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Participatory Modelling Platform for Groundwater Irrigation Management with Local Farmers in Iran (Kashan)

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Participatory Modelling Platform for Groundwater Irrigation Management with Local Farmers in Iran (Kashan) PARTICIPATORY MODELLING PLATFORM FOR GROUNDWATER IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT WITH LOCAL FARMERS IN IRAN (KASHAN) By FOROUGH JAFARY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham (UK) April 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract This thesis develops a participatory modelling process to study improvement in the management of irrigation efficiency, including physical and social dimensions in the context of arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. This study develops an interdisciplinary and participatory method to understand and strengthen collective decision-making in local Iranian farming systems. Specific attention is given to groundwater irrigated agricultural practices under the Iranian governance system to provide wider context. Kashan City, in central Iran is selected as a case study area for specific reasons, such as historical water use, the farmers’ rich indigenous knowledge, and successful agricultural practices under conditions of water scarcity. The accessibility and willingness of local farmers to engage in a participatory modelling process are considered. The thesis suggests the first use of role- play simulation for irrigation management practices in Iran, is an effective and insightful method of achieving adaptive management solutions. The application of an innovative participatory simulation modelling with farmers revealed their main incentives for collective irrigation practices, their capabilities to learn and evaluate the system. It is argued that management decisions have major impacts on farmers’ livelihoods and therefore it is essential to integrate farmers’ perspectives in local governance to sustain agricultural productivity. i Acknowledgements I would like to give my sincere appreciation to my supervisors, Dr. Chris Bradley and Dr. Jessica Pykett, also to Dr. Dan van der Horst. Chris has always provided valuable advice, encouragements and patience. I am greatly thankful to Jessica because without her generous help this thesis could not be accomplished. Thanks to Dan who facilitated this opportunity for me and inspired me in the field of social sciences. I would also like to thank my PhD examiners, my external Prof. Bruce Lankford (University of East Anglia) for his valuable inputs in my final thesis, and my internal examiner Dr. Rosie Day. In Iran, special thanks to Prof. Gholamreza Zehtabian at Tehran University (Department of Natural Resources Management) and the Iranian PhD students in Iran, who helped me in collecting data that I needed for my research. I should also remember all my wonderful teachers in Iran throughout the years of my studies and the lecturers in the ‘Technical Azad University’ of Tehran. Thanks to my family, my parents (Reza and Azam) and my brother (Farhang) for always have believes in me, and for their patience in my absence from home, and the times I could not spend with them in Tehran. Thank my mum to accompany me in my fieldwork and her prayers. Thanks my dad for his kindness and priceless supports. Thanks to my friends Anna, Saadatu, Karimatu, Shada, Jerry and Akram for their friendship, loyalty and support during my long and challenging PhD process. Special thanks to local farmers in Kashan and their families who welcomed me and supported me in doing my research with warmth and hospitability and were patiently answered all my research questions with good manners. I thank God for giving me the strength and capability to accomplish my study. ii Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Global Water Resources: Challenges and Management .................................................. 1 1.2. The Role of Groundwater Resources in Irrigation Practices: Origins and Importance ... 6 1.3. Human-Related Water Scarcity: The Role of Local Indigenous Knowledge ................ 16 1.4. Groundwater Governance and the Role of Local Farmers’ Communities .................... 17 1.5. Interdisciplinary Participatory Modelling Approach for Adaptive Groundwater Management .......................................................................................................................... 19 1.6. Thesis Aims, Objectives and Scope ............................................................................... 24 1.6.1. Thesis Structure and Outlines ................................................................................. 26 1.7. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 29 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................ 30 Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 30 Conceptualising Participatory Water Management; Reinforcing Collective Action Using Simulation Games .................................................................................................................... 30 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 30 PART I: Global Water Management .................................................................................... 31 2.1. Water Crisis in Arid and Semi-arid Regions: ‘A wicked’ Problem ............................. 31 2.2. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Framework: Principles and Shortcomings ........................................................................................................................ 36 2.3. The Contemporary Challenges to Groundwater Irrigated Governance ......................... 43 PART II: Farmers’ Decision Making ................................................................................... 46 2.4. Characteristics of Groundwater Resources: Governance, Management Approaches and Farmers’ Decision-making ............................................................................................. 46 2.5. The Factors Influencing Farmers’ Participation in Groundwater Irrigation Management .......................................................................................................................... 52 iii 2.5.1. Adaptive Rules (or rules-in-use) ............................................................................. 53 2.5.2. Effective Local Institutions and Social Capital ....................................................... 55 2.5.3. Engineering Infrastructure and Size of Irrigation System ....................................... 58 2.5.4. Property rights as an incentive ................................................................................ 60 2.5.5. Economic Factors and livelihoods .......................................................................... 61 PART III: Participatory Approaches to Water Management ................................................ 62 2.6. Participatory Adaptive Management: Definition and Application Experiences............ 62 2.6.1. Decentralisation and Emergence of Participatory Irrigation Management ............. 65 2.7. Socio-hydrological Modelling Platform: Human interactions with hydrological modelling within a participatory approach ........................................................................... 70 2.7.1. Participatory Modelling Methods............................................................................ 71 2.7.2. Companion Modelling Approach for Irrigation Management ................................ 73 2.8. Simulation games and their role in fostering social learning ......................................... 75 2.9. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 79 CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................ 82 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 82 PART I: Iran’s Traditional Irrigation Management Practices .............................................. 85 3.1. Geography, Hydrology and Climate Characteristics of Iran ......................................... 85 3.2. Qanat Systems and their Role in Irrigation Practices in Central Iran ............................ 87 3.3. A Chronology of Water Management Developments in Iran ........................................ 93 3.3.1. Traditional water management systems before land reform (in 1960s) ..................... 93 3.3.2. Nationalisation of Iranian Water Resources before the Revolution (1960-1979) ...... 94 3.3.3. The Development
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