Key Moments and Events leading up to, during and after the

Dates Events 31 March 1905 The German Emperor, Wilhelm II visits Tangier with the aim of destabilizing French control over . He announces his support for Morocco’s independence from . The French and their British Allies prepare for war. 16 January to 7 April The Moroccan crisis is temporarily resolved at a conference of the Great Powers at 1906 Algeciras in . Only - supported the German position. France retained control of Morocco but ceded part of the French Congo to . The crisis increased the tension between the Triple and the . April – July 1908 A revolt against the rule of Sultan Abdel Hamid II, led by the (Genç Türkler), reflected growing popular unrest about the interference of the other Great Powers in the ’s European territories. 5 October 1908 , already a fairly autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire, declared its independence. 6 October 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed without consulting the other Great Powers. mobilized for war with the support of but did not have the support of Britain and France. 13 (31 Known as the (31 Mart Olayi), this was a coup by conservative forces March 1325 on the opposed to the constitutional government led by the Committee of Union and Progress Rumi Calendar) (an umbrella political organization including the Young Turks. It reflected divisions within the army between the new secularist elite within the army trained in military academies and “the old guard” who had risen through the ranks and now felt sidelined. The coup was suppressed in 11 days and the Sultan was deposed. May- A rebellion in Morocco against the pro-French Sultan in April led to French troops (and Spanish troops) being sent to suppress it. Germany sent a gunboat to the port of Agadir, apparently to protect German interests. As in the in 1906, Britain supported France and Kaiser Wilhelm backed down. to May In the spring of 1912 there were a series of Albanian uprisings against their Ottoman 1913 overlords. Serbia, Bulgaria, and , seeking to exploit the chaos in the Ottoman Empire declared war and won a series of against Ottoman troops. As a result the Ottoman Empire lost most of its European territories and an independent Albanian state was created. 16 Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the territories gained in the 1st Balkan War declared war on its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Once war had begun Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire also joined the opposition to Bulgaria. The outcome was that Bulgaria lost most of the territory it had gained in the 1st Balkan war to the opposing Allies with Serbia doubling her territory and Greece increasing her territory by nearly 70%. 28 Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Duchess Sophie in Sarajevo by Bosnian Serb nationalists. 5 The Kaiser promises support for Austria-Hungary against Serbia. 28 July 1914 On 23 July Austria-Hungary, after ensuring it had the support of its ally, Germany, presented the Serbian government with an ultimatum. It should cease anti-Austrian propaganda, disband all anti0Austrian organisations, the two Serbian officials involved in the assassination plot should be arrested and tried and Austrian officials should be involved in the Serbian inquiry into the plot. The Serbian government accepted all of these demands except the last. At the same time the Serbian army mobilized for war. 1 After Russia mobilized for war and called on its ally France to do the same, Germany declared war on Russia. 2-8 August 1914 Germany implemented the and invaded and with the aim of defeating France quickly and then moving troops to Germany’s Eastern frontier before Russia could fully mobilize its forces. 3 August 1914 Germany declares war on France. 4 August 1914 Britain warns Germany to withdraw from neutral Belgium. The warning is ignored and Britain declares war on Germany. 6 August 1914 Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia and Serbia declares war on Germany.

1 9 August 1914 The British Expeditionary Force (all regular army) began embarking for Belgium and once landed marched for the Belgium-German border to join the Belgian army which was already delaying the German advance. The French army was deployed along the Franco- German border. 7-9 August 1914 Meanwhile the Russian 1st and 2nd armies were advancing into East and facing little resistance. 17 August 1914 The German launched a counter-attack on the Russian . After early success they were forced to retreat at the of Gumbinnen, close to the Russian border. Fearing that the might now threaten the German High Command replaced the commanders on the Eastern Front with Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff who halted the German retreat. 19 August 1914 President Woodrow announces that the will remain neutral in the conflict. 23 August 1914 declared war on Germany. This meant that Russia and Japan were now allies and the Russian High Command did not face a threat from the east. They could concentrate on attacking the German army in the west. 23-24 August 1914 Meanwhile the French was fighting the German 2nd and 3rd armies at in southern Belgium while the British were alongside side them facing the German 1st army at . Outnumbered 3 to 1 their orders were to hold the German 1st army for 24 hours to protect the left flank of the French. They held the line for 48 hours but then both the British and French were forced to retreat across the French border fighting rearguard actions all the way. Both sides suffered heavy casualties. 21-26 August 1914 The Schlieffen Plan had not worked as intended. The fast advance into France and the anticipated capitulation of the French army had not happened. The British had had time to build up forces in Belgium and the Russians had had time to advance into north-east Germany. The Russian continued to advance southwards towards the River and became detached from the 1st army, which was advancing on Königsberg. 26-30 August 1914 The Russian 2nd army suffered a major defeat at the hands of the German 8th army at the , with 78.000 killed or wounded and 92.000 taken prisoner. The Commander of the Russian 2nd Army, General Samsonov committed suicide rather than tell the Tsar that the 2nd army had been destroyed. 1 – 13 September The Russian 1st army was ordered to hold its position and the was sent to 1914 reinforce it. Russian forces were spread along a line from Königsberg in the north to the Masurian Lakes in the south. After a fierce battle with the German 8th army the Russians were force to retreat back across the Russo-German border. Another major defeat for the Russian army with 125.000 killed or wounded and 45.000 taken prisoner. By comparison the had 40.000 casualties. 6-12 September The British and French armies were pushed back to the Rivers Seine and Marne about 50 1914 kilometres from . There they launched a counter-attack and succeeded in driving a wedge between the German 1st and 2 armies in what came to be known as “The miracle of the Marne”. So crucial was the outcome that 600 taxis were used to take French reservists form Paris to the battle front. The German armies retreated and started to construct a line of defensive trenches in - and south to the Swiss border. – 18 The only room for manoeuvre now was further north in . Both sides embarked on what some historians call “the race to the ” in an attempt to outflank each other. If the Allies were outflanked the whole of France would be vulnerable. If the Germans were outflanked their communications link back to Germany would be cut off. 19 October - 22 1st Battle of . The town of Ypres (French) or Ieper (Flemish) was strategically significant. Just 50 kilometres from and the sea. The British needed it to keep their supply lines open. The Germans and the French saw it as the gateway to the French coastal towns of Calais and Boulogne. Ypres had been taken by the German army at the beginning of the war. In October it was recaptured by British forces who were then attacked by a larger German force for more than 4 weeks until they were reinforced by French, Belgian and Canadian forces. Defences were constructed along a line known as the ; a pocket of land which projects out into enemy-held territory and is vulnerable to attack from three sides. The Germans abandoned the offensive in late November because of the deteriorating winter weather. There were heavy casualties on all sides. After this battle the British needed to reinforce their regular army with conscripted soldiers.

2 28-29 October 1914 The Ottoman Empire formally entered the war on the side of the when it bombarded the Russian ports. 25 The famous Christmas Day unofficial ‘truce’. When Allied and German soldiers in the trenches just 100 metres apart around Ypres met in No Man’s Land and celebrated Christmas together. Such fraternization was subsequently forbidden by the high Commands of both sides. 31 Battle of Bolimow. The German confronted Russian forces west of . They fired ‘000s of non-poisonous Tear Gas shells. The idea was to incapacitate the Russian soldiers and then launch the attack. It failed. The gas vaporized in the freezing cold and blew back on the Germans who abandoned the attack. 3 Ottoman troops launched an unsuccessful attack on the British-controlled . 18 February -22 British attacked the Ottoman forts protecting the , the straits of the international waterway linking the Mediterranean with the Black Sea. The forts guarding the entrance were put out of action but the straits themselves were mined and the Ottoman forces held the high ground. On 18 were sunk and another 3 were crippled. The rest of the fleet withdrew to Alexandria in and the British High Command began to plan a military attack instead. 22 March 1915 Russian forces capture 120.000 Austrian troops at Przemysl in to open the way for a Russian invasion of Hungary. 22 2nd . German forces launched the first poison gas attack of World War 1. Over 170.000 kgs of gas were released over the part of the held by French troops. 6000 tied in minutes, many others were blinded and the rest abandoned their trenches under heavy fire. This left a gap in Allied defences but German troops were slow to move into it and it was eventually closed by Canadian and British troops, but with heavy casualties. More chlorine gas was released over the Ypres Salient in the following days. 23 April – 24 May Allied forces withdrew to the town of Ypres and the Salient became much smaller but 1915 the German forces lacked the supplies and manpower to force home their advantage. The offensive was abandoned. The Allies suffered 69.000 casualties and the German forces lost 35.000 men. 25 April 1915 – 9 The Campaign. On 25 April British, Australian, and French forces attempted to land at various points along the southern coastline of the Gallipoli peninsula with the objective of marching north to take and gain control of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The invasion force met strong resistance form Ottoman forces and after 8 months of fighting the invasion force was evacuated. It was one of the worst Allied defeats of the War. The Ottoman victory was a defining moment in the forging of a strong sense of national identity that led to the Republic of 8 years later. 26 April 1915 Italian diplomats met in secret with officials from the Triple Entente where they discussed leaving the Triple Alliance and joining the Triple Entente. If the allies were victorious Italy would gain parts of what is now Northern Italy that were then under Austrian control, North and would become an Italian protectorate. The of was signed and Italy entered the war one month later. 2-4 A combined German and Austrian army defeats the Russian in Galicia. 7 May 1915 The sinking of the British Lusitania off the Irish coast by a German U-Boat. The Lusitania had left on May 1st. The passengers, some of whom were US citizens, had been warned that the ship was sailing into a war zone and that German were operating a “sink on sight” policy in the area. But they chose to travel anyway. The liner was sunk by U-boat 20 with one torpedo. Over 1.000 passengers died including 128 Americans. The British government called it an act of piracy but some historians have questioned why it sunk so quickly and why there was a secondary, internal explosion. One answer that has been proposed is that the ship was carrying munitions, which would have made it a legitimate target for the U-boats. 23 May 1915 Italy entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente. 24 May 1915 Italian forces advanced on the Isonzo Valley to the west of and engaged with Austrian troops. This began a two-year campaign for control of the region. 12 German and Austrian troops renew their Galician offensive against the 3rd and 8th Russian armies. The Russians suffer 400.000 casualties. 16 June 1915 A second French offensive against Vimy succeeds in seizing the Ridge but then a German counter-attack forces them back with 100.000 casualties.

3 1 The first air fight of the war when a German E.1 fighter plane shot down a French observation plane using a newly-developed synchronized which fired bullets through the propeller without hitting the blades. By August the Germans had achieved aerial supremacy over the Western Front. 13 July 1915 German and Austrian forces now advance on Warsaw and Russian forces in north , with low morale and a shortage of supplies now retreated to the east. 5 German and Austrian forces take Warsaw and continue their advance into Poland. By the end of September the Russian forces have been driven out of Poland and Galicia. 6 Bulgaria enters the war on the side of the Triple Alliance, which now becomes the (because of their location in ). 25 September 1915 The uses poison gas (Chlorine) for the first time at the in Northern France near the River . This was described at the time as “The Big Push”. The aim was to break through the German lines, force the Germans to use their reserve forces to prevent a further advance so that the French could attack and take Vimy Ridge. The chlorine gas enabled British troops to breach the line but German re-grouped and inflicted large losses on the British troops. Field Marshal French, the British commander in chief, was replaced by General Haig. 26 September 1915 The French finally take Vimy Ridge. 26-28 September Allied forces in the defeat Turkish troops in 1915 6 Central Powers invade Serbia. The Serbian troops are completely outnumbered and retreat westwards into the mountains and Albania. 19 The Allied evacuation form the Gallipoli peninsula began. 21 February – 18 The Battle of . A series of German offensives along the River Meuse around the town of Verdun with the object of destroying the French capacity to continue the war. The Germans made small tactical gains throughout the spring and summer but met with determined French resistance. After the Allied offensive on the Somme began in July the Germans could not commit new troops to the offensive and the French began to regain the territory they had lost. This was a war of attrition. It is estimated that together the Germans and French suffered nearly one million casualties in 10 months. 31 . The biggest naval battle of the war. Both sides claimed victory but the German navy did not seek a further battle with the British navy and by the autumn German resources had been shifted on to a campaign. 4 Faced with the German offensive at Verdun the French had called on their allies to open new offensives to divert German troops form Verdun. The Somme was one example. The other was the Brusilov campaign, named after the Russian General who led the Russian south-western army. The Austro-Hungarian was defeated at the Battle of Lutsk (now in ) and then in a series of further victories the 4th army was virtually destroyed. By the end of the campaign Austria-Hungary had lost 1.5 million men, including 400.000 prisoners. 24 June – 18 The in northern France. Another war of attrition with huge losses on both sides. Nearly 19.000 British soldiers were killed on the first day of the battle; the worst single day in the whole war. Over 5 months the Allied forces gained just a few kilometres over a 25-kilometre front. By October the battlefield was covered in mud making advances difficult and after the first snowfall in November the offensive was abandoned. Together both sides suffered approximately 1.2 million casualties. 15 The first appearance of British at The Somme. November 1916 to Arab guerilla warfare against their Ottoman overlords begins in late 1916 and continues through to October 1918 when they seized Damascus. 19 The . A coded telegram from Alfred Zimmermann in the German Foreign Office was sent to the German embassies in City and . It promised Mexico the return of its former territories in the United States if she would form an alliance with Germany against the neutral USA. The British intercepted the telegram, de-coded it and passed the contents on to the United States. The telegram was made public causing outrage in the United States and calls for military intervention. February 1917 German U-boats sink 8 American ships in European waters. March – November On 8 March unrest in St Petersburg becomes a revolution against the Tsar and the war. 1917 Soldiers mutiny and join the Revolution. 15 March the Tsar abdicates and a Provisional Government is formed and led by Prince Lvov who then resigned in July in favour of Kerensky, leader of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. Russia’s allies are quick to recognize the new government in the hope that Russia will stay in the war. On 19 May the provisional government announced that it would continue to fight the war.

4 15 German forces on the Western Front make a strategic withdrawal to a new defensive line, know to the allies as the . 6 The United States declares war on Germany. April 1917 British 3rd Army with Canadian and Australian forces rapidly advanced north of the Hindenburg Line and re-took Vimy Ridge. German forces then re-grouped and stopped further advances. The allies lost 150.000 and the Germans 100.000 men in the offensive. Further south the French 5th and 6th armies also launched an offensive against the Hindenburg Line. But the offensive was a failure and the French lost 100.000 men. The French commander in chief, General Nivelle, was replaced by General Petain. 7 For a year Allied sappers and miners had been digging tunnels under the Messines Ridge south of Ypres. When under the German lines they packed 600.000 kilograms of explosive into the tunnel and it was then detonated on 7 June. The explosion killed more than 10.000 German troops. The Allies stormed and took the ridge. 25 June 1917 The first US troops arrive in Europe. 1-6 A new Russian offensive on the Eastern Front began but was quickly defeated by the German army and forced to retreat in disarray. 2 July 1917 The pro-German King Constantine of Greece abdicated and the new government led by declared war on the Central Powers. 31 July- 6 November 3rd Battle of Ypres, also known as the . The last major battle of 1917 attrition of the war. The allied aim was to destroy the German U-boat bases on the Belgian coast. To do that they needed to break through the German lines in Flanders. German defences around Ypres had been strengthened by forces sent from the Eastern Front and these held Passchendaele Ridge. The Germans also used a new poison gas, . The British eventually took the village of Passchendaele but at the cost of 310.000 men but did not reach the coast. 24 . Austrian and German forces rout the Italian army along the Isonzo River and push south to a position just north of . 300.000 Italian soldiers surrender. 31 October 1917 British and Arab forces break through Ottoman defences in . 6-7 November (24-25 The Provisional Government in Russia is overthrown by the Bolsheviks (The October October in the Revolution). Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, announced that Soviet Russia would no Russian Calendar) longer participate in the war. 7 – Civil war broke out in Russia between the Reds (pro-Bolshevik) and the Whites (a loose 18 coalition of anti-Bolsheviks). Fearing that Soviet Russia would form a military alliance with Germany the British and French sent troops to support the Whites. 6 Declaration of Independence by Finland 15 December 1917 Soviet Russia signed an with Germany. The German High Command re- deployed 44 Divisions from the Eastern Front to the Western Front for a spring offensive before the US army would be ready to fight alongside its allies. 8 President Wilson, in a speech to the US Congress, outlined a plan based on . 16 Declaration of independence by . 24 February 1918 Declaration of Independence by . 3 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Soviet Russia signed a with Germany and ceded a large part of its pre-war western territory. 21 March 1918 Germany launched its spring offensive along the Somme. The British 5th army was overrun and the Germans recaptured all the territory they had lost in the Battle of the Somme in 1916. The British 3rd army managed to stop the German advance. 9-29 A second German offensive was launched. The German 6th army attacked the British 2nd army around Ypres and retook Passchendaele Ridge. The German advance was halted when allied reinforcements arrived. All sides suffered heavy casualties in the first two German offensives of the year. 26 Declaration of Independence by . 28 May 1918 Declaration of Independence by Azerbaijan 30 May 1918 Declaration of Independence by Armenia. 27 May-13 A third German offensive was launched; this time to the south along the River. The aim was to drive a wedge between the allied forces. The French 6th army was overrun. German troops continued to advance westwards on Paris with the aim of drawing the Allied forces into a final decisive battle. But Allied reinforcements, including US troops for the first time, helped the French to halt the German advance. 15 June 1918 The Italian army re-grouped and launched a successful counter-attack on Austrian forces who then began to retreat.

5 15-17 The Marne- Offensive. The last German offensive of the war. The German advance on Reims and further west was stopped by French and US forces who then successfully counter-attack. 18 July – 30 The Allies launched a massive counter-offensive to break the Hindenburg Line. French and US forces crossed the River Marne and forced the German 7th and 9th armies to retreat. The British 4th army pushed German forces back at the Somme. The French 10th army captured the Aisne Heights and the British 3rd army advanced north pushing German forces back. Joined by the British 1st army, the Australians and the US 1st corps broke through the Hindenburg Line between Cambrai and St Quentin. British and Belgian troops broke through German defences at Ypres. 28 September 1918 Field Marshal Ludendorff and General Hindenburg met with The Kaiser and recommended an armistice. 15 September 1918 Allied forces from Greece advanced into Serbia and drove out the occupying Bulgarian army. Anti-war riots broke out in Bulgaria. 19 September – 1 Allied forces began an offensive to drive Ottoman troops out of Palestine. Ottoman October 1918 forces withdrew towards Damascus with the allies in hot pursuit. On 1 October Arab and Australian forces captured Damascus. 29 September 1918 Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies. 4 October 1918 US President, , received a telegram from the German government asking for an armistice based on the Fourteen Points he had outlined on 8 January 1918. However, Wilson replied that armistice discussions could not take place until German had withdrawn from all occupied territories and halted the U-boat attacks on allied shipping. 6 October 1918 A provisional government announced the establishment of the state of . This marked the beginning of the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. 7 October 1918 Proclamation of independence by Poland. 8 October 1918 German forces began withdrawing from all their positions along the Western Front. 23 October 1918 President Wilson informed the civilian German government that the German Imperial and military leaders could not participate in armistice negotiations. 24 October 1918 Combined allied forces pushed the Austro-Hungarian army out of Italy. 400.000 soldiers were taken prisoner. 29-31 October 1918 The and proclaimed their independence from Austria and Hungary. 30 October 1918 Turkey signed an armistice with the Allies. 3 Austria-Hungary, Germany’s last remaining ally, signed an Armistice with the Allied powers. Meanwhile Allied forces continued to advance north and east through Belgium. 3 November 1918 Austria-Hungary and Italy signed an armistice at the Villa Giusti near in north Italy. 8 November 1918 Representatives of the civilian German government were presented with terms for an armistice by the Allied Supreme commander, General Foch. The terms included complete withdrawal from occupied territories, surrender of armaments including battleships and Allied occupation of Germany west of the . 9 November 1918 A republic was declared in Germany and the Kaiser seeks refuge in the neutral . 11 November 1918 German representatives signed the armistice in a railway carriage at Compiègnes in France. The armistice was to be effective from 11.00 onwards. Fighting on the Western Front continued until precisely 11.00. 6 A communist uprising by the Spartacus League led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg, sought to overthrow the provisional government in Berlin. They were defeated by bands of ex-soldiers (Freikorps). 18 January 1919 Paris Peace Conference opened. 19 January 1919 Nationwide elections in Germany. The newly-elected German Assembly met for the first time on 6 February in Weimar. 19 – 24 While the Ottoman government in Istanbul had accepted defeat there was still . resistance to occupying allied forces in eastern . Mustafa Kemal, one of the most successful Ottoman commanders during the war, went to Anatolia and began organizing the resistance and without the support of Istanbul. For the next four years a Turkish Nationalist army fought against the sultan’s army supported by the occupying Allied Powers.

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28 was signed bringing the war to an end. Germany was not consulted about the contents of the Treaty. There were territorial losses, the Saar, and Memel (in Lithuania) were put under the control of the as were Germany’s colonies. The army was reduced to 100.000 men with no tanks, air force or submarines. But the most controversial clauses for many Germans were those assigning total blame to Germany for the war and the financial penalties or reparations. These clauses led to riots on the streets. 44 nations sign the Covenant of the League of Nations. Germany was excluded from membership and the US Senate voted not to join. 10 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye broke up the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It recognized the independence of , Poland, Hungary, the Kingdom of the , Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). It also ceded South Tyrol, Trieste, Istria, and some Dalmatian islands to Italy and to Romania. Reparations were required and economic and political unity between Germany and Austria was also forbidden. 27 Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine. was to be handed over to Greece; parts of western Bulgaria were to be ceded to the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Bulgaria was required to pay reparations. 21 April – 12 October Polish and Ukrainian nationalist forces invaded Ukraine and by 7 May occupied Kiev. 1920 Soviet forces launched a counter-offensive and advanced through eastern Poland to the outskirts of Warsaw by August 14th. Polish troops, led by General Pilsudski, launched a counter-attack and the Red army as forced to retreat. An armistice was signed on 12 October. 4 . Hungary lost much of its pre-war territory, ceded to Czechoslovakia, Romania and the future Yugoslavia. now living outside the borders of Hungary would lose their Hungarian nationality within a year of the Treaty being signed. Hungarian flags on government buildings were flown at half mast in protest against the terms of the treaty until 1938. 10 The Treaty of Sévres carved up the Ottoman Empire. Armenia became an independent state; Britain gained control of Palestine and ; France gained control of , Lebanon and part of Anatolia; Greece gained Thrace and control over ; Italy gained control of the Islands and the Dardenelles were made an international waterway. The Turkish War of Independence continued and Mustafa Kemal made it clear that the nationalists did not accept the terms of the Treaty. 18 March 1921 Treaty of . This determined the borders between the two countries and distributed ethnic Belorussians and Ukrainians between Poland and Russia. 5 The German government was informed that it would have to pay 132 billion Gold Marks in reparations to the Allies over a period of 42 years. In fact, between 1921 and 1931, when payments were suspended, Germany had paid 20 million in cash and goods. 16 between Germany and the in which they renounced all territorial and financial claims against each other under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and established economic cooperation. This included secret clauses under which Germany would illegally manufacture armaments in the Soviet Union. August-September A Turkish offensive began to drive Greek forces out of Anatolia. Smyrna was recaptured 1922 and then Thrace was invaded. November 1922 The allies and Turkey began to renegotiate the Treaty of Sévres. 11 After Germany fell behind in its reparation payments France and Belgium implemented a clause in the Treaty of Versailles and occupied the industrial . German workers went on strike and the German government provided them with funds. This forced the government to print more Marks. This contributed to massive inflation and the devaluation of the currency until 4 million Marks equaled one US dollar. 24 July 1923 Treaty of recognized the modern borders of Turkey and, in return, turkey gave up all claim to the rest of the Ottoman Empire. 29 October 1923 The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed with Mustafa Kemal as its first President. 9 The Putsch. National Socialists, led by Hitler and with the support of Ludendorff, organised an armed revolt in Munich with the aim of overthrowing the government. It failed and Hitler was tried for high treason and sentenced to 5 years in prison. He served 9 months.

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