programs of high quality short-term mobility, particularly within the inter-university agreement between the pedagogical University of Cracow (Poland) and other institutions (students exchange aimed at pedagogical training, studying of particular academic disciplines,participation in common research of current issues of early childhood education, co-supervisionof students’ research work, scientific conferences, seminars, workshops).

However, we believe it is important to consider that occupational mobility depends on several factors (external or internal). Impacts of students’ family (conjugal) relationships occupy a special placeamong them. Because student yearsare not only a period of getting higher education, but also a favorable time for a family creating. In terms of educational establishment there are great opportunities to choose a marriage partner. Student age by physiological, psycho-physiological and psychological indicators is the most suitable for marriage life.

According to Ukrainian psychologist T.L.Levitska, a significant percentage of today’s students is not prepared for marriage. Low level of students’ psychological readiness to a family can be a cause of instability in the future family, destructive interpersonal conflicts and divorce. This adversely affects the mental health of students and the results of their studies and needs to find effective ways of its settling (Lewicka, 2002).

T.L.Levytska states that youth unpreparedness for a family is found in the absence of true ideas of modern young people about the role of husband and wife. Instead, girls dream of a successful career, imaginethemselvesbeing made for luxury. The same goes for boys, their ideas about their

130

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

roles in the family are superficial. They often see it as a means to achieve certain goals and create comfortable conditions for their existence (R.G.De Grace, 1984, p. 9).

I.V.Dubrovina notes that many difficulties which appear when today’s youth marry arise from the inability to be attentive to the needs of others, take care of family adults. This problem, in her opinion, is stipulated by the nature of the parental family: familieswith one or two children dominate: increased attention to the children, - parents’ center of concerns is children’s needs and interests, their demands and requests. Thus, a selfish motivation develops since childhood. This person’s internal position can be saved when individual creates his family, where the requirements addressed to father and mother before may be madefor wife or husband now. Not formed understanding of their responsibilities in relation to other family members in childhood hinder to build young couple’s relationships.

Thus, preparation for family life is primarily formation of orientation to another person, forming of ability and desire to understand the people around them, take into account their interests, tastes, attitudes, habits (Бодров, 2001).

E. Erickson sees psychological readiness for marital relations as a complex socio-psychological process based on sufficiently formed spiritual maturity that encourages people to seek intimate psychological closeness, unity, against isolation and loneliness.

According to S.V.Kovalev, the starting point of people’s readiness to marriage and family is an active understanding of the social significance of their actions, certain obligations, a responsibility for family and children, voluntary acceptance of troubles and limitation of personal freedom, inevitable in family life (Балабанова, 1999).

By L.B.Schneider’s definition, readiness for marriage is an integral category reflecting a whole range of issues, including: readiness to interpersonal communication and collaboration; guidelines on maintaining fidelity in marriage, integrity and wisdom, physiological and moral unity of a man and a woman, the ability to dedication to a partner, the ability to resolve interpersonal conflicts in a constructive way (Ibidem).

At the same time, in opinions of V.S.Torokhtiy, A.N.Siganov, N.V.Rymashevskyi and other researchers, psychological readiness of a man to the marital relationship is formed from the moment when a person realizes his commitment to special intimate feelings without fear of losing some confidence. By establishing these relations each personality gets opportunity to care for a loved one, to participate in his decisions,be responsible for a partner, to create the conditions for their own

131

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

safety and security. These relationships also contribute to the development of such personality characteristics as respect, open communication, equality, authenticity and open partnership.

A.V.Sydorenko considers students’ psychological readiness to family life as an integral characteristic that unites the psychological motives, knowledge, person’s skills andqualities that provide building relationships of a married couple.

In her scientific work G.A.Koshonko indicates that young people’s psychological readiness for the creation and development of the family is formed not sufficiently because of inadequate education in the parental family, influence of peers’ opinion about marriage, low level of preparation for a family creation in school and others.

To improve the preparation of youth for future family life V.P.Kravets adopted the following recommendations: to agree actions of all educational institutions which influence shaping of a future family man;to strengthen the responsibility of educational institutions and family for conscientious performance of their functions and duties in implementation of the objectives of sex and premarital education; to focus on problems of youth’s training to a family life in teaching practice (Кравець , 1984, p. 357].

Thus, in modern conditions the problem of young students’ psychological readiness to creation of family gets a particular relevance both in theoretical andin practical aspects, due to such realities of Ukrainian society as lowering of the family prestige, changes in value orientations and system of young people’s training to family life itself. In addition to the above mentioned, the training of future professionals in our case, in the pre-school education is influenced by a number of factors related to the psychological characteristics of family relations (conflicts, stability, stability of relations, etc.), economic factors. However, we consider it appropriate to highlight the problem of personal crisis that takes place among students in Ukraine. In the context of the thesis research aimed to study Christian religious directives as a factor in the formation of the individual’s social responsibility the author determined that Ukrainian students are characterized by tendencies to the formation of social and economic dependence (social dependency). The latter can be seen in the light of passive life strategies according to K.Albukhanova-Slavska [1, p. 247]; estimated as a negative form of social and economic adaptation by E.Balabanova (Балабанова,1999.); considered a compensatoraccording to M.Kimanska, which states that a person who is not in charge of his life, which is “dependenton someone”will always feel confident, calmer than a person who is completely responsible for himself and maybe for someone else (Кліманська). Moreover, it is this strategy which is characteristic for young people who have experienced a crisis of identity, typical for this age group in today’s society of transformations period, and defined its stance that helps them maintain mental balance.

132

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

However, it is important that factor of this model of formation of social responsibility as a social dependency is students’ experiences of personal (and religious) crisis, caused by a negative character of interpersonal relationship with the environment, aggregate of individual’s negative experiences concerning God, and again, person’s “negative” understanding of the world and himself, self irreceptivity (absence of self-acceptance) and rejection of the social environment (and belief that the environment does not accept the man himself) (Балабанова, 1999). In addition, the analysis of the obtained data allows us to single out the factors in the formation of social dependency. They include social and political relations in the society and in the family. First of all, these are authoritarian relations in the country (and in the family) as well as consumer values, ego- tendencies, identity crisis. Stereotypes of dependency are often found not only in the relationship between parents and children, but also in marital and family relationships [9]. Pointing to the crucial role of the family in the formation of personality, the famous American psychologist FrantsAleksander wrote: “Anthropology has shown that typical people traits are derived from similar behaviors in family life that prevail in this culture”.

Thus, the emergence of human dependency guidelines is closely associated with social stereotypes prevailing in our society and to some extent provoked by them. Obviously, it requires reorganization of social relations based on democratic principles of mutual aid, mutual respect, mutual responsibility, the ability to make choices, take decisions and be responsible for its conequences.

6.Conclusions. Thus, in the context of the modernization of the educational process (and especially in higher educational establishments) one of the urgent and promising directions is the development of academic mobility. This requires not only the development and provision of appropriate psychological and educational conditions, but also taking into account all the vital areas of students and their impact on occupational training.

We have reasons to believe that these are family relations in terms of the personal crisis experience, discovered empirically, that is one of the significant factors affecting students’occupational training. We believe that this issue requires further thorough analysis. In particular, the possible areas of research of the problem may be: - ways to improve students’ preparation to future family life; - providing psychological and educational assistance to students’ families; - developmentof academic mobility programs and generally occupational training of student youth taking into account their marital status; - studying of the foreign universities experience in the direction of harmonization of occupational training and future professionals’ family life. In our opinion, the above is not only an actual scientific problem at a theoretical level, but also ata practical one. Anditsresearch at international levelallows not only studying and learning the positive experience, but also organizing of a joint research in a certain direction.

133

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

References

1. Альбуханова-Славская К. А. Стратегия жизни. – М., 1991.

2. Балабанова Е. С. Социально-экономическая зависимость и социальный паразитизм: стратегии «негативной адаптации» // Социологические исследова-ния. – 1999. – №4. – С. 46–57.

3. Балабанова Л. М. Психолого-педагогічні проблеми студентського віку / Л. М. Балабанова // Психологія : зб. наук. праць. – К. : НПУ, 1999. – № 7. – С. 169-170.

4. Баранова О.В. Особливості та проблеми сучасної сім'ї / / Психологічний журнал. - 2001. - № 2.

5. Бодров В. А. Психологія професійної придатності / В. А. Бодров. – М. : Пресс, 2001. – 511 с.

6. Бурова А. Педагогічні інновації в дошкільній освіті // Дошкільне виховання. – 1999. - № 7. – С. 5 – 6.

7. Інноваційні пошуки в сучасній освіті / За ред. Л. І. Даниленко, В. Ф. Паламарчук; упор. Г. М. Перевознікова. – К.: Логос, 2004. – 220 с.

8. Кравець В. П. Теорія й практика підготовки учнівської молоді до сімейного життя: дис. Доктора пед. наук: 13. 00. 01 / В. П. Кравець. – Тернопіль, 1997. – 386 с.

9. Lewicka M. Daj czy wypracuj? Szescienny model aktywnosci // Jednostka i społecżenstwo. – Gdansk, 2002. – S. 83– 101.

10. Кліманська М. Психологічні чинники соціального утриманства // Проблеми загальної та педагогічної психології. Збірник наукових праць Інституту психології ім. Г. С. Костюка АПН України. – К., 2003. – Т. 5. – Ч. 5. – С. 152–156.

11. R.G.De Grace. Kryzysy życiowe a rozwój osobowości – wnioski dotyczące terapii. “Zdrowie Psychiczne”, 3 - 4 (1984), c. 8.

12. Химинець В.В., Сивохоп Я.М., Петрус В.В. Психолого-педагогічні аспекти інноваційних технологій. – Ужгород, 2006. – 148 с.

134

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Editorial Policy

Policy of Journal International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation publishes original research papers in the field of: Social Science and Humanities, Education, Psychology, Philosophy, Logics, Ontology and Philosophy of Science, Political Science, History, Sociology, Business and Marketing, Economics, Financial Development, Accounting, Banking, Management, Human Resources, Law, Public Administration Environmental Studies, Climate Change, Educational Technology, Language and Linguistics and so on.

All papers which will be sent for evaluation/ publishing must contain educational approaches.

Policy of Peer Review Process International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) is an open acces and double blind peer review. All the paper received are firstly assessed by our editorial board which is composed of academic staff and renowned researchers. The complete review process take maximum four weeks after the acknowledge of the submission e- mail of the contributor. After the review process each paper will receive an answer from one of editorial board’ s members concerning he validation (partial validation or full validation) or the nonvalidation (reject) of the paper, as follows: A: Validation 1. Accept (validation) 2. Accept with minor changes (partial validation) 3. Accept with major changes (partial validation) B: Nonvalidation 4. Reject (nonvalidation)

You can see more information about the papers submission at the end of this volume (at the Instructions for authors section.

Policy of Publication Ethics and Malpractice Statement Duties of Editor Duties of Authors Duties of Reviewers

Policy of copyright An Copyright Agreement (you can see the Appendix 1). will have to accompany your submission (the signed Copyrigt Agreement has to be scanned). Each author(s) is responsible for the signature clarity. Please, read, clarifully the terms of provided in Copyright Agreement and if you agreewith them, download, fill in and send the form to [email protected]

135

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Instructions for Authors

Format and Style All papers sent for assessment have to company APA Guidelines. For more information, please website http://.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/apa (https://www.library.cornell.edu/research/citation/apa).

Submit papers If you would like to submit a scientific paper to publish in International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro), please send it (in english language) for further evaluation to e- mail: [email protected] according to next template (you can see the Appendix 2).

For more information, please contact us at e-mail address [email protected]

136

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Appendix 1

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) ISSN/ ISSN-L (print): 2392-6252; ISSN (online): 2393- 0373 Website: ijsei.wgz.ro E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] COPYRIGHTInternational AGREEMENT Journal of Social and Educational Innovation is indexed in international databases Title of paper ______

The author(s) guarantee(s) that the paper presented for the publication in International Journal of social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) is an original work.

The undersigned hereby transfers any and all rights in and to the paper including, without limitation, all copyrights to the International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro).

The copyright transfer covers all rights to referee, translate, publish, digitize, archive, reproduce and distribute, including reprints, photographic reproduction, microform, or any other reproductions of similar nature.

Hereby signing this form the Author(s) confirm(s) that the information presented above is correct and undertake(s) to abide by the guarantees and obligations given above:

Nr.crt. Name and surname of Date Signature author(s)

The journal/publisher is not responsible for subsequent uses of the work. It is the author's responsibility to bring an infringement action if so desired by the author.

Send this copyright agreement to [email protected]

137

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

Appendix 2

Title of the paper (Times New Roman, 16 – Bold)

Gabriel POPESCUX The Best University Suceava, Country E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract (Times New Roman 12, Italic) Text Times New Roman, caracter 11, Italic, la 1, 15 lines/ space text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

Keywords: first word, second word so on, no more than five words and no less than three word

1.Introduction (Times New Roman, 12 Bold) Paper will be elaborated in next format: A4, Times New Roman, left 2 cm, right 2 cm, down 2 cm, up 2, 5 cm. The paper has an even number pages. The paper will be elaborate to 1,15 line/ space (8- 25 pages), in english language. It is required to have an Abstract, Keywords, Introduction, Corpus of the paper and Conclusion and sugestions).

Use premise indicators (as, since), conclusion indicator (so, therefore, hence, then consequently, accordinhly), linking words (more, better than, furthermore, also, all the same, for all that, though,nevertheless so on). You can use words in latin  sic (lato sensu, stricto sensu, sui generis) Be original!

Don’t deviate from the main issue!

2. Title (Bold) text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text . text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text . You can use references in text for books. Popescu (2014)posited that text text text concerning theory of education (Popescu, 2014) text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text as has been shown (Popescu & Ionescu, 2013) text text text text as Popescu and Gavrilescu (2012) demonstrated that text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

138

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

text text text text text text text text text text text text Popescu, Ionescu, and Gavrilescu (2001) found text text text text text text text Bruja et al. (1991) found text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text.

2.1 First subtitle (Bold) Text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text (National Institute of Education [NIE], 2013) text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text (Bachelard, 2010) – for books text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text (Ionescu, 2013) for chapter/ section from books text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

2.2 Another title - Times Bew Roman 12,Bold Text text text text text text text text text You can use references in text for specific parts of a sources (Popescu & Ionescu, 2010, p.21) text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text Popescu (2010) overstated the case when he asserted that “The scientific analysis in the educational approach emphasizes a certain relationship between the social system and the process of learning itself “ (p. 22). text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text (text text text text text (text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text (Voloncea & Smith, 2014, pp. 33-34) for papers/ article from journals, revues text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

3. Another Title - Times Bew Roman 12, Bold text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text). text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

3.1 Another subtitle - Times Bew Roman 12, Bold text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

139

International Journal of Social and Educational Innovation (IJSEIro) Volume 2 / Issue 3/ 2015

3.2 Another subitle - Times Bew Roman 12, Bold text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text

4. Conclusions and sugestions - Times New Roman 12, Bold Text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text.

References (Bold) – alphabetical order 1. Bachelard, G., (2010). Filosofia lui NU, London: Publishing House Univers. – for books

2. Brousseau, G., (1998). Les obstacles épistémologiques, problèmes et ingénierie didactique. Brousseau, G. Théorie des situations didactiques, Grenoble La Pensée Sauvage, 1998. (pp. 115- 119). – for paper/ articles from journal, revues)

3. Ionescu, M., (2013). Education and school. In John Smith (ed.), Education and company, (pp.21- 31), Manchester University Press. – for chapters from books.

4. Perrenoud, P. (1998). La transposition didactique à partir de pratiques: des savoirs aux competences, adresă web: http://www.unige.ch/fapse/SSE/teachers/perrenoud/php_main/php_1998/1998_26.html [accessed to la 21.10.2012]. - for papers/articles from websites

140