THESIS
DEVELOPMENT OF AN OPTIMUM FRAMEWORK FOR LARGE DAMS IMPACT ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN ARID REGIONS THROUGH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Submitted By
ALI ASGHAR IRAJPOOR (2004-Ph.D-CEWRE-01)
For The Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
WATER RESORECES ENGINEERING
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
2010
i DEVELOPMENT OF AN OPTIMUM FRAMEWORK FOR LARGE DAMS IMPACTS ON POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN ARID REGIONS THROUGH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
By:
Ali Asghar Irajpoor (2004-Ph.D-CEWRE-01)
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
Thesis Examination Date: February 6, 2010
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Latif Dr. Muhammad Munir Babar Research Advisor/ External Examiner / Professor Internal Examiner Department of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro
______(Prof. Dr. Muhammad Latif) DIRECTOR
Thesis submitted on:______
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
2010
ii This thesis was evaluated by the following Examiners:
External Examiners:
From Abroad: i) Dr. Sebastian Palt, Senior Project Manager, International Development, Ludmillastrasse 4, 84034 Landshut, Germany Ph.No. +49-871-4303279 E-mail:[email protected]
ii) Dr. Riasat Ali, Group Leader, Groundwater Hydrology, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Land and Water, Private Bag 5 Wembley WA6913, Australia Ph. No. 08-9333-6329 E-mail: [email protected]
From Pakistan: Dr. M. Munir Babar, Professor, Institute of Irrigation & Drainage Engineering, Deptt. Of Civil Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro Ph. No. 0222-771226 E-mail: [email protected]
Internal Examiner: Prof. Dr. Muhammad Latif, Director, Center of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore. E Mail: [email protected]
iii ABSTRACT
A set of indicators for sustainable development were identified to be employed in developing countries. The selected indicators provided a good understanding of social and engineering outputs of water resources projects. The study meticulously looks into the pre dam bio-physical and socio-economic conditions in one of the arid region of Iran under the area commanded by Minab dam. This dam was constructed in Hormozgan province of Iran in 1983 and its irrigation system was completed in
1986 which was followed by progressive expansion of irrigated agriculture which almost doubled in year 2006.
Results of the study showed that there are significant positive impacts of irrigation network of the dam but they were not same as the targeted objectives envisaged in the feasibility report of the project for example literacy rate increased from 41 percent (pre-project) to 74 percent in 2006. Similarly significant improvements were observed in health care, sanitation, education, and other disciplines. On the other hand, only 50-60 percent of the planned objectives were met for some indicators whereas no significant achievements had been made in the others.
It means that after construction of the dam and irrigation system, development didn’t match with the planned goals of the project. Most of the deficiency in the performance of primary objectives have root in the managements, even after, many years of project completion. For optimization of project performance an institutional framework has been proposed suggested by introducing a new organization named as
Sustainable Project Organization (SPO). This organization may overcome the deficiency through capacity building and training of social and engineering organizations in the project area in the direction of comprehensive poverty alleviation.
This study argues the world-wide controversy against construction of dam in arid zones which is ill-founded and based on a few short term, mitigable negative impacts, ignoring many long term positive impacts leading to alleviating of chronic poverty in arid regions.
iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to ALMIGHTY ALLAH, the most compassionate, the most merciful; who blessed me to complete my studies and humblest and deepest gratitude to the greatest educator of mankind, the Holy Prophet MUHAMMAD (Peace be
Upon Him).
My deepest gratefulness is due to my dissertation supervisor Prof. Dr. Muhammad
Latif, Director, Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering whose intellectual inspiration, guidance, encouragement and regular discussions have been invaluable to me. His continual willingness to listen, moral support, and render critical judgments helped me to complete the thesis.
The whole remains incomplete, if I do not record my sincerest thanks to all faculty members and staff of CEWRE for their continued help and cooperation in completion of my research work and this manuscript. I also acknowledge the contribution of all those who helped me in any way during data collection, analysis and other phases of this research study. I am thankful to Engineer Masoud Vosough
Member of executive committee of Hormozgan regional water company in Iran and
Engineer Assadi from same company. Many thanks to Engineer Shilan Irajpour, and Mr.
Hamid Reza Irajpour from Shaheid Muhammadi hospital in Bandar Abbas in Iran those who help me during data collection.
It is my duty to appreciated the effort of specialists of statistical center of Iran for all matter of cooperation, especially I am thankful to Mr. Aghadoosti who make real
v effort regarding to need of my study. I cannot forget the cooperation of librarian of statistical center of Iran and specialist of management and programming organization in
Hormozgan provinces.
Many thanks are extended to Dr. Masood Munavari, Dr. Nasser Mehrdadi from Tehran University, Engineer Mostafa Vatanzadeh from Mahab Ghodess company in Iran and staff of Water Management organization of Iran, for their cooperation and encouragement.
Last and foremost, I would especially like to express my deepest appreciation, constant care, and endless, unconditional and limitless support, of my wife, Dr.
Poopak Mohaghegh, for her patience in tolerating the duration of my studies.
Finally, I acknowledge the support of my parents while they alive and their advice encourage me to continue my study.
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter # Description Page #
ABSTRACT ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS...... vi LIST OF TABLES...... x LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii ABBREVIATION ...... xv
I INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM STATMENT ...... 1 1.2 OBJICTIVES ...... 6 1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY...... 6
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 8
2.1 ARID REGION IN THE IRAN AND THE WORLD:...... 8 2.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ITS INDICATORS ...... 9
2.2.1 Sustainable Development Activities...... 10
2.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH BACKGROUND ...... 13
2.3.1 Framework for Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation...... 14 2.3.2 World Water Status...... 18 2.3.3 Research in Water Resources ...... 19
2.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN IRAN ...... 25 2.5 SUMMARY...... 26
III METHODOLOGY ...... 29
3.1 DISCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA...... 29
3.1.1 Selected Study Area...... 30
3.2 PROCEDURE...... 33
3.2.1 Base Line ...... 34 3.2.2 Sources of the Indicators...... 35
3.3 COLLECTION OF DATA ...... 38 3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ...... 43
vii Table of Contents (Continued)
IV DATA SYNTHESES AND ANALYSIS ...... 44
4.1 POPULATION ...... 44 4.2 LITERACY ASSESSMENT ...... 45
4.2.1 Literacy Rate...... 45
4.3 HOUSING...... 48
4.3.1 Living Conditions ...... 48
4.4 RESOURCES ...... 49
4.4.1 Natural Vegetation ...... 49 4.4.2 Cultural vegetation...... 50 4.4.3 Land Classes ...... 50 4.4.4 Irrigated land...... 51
4.5 INDUSTRIES...... 55 4.6 HEALTH...... 56
4.6.1 Comparison of Health Services ...... 56 4.6.2 Increase Disease...... 68
4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF MINAB DAM ...... 59
4.7.1 Characteristics of irrigation network ...... 61
4.8 HYDROLOGY ...... 61
4.8.1 Relative Humidity...... 63 4.8.2 Temperature ...... 64 4.8.3 Precipitation ...... 64 4.8.4 Geology of Dam ...... 66 4.8.5 Impact of Minab Dam on Water Quality Issues and Status ...... 66 4.8.6 Surface Water Quality Monitoring in Minab Basin...... 67 4.8.7 Water Quality Monitoring in Minab Basin ...... 67 4.8.8 Downstream of Minab Dam...... 68 4.8.9 Geomorphology of Minab River...... 69 4.8.10 Sediments...... 70 4.8.11 River Morphology of Minab at Downstream ...... 71
4.9 EQUITY ...... 72
4.9.1 Percent of population living below poverty line...... 72 4.9.2 Employment: ...... 77 4.9.3 Comparison of Prices of Various Item Pre & Post Dam Construction ...... 77
viii Table of Contents (Continued)
V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 81
5.1 IRRIGATED AREA AND CROP YIELD...... 81
5.1.1 Crop production ...... 84 5.1.2 Cropping Calendar...... 86
5.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND AVAILABILITY OF SERVICES ...... 87 5.3 POVERTY ALLEVIATION BY THE LARGE DAM ...... 91
5.3.1 Material deprivation...... 91 5.3.2 Lack of assets...... 93 5.3.3 Isolation...... 93 5.3.4 Alienation...... 94 5.3.5 Lack of decision making power ...... 94 5.3.6 Vulnerability to external shocks ...... 94 5.3.7 Insecurities ...... 94
5.4 TARGETS ACHIEVED ...... 95 5.5 FRAME WORK FOR TARGET DEVELOPMENT ...... 98
5.5.1 Use of Skilled Specialist ...... 98 5.5.2 Developing of Monitoring Plan ...... 98 5.5.3 Use of Advance Technology ...... 102 5.5.4 Development of Technical and Social Organizations...... 104 5.5.5 Providing Training Courses...... 104 5.5.6 Accountability Office...... 104
5.6 PROPOSED FRAME WORK FOR TARGETED DEVELOPMENT...... 105
5.6.1 Example of Design Strategy ...... 107 5.6.2 Sustainable Project Organization...... 109
VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 111
6.1 CONCLUSIONS...... 111 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS...... 112
REFERENCES ...... 114
ix Table of Contents (Continued)
Appendices
Appendix A REACTION OF VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS ON REPORT OF DAM AND DEVELOPMENT...... 121
Appendix B LANDSAT SATALIAT DESCRIPTION ...... 125
Appendix C TEN DAILY SUM OF MINAB DAM OUTFLOW ...... 132
Appendix D POVERTY METHOD...... 133
Appendix E MAP OF STUDY AREA...... 138
x LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Description Page #
1.1 Comparison of average application of water to different crops Iran and World...... 5
2.1 Extent (percentage) of arid and semi-arid regions in percent...... 9
2.2 National and international conferences...... 12
2.3 Components of poverty by IFAD ...... 24
3.1 Selected sustainable indicator for downstream of Minab dam...... 36
3.2 Data collection and sources ...... 37
4.1 Population of villages at downstream of dam before and after dam construction...... 45
4.2 Literacy rate in rural area at downstream of dam...... 46
4.3 Status of schools in the study area before and after dam construction...... 46
4.4 The status of water supply system, electricity and other services before and after dam construction in study area ...... 47
4.5 Land classification in study area ...... 51
4. 6 Arable land by irrigation and rain for year 1979 (Before dam construction)...... 52
4.7 Area irrigated by Minab dam in year 1986...... 52
4.8 Area under irrigation of northern irrigation network in year 2000...... 53
4.9 Irrigated area of Minab dam in year 1993 in hectares...... 54
4.10 Irrigated area by Minab dam in year 2006 (filed visit)...... 55
4.11 Location of important places in the study area ...... 56
4.12 health services in study area before and after dam construction ...... 57
4.13 Length of different irrigation network of Minab dam ...... 61
4.14 Dommartten method ...... 62
xi 4.15 Monthly average Max and Min temperature of synoptic station near Minab (1982-2006) ...... 63
4.16 Annual and Monthly Average Precipitation of Synoptic Station near Minab (1982-2006)...... 63
4.17 Relative Humidity of the study area ...... 64
4.18 Per capita income and expenditures per day in Rials, ...... 73
4.19 Various poverty lines for selected years (per person per day, in current Rials). ....73
4.20 Active phenomena and result of dam construction (Negative impacts on poverty)...... 75
4.21 Active phenomena and result of dam construction (Positive impacts on poverty)...... 76
5.1 Yields of different vegetable crops in the study area...... 85
5.2 Cropping calendar ...... 87
5.3 Beneficial impacts of dam construction and irrigation on environment...... 88
5.4 Availability of services pre and post construction of the dam in percent...... 89
5.5 Summery of primary objectives achieved with the targeted objectives in the Study area...... 96
5.6 Important points identified by problem analysis for irrigation projects and their main causes in Tanzania...... 97
5.7 The specification of telemetry station in Minab dam ...... 104
5.8 Description of the proposed framework ...... 106
5.9 Responsibilities of proposed social and engineering organizations ...... 108
xii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Description Page #
1.1 Percentage of rain fed and irrigated land for propose of food production...... 4
2.1 World population of dams in different countries...... 8
2.2 Sustainable development framework for poverty alleviation ...... 15
2.3 Components of the ADB poverty reduction strategy...... 16
2.4 Country programming for poverty alleviation ...... 16
2.5 sustainable development represented by ‘ecological modernization’ ...... 18
2.6 World water stress...... 19
3.1 Water management structure in Iran...... 29
3.2 Map of study area...... 31
3.3 Location of study area (Minab Dam)...... 32
3.4 Minab dam ...... 32
3.5 Sequence of the procedure adopted for the study ...... 34
3.6 A conceptual representation of geo-referencing...... 40
4.1 Population growth rate in the study area in Iran...... 44
4.2 Availability of different services pre and post dam construction...... 48
4.3 Land classification at downstream of Minab dam ...... 51
4.4 Health services at downstream, before and after dam construction...... 57
4.5 Average annual volume of Minab dam...... 60
4.6 Average annual Outflow of Minab dam...... 60
4.7 Min & Max temperature in study area...... 64
4.8 Long term annual main rain fall in study area...... 65
4.9 Mean monthly rainfall of Minab station...... 65
4.10 Overlay of human activity lands class in 1989 on 2001 ...... 68
xiii
4.11 Meander formation in Minab River...... 71
4.12 Poverty rate in rural area...... 74
4.13 Wheat price...... 78 4.14 Price of Furrow the Farm...... 78
4.15 Price of barley...... 78
4.16 Manpower Salary...... 78
4.17 Price Lentil...... 78
4.18 Price of Pea...... 78
4.19 Price of cotton ...... 79
4.20 Price of Melon...... 79
4.21 Price of Onion...... 79
4.22 Price of water Melon...... 79
4. 23 Price of Cucumber ...... 79
4.24 Price of Potato...... 79
4. 25 Price of egg-plant...... 79
4.26 Price of Alfalfa...... 79
4.27 Price of Orange...... 80
4.28 Price of Date...... 80
4.29 Price of Milk...... 80
4.30 Price of Mutton meat...... 80
4.31 Price of Tomato...... 80
4.32 Price of meat of Cow...... 80
5.1 Landsat imagery of the study area (Minab dam –year 1989) ...... 82
5.2 Landsat imagery of the study area (Minab dam –year 2001) ...... 83
5.3 Various views of study area by Google (Minab dam – year 2007) ...... 84
xiv 5.4 Proposed Minab dam crisis and their response to poverty...... 99
5.5 Sediment hazard map of Iran ...... 100
5.6 Proposed institutional framework for poverty alleviation for dam and irrigation projects in developing countries ...... 105
5.7 Impacts of without (P0) project and with project (P1&P2)...... 107
xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bank ASC Agricultural Service Centers BOD Biological Oxygen Demand CEWRE Center of Excellence In Water Resources Engineering CSD Commission on Sustainable Development CHO Cultural Heritage Office DOE Department of Environment EC y Electric Conductivity EMP Environmental Management Plan GIS Geographic Information System GOI Government of the Islamic Republic Of Iran GPS Global Positioning System GW Groundwater HRWC Hormozgan Regional Water Company LIFDs Low Income Food Deficit Country I&D Irrigation and Drainage IMS Information Management System IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management ICOLD International Commission on Sustainable Development IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development JBIC Japan Bank for International Cooperation JAOH Jihad Agriculture Organization of Hormozgan MIS Management Information Systems Unit MPO ) Management & Planning Organization (Govt. of I.R. Iran) O&M Operation And Maintenance PA Poverty Alleviation SD Sustainable Development SPO Sustainable Project Organization SDI Sustainable Development Indicators TDA Transboundary Diagnostic Oxygen TDS Total Dissolved Solids TSS Total Suspended Solids UET University of Engineering And Technology UNDP Untied Nations Development Program UNEP United Nations Environment Program US$ United States Dollars WB World Bank WHO World Health Organization WQ Water Quality WUA Water User Association UG Water User Group WQ Water Quality WUA Water User Association WUG Water User Group
xvi Chapter I INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
Water is vital for life and human cannot survive more than a few days without it. With growth of civilization and industries, the required amount of water for human survival increases. In many countries, water resources have become limited due to increased demand on limited water supplies.
The importance of water resources management in water stress area especially in arid country is sine qua non. Historically in arid regions, the dwellings developed mostly along the rivers or any other water source as happened in many old civilizations e.g. Iran (side of Karoun River), Mesopotamia in Iraq (area between
Tigris River and Euphrates River), Egypt (side of Nile River) and the Indus valley civilization in the subcontinent which covers a large part of Pakistan and northwestern of India, situated around the Indus river and the Ghaggar-Hakra river respectively
(Saleem, 2005). Egypt depends on the Nile in a way that no other nation does since 97 percent of Egyptians live on 2.5 percent of its area. Other historical example of importance of irrigation is Iraq where irrigation acts as an important base for agriculture in Mesopotamia that is situated between Iraq and Iran.
Worldwide high benefits have been derived by those countries which established sustainable irrigation systems especially in the arid regions. Currently 47.2 percent of the world and 45.8 percent of Asia and 90 percent of Iran fall in arid climate where no crops can be grown without irrigation. Based on review of United
Nations document, total world cropped area is 1,628 million hectares and out of this
1 277 million hectares are currently irrigated. Crop yield of irrigated land generally varies from 3-5 t/ha whereas for the rainfed, the yield is only 1-2 t/ha (UN, 2008).
According to current estimates, by the year 2030, world population will rise from the present 6.2 billion to 8.7 billion. Today 800 million people in developing countries are faced with chronic malnutrition. Furthermore 199 million children less than five years of age suffer from acute or chronic food deficiencies. So far 88 nations fall into the category of low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs): 44 in Africa, 25 in Asia, 3 in America, 6 in Oceania (FAO-2008).
There is enough evidence that increased agricultural productivity due to irrigation from dams have significantly reduced the socio - economic problems that consequently led to reduction in poverty in many countries. Conservation and management of water resources is the key to increase food production and empower poverty particularly in arid and semiarid countries. Interest towards solution of arid zone problems is target of every researcher and scholar while increase in population and demand of new generations in all defined section of facilities are the main task of decision makers to overcome the difficulties. Action in any field of development follows the beneficial and adverse reactions which add further difficulties for the investors both private and government. In the past emphasis was on construction of dams by investors without any environmental consideration but since last many years, the effects of dams on population and the environment have become under greater scrutiny by the investors (WCD, 2000). In fact, the contribution and need of dams for sustainable development cannot be denied in arid and semi-arid regions. Objection on construction of large dams has become a fashion of the day merely because of few adverse impacts which are more highlighted whereas the positive ones are ignored.
2 Dams can be considered as part of the economic development and centerpieces of efforts to develop industrial and self-sufficient societies. Normally they are considered as the largest structures that have been constructed by human in the history. The number of large dams worldwide has increased in many countries since
1940. Development of dams provides electricity, water for irrigation, industries, recreation, and domestic uses. Worldwide role of large dams for reduction in poverty is of great concern. Evaluation of the research on the poverty shows that the poverty remains a major challenge for policy makers and eradication of poverty has been main aim in most of national and international programs.
Beneficiaries of a large dam may be at a long distance away from the dam site while the people who live near the dam site may suffer from the adverse effects. In present world, most of the rivers have been dammed for proposes of agriculture, flood control, energy; water drinking, etc and other requirements. Certain questions can be posed about the sustainable development and poverty alleviation resulting from large dams in an arid region. These questions may be:
• How much the existing large dams have contributed for poverty alleviation?
• How sustainable development and poverty alleviation are related?
• Are sustainable development and poverty alleviation mutually reinforcing?
• Is there potential for tension between sustainable development and poverty
alleviation policies as they develop into legal doctrines?
In these research efforts have been made to test selected indicators of sustainable development for poverty alleviation in presence of large dams. Evaluation of poverty in the world shows that most of the poor people are living in developing
3 countries, availability of water have direct relation with the welfare of the society in those areas. Unfortunately water crisis in the world has become a common problem in most of the developing nations. This limitation is one of the most serious problems in
Middle Eastern countries, which fall in arid and semiarid climate.
This study was undertaken to answer above questions in developing countries especially in arid regions of Iran. The pace of dam construction in Iran has become very fast especially in last two decades because large dams are the main source of water for irrigation. Presently there are near 310 large dams based on ICOLDs definition, 268 embankment dams and 42 concrete dams. There are 55 dams under construction. The importance of food production by irrigation in Iran and world are illustrated in Fig. 1.1. It is evident from this figure that about 90 percent of food production in Iran is based on the irrigation while for rainfed is only 10 percent.
100 Irrigatio 90 Rain-fed 80 70 60 50 40 30 Percentage(%) 20 10 0 Iran World Location
Fig.1.1 Comprising the food production between irrigated and rainfed lands. Sources: Iranian Ministry of Energy – 2007.
4 In Iran the overall irrigation efficiency ranges from 33-37 percent. By this statistic it is understood that water is wasted considerably in the entire country.
Furthermore the rate of consumption of irrigation water in Iran is high compared to worldwide consumption of irrigation water as given in Table 1.1.
Table1.1 Comparison of average application of water to different crops.
Crops World(m3/ha) Iran(m3/ha) Wheat 4500 - 6500 6,400 Melons 7,000-10,500 17,900 Sugar beet 5,500-7500 10,000-18,000 Rice 4,500-7,000 10,000-18,000 Sugarcane 15,000-25,000 20,000-30,000 Corn 5,000-8,000 10,000-13,000
Above deficiency of use of water in the country required a comprehensive management for the efficient application of water in all sectors specially agriculture.
This research was carried out based on the above deficiencies in the country and the following reasons:
• Increase number of large dams in the country;
• To make more close strategic policy among local, national and
international agencies on poverty alleviation;
• To help development in Iran and other developing country;
• The way for cooperation with international effort in poverty alleviation.
5 1.2 OBJECTIVES
The present study aimed at developing an evaluation framework for large dam’s impacts on poverty alleviation through sustainable development in arid regions.
The specific objectives of the study were:
i) To review the procedures, techniques and indicators used to evaluate the
impacts of large dams on poverty alleviation;
ii) To formulate an integrated evaluation framework for optimum and
sustainable impacts of large dams on socio- economic conditions of the
communities; and
iii) To develop guidelines for policy makers on poverty alleviation through
sustainable development (resulting from the development of large dams in
the Iran).
1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This research is designed to strengthen the concepts, understandings, procedures, processes, and regulation regarding poverty alleviation with respect to sustainable development as well as decision making processes and public participation in arid regions of Iran.
The aim is that to provide a vivid picture for need of Inter-disciplinary research to fulfill the gaps in knowledge. It should applied not only in managing, improving of existence projects, but also in planning where suitable new schemes are to be under consideration. Therefore in this connection the research floats the idea of
Agenda 21 and, since according to principle 17 of the Stockholm declaration that
6 science must be used for the identification, diagnosis and reaction to the problem of sustainable development. Evaluation of poverty alleviation with respect to sustainable development may be considered as effort towards of implementation of Agenda 21.
Development should overcome poverty through nature stabilization.
Sustainable development is a process for the systematic evaluation of project objectives. It should manage the impacts on the poverty alleviation and their effects.
Poverty alleviation should be taken in its broadest; definition to cover all surroundings natural, social, and cultural and the interactions among those. It is therefore essential to bring sustainable development and its importance in maintaining the integrity of poverty alleviation to the forefront of strategic planning. It can be achieved through a clear sustainable development and public participation in the planning process.
7 Chapter II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Large dams and their impacts on poverty alleviation with consideration of sustainable development in arid zones are the main focuses of this research. The world population of the dams is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. It is clear from this figure that
China, United States, India, Japan and Spain have highest number of dams. The remaining countries have only 23 percent of world dams’ population.
Fig. 2.1 World population of dams in different countries. Source: WCD estimates, based on ICOLD and other sources (2000).
2.1 ARID REGIONS IN IRAN AND THE WORLD
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) uses aridity zones to define dry lands. The world is divided into six aridity zones: (i) hyper- arid, (ii) arid, (iii) semi-arid, (iv) dry sub-humid, (v) moist sub-humid, and (vi) humid. Currently 47.2 percent of the world and 45.8 percent of Asia and 90 percent of
Iran fall in arid region category. Where no crops can be grown without supplemental irrigation (Table 2.1).
8 Table 2.1 Extent of arid and semi-arid regions in percent.
Area Hyper arid Arid Semi-arid Dry-sub Humid Total World 7.5 12.1 17.7 9.9 47.2 Asia 6.5 14.7 16.3 8.3 45.8 Iran 35.5 29.2 20.1 4.9 89.7 Source: Ministry of Jihad agriculture – Iran 2002 & UNDP (1997)
The development of watershed techniques may consider as appropriate method to overcome the water crises difficulty in arid region. The implementation of watershed technique may provide more storage of water for irrigation. There is direct linkage between poverty and irrigation ( Hossin, 2004; Latif, 2007). Increased agricultural productivity due to dam construction and its irrigation system in many countries have significantly reduced the socio - economic problems and more so the poverty. Irrigation plays a vital role for sustainable development in arid regions.
2.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ITS INDICATORS
Sustainability achieved through the processes of Sustainable Development
(SD) has emerged as an important goal over the last 40 years. Specific indicators called Sustainable Development Indicators (SDI) are often used as quantitative or qualitative measures to provide information to the decision making. Human activities having severe and negative impacts on the planet would be unsustainable if they continue unchecked. To avoid unsustainably, it is important to design the SD framework and it will answer the two questions: what we are trying to assess? And what is the dimension of sustainability for any developed activity?
• The concept of SD received its first major international recognition in 1972 at
the UN conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm and it
continued by Brundtland Commission in 1983 which defined the SD as the
9 "development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs". Rio de Janeiro
conference in 1992 and its recognition are to develop and identify indicators of
SD at all levels (Agenda 21 chapter 40). More recently, the World Summit on
SD was held in Johannesburg in 2002 to assess progress since the Rio
Conference. The development in SD indicators is a continued process and the
indicators were updated in Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by the
UN in 2005.
2.2.1 Sustainable Development Activities
Effort towards sustainable development for human welfare is not a new idea.
Review of world history shows that ancient nations made much effort for this activity.
In term of water resources the first dam constructed by early man was low elevation earth or rock structures. It has been designed to impound and divert water for agricultural use. Today the face of the earth is dotted with small and large dams and reservoirs contributing in a variety of ways to the complex requirements of an expending technologically advancing civilization. Rising of population and need of the sources for various requirements of the society for example industrialization and growth of science promoted the sustainable development towards human welfare.
Promotion in sustainable development in last 5 decades provided a good base line of understanding for decision makers to think about the present and future generations.
Various scholars, NGOs and national and international organizations have made excellent effort towards sustainable development to provide a suitable program in all concerned field for human welfare. Some of the international organizations and their
10 related NGOs, and financial support, research centers that have worked for sustainable developments are:
1) United Nations sustainable development Commission;
2) Asian development Bank;
3) International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD);
4) The World Commission on Dam;
5) International Hydropower Association;
6) International Commission on irrigation and Drainage;
7) International energy Agency;
8) International Finance Cooperation;
9) International finance institutions(IFIs);
10) International River Network;
11) International Organization for Standardization (ISO);
12) Swedish international Development Agency;
13) United Nations Development Program;
14) US agency for International Development Program(USAID);
15) UNEP Dams and Development Project;
16) Third World Water Forum;
17) European Commission - Kyoto Linking Directive;
18) European Investment Bank;
19) Private Sector/NGO;
20) Export Credit Agencies;
21) IUCN Water and Nature Initiative;
22) International Commission on Large Dams;
23) WWF Dams Program;
11
In addition various studies have been done by the support of international or national organizations worldwide. There have been some major landmarks in the development of a global strategy for sustainable developments are described listed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 National and international conferences.
S.No Activity Year
1 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972 Sweden; known as Stockholm Conference) 2 World Commission on Environment and Development (known as 1983 Brundtland Commission)1983 3 International Conference on Environment and Economics 1983 4 Our Common Future (also known as Brundtland Report) 1987 5 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; known as Earth Summit) 6 United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) 1993 7 International Seminar of Experts on Sustainable Development of 1993 Boreal and Temperate Forests (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) 8 Second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe 1993 (Helsinki, Finland 9 Presidential Decision Directive / NSC-16 (United States) 1993 10 Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force (United States 1993 11 United States GAO Report on Ecosystem Management (United States) 1994 12 Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and 1994 Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests (Geneva, Switzerland). 13 International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo, 1994 Egypt) 14 Santiago Declaration (Santiago, Chile) 1995 15 Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) 1995 16 Montreal Process Technical Advisory Committee (TAC). 1996 17 President’s Council on Sustainable Development (United States) 1996 18 Seventh American Forest Congress (United States) 1996 19 United States Department of Agriculture Policy (USDA) (United 1996 States) 20 Intergovernmental Panel on Forests Proposals for Action 1996 21 Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) 1997 22 Montreal Process First Approximation Report 1997 23 National Association of State Foresters Resolution on Criteria and 1997 Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management (United States) 24 National Association of State Foresters and USDA-Forest Service 1997 (United
12 25 Private Sector Support (United States) 1998 26 G-8 Foreign Ministers 1998 27 Multi-Stakeholder Meeting on Sustainable Resource Management 1998 (United States) 28 Oregon’s First Approximation Report (FAR) (United States) 1998 29 Great Lakes Sustainable Forest Management Report (United States 1998 and Canada) 30 Roundtable on Sustainable Forests (United States) 1999 31 Sustainable Rangelands Roundtable (United States) 1999 32 Sustainable Minerals Roundtable (United States), 1999 33 Our Common Journey (United States) 1999 34 United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) 2000 35 Federal Memorandum of Understanding on Sustainable Forest 2000 Management Data (United States) 36 Sustainable Forest Data Working Group of Federal Geographic Data 2000 Committee (FGDC) (United States) 37 UNFF—Organizational Meeting and First Session 2001 38 United Nations Millennium Declaration 2001 39 United Nations Millennium Declaration 2001 40 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) 2001 41 NASF Sustainable Forestry Implementation Committee (SFIC)(United 2001 States) 42 Society of American Foresters’ Sustainability and Forest Certification 2000 Working Group (United States) 43 First Approximation Report for States of the Northeast and Midwest 2002 (United States) 44 UNFF—Second Session (UNFF2) 2002 45 World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, South 2002 Africa)
2.3 REVIEW OF RESEARCH BACKGROUND
A large number of scholars have made efforts toward poverty alleviation by contribution of their time, funds, and resources to help reduction in global poverty.
When a new idea or activity in term of project, comes to the society there may be many objections and opposition against that especially if it comes in term of economics. Society has many important goals. Some of them, such as producing goods and services with maximum efficiency (minimum adverse) can in certain circumstances be achieved extraordinarily, if operates well more or less by sustainable
13 management. Review of construction of dams shows that by growth of science and development of the knowledge, objection on construction of dam raised.
Dams and development is one of the main important reports that has been prepared by the World Commission on Dams. In this report various dimensions construction of dams e.g. social, environmental, socio economics, etc… were discussed and the idea of various scholars and organizations were presented in this publication (WCD, 2000). After the publication of the report there were various negative and positive reactions by different organizations such as:
- World Bank
- United Nation Environmental Program
- International commission on large Dam
- Asian Development Bank
- International Hydropower Association
The summary of the action and reaction by the above organizations are presented in
Annexure A. It is understood that the report has been appreciated by some of the organizations while rejected partially or totally by the others.
2.3.1 Framework for Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation
The framework which has been developed by specialist of International Institute for sustainable development is illustrated in Fig. 2.2. The results of evaluation about the sustainable development and poverty alleviation in general are incorporated in this framework.
14
Fig. 2.2 Sustainable development framework for poverty alleviation. Source: International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) 2000.
Asian Development Bank (ADB) provided various guidelines and high activity towards poverty alleviation in most of the countries especially in developing countries. To facilitate the researchers who are interested to work on poverty alleviation, a manual for poverty alleviation and social analysis has been published by
ADB (ADB, 1999). From this manual general framework about the component, strategy and methods of social analysis are illustrated in Figs. 2.3 and 2.4.
15 -human capital development -population policy -Labor-intensive employment Social -Soc ial c apital development and income creation Development -addressing gender inequalities -Public / Private sector -social protection provision of basic services -Poor area public investment -regional and subregional -government cooperation accountability -environmental sustainabillity -public participation -predictable legal framework Poverty -transparency of information and action Pro-Poor Reduction Good -anti corruption initiatives Growth Governance
Fig. 2. 3 Components of the ADB poverty reduction strategy (ADB, 1999)
Fig. 2.4 Country programming for poverty alleviation (ADB, 1999).
The above frameworks emphasize on worldwide knowledge about the activity on sustainable development and poverty alleviation. These frameworks are partially related to this research and their lessons learnt have been incorporated in
16 establishment of the framework base line for the present study. There are many international agencies, organizations, and institutions that provided methodologies for project management to overcome the poverty. For example the United Nation’s subcommittee on poverty alleviation for Asia and the Pacific has made various actions through United Nation work program on rural poverty alleviation (UN, 2000-1).
These programs are generally focused on poverty alleviation, food security and sustainable agricultural development through advisory services and training
(Duraiappah, 2000). Similarly ADB developed a methodology for poverty alleviation especially for the village focused in China (ADB, 2001). In this methodology various indicators have been considered for the poverty alleviation. The United Nations
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is another program which follows up the eight goals to end the poverty by 2015. Experience elsewhere shows that bringing appropriate institutional changes into disrupted water management coupled with required capacities building of the newly established participatory institutions can be crucial in bridging the gaps and, as a result, improve the poverty situation (Yakubov,
2007).
Roberts (1995) explained that an essential element of sustainable development pathway is the assessment of spatial distinctiveness. The Ecological Modernization developed overlapping zones of interest (Fig.2.5). These zones explained weak interpretation of sustainable development (Jackson, 2000; Pinfield, 1997).
17 Economic development • Economic Growth Community • Private Port economic • Market development expansion • Extemalise Costs Conservationism
Community development Sustainable Developmen Ecological development
• Local Self –reliance • Basic human needs 1) Carrying Capacity • Equity 2) Resource Conservation • Participation 3) Be gance • Social Accountability • Appropriate technology
Deep ecology
Fig. 2.5 Sustainable development represented by ‘Ecological Modernization’.
2.3.2 World Water Status
Referring to the Fig. 2.6 it is clear that Iran is situated in the very high stress area with respect to the water availability. For the management of available water in the country study of water resources are highly required.
18 IRAN
Fig. 2.6 World water stress (World Water, 1999).
2.3.3 Research in Water Resources
So far some of the general frameworks and documents which are the results of international activities for sustainable development and poverty alleviation have been discussed. Review of available literature regarding current study by different organizations and scholars can be categorised in several themes. Following are the combination of lessons and experiences that have been reviewed to provide a suitable contribution to carry out the present research study.
• The Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), the World Bank and the
ADB together in year 2005 published the report, “Connecting East Asia: A
New Framework for Infrastructure.” In this report clear understanding
emphasis on the “ little doubt that infrastructure development by both the
public and private sectors have contributed to the region’s enviable record on
19 growth and poverty reduction.” On the other hand, Japanese have always
emphasized the importance of infrastructure for development. The other report
which has been published by JBIC in 2007 is ”Impact Assessment of Irrigation
Infrastructure Development on Poverty Alleviation: A Case Study from
Pakistan”. The development of microeconomics mechanisms in which
infrastructure impact the poverty reduction empirically was effort in this
research paper (JBIC, 2007);
• According to the report of World Health Organization (2000) poverty is
probably the primary determinant of health. It empowers and enables people to
make choices and to safeguard themselves. In this report various dimensions
of construction impacts of dams on the health and poverty have been discussed
(WHO, 2000);
• Verhagen, 2004 discussed various impacts of water supply projects, gender,
poverty alleviation and watershed development programmes, drought
management, community infrastructure projects, organizational capacity
building has been evaluated. The importance of people participation, is
another point that has been considered in this study ;
• The water impact on poverty reduction has been stated in the research of
ADB on “Water and Poverty Fighting through Water Management” (Sussan,
2004);
• Weber, 2005 conducted a study on identification of methodologies for
determination of poverty in urban and rural areas and policy impacts;
• In the Objective Proposal and Work plan research of IWMI on “Managing
the Water Resources of East and Southern Africa for Poverty Reduction and
Productivity Enhancement” emphases are on the synthesize information of
20 the links between water resources, poverty and productivity in Africa. This
synthesis will establish the “state-of-knowledge” and future research priorities
(IWMI, 2003);
• Lipton (2002) pointed out that for the poverty reduction small scale and labor-
intensive irrigation techniques are likely to be more important;
• Charles (2000) stated the evaluation of indicators for irrigation performance in
the study of “benchmarking irrigation concept and strategies”;
• The importance of training has been discussed by Naika (2002) his aim is to
participated the following skills of planning for sustainable land use
management, producing integrated designs for the given area, organic
production, environmental management, monitoring process;
• Hussein (2004) explained the importance of Irrigation for the population
benefits by providing more food at reduce prices;
• Yakubov (2007) has this idea that there are fewer advantages for the
individuals who their properties are at the tail of the poorly managed irrigation
network. It will create low income as the irrigation water doesn’t reach to
them due to various problem therefore there will be development in poverty;
• Bromley (1982) stated that irrigation has notable impact on the human life and
he mentioned that the water providing livelihood systems. He mostly
emphasizing on the importance of irrigation water for development.
• The irrigation is the foundation of agriculture for improving food security and
productivity. Therefore irrigation has become a dominant part of the man’s
relentless pursuit of enough to eat” (Hussain, 2004; Hussain et. al, 2002;
Lipton, et al, 2002).
21 • Cavendish (2000) agreeing about this idea that richest provide more benefit to
the market in comparison with the poorest.
• Reba (2003) stated that irrigation play a great role for combating poverty and
to achieve equity and sustainable development. Different scholar verified that
irrigation development especially in the countries with agricultural foundation
will help to reduce poverty significantly (Fan et. al, 1999; Ravallion and
Datt, 1996; Mellor, 2001; Desai, 2002);
• Mellor (2001) stated that irrigation is the driving force for the poverty
reduction because of higher farm incomes;
• The available statistic explained that 17 percent of worldwide irrigated land
contributes to about 40 percent of world production of cereal (Lipton, et.al.,
2002);
• Hussain and Hanjra (2004) developed this idea that diversification and
intensification of crop and shifting of those to the commercial cropping from
subsistence help to reducing food prices for the poorer households;
• Dhawan and Datta, (1992) explained that rural settings up to 3 crops by
irrigation can be grown as compared to rainfed settings that make just a
single crop;
• Drawing macro level data, Lipton et al. (2002) through study of the
comparison of poverty and land irrigated quantity they explained that those
region which have higher irrigation land can developed the higher poverty
reduction. This study was carried out in Africa and Asia;
• The study verified that in 1989-90 in Africa the level of absolute poverty
decreased from 47.7percent to 46.3percent by the year 1998 only by
implementation of 3 percent irrigated cropland. (World Bank, 2000);
22 • Adhikari (2003) stated that the study and linkages between poverty and
irrigation consist of aggregate macro level analysis;
• Burton (2003) introduced the manual of integrated water resources
management on a catchment level which contained of tools, indicators, and
procedure;
• Isfahani (2006) Iranian economist explained in his report that poverty become
as a central problem in Iran;
• In the report of Chan (2003) at the end of his study he made some discussions
about implementation of GIS for poverty assessment as the framework of
poverty reduction;
• Explanations for poor areas are summarized by Henniger (1998) into two
theoretical models for poverty alleviation: i) Individualistic model ii)
Geographic model;
• Petts (1984) in his study explained that dam have important effects in all
aspect of economies, environment, engineering structures. He also considered
the dams as a host of other important issues in water resources management;
• In their global assessment of rural poverty, the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD) identified eight broad components of
poverty (Henninger, 1998) as detailed in Table 2.3.
23 Table 2.3 Components of poverty by IFAD.
Components Description And Scope of poverty Material Poor education, lack of clothing, , fuel insecurity, poor health deprivation ,absence of provisions for emergencies, poor nutritional status Inadequate food supplies, lack of housing Lack of assets material assets (land, agricultural input, etc.) human capital (education, training, etc.) are categorized in this section Isolation Areas which are far from development and service institutions with very limited access to transport, roads, markets and communication links. Social, political and geographic marginalization. Alienation Alienation results from isolation and exploitative social relations and includes people that lack identify and control, are unemployed or underemployed, lack of Marketable skills, and have limited access to training and education. Dependence. Poor people are often exposed to skewed dependency relationships that can be found for example between landlord and tenant, employer and employee, creditor and debtor, buyer and seller, or patron and bonded laborer. Lack of This is a result of limited participation and freedom of choice. decision making power Vulnerability External shocks can be caused by factors found in nature to external (droughts, floods, cyclones, locusts, etc.), markets (collapse in shocks commodity price, labor supply and demand, etc.), demography (loss of a household’s earning member, death, divorce, etc.), health (illness of earning member), and war. Insecurity. This is defined as the risk of being exposed to physical violence.
• There is an extensive literature documented on how dams change downstream
channels (Williams and Wolman, 1984; Brandt, 2000; Fassnacht et al., 2003;
Grant et al., 2003; Graf, 2005);
• Several authors have tried to develop generalized conceptual models to help
predict the downstream effects of dams on rivers, but these efforts are in their
infancy (Brandt, 2000; Schmidt and Wilcock, 2008);
24 • Our present understanding of the geomorphic influence of dams on
downstream channels recognizes a welter of important controls that can
provide widely varying geomorphic responses in individual cases (Grant et al.,
2003);
• Understanding the potential channel changes that can arise after dams are
removed often requires an assessment or understanding of existing dam
impacts. The influence of dams on sediment budgets and fluvial sediment
transport processes is of concern for a variety of efforts to restore channels and
estuaries downstream of dams in the region (Walter, 2006).
2.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN IRAN
After the Iranian revolution, main effort of decision maker was on direction of poverty alleviation. It was so that Iranian supreme leader at that time announced that
“this revolution is belong to barefoot with such idea and emphasis of Iranian supreme leader at that time some organizations become responsible to play role for removal of poverty alleviation in Iranian society. The names of those organizations were
Foundation of 15 Khordad and Foundation of Mostazafan va Janbazan. Both of the above mention foundations have responsibility of monitoring poor people and their effort is to make possible facility for vulnerable people. Addition to above , constitutional law of Islamic Republic of Iran have various section which play as support for vulnerable people and provide the legal facility which allowed decision maker to move towards of poverty alleviation.
In this regard one of those distinguished role and regulation is 44 principal of constitutional law which give opportunity to private sector to participate in all
25 economics activity especially farmer cooperative and equality distribution of income with respect to all available sources in society. This principal was not totally applicable since starting of Iranian Revolutionary Government ,but round about 2 years ago by order of Iranian supreme leader it become activate through evaluation in the parliament. In same connection there is program which is well known as 20 years perspective framework of Islamic Republic of Iran which introduces the economics policy of Iran in three main categories as:
9 Government
9 Cooperative association
9 private
Private sector may play an important role for the alleviation of poverty in the society.
2.5 SUMMARY
The national and international agency in different parts of the world developed different framework for the poverty alleviation. World Bank and ADB provided various criteria for the sustainable development. In this connections various guidelines and indicators has been provided for the poverty alleviation in last four decades.
Specific indicators called sustainable development indicators (SDI) are often used as quantitative or qualitative measures to provide information for decision making. The World Summit on sustainable development was held in Johannesburg in
26 2002 to assess progress since Rio conference. The development in sustainable development indicators is a continued process and the indicators were updated in
MDGs by the UN in 2005. Various organizations have been established by development of water resources infrastructures especially large dams. Their effort has been directed towards of impact mitigation of water structures. Lessons obtained from the review of indicators of UN and other related water organizations are the base line for the carryout of the selected indicators in this study.
Review of literature shows that Development of agriculture by the irrigation dam become as a major engine for economic growth and poverty reduction. The growing scarcity and competition for water, however, stands as a major threat to future advances in poverty alleviation. Food production is likely to be adversely affected particularly in the arid regions. The development of dam irrigation has contributed significantly to the increase in food production and reduction in poverty.
As water is withdrawn from agriculture, in the management of irrigation systems, more attention must be given to water needs for multiple uses not only for agriculture, but for other domestic uses, and for environmental needs. Special attention must be given to implementing policies and developing technologies suitable for adoption by resource-poor farmers in water-scarce or marginal upland and rain-fed areas. Poverty eradication through sustainable development can be regarded today as perhaps the central goal of all researchers in development agencies. In this regard there is an urgent need for new strategies to improve the productivity of water in both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, and ensure access to water and technologies by the
27 poor. Irrigation through large dam has been played a major role historically in poverty alleviation by providing food security, protection against famine, floods and expanded opportunities for employment. The development roots in most of developed country may be originated from water resources development e.g. United State, China, Japan and Spanish. Estimation of the arid region on the world shows that currently 47.2 percent of the world and 45.8 percent of Asia and 90 percent of Iran fall in arid region.
28 Chapter III METHODOLOGY
3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
Following are the general information about Iran and selected study area respectively. Total land area of country is 165 million hectares. For 2020 Iran’s population is estimated to reach 100 million. However, total agricultural production is expected to be 200 million tons, of which 189 million tons will be harvested from irrigated crops. Agriculture plays a drastic role in Iran. It has about 27 percent of GNP and 23 percent of labor force. Sustainable agriculture and food production is a suitable answer for food demands and increasing population. This action mainly depends on the efficient use of water. The structure of water management in Iran is illustrated in
Figure 3.1. The main water governance body in the country is Ministry of Energy.
Water man agement in Iran
Various Private Sector Ministry of Energy Stakeholders Policy Makers (Governance)
Ministry of Jihad Consultant Firms Supreme Water Council Deputy Minster for Agriculture Presided by the Water Af fairs President of Iran (Iran Water Resources Management Company) Ministry of Industry Contractors Provincial Water and Parliament Wastewater Companies Mines Ministr y of Urban Development
Environmental Protection Organization Fig. 3.1 Water management structure in Iran.
29 3.1.1 Selected Study Area
The study area is located in province of Hormozgan, about 35 kilometers away from Persian Golf and of 70 -90 km from Bander Abbas. Minab is the nearest town to the dam and downstream villages. Minab River the most important source of water for agriculture in this area. The origin of this river is in the southern mountain of
Kerman. Purpose of construction of Minab dam was to provide reliable and ensured source of irrigation and drinking water supply in plain areas of Minab as well as
Banadar Abass.
Construction of the dam was started in 1983 and after dam construction, irrigation and drainage network of Minab plain was completed by the year 1986.
Implementation of Minab irrigation network in the area started after its completion and this activity highly improved the life of the people in the study area. The tube wells are the other sources for agriculture in the study area. Minab Roud Company controls irrigation network at downstream of the dam. It is one of those companies that started its activity after dam construction in the study area. There is availability of tube wells which are also under control of Minab Roud Company. However there are other available tube wells that their activities are managed by the private sectors.
These tube wells are considered as additional water resource at downstream of the
Minab dam. Location of the study area and the dam are given in Figs. 3.2 to 3.4.
Villages affected by dam construction at downstream of the dam were selected for detailed analysis for this study.
30
Fig. 3.2 Map of study area.
31
Fig. 3.3 Location of study area (Minab Dam).
Fig.3.4 Minab dam.
32 3.2 PROCEDURE
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data for this study from various organizations (government agencies, and domestic and
International Corporation’s). To fulfill the objectives of the study the following tasks were undertaken:
• Review of latest available literature regarding the evaluation of water
resources and large dam’s effects on poverty alleviation through
sustainable development (by use of library, internet, etc…);
• Identify the combination of those procedures or practices which would be
most appropriate for this study;
• Collect framework related to sustainable development and its
consequences on poverty conditions in developing countries developed by
national and international agencies.
The selection of indicators was based on the available data and guide lines of various national and international organizations for sustainable development. Based on the above criteria some of the indicators of sustainable development related to poverty were selected and modified. Where appropriate the selected indicators were adjusted for the condition of developing countries especially Iranian. Details of development of indicators of sustainable development have been explained in the chapter on review of literature. The selected indicators were tested in the study area based on availability of data, time and other resources. The sequence of the procedure adopted in this study has been illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
33
Te s t i n g o f t h e Guide lines and Eva l u a ti on of th e Selection of Indi cators in the Framework Result Indi cators Study Area De ve lopme n t
Fig. 3.5 Sequence of the procedure adopted for the study.
3.2.1 Base Line
This research aimed to evaluate the impacts of large dams on poverty alleviation. This impact is the general impact which has been evaluated by the various national and international agencies. The proposed sustainable indicators especially consider the socioeconomic impact of large dam with respect to vivid picture of poverty. Anderson (1991) argued that conventional indicators of economic performance can only provide insights into the first way of describing the economic process, and for that the requirement is the new indicators to describe the impact of economic processes on humans and between humans and the environment. Anderson
(1991) has given the following guide lines for selection of ‘good indicators:
1. Ease of availability of indicators means that the indicator and information
should already be available, or can be made available with low cost;
2. Ease of understanding of indicator means that the indicator should be easy to
understand relatively;
3. Measurability of the indicators usually discusses the measurable relevance for
the entire measurements;
4. Significance of indicator explains that the indicator should represent
something of significance;
5. Pattern of incidence for the indicator discussed the ability of indicators for the
utilization in spatial and social information;
34 6. Comparability of indicators refer to the internationally comparison of the
indicators with respect to their objective;
3.2.2 Sources of the Indicators
For a promotion in performance of this research and to encourage the atmosphere of challenge, the out come of share knowledge of international organizations like United Nations (UN) and World Commission on Dam (WCD) were considered as the base line in this research with respect to condition of the developing country. Sustainable development indicators of UN have been developed through activity of various organizations. The WCD developed a series of indicators through activity of related specialist for large dams management. These indicators were developed through impact evaluation of 152 dams worldwide (WCD, 2000).
In order to save time, the already identified indicators which are the result of impact evaluation of WCD and lessons from UN Millennium Development Goals have been incorporated in this study. The study will compared the pre and post dam conditions by use of sustainable development indicators which have been modified for local use. The following are the main sources of the selected indicators.
• Indicators of Sustainable Development - Review and Assessment (UN, 2005) • A WCD Work Programme Component, Cross-Check Survey (WCD, 2000) •
Some of those indicators were modified to suit the condition in developing country in general and particularly in Iran (Table 3.1).
35 Table 3.1 Selected sustainable indicators for downstream of Minab dam.
Theme Sub-theme Indicator
Population Population Population Growth Rate change Education Education *Development impact on literacy rate in downstream level and area.-Development of educational center at downstream. literacy level Housing Living Floor area per person Proportion of population living in Condition slums, percent of new community, village, town growth
after large dam construction.
Land percent of land coverage or use, prior to dam Natural construction Resources Irrigation *Agriculture type at downstream. Command area Actual Maximum Irrigated Command Area achieved to development Target. Achievement of Irrigation Development. Industries Water sector *Industries development in area due to dam construction. Drinking Proportion of population with access to improved Water sanitation Health Population with access to safe drinking water Sanitation Large dams infectious diseases Healthcare delivery Changes in downstream hydrology; Impact due to a) change in total flows; pattern of dam b) change in seasonal flows (e.g. Spring flood becomes winter flood) Environment c) Change in extreme high and low flows. Changes in downstream water quality caused by altered flow pattern. Impact due to Changes in downstream morphology of river bed. reservoir *Percent of population living below poverty line base on national record pre & post- dam construction. * Large dam impact on poverty. Equity Poverty * Creation of job opportunity due to large dams in Government and private sectors. * Unemployment type and rate. Proposed indicators Source: United Nations (2005) and World Commission on Dam (2000)
36 The selected indicators evaluated with respect to condition of pre and post dam construction of Minab dam.Data collection and sources of the data are given in Table
3.2.
Table 3.2 Data collection and sources
Required Sources of the data collected Year Data Population Statistical center of Iran, Related local 1982-2006 office, Filed visits. Education Statistical center of Iran Management & 1982-2006 programming, organization – Hormozgan, Filed visits& interviews. Housing Statistical center of Iran,Field visits, 1982-2006 Management & programming organization, Related study in area. Resources Agricultural economics research center 1982-2006 of Iran, Ministry of jihad agriculture of Iran, FAO documents, UN documents.World Bank (WB) documents, Related journal and study in area. Industries Field visits,Management & 1982-2006 programming organization of Iran. Iranian National Geographical organization. Health Shahid Muhammadi Hospital – 1982-2006 Hormozgan, Heath organization center. Environment Synoptic station Minab, water resource, 1982-2006 Management’s organization. Ministry of Energy – Iran, Hormozgan Regional Water Resources. Land Sat Seattleite images, Related study in area , Related workshops in area, Environmental organization, Jihad Agricultural organization, NahadAb Co, NGO documents. Equity UNDP documents, WB. Documents, 1982-2006 Central Bank publications…
The surveys cover farm characteristics, and input output data on agricultural
production. The study evaluates institutional development by drawing on
secondary and qualitative data surveys, interviews, and the reviews of the
37 extension service. Quality and quantity of services delivered are assessed by using
a combination of the findings of participatory (beneficiary) assessments, staff,
surveys, and through measures of outreach and the nature and frequency of
contact between extension agents and farmers drawn from the 1982 Survey.
3.3 COLLECTION OF DATA
Analysis of historical and physical data has been carried out through evaluation of selected indicators with respect to pre and post dam construction scenario. Data collection was carried out in two steps: i) Collection of historical data from different departments and organizations ii) Fieldwork for Primary data collection through interviews and discussions
with the stakeholders in the study area.
The required data have been collected based on selection of the indicators. The following themes are explained according to Table 3.1.
- Population
By the evaluation of the population from statistical point of view the needs of the society can be predict respectively. The predictions of requirement of society by the decision maker provide a better standard for the life of individual, families, and management of sources. Furthermore the developed framework in Agenda 21 emphases international cooperation to overcome the population issues. Data collection for population received through Statistical Center of Iran for the year 2006 while the data for 1982, founded through library of MPO and SCI. Based on available statistics percentage of pre and post dam construction are compared in this study.
38 - Education
Education is a continuous process. Shear of education is the essential policy to achieve the sustainability in all criteria. Evaluation of policy applied for all areas of
Agenda 21, emphases on the importance of education for the sustainable development
(UN, 1992). Education in Agenda 21 is organized around the three issues which are, reorienting education towards sustainable development, increasing public awareness, promoting training. Data collection for the education obtained through:
• Field visit;
• Statistical center of Iran /Library(Data obtained in form of CD and statistical
book of Hormozgan province for year 1982);
• Educational center in the study area (document of SCI from 1982-2006);
A comparison of data for pre and post dam construction was the main effort in this
part of the study. Percentage is the unit of this indicator in this study.
- Housing
Every human have a right to have shelter. The importance of human shelter has been verified in Global Strategy for Shelter human settlements chapter of
Agenda 21, and the Habitat (UN, 1997). Data on housing in the study area obtained through:
• Statistical center of Iran (Data obtained in form of CD and statistical book of
Hormozgan province for year 1982);
• Field visits;
• Management and programming organization( through their library, online
website http://www.mpo-hr.gov.ir/)
39 - Resources
The natural resources protection is the key control for the environment. The policy for these propose already has been developed by many national and international conferences. In this study theme, sub-theme and indicators are the classified. The required data for this part of study has been obtained from following sources:
• Center of economics research for agricultural in Iran(purchasing 20 CD related
to Minab);
• Ministry of Jihad agriculture of Iran( visiting their office and obtained data in
tabular form );
• Related journal and study in area ( Agriculture journal, Barkhordari, 2005);
• Landsat satellite images(the related information and website are explained in
appendix B);
The procedure for the Landsat image is illustrated in Figure. 3.5.
Landsat Satellite
Raw Image Space
Transformation
Geo-referenced Image Space
Fig. 3. 6 Conceptual representation of geo-referencing.
The general information on Landsat and application of Landsat data are explained in appendix B.
40 - Industries
Development of industries means development of impact on the natural condition of nature. It is obvious that the industrial development is the need of present and future generation but at the same time degradation of environment is the sine qua non. The data collection about industries obtained through field visit and available data of Iranian National Geographical Organization.
- Public Health
There is close relationship between health and sustainable development.
Healthy population is the significant of health promotion in the area. Low efficiency of health has direct proportionality with productivity, especially in labor intensive agriculture section. It is difficult to achieve the sustainable development without promotion in health quality of the society. Agenda 21 in relation with the health issue emphases on the meeting primary health care needs, especially in rural areas; controlling communicable diseases; protecting vulnerable groups; meeting urban health needs; and reducing health risks from environmental pollution and hazards
(UN,1992).
Since the Earth Summit there is notable progress on improving human health.
Most of the countries evaluate an increase in life expectancy and declining child mortality rates (UN, 1997).
The data collection for health was carried out through cooperation of:
• Shahid Muhammadi Hospital ( Discussion with Medical officer)
• Field visit
The selected unit in this section is percentage.
41 - Environment
One of the significant tasks of the sustainable development is the entire evaluation of the environment. To address the requirements for building the necessary capacity and knowledge about the above indicator needs various data. The required data has been collected through following organization.
Synoptic station Minab, Hormozgan Regional Water Company, Land Sat
Seattleite image, Nahad Ab Company, NGO, related workshops and studies in the study area, environmental organization, Jihad Agricultural organization.
- Equity
One of the principal values for the sustainable development involves the equity. It shows the degree of distribution of resources and opportunity within the society. The equity defined the provision of comparable opportunities of social services, employment, health, education and justice. There is chapter of poverty in
Agenda 21(UN, 1992).
The data for this section has been collected through following organization:
- Statistical center of Iran(Data obtained in form of CD and statistical book of
Hormozgan province for year 1982);
- Document of central Bank of Iran
- Review of United Nations Publication (Isfahani, 2007)
To get the percentage of poverty line before and after dam construction various researches has been reviewed. The common outcome of all activity for the poverty line emphasize on the reduction in poverty.
42 3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The basic idea for the development of institutional framework in this study is the comparison of the primary objective with performance of the dam after its completion. For this propose various available studies worldwide has been reviewed.
In addition to result of this study the out come of similar studies has been incorporated for the development of the institutional framework. Based on deficiency of performance a new institutional framework has been developed that consist of four layers as:
• Base line;
• Synthesis;
• Action area; and
• Outcome
Legal support in any activity cause promotion and acceleration in direction of desire action, and in this regard 44 principal of constitutional law and 20 years perspective framework of Iran can play as support system for poverty alleviation as part of frame work. As discussed two ministries have responsibility for dam construction and water resources in Iran: Ministry of Energy and Ministry of Jihad Agriculture which have responsibility of dams monitoring and water resources in all provinces, through their offices in the country.
43 Chapter IV DATA SYNTHESES AND ANALYSIS
4.1 POPULATION
The statistics presented in this chapter consist of available data from year 1982 up to year 2006. The census report for the year 1986 showed that the population had been growing at faster rate since 1976 compared to earlier periods. National census indicated average annual growth at of 2.7 percent for the year 1976. It is evident from
Fig. 4.1 that the highest population growth rate (3.5 percent) was recorded in year
1986 which fell to 1.5 percent by year 2006 (SCI, 1976-2006). Population density is about 35.3 people per kilometer square in the study area.
Fig. 4.1 Population growth rate in the study area in Iran.
Populations in years 1982 and 2006 are given in Table 4.1 for different villages in the study area. It is evident from last column of this table that increase in population is not uniform in different villages. The increase in population is much more in some
44 villages whereas it is marginal in one village. This difference is due to no availability of agriculture land surrounding of the village.
Table 4.1 The population of different villages at downstream of the dam before and after dam construction.
Population Increase in Villages Pre-Dam Post-Dam Construction Construction percent (1982) (2006) Tirur 1096 2186 99 chah Esmail 568 2200 287 Chah shirin 179 772 331 Haji khadmi 887 2545 187 Dom e Shahr 955 1806 89 Zeart Mowla 250 269 8 Gurband 1787 2444 37 Nowband Jadeed 62 1436 2,216 NowbandGhadeem 231 523 126
4.2 LITERACY ASSESSMENT
All individuals who have reading and writing abilities for simple text in any language are considered as literate persons. The Ministry of Education and Literacy
Movement of Iran are responsible for primary education.
4.2.1 Literacy Rate
Table 4.2 shows the literacy rate in the study area. The literacy status in the study area is encouraging. The literacy rate increased to 75.20 percent in 2006 compared to 38 percent before the dam construction. The literacy rate increased about
35 percent over 30 years. The many school and high schools increased from 4 to 9 and 1 to 3 respectively in the study area compared to before construction of dam
(Table 4.3).
45
Table 4.2 Literacy rate in rural area at downstream of dam.
Years Literacy Rate (percent) 1976 41.5 1986 48.37 1996 69.61 2006 75.20
Table 4.3 Status of schools in the study area before and after dam construction.
Primary Guidance High Sport Villages school school School Complex B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D Tirur Y Y N Y N Y N N Chah Esmail N Y N Y N N N N Chah shirin N Y N Y N N N Y Haji khadmi Y Y N Y N N N Y Dom e Shahr Y Y N Y Y Y N Y Zeart Mowla N Y N N N N N N Gurband Y Y N Y N Y N N Nowband Jadeed N Y N Y N N N Y Nowband Ghadeem N Y N Y N N N N Total 4 9 0 8 1 3 0 4
Note: AD= after dam construction (2006) and BD= before dam construction (1982)
Education is a long-term policy and it is presented as a fundamental prerequisite for achievement of sustainable development. Literacy rate can be considered as root of basic element for human needs to achieve equity, capacity building, and access to information. Table 4.1 shows the situation of literacy that has increased after construction of the dam and it can be considered as green signal to the Agenda 21 of
United Nations. Education in Agenda 21 is organized around the three issues:
46 • Reorienting education towards sustainable development
• Increasing public awareness
• Promoting training
Progresses in education in all the villages are shown in Table 4.3. The development in road condition and other available services are shown in Table 4.4. The data is plotted in Fig. 4.2 for more illustration. It is clear from this data that all the services are developed in the study area.
Table 4.4 The status of water supply system, electricity and other services before and after dam construction in study area. Center Of Water Road Utility Jihad Distribution Electricity Villages Condition Store Agriculture System B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D Tirur clay Asphalt N Y N Y Y Y N Y chah Asphalt Asphalt N N N Y N Y N Y Esmail Chah clay Asphalt N Y Y Y N Y N Y Shirin Haji Asphalt Asphalt N N Y Y Y Y N Y khadmi Dom e local Asphalt N N N Y N Y N Y Shahr Zeart clay Asphalt N N N N N Y N Y Mowla Gurband clay Asphalt N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Nowband clay Asphalt N N N N N Y N Y Jadeed Nowband local Asphalt N N Y N N Y N Y Ghadeem Total 2 9 0 2 4 6 3 9 1 9
Note : AD= After dam construction (2006)and BD= Before dam construction (1982)
The Figure 4.2 presents the development of facilities pre and post dam construction.
47 10
8 Year 2006
6
4 Year 1982
2 Number of Villages of Number 0 Asphalt Utlity store Massjed Jehad Water El ec tri c ity Road Agriculture Supply System Services
Fig. 4.2 Availability of different services in pre & post dam construction.
4.3 HOUSING
4.3.1 Living Conditions
Based on field visits and review of the available data, it was found that all the villages have access development. In the study area the houses are built by masonry materials, however, in planning of these houses natural properties and restrictive factors are considered. In some of these villages there are big houses in which several families live together. Although each family has its own private room, the kitchen, bath but the dinning room is common. Due to less knowledge of construction in rural area and no actual supervision by qualified persons during the construction, it is not possible to give suitable mark to houses available in study area. Most of the houses were improved and showed that the traditional materials of construction were replaced by strong materials such as brick, concrete and iron. Usually the materials of construction in the area consist of:
- Brick - Concrete - Wood - Iron beam
48 As explained in previous pages, the main canal which is TMN has discharge of 6.3 m3 per second. This canal provides the required water for various uses to the people specially agriculture use in the study area.
Percentage of new community, village, town growth after dam construction;
The first city that grew in the study area during construction of dam was Shahrk Saad.
The percentage of new community in the area was estimated about 15 percent.
4.4 RESOURCES
For the human survival availability of natural resources are the sine qua non.
In Minab plain area there are two type of vegetation respectively: natural vegetation and cultural vegetation.
4.4.1 Natural Vegetation
The study area consists of various vegetation types which are categorized as follows: i) Non –Halophyte species:
- Ziziphus spina-Christi.
- Tavernier cuneraria.
- Prosopis cineraria.
- Prosopis juliflora.
- Convolvulus argyroacanthus.
- Calotropis procera. ii) Halophyte species:
- Salsola incanecenst.
- Tamarix sp.
49 - Halocnemum strobilaceum.
- Suacda.
- Prosopis cineraria.
4.4.2 Cultural vegetation
Cultural vegetation in study area consists of:
- Cereal
- Orchards
- Dry Food crops
- Oil seed crop
- Leguminous crops
4.4.3 Land Classes
Based on production economics six land classes are normally recognized.
These include:
• Class I: Arable lands that are highly suitable for irrigated farming.
• Class II: Arable lands that have a moderate suitability for irrigated farming.
• Class III: Arable lands that have a marginal suitability for irrigated farming.
• Class IV: Special use lands that is suited to certain special uses (e.g., rice, pasture or fruit) only.
• Class V: Non-arable land that is temporarily considered as non-arable because of some specific deficiency such as excessive salinity, drainage, flooding, or other deficiency.
• Class VI: Non-arable land that is not being used under the existing conditions.
Table 4.5 gives details of the land classification in the area and percentage of suitable type of land availability. The same data is plotted in Fig. 4.3 for easy interpretation.
50
Table 4.5 Land classification in the study area.
Land class Area (ha) Percentage I 940 9.20 II 2500 24.55 III 3730 36.05 IV 480 4.70 V 1460 14.30 VI 1140 11.2
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000
Area (ha)Area 1500 1000 500 0 I II III IV V VI Class
Fig. 4.3 Land classification at downstream of Minab dam.
By evaluation of satellite imagery and filed visit it was observed that salinity has increased in the area. Water table also increased due to losses from the irrigation system.
4.4.4 Irrigated Land
Following tables and figures shows the event development in irrigation land in the study area (Table 4.6).
51 Table 4. 6 Arable lands by irrigation and rain for year 1979 (before dam construction).
Irrigated Village Type of crop land(ha) Chah Esmail 1500 wheat –barley and orchards Tirur 148 wheat –barley and orchards Chah Shirin 107 wheat –barley and orchards Haj Khadmi 278 wheat –barley and orchards Domshaher 184 wheat –barley and orchards Kalangi 20 wheat –barley and orchards Gourband 1261 Not available Gol Bagh Association 10 Same Meh Raghan 10 Same Noband Qadeem 56 Same Zeart Mowla 0 Same Now Band Jadeed 48 Same Total 3622 Same Source: Ministry of Jihad Agriculture –Year 1979
The characteristics of Northern irrigation system are explained in Table 4.8. It is clear from this data that irrigation greatly affected the agriculture inside the study area.
Table 4.7 Area irrigated by Minab dam in year 1986
Water Egg- Palm- Village Tomato Onion Cucumbers Citrus Total melon plant Grove (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
Gurband 130 300 207 140 35 172 150 1584 Chah Shirin 8 45 27 9 - 7 23 169 Tirur 20 100 100 30 5 90 80 675 Chah esmail 18 22 20 7 - 3 9 124 Domeshahr 38 150 150 52 7 180 70 847 Nowband 25 63 65 30 5 137 120 555 Haji 6 15 12 5 2 108 265 493 Khadmi Total 245 695 581 273 54 697 717 4447 Source: Minab Center of Agriculture Service –Year 1986
52 Table 4.8 Area under irrigation of northern irrigation network in study area in year 2000.
Canal Orchard area Date area Summer crops/ vegetable(ha)
(ha) (ha) NP.P 34.92 34.60 0.00 NP0 128.47 39.68 0.00 NP1 29.90 54.77 0.00 NP2 14.64 147.38 0.00 NP3 196.99 286.89 0.00 NP4 228.59 41.30 0.00 NP5 67.60 12.27 0.00 NP6 0.00 0.00 48 NP7 45.04 0.00 253 NP8 0.00 0.00 236 NP9-9.1-9.2 0.00 0.00 227 NP10 0.00 0.00 142 NP111-112.1-12.2-2.3 0.00 0.00 238 NP13 0.00 0.00 401 NP14/1,14/2 0.00 0.00 133 NP15.1 0.00 0.00 142 NP15-16.16.1 0.00 0.00 210 NP17 0.00 0.00 176 NP18 0.00 0.00 146 NP19 0.00 0.00 80 NP20-20.1 0.00 0.00 183 NP21-21.1 0.00 0.00 307 NP22/1,2 0.00 0.00 136 NP23 0.00 0.00 212 NP24/1,2-25 0.00 0.00 113 NP26/1,2 0.00 0.00 197 N1P 0.00 0.00 1059 TOTAL 746.2 616.9 4639
According to Table 4.6 the available water satisfied the 3622 hectares of downstream land for agricultural purpose. After completion of dam construction irrigation system was not completed. The construction of irrigation network at downstream was completed by the year 1986. At the same time the cultivation pattern of the area was also changed. Table 4.7 shows the irrigated land by year 1986. Tables
4.9 and 4.10 presents cropped area in years 1993 and 2006. It is apparent from the it is apparent from the above tables that the irrigated land is continuously increasing. The
53 irrigated land was 3622 ha before consideration of dam (Table 4.6) and the same was
8262 ha (Table 4.10)
Table 4.9 Irrigated area of Minab dam in year 1993 in hectares. Irrigated Wheat Barley Product Summer Tomato Onion Vegetable By Rain Wheat Orchard Village Village Name
Chah Shirin 78.25 - - 25 14 11.5 27.3 10 5 12 Ziarat Mola 39.5 - - 14.5 4.4 - 10.5 - - 0.23 Chah Esmael1 83.5 33 - 41 6.5 8 8.5 7 7 10.3 Chah Esmael 2.6 - - - 0.6 - - - - 4.2 Tolombe 8 - - - - 1 1 - - 1 Sadeghi Tiroor 743 20.6 - 236.4 117.5 110 226 - - 70.6 Moassese 45 - - 13.3 - - 11.7 - - 20.3 Goorband Goorband 921 35 6.6 283.3 19 104 296 - - 115.5 Zir band 9 - - 3 - 2 3 - - 4 Dam Shahr 285 - - 92.7 1.3 5 105 - - 126.5 Moassese 15 ------16 G.Bagh Nobande Jadid 91.5 - - 8 - 9 45.5 - - 109 Nobande 35.5 - - 3 0.5 2.5 - - - 66.3 Ghadim Haji Khadmi 25.3 - - - 6 7 1.3 - - 174 Kalangi ------174 Mehrghan ------3.74
Total 2382 88.6 6.6 720 169.8 260 735 17 12 907.7
Source: Statistical Center of Iran
54 The data obtained through filed visit are presented in Tables 4.10.
Table 4.10 Irrigated area by Minab dam in year 2006 (Field visit).
Cultivated Area Orchard Area No. of Village (ha) (ha) Operator Tolombah Sh.M.Sadeghi 9 16 2 Chah Esmail 1128 - 65 Chah Shirin 169 43 38 Zearat Mowla 280 8 30 Teror 953 325 268 Zir band 140 130 5 Gorband 1133 555 250 Moassah Kashavarzy 192 19 7 Domshahr 480 377 175 Gol Bagh 37 25 2 Nowband Jadeed 195 80 95 Nowband Ghadeem 130 349 42 Haji Khadmi 121 403 210 Mah Reghan 41 45 14 Kalangi 36 46 3 Total 4935 2421 1206
.
4.5 INDUSTRIES
Industries developed after dam construction in the study area:
• Tuna fish factory
• Flour factory
• Cable factory
• Juice factory
Locations of important places where industries have been developed are summarized in Table 4.11. Most of these industries have been developed after dam construction in the study area.
55 Table 4.11 Location of important places in the study area.
S.No Name Distance from Remarks Minab City 1 Ordoogah Imam Khomeyni 7 km N.W Garden Cultivation 2 Blooki 28 km N.W Cultivation 3 Tolombe Jafar 25 km N.W Garden (date) Cultivation 4 Tolombe Shahriyar Jafari 15 km N.W Garden (Orange-date) 5 Tolombe Sheykh 21 km N.W Garden Cultivation 6 Tolombe Ali Salmani va Shoraka 21 km N.W Garden Cultivation 7 Tolombe Gholamali Zare 22 km N.W Garden 8 Tolombe Mohammad Sadeghi 20 km N.W Garden Cultivation 9 Tolombe Mahmood Khoram var 19 km N.W Garden 10 Tolombe Marhamati 15 km N.W Garden Cultivation 11 Tolombe Moshae se Tiro 22 km N.W Garden Cultivation 12 Tolombe Yosef Sadeghi 20 km N.W Garden 14 Hatambar Goorband Co. 22 km N.W Transport Service 15 Minab Sarooj 22 km N.W Material of construction
18 Ghahvekhane Aboozar 29 km N.W Services 19 Karkhane emani 8 km N.W Material of construction 20 Kalangi 8 km N.W Garden 22 Morghdari Rafiee 3 km N.W Culture 23 Morghdari Minab 7km N.W Culture hen 24 Mazrae Abdollah Hatami 14km N.W Garden, Cultivation 25 Mazrae komite emdad emam 16 km N.W Garden, Cultivation khomeni bshagerd 26 Mazrae khoori 28 km N.W Garden, Cultivation 27 Mazrae Keshavarzi Gol bagh 11 km N.W Garden, Cultivation 28 Moassese Keshavarzi Mansoor 14 km N.W Garden, Cultivation Moallemi 29 Miyan Shahr 70 km N.W Garden, Cultivation
4.6 HEALTH
4.6.1 Comparison of Health Services
Availability of data showed that health facility before construction of dam was almost nil that increased by 80 percent after commissioning of the dam (Table 4.12).
56 Table 4.12 Health services in the study area before and after dam construction in study area. Name of the Public Public Health Doctor Midwife Health Villages Bath Center Technician Room B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D B.D A.D Tirur Y N N Y N N N Y N Y chah Esmail N N N Y N N N Y N Y Chah shirin N N N Y N N N N N Y Haji khadmi Y N N Y N Y N Y N Y Dom e Shahr N N N Y N N N Y N Y Zeart Mowla N N N N N N N N N N Gurband Y N N Y N Y N Y N Y Nowband Jadeed N N N Y N N N N N Y NowbandGhadeem N N N Y N N N Y N Y Total 3 0 0 8 0 2 0 6 0 8 Note: AD = After dam construction and BD = Before dam construction
Health facility pre & post dam construction
10 8 Year 2006 6 Year 1982 Year 1982 4 Year 2006 2
Number of villages of Number 0 Public Pu b li c Doctor Midwife Nurse Bath Heath Room Center Health facility
Fig. 4.4 Health services before and after dam construction.
57 4.6.2 Increase in Diseases
The outcome of the research in 1982 at downstream of Minab dam emphasizes on the development of diseases due to dam construction. In this research 4000 larva were collected from the downstream of Minab dam (Zaeem, 1982). Seventeen types of larva were identified during this study there types are given below.
- Anopheles Dthali patton
- Anopheles Fluviatilies James
- Anopheles Molticolor Cambouliu
- Anopheles Pulcherimus Theobald
- Anopheles Stephensi Liston
- Anopheles Superpictus Grassi
- Anopheles Turkhudi Liston
- Culiseta Longiareolata (Macquart)
- Culex Bitaeniorhynchus Giles
- Culex Deserticola Kirkpatrick
- Culex Hortensis Ficalbi
- Culex Pipienes L
- Culex Pipiens Fatigans Weidemann
- Culex Sinaiticus Kirkpatrick
- Culex Theileri Theobald
- Culex Tritaeniorhynchus Giles
- Culex Univittatus Theobald
The above mentioned larva had caused most of human diseases in the study area after dam construction. The study of diseases in the study area showed that there is reduction of those diseases which transferred through following mechanism inside of study area.
58 • Water –borne mechanism
• Water- wash mechanism
• Water -based mechanism
• Insect vector mechanism
4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF MINAB DAM
The width of foundation of the dam and crest are 58 m and 3 m respectively.
The crest height is 100 m. The dam foundation lies on alternation of sedimentary rocks composing as sandstone, sandy marl (sandy siltstone), marl (siltstone, mudstone) clayey marl (clayey siltstone) of Oligomiocene age. The buttresses lie on relatively thick layers of sandstones (about 12 m).
Various information regarding behavior of the dam is illustrated in following figures based on availability of data. Average annual volume and average annual outflow from the dam are presented in Figures 4.7 and 4.8 respectively. It is clear from the figures that the highest volume of water was in the years 1998-99 and lowest volume was for the year 2003- 4.The main reason of this behavior is low precipitation in the area.
Minab river is formed by adjoining of two rivers of Roudan and Joqeen. These two rivers meet near the village of Borjegan, 25 km. south east of Minab city. This dam alongside its lake, forms a reserve of water for the verdant surroundings which is also an interesting tourist spot.
59 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40
Reservoir Volume (mcm) Volume Reservoir 20 0 1998- 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year
Fig. 4.5 Average annual volume of Minab Dam.
200
150
100
Outflow (mcm) Outflow 50
0 1998- 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Year
Fig 4.6 Average Annual Outflow of Minab Dam.
The 10 daily sum of outflow and 10 daily average volumes are illustrated in Annexure
C.
60 4.7.1 Characteristics of Irrigation Network.
Irrigation water delivered to the area by three networks at downstream of the dam which are:
• Northern Network
• Southern Network
• Central Network
Minab Roud Company Manages and control these networks. Length of all the three networks is given in Table 4.13. In this study, northern network of irrigation was selected which is the longest and main irrigation network of Minab plain area.
Table 4.13 Length of different irrigation networks of Minab Dam.
Canal Northern Central Southern Irrigation Irrigation Network Irrigation Network Network (Km) (Km) (Km) Main Canal 48 1.5 0.6
4.8 HYDROLOGY
Climatologically data from synoptic metrological station that is located 15 km away from the study area was used. Some features of Synoptic climatic station are:
Station name: Minab Synoptic Station
Altitude: 27 m
Longitude: 57 05 00 E
Latitude: 27 08 00 N
61 There are various methods for climatologically evaluation of the study area. The method used is known as “ Domartten” in which hydrology of region can be determined.
Domartten Method:
Following factors are requirement of this method:
- Temperature
- Precipitation
- Dry Coefficient
The following formula is used in the above method:
I = P / (T+10)
Where
I = Dry Coefficient
P = Precipitation
T = Annual Average Temperature
Accordingly there are 6 climate zones as mention in Table 4.14
Table 4.14 Dommartten climate zone.
S.No Climatic Zone Dommarten Dry Coefficient 1 Dry < 10 2 Semi Dry 10 – 19.9 3 Mediterranean 20 – 23.9 4 Semi humid 24 - 27.9 5 Humid 28 – 34.9 6 Highly Humid > 35
The above equations need temperature and precipitation data are given in Tables 4.15 and 4.16.
62 Table 4.15 Monthly average max and min temperatures of synoptic station near Minab (1982-2006).
Monthly Annual Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Parameter average
Max. 23 24.3 27.5 33.4 38.5 41.1 40.1 38.9 38.2 36.2 31.5 26 33.3 Average
Min. 12 13.5 16.3 19.6 23.6 26.8 29.3 26.4 25.7 21.8 17 13.9 20.5 Average
Monthly 17.5 18.9 21.9 26.5 31.1 33.9 34.7 32.7 31.9 29 24.3 19.9 26.8 Average
Table 4.16 Annual and monthly average precipitation of synoptic station near Minab (1982-2006).
Monthly Annual Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Parameter average Monthly Average 57.9 66.5 46.6 6.5 0.8 2.8 1.3 1 0.6 4.4 8.9 56 253.3 Precipitation
Therefore by using the data of Synoptic station dry coefficient will be:
I = 253.3 / (26.8 +10) = 6.88
From Table 4.14, the area lies in dry climatic zone.
4.8.1 Relative Humidity
Location of study area is near Persian Gulf coast. Due to this condition most of the time, humidity is high. Based on three relative humidity gage data in the study area, the percentage of relative humidity is high in few months compared to others.
With an increasing distance from the sea, a decreasing relative humidity is observed.
The monthly relative humidity in the Minab catchment is given in Table 4.17.
63 Table 4.17 Relative humidity of the study area (Percent).
Month Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Yearly Average 56 57 58 58 60 62 58 53 52 55 58 60 58 Humidity
4.8.2 Temperature
Evaluation of temperature data shows that from March to July there is rise in
temperature in study area. It is to be noted that July and January have the highest and
the lowest mean temperature respectively (Fig 4.7).
50
40
30
20
Degree Centigrade Degree 10
0 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Month
Fig. 4.7 Maximum temperature in the study area.
4.8.3 Precipitation
Rain is the main source of precipitation in the study area. Average rain is
about 220 mm, with maximum monthly value of about 58 mm in February and
minimum value of 0.2 mm occurring in September (Fig. 4.8).
64 600
500
400
300
200 Rainfall (mm) Rainfall 100
0 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 Year
Fig. 4.8 The long term annual rainfall in study area.
Fig. 4.9 shows the mean monthly precipitation in study area. The highest precipitation falls in the month of February. Annual discharges in northern irrigation canal are given in Fig. 4.10.
60 50 40 30 20
rainfall (mm) 10 Mean monthly 0 Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun Aug Month
Fig. 4.9 Mean monthly rainfall of Minab station.
65 4.8.4 Geology of the Dam
The dam foundation lies on:
- Sedimentary rocks (sandstone, sandy marl, marl clayey).
- Buttresses (Thick layers of sandstones about 12m).
In the study area land use can be categorized as:
• Agriculture area (irrigated agriculture, rain fed agriculture and orchard)
• Rang and forest land (medium rangeland, good rangeland and forest)
• Poor natural cover area (poor rangeland, bare soil and rock out crop)
4.8.5 Impact of Minab Dam on Water Quality Issues and Status
Minab Dam and irrigation canals affected environmental condition of its downstream in different ways. Sources of impacts on water quality can be categorized as:
- Primary Agriculture
- Human Sewage
- Urban Storm Run-Off
- Industry
- Agricultural Processing and Mining
- Forestry and Native Vegetation
Specific agricultural impacts on water quality can be listed as:
- Sedimentation
- Nutrient contamination
- Alteration of physical characteristics
- Fecal contamination
- Pesticide contamination.
66 4.8.6 Surface Water Quality Monitoring in Minab Basin
Minab River and some other rivers drain surface water in Minab and Bandar- abbas basins. Rivers between Minab and Bandar-Abbas from east toward west are:
Roodeshoor (Jurjel), Roode Jalaei, Roode Hasan-langi. Rivers between Minab and
Jask Cities are: Razani, Gaz, Heivi, Jagin, Gabrik and Sedich rivers. Rivers discharge, concentration of sediments and chemical quality of solids in water are measured at different hydrometric stations. These parameters usually are a function of factors like as geological condition, river discharge regime, ambient temperature and water exchange limits between surface water and groundwater in the basin. There are 12 water quality sampling stations in the Minab basin and Oman Sea coastal areas. The stations are maintained by local governmental authorities in the region and these stations are working under the Ministry of Energy.
4.8.7 Water Quality Monitoring in Minab Basin
There is a regular monitoring program in the region carried out by the governmental agency (Ministry of Energy). Assessment of groundwater quality is based on samples obtained from selected sources e.g. wells, springs and qanat. The chemical characteristic of water quality in Minab catchment has been evaluated. In the study area, minimum electrical conductivity is recorded in Jeghin plain (EC= 418
µmohs/cm) and maximum value of this parameter is recorded in Takht-Ghaleghazi and Shamil alluvial areas (EC=8040 µmohs/cm). Assessment of chemical characteristics of groundwater in showed that there is of high salinity of groundwater in most of the area. For example in two plains of Jaghin and Ahmadi, bicarbonate sodic and sulfate sedic are the common type and facies. In other part of the plain chloride is common. Value of PH is almost in alkaline range that varies from 7.04 in
Sarkhoon plain up to 9.05 in Minab plain.
67 4.8.8 Downstream of Minab Dam
An assessment was carried out during this study, on changes in green area
(orchard and crop lands) coverage in downstream of the dam. Fig. 4.10 compares this coverage in two different years including year 1989 and 2001 to assess variation during 12 years.
Satellite Imagery, 2001
Fig. 4.10 Overlay of human activity lands class in 1989 on 2001.
The agricultural wastewater from upper area flows toward the low lying area and contaminate surface and groundwater. Fertilizer and pesticide use has increased in the
68 lower watershed in these areas. A spatial analysis on the satellite images of 1989 and
2001 showed that agriculture area in downstream of the dam increases. By overlay of human activity classification of 1989 on 2001, parts of the study area that was not covered by human activities (almost orchards and agricultural fields) in 1989 came under cover in 2001. It means increase in agricultural and industrial activities leading to more wastewater and effluent. This increased effluent has impacts on surface and groundwater water quality. Agriculture wastewater contains high levels of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and pesticides. Although no data exists on amount of agriculture pollution, it is expected to be high because of proximity of agriculture effluent to surface and groundwater.
4.8.9 Geomorphology of Minab River
The changes in storage regimes and river flows in Minab dam could potentially lead to changes in sedimentation and erosion patterns, which in turn could affect storage and channel capacities and flooding potential in the area. Sedimentation and erosion in river reaches also have gradual impact on agricultural, cultural resources, recreational activities and wildlife habitants. Minab river is faced with various changes in dam downstream due to following phenomena:
- Flood
- Variation in discharge
- Sedimentation (Quality &Quantity)
Minab river system is composed of the main stream and many tributaries.
Evaluation of Minab River shows that erosion predominates in the upstream, and the materials brought to the lower reaches in a channel are sediment load. Sediment load
69 is deposited to form an alluvial plain. Study of river morphology of Minab explains that channel patterns and channel forms are affected by various factors which are:
• Discharge
• Water surface slope
• Water velocity
• Depth and width of the channel
• River bed materials
It is necessary to mention that these factors are not independent therefore they can be inter-related to each other.
4.8.10 Sediments
Floods are caused in Minab river by heavy rains which carries a huge volume of bed load from mountains to the plain area and reservoir. When a flood flows from the mountains to a Minab dam particles of bed load are deposited in order of their size. There are three different processes in transporting sediment load which are:
• Corrosion: corrodes of rocks by water and brings them invisibly into solution
• Suspension: transportation of fine sand and materials lighter than water
without contact with the river bed or on the water surface
• Traction: those processes that suspended load create the turbidity of stream
water for example Gravel of larger diameter slides or rolls, sand hops or
bounds on a river bed.
70 4.8.11 River Morphology of Minab at Downstream
The term river morphology is used to explain the shapes river channels and how they change over time. The morphology of a river channel is a function of a number of processes and environmental conditions, including the composition of the bed and banks (e.g., sand, clay, bedrock); composition of the sediment moving through the channel; and bed. The Fig. 4.11 presented the Minab dam at downstream.
An asphalt road has been constructed on the river. This situation of this road is after the Minab bridge.
Fig. 4.11 Meander formation in Minab river.
71 4.9 EQUITY
Equity is one of the principal values which define the quality of life and recognized as a central issue for development. It includes the procurement of suitable and comparable opportunities of social services, including education, health, job, and security. Poverty alleviation can be considered as especial issue related to the achievement of social equity. From the other side it includes, employment and income distribution, access to financial, and natural resources it is worth mentioning to present the commitments of the world summit for social development about equity.
The commitments emphasis poverty eradication in the world, full employment, social integration including equality of opportunity, equality between women and men, universal and equitable access to quality education and primary health care, and
accelerated development in the least developed countries. In this study, effort is towards presenting the vivid picture of poverty by presenting the pre and post socio- economic condition in the study area. Some of the social and technical aspects of socioeconomic condition have been explained in previous part of this chapter. The following are more details based on selection of the indicators.
4.9.1 Percent of Population Living Below Poverty Line
The income and expenditure of rural area based on national record are presented in Tables 4.18 and 4.19. These data are based on availability of information with statistical center of Iran.
72 Table 4.18 Per capita income and expenditures per day in Rials.
Year Income Expenditure Net income 1982 10210 13169 2959 1983 10513 13626 3113 1984 10145 12970 2825 1985 10285 13122 2837 1986 9366 12545 3179 1987 9190 11544 2354 1988 9134 10639 1505 1989 9749 12590 2841 1990 9720 12643 2923 1991 10458 12921 2463 1992 11045 12925 1880 1993 10735 12863 2128 1994 10530 12437 1907 1995 9488 12387 2899 1996 10155 12097 1942 1997 11393 13016 1623 1998 11582 13357 1775 1999 11645 13736 2091 2000 11667 14015 2348 2001 12430 14092 1662 2002 13639 15356 1717 2003 15273 16312 1039 2004 15687 18871 3184 2005 17389 19346 1957 2006 19123 21564 2441 Sources: Statistical Center of Iran (http://amar.sci.org.ir); Isfahani, 2007; Field visit.
Table 4.19 Various poverty lines for selected years (per person per day, in current rials).
Rural 1977 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 MPO 42 122 311 838 2,505 8,626 PPP exchange 32 90 157 482 1,118 2,775
Source: Statistical Center of Iran (SCI), Household Expenditure and Income Surveys; 1977-83; Isfahani, 2005
73 The percentages of the poverty rate are plotted in the Fig. 4.12. The graph clearly shows that evidenced that poverty has been reduced from nearly 36 percent to 9 percent. ) % ( 50
40 ulation ulation p
o 30 p 20 es of es of
g 10
0 Percenta 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Years
Fig. 4.12 Poverty rate in rural area. Source: Statistical Center of Iran (SCI), Household Expenditure and Income Surveys; 1977 rates are derived from SCI publications, and 1984-2004, Isfahan, 2007.
Poverty line has been estimated by various scholars and organization and their result is different from each other. The general information about poverty and its various method of calculation are available in Appendix D.
Minab dam provides access to irrigation for agriculture by storing water in times of surplus and dispensing it in times of scarcity. One of the biggest uses of
Minab dam is in agriculture to provide irrigation water. There are beneficial and adverse of the dam that are shown in Tables 4.20 and 4.21respectively.
74 Table 4.20 Active phenomena and result of dam construction (Negative impact on Poverty).
S.No Active phenomena Impact Negative Positive 1 Increase in Sedimentation 3 - 2 Increase particles in water 3 - 3 Use of spillway 3 - 4 Raising of Eutrophication phenomena 3 - in reservoir 5 Entrance of Turbidity current 3 - 6 slop Un stability towards of reservoir 3 - 7 Water logging in downstream 3 - 8 Evidence of Reservoir 3 - 9 High evaporation in reservoir 3 - 10 Elimination of small flood 3 - 11 Reservoir Stratification 3 - 12 Development of disease 3 - 13 Implementation of irrigation canal 3 - 14 Miss management in monitoring of 3 - dam structure and irrigation system 15 Bank stability decrease 3 - Extra function for river canal at 3 - 16 downstream 17 Providing obstacles at downstream. 3 - 18 Agriculture productivity 3 - 19 Fisheries business 3 - 20 Agriculture development –fertilizer 3 - action
75 Table 4.21 Active phenomena and result of dam construction (Positive impact on Poverty).
S.No Active phenomena Impact Negative Positive 1 Conversion of land use - 3 2 Increase in economic activity - 3 3 Job creation - 3 4 Increase transportation - 3 5 Tourism - 3 6 Water distribution system - 3 7 Educational center - 3 8 Flood control - 3 9 Segregation - 3 10 Increase in agriculture land - 3 11 Availability of water in reservoir - 3 12 Industrialism - 3 13 Health center availability - 3 14 Modification in road - 3 15 Multiple agriculture during year - 3 16 Electricity - 3 17 Water treatment - 3 18 Sport complex - 3 19 Islamic association - 3 20 New market - 3
A series of question may arise, due to construction of Minab dam regarding to poverty alleviation at downstream. It may be better to consider factors which define development in socio economics in the study area. Consideration of agricultural pattern and history in the area shows that before dam construction there was single activity during a year while at present, it has changed to multiple activities in agriculture.
76 4.9.2 Employment
Development of job and employment in study area raised in two category:
• Private
• Government
There was requirement of manpower for different type of activities during and after construction of dam which can briefly explain as:
• Construction of irrigation canal;
• Need of manpower for national and international company;
• High activity of heavy vehicles and related workshop;
• Construction of houses for the specialist.
There are various factors in the study area which developed the agriculture. These factors affected the employment rate. The following may be noted as the reason of job development in the study area:
• Multiple cultivation during the year and high income due to this activity;
• Requirement of various staff, goods and machinery for the agriculture;
• More crop production in the study area;
• Immigration of manpower from the surrounding areas;
• Activity of agricultural machinery due to increase of cultivated land.
4.9.3 Comparison of Prices of Various Commodities
Gains prices of different commodities are given in Figures 4.13 to 4.32. These figures show that prices of different commodities have increased many folds, thus increasing the income of the farmers and consequently reducing their poverty.
77
180000
160000 2000 140000
120000 1500
100000
1000 80000
Price(Iranian Rials) Price(Iranian 60000 500 40000 Price(Iranian Rials) Price(Iranian
0 20000 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 0 Year 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 Year
Fig. 4.13 Price of Wheat. Fig. 4.14. Price of ploughing
1700 80000 1600 1500 72000
1400 ) 64000 1300 1200 56000 1100 1000 48000 900 800 40000 700 600 32000 500 Price Rials) (Iranian 24000 400
300 Rials Salary(Iranian Daily 16000 200 100 8000 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 198419861988199019921994199619982000200220042006 Year Year
Fig. 4.15 Price of barley. Fig. 4.16 Manpower Salary
Lentil Price 1982-2005 Pea Price1982-2005
4800 5400 4600 5200 4400 5000 4200 4800 4000 4600 3800 4400 3600 4200 3400 4000 3200 3800 3000 3600 2800 3400 2600 3200 2400 3000 2200 2800 2000 2600 1800 2400 1600 2200 1400 2000 1200 1800 Price(Iranian Rials) 1600 1000 Price(Iranian Rials) 1400 800 1200 600 1000 400 800 200 600 0 400 200 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year Year
Fig. 4.17 Price Lentil Fig .4.18 Price of Pea.
78 Cotton Price 1982-2005 Melon Price 1982-2005
4800 950 4600 4400 900 4200 850 4000 800 3800 750 3600 3400 700 3200 650 3000 600 2800 550 2600 500 2400 2200 450 2000 400 1800 350 1600 300 1400 250 1200 Price(Iranian Rials) Price(Iranian 1000 Price(Iranian Rials) 200 800 150 600 100 400 50 200 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year
. Fig .4.19 Price of cotton Fig .4.20 Price of Melon.
Onion Price 1982-2005 Water Melon Price 1982-2005
1200 950 1100 900 850 1000 800 750 900 700 800 650 600 700 550 500 600 450 500 400 350 400 300 250 300 200 200 150
Price Per Kg(Iranian Rials) Kg(Iranian Per Price 100 100 Rials) Kg(Iranian per Price 50 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year
Fig .4.21 Price of Onion. Fig .4.22 Price of water Melon.
Cucumber Price 1982-2005 Potato Price 1982-2005
1800 1200 1700 1100 1600 1500 1000 1400 1300 900 1200 800 1100 1000 700 900 800 600 700 600 500 500 400 400 300 300 200 Price Per Kg(Iranian Rials) Kg(Iranian Per Price 100 200 Price Per Kg(Iranian Rials) Kg(Iranian Per Price 0 100 198 198 198 198 198 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 0 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year
Fig. 4. 23 Price of Cucumber. Fig.4.24 Price of Potato.
Egg-plant price 1982-2006 Alfalfa Price 1982-2005
1300 1400 1200 1300 1100 1200 1000 1100 900 1000 900 800 800 700 700 600 600 500 500 400 400 300 300
Price Per Kg (Iraian Rial) 200 200 Price Per Kg (Iranian Rials) 100 100 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year
Fig.4. 25 Price of egg-plant Fig.4.26 Price of Alfalfa .
79 Date Price 1982-2005 Orang Price 1982-2005
3200 2400 3000 2200 2800 2000 2600 2400 1800 2200 1600 2000 1400 1800 1600 1200 1400 1000 1200 800 1000 600 800 600 400
Price Per Kg (Iranian Rials) Kg Per (Iranian Price 400 Price Per Kg (Iranian Rials) Kg (Iranian Per Price 200 200 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year
Fig.4.27 Price of Orange. Fig.4.28 Price of Date.
Milk Price 1982-2005 Meat of Mutton Price 1982-2005
18400 2400 17600 16800 2200 16000 2000 15200 14400 1800 13600 1600 12800 12000 1400 11200 10400 1200 9600 1000 8800
Rials) 8000 800 7200 600 6400 5600 400 4800 200 4000 3200
Price Per Kg(Iranian Per Price 0 Price Per Kg(Iranian Rials) Kg(Iranian Per Price 2400 1600 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 800 0 Year 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year
Fig.4.29 Price of Milk. Fig.4.30 Price of Mutton meat.
Tomato Price 1982-2005 Meat Of Cow Price 1982-2005
1100 17000 16000 1000 15000 900 14000 13000 800 12000 700 11000 10000 600 9000 500 8000 7000 400 6000 300 5000 4000 200 3000 Price Per Kg(Iranian Rials) Kg(Iranian Per Price 100 Rials) Kg Per (Iranian Price 2000 1000 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 Year Year
Fig.4.31 Price of Tomato. Fig.4.32 Price of meat of Cow.
80 Chapter V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 IRRIGATED AREA AND CROP YIELD
Land sat images of years 1989, 2001 and 2007 are shown in Figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 respectively. The first figure presents condition after a few years of commissioning of the dam. The irrigation system in 1989 (canals and farm channels) was not completely developed. Moreover, the farmers were not fully aware to make efficient use of irrigation water. Therefore the irrigated crop land is much less than years 2001 and 2007. Data collected from the study area clearly indicated that the irrigated area has almost doubled in year 2006 as compared to the irrigated land before construction of the dam. It is worth mentioning here that yield of fruit trees and vegetables increased manifolds by irrigation from the dam. Agricultural products from this area reached to the markets 40 days earlier than other parts of the country due to special location of the area. Thus farmers of this area earn extra benefits from early ripening of their farm produce. Additionally, the farmers made extra efforts to obtain more advantage from their irrigated land by changing the cropping pattern, increasing the cropping intensity and crop yields. The various views of study area are illustrated in Fig. 5.3. The source of these satellite images is Google website
(http://earth.google.com/). These figures presented the following:
a) Location of Minab dam.
b) Downstream of Minab dam.
c) Situation of Minab dam with respect to Persian Gulf
81
Fig. 5.1 Landsat image of the study area (Minab dam -year1989). Note: The red colors indicate vegetation.
82
Fig. 5.2 Landsat imagery of the study area (Minab dam –year 2001).
83
a) Location of Minab dam. b) Downstream of Minab dam.
C) Situation of Minab dam and Persian Gulf.
Fig. 5.3 Various views of the study area by Google (Minab dam – year 2007).
5.1.1 Crop production
The cultivated crops have undergone extensive modifications compared to pre dam constructions (Table 5.1). The cropped area increased from 3622 to 6000 ha due to irrigation from the dam. The principal factors that influence localization are
84 climate, topography, characteristics and type of soil, plant diseases and economic conditions.
Table 5.1 Yields of different vegetable crops in the study area.
Year 1982 2006 Increased in Yield Pre- Dam Post-Dam (Percent) Construction Construction Crop (kg/ha) (kg/ha) Date 2000 4000 100 Citrus 3000 14000 367 Onion 3000 10000 233 Egg Plant 7000 15000 114 Cucumbers 5000 12000 140 Pepper 1000 3000 200 Melon 5000 15000 200 Tomato 6000 18000 200
The reasons of this development in addition to the above mentioned factors are the followings:
- Availability of required amount of water at right time.
- Use of new technology for agronomy.
- Availability of agriculture extension services in the area.
- Increase in literacy rate.
- Availability of agricultural machinery.
- Similarly yield of different vegetables fruits increased from 100 to 367
percent.
- Immigration of investors in the agriculture field to the dam area because of
high return on investment.
- Development in transportation.
85 - Development of NGO in the area.
- Use of approved seeds.
- Availability of insurance services for crops.
- Partial elimination of traditional cultivation system in the area.
Cultivation of the vegetable drastically increased in the study area. Potatoes, sweet
potatoes, carrots, turnips, rutabagas, cassava, onion, eggplant, pepper and many
types of the pulses are mainly grown in the area.
5.1.2 Cropping Calendar
The crop calendar in the study area has been changed due to availability of water and facility after dam construction. Table 5.2 presents the change in cropping at downstream of Minab dam after its construction. Availability of water and suitable climate are the dominating factors in determining the suitability of a crop for a given area. The reason of change of the cropping calendar in the study area is supply of water for irrigation to the crops from the dam. Growing and harvesting two or sometimes three to four crops from the same land in one year made the farmers more interested in agriculture leading to obtain more benefits from their lands.
Consequently resulting in poverty as discussed in the next section.
86 Table 5.2 Crops calendar in the study area.
Product Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Name
Tomato
Water Melon (Summer ) Water Melon (Winter)
Cucumbers
Onion
Wheat
Legend
Preparation of land Plantation Irrigation Harvest
5.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND AVAILABILITY OF SERVICES
The impacts on poverty alleviation are summarized in Table 5.3. Based on screening of the impacts and effects of irrigation from the dam on the biophysical and socio–economic, it can safely conclude that the dam has positive impacts on all the parameters. Thus it has played an important role in poverty alleviation. The recorded statistical data of poverty was 38 percent in year 1981-82 whereas the same was 9 percent in year 2006 (Fig 4.7). There is reduction in poverty about 29 percent in 26 years.
87 Table 5.3 Beneficial impacts of dam construction and irrigation on poverty mitigation.
S.No Active phenomena Result Conversion of rainfed to irrigated Drastic increase in agricultural 1 land use production. 2 Increase in economic activity Increase in income 3 Job creation Elimination of unemployment. 4 Increase in transportation Increase in rural activities 5 Ecotourism Increase &development in rural facility Water supply system 6 Improved health and life quality. development 7 Increase Educational centers Increase of knowledge & literacy rate. Reduce flood losses& less run off in 8 Flood damage prevention high rainfall periods. 9 Segregation Change in society. 10 Increase in irrigated land Significant increase in production Life security for fauna and flora at 11 Availability of water in reservoir downstream 12 Industrialization Creation of jobs & elimination of poverty. Safety and improvement in quality of 13 Health center availability life 14 Modification in road Increase accessibility. Multiple agriculture during Increase in income & poverty 15 year/Crop intensity reduction. Providing more facilities and improve 16 Availability of Electricity life quality. 17 Water treatment Improve life quantity & sanitation People participation and economic 18 New market development Intersectoral reallocation of surface and 19 water availability groundwater Increased groundwater for 20 Drought mitigation recharge 21 Pasture management Improved livestock and its production &conservation strategies
According to the census of 2006 and field visits conducted for this study there was clear distinction that one can make in various sectors in the area compared to the conditions before construction of the dam (Table 5.4). It is evident from these data that there is substantial improvement in basic services such as education, health, water
88 supply, employment, accessibility and other amenities. For example, the literacy rate in rural area before dam construction was 41 percent which increased to 74 percent in year 2006 (Table 5.4). Similarly, opportunities for job in government and private sectors increased approximately 2.5 percent and 23 percent respectively in year 2006.
These values were 9-10 percent in private sector and negligible in the government sector before year 1983. Job opportunities in private sector were recorded to be 19.6 percent in year 1996 (Nahd, 2000). The villages which have access to the electricity increased up to 100 percent by the year 2006 while before dam construction it was only 10 percent. In pre dam construction 30 percent of villages have access to the public bathrooms while the number of public bathrooms reduced to zero by year
2006. This phenomenon shows the improvement in the life, health and income.
Table 5.4. Availability of services pre and post construction of the dam in percent. Year 1982 2006 Year 1982 2006 Services Services
Primary School 40 90 Bank 0 20 Guidance 10 80 General Transport 0 60 School Services High School 10 40 Grocery 10 90 NGO 0 100 Public Bath Room 30 0 Mosque 80 100 Public Health Center 0 80 Agricultural 0 20 Doctor 0 20 Extension Utility Store 40 60 Midwife 0 60 Water Supply 30 100 Health Technician 0 80 System Electricity 10 100 Veterinarian 0 10 Service Post Office 0 20 Asphalt Road 10 90 Public Call 10 30 Industries 0 40 Office Literacy rate 41 74 Source: Statistical center of Iran 1982-2006
89
The percentage of villages that have access to the health center facilities were about
80 percent by the year 2006 and this value was zero in the year 1982. As the distance between the villages in area is very less so health facility is availed by the people of the nearby villages. Availability of midwife service was 60 percent by the year 2006 while it was zero in the year 1982.
The public call offices at the villages before dam construction were 10 percent which increased to 30 percent by year 2006. After dam construction transport services have increase due to need of the society. The development in transport increased about 60 percent by the year 2006.
Income development of the society in the study area enables the activities of various Banks. About 20 percent of the villages have access to the Bank. It is easy for the other villages to get the facility of the Banks because of less distance between the surrounding villages.
The situation of the villages regarding road facility has been drastically changed in such way that 90 percent of the villages have access to asphalt road while before dam construction only 10 percent of the villages have this facility. The guidance school and high school developed by 80 percent and 30 percent respectively by the year 2006. Villages which have access to water supply system increased by
100 percent by the year 2006 while it was only 30 percent before construction of dam. The water supply system in the area covered most of the villages.
90 As it is discussed in the chapter of review of literature there is linkage between the performance of irrigation system and poverty alleviation. From the above discussion it is evident that there is significant improvement in different services in the study area hence it can be concluded from this discussion that poverty in the area has reduced after construction of the dam. This conclusion is also supported by the values quoted in beginning of this section.
5.3 POVERTY ALLEVIATION BY THE LARGE DAM
The results of testing of proposed indicators in this study are incorporated with
International Fund for Agricultural development (IFAD). The components of poverty which has been developed by IFAD are:
1. Material deprivation
2. Lack of assets
3. Isolation
4. Alienation
5. Lack of decision making power
6. Vulnerability to external shocks
7. Insecurity
5.3.1 Material Deprivation
The defined criteria for material deprivation by IFAD consists of:
- Poor education
- Lack of clothing
- Fuel insecurity
- Poor health
91 - Absence of provisions for emergencies
- Poor nutritional status
- Inadequate food supplies
- Lack of housing
Looking on the education in the study area, the literacy rate has increased up to 74 percent. The phenomena of lack of clothing, fuel, insecurity and poor nutrition status are negligible phenomena in the study area. Based on the availability of health centers, doctors and medical technicians, the condition of the health seems to be satisfactory. Availability of shelter was lacking in the study area while the quality of construction of some houses is poor.
The importance of provision for the emergencies for all infrastructures is sine qua none. It means that a comprehensive program is required for management of crisis. The volume of the water in the reservoir is capable of causing loss of life and significant property damage. This is one of the requirements in the study area to provide a comprehensive program for the management of emergencies due to evidence of crises. The failure of the dam may be considered due to following reasons:
- Structural failure
- Foundation failure
- Overtopping
- Piping and internal erosion
- Inadequate maintenance
92
- Operational errors
- Deliberate action by the individual
The failure of the dam may be due to single or combination of the above factors.
5.3.2 Lack of Assets
The IFAD categorized the lack of assets as following:
- Material assets (land, agricultural input, etc.)
- Human capital (education, training, etc.)
Review of past literatures verified that the availability of agriculture land can the martial assets. Increase in education may partially satisfy the development in human capital in the study area. Human capital as it is mentioned above is the part of material assets and it may be defined as the health, strength, education, training, and skills that people bring to their jobs. The human capital is based on training and education. The existence of agricultural extension office, NGO’s and educational centers in the study area may become proof for these developments.
5.3.3 Isolation
This criterion does not exist in the study area because of continuous development. The geographic marginalization may have negligible impact on the study area.
93 5.3.4 Alienation
The alienation is another component of poverty that has been identified by
IFAD. It identified the social behavior of individuals with each other in the society.
The phenomenon of social relationship in the study area is affected by:
- Religious role
- Traditional customs
- Local customs
- Country law
The above factors provide good circumstances for the life in the study area.
5.3.5 Lack of Decision Making Power
Decision making may be defined as study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision makers. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and best fits with goals, desires, lifestyle, values, etc. In this regard when there is no power in hand of the decision makers then the development in the area would remind in suspension situation. The field visit verified the lack of decision making power that created obstacles for some development activities.
5.3.6 Vulnerability to External Shocks
The vulnerability to external shocks is another component of poverty that has been introduced by IFAD. This section categorized to following conditions:
94 - External shocks can be caused by natural events such as droughts, floods,
cyclones, locusts, etc.
- Markets (collapse in commodity price, labor supply and demand, etc.)
- Demography (loss of a household’s earning member, death, divorce, etc.)
- Health (illness of earning member)
- War
In general form there is institutional vacancies for the monitoring of all above crisis, especially in case of dam failure.
5.3.7 Insecurity
IFAD defined insecurity as the risk of being exposed to physical violence. In general the security in the study area is under normal condition. The security in the study area is supported by many police stations and revolutionary grads. If there will be any physical violence, it can be controlled through these agencies in the study area.
5.4 TARGETS ACHIEVED
Application of selected sustainable development indicators provided the results which verified development in the study area. The project was completed in
1986. After many years of project implementation the progress in some of the selected indicators is about 50-60 percent while low progress has been observed in other indicators. Investigation of low performance of the primary objective of dam constriction has been reviewed through interviews, field visits and available documents. A summery of primary goals of the project along with their achievements todate is presented in Table 5.5. It is apparent from these data that some of the objectives have been met whereas no significant achievements had been made in the others.
95 Table 5.5 Summery of the primary objectives achieved with the targeted objectives in the study area. S.No Proposed (Targeted) Status ( 2005-2006) Remarks Goals 1 Agricultural product : -The Maximum 47 percent of primary -crop & citruses product recorded to goals fulfilled. . production about 280,000 be 130,000 tons in tons/year. year 1975.
-Providing of crops for - There is no suitable use inside of country & progress. Export to abroad 2 Area under cultivation : 57 percent of primary -Net area proposed to be 6000 ha goals met. cultivated =10821 ha 3 Irrigation water to be Record shows that this delivered 210 million value fluctuated e.g. in cubic meters (MCM) Low year 1996-97 the amount of water delivered to the farmers was recorded about 91 – 144 MCM or in average of 120 MCM. That is about 57 percent of targeted objective.
4 Operation and Management of There is no professional maintenance of Irrigation irrigation is by Minab management for water for development in Minab Roud Company distribution through net plain area : under monitoring of work regional water company of Hormozgan
-Agriculture training Jihad Agriculture Development of new have responsible of product in area alike - New crop introduction new product Mango and Banana started after 14 years of - Development of new No notable progress dam commissioning. irrigation methods and achieved replacement of traditional irrigation. No notable progress achieved - Moment towards Modern land operation. 5 Prediction for dam impact: Salinity decreased in Water logging developed -Development of salinity ground water. in the area due to lack of in ground water. proper drainage system.
Development of drainage No drainage system system in area. developed. Source: Field visits (2006), Najmaee (1997)
96 Application of the indicators in the study area showed lack of: (i) interdisciplinary knowledge among various organizations with respect to their duties, (ii) social organization for promotion of skills, (iii) technical and institutional aspects, and (iv) capacity building programs in social and engineering sectors. These factors have caused low progress towards achievement of the primary objectives of the project.
Further lack of national and international concepts and knowledge for sustainable development and relevant experiences also made obstacles in meeting objectives of project development. The lessons learnt from other studies also emphasized on such aspects, for example in Tanzania as given in Table 5.6. From the above discussion it is apparent that normally the targeted goals and objectives are often not fully achieved in irrigation related projects in different countries. A methodology is proposed in the next section to overcome the deficiency based on available organizations in developing countries.
Table5.6 Important points identified by problem analysis for irrigation projects and their main causes in Tanzania. Important points Main cause Lack of appropriate participatory approaches Lack of sociological like PRA and RRA consideration Unsound logical structure of project and weak Lack of technical consideration linkage between purpose and output in project Misunderstanding of the concept of “by simple and low-cost technology”, taken to Lack of technical and mean “easy and no without technical know- economical consideration how” Lack of feedback system on the lessons learn Lack of technical and through actual experience in implementation institutional consideration of the irrigation projects Inadequate guidelines and manuals in Lack of technical. economical planning, design and construction supervision, and institutional consideration and lack of proper application of them Need of effective support system to WUAs' Lack of sociological and activities institutional consideration Lack of human resources and active Lack of sociological and participation of LGA in irrigation institutional consideration development Source: The Ministry of Agriculture, Food & Cooperatives - Tanzania 2002
97 5.5 FRAMEWORK FOR TARGET DEVELOPMENT
The targeted framework should respond to the requirements of safety on entire area that is affected by the dam. If accepted that monitoring may act as appropriate tool for crises management than development of suitable program for the response to the crises is sine qua non. Based on evaluation of current study and lessons obtained from other studies, the following actions are suggested towards achievement of primary objectives of Minab dam through proposed framework.
5.5.1 Use of Skilled Specialist
In all related filed it is required to get benefit from the skilled specialist. These specialists should have concept of sustainable development and knowledge of poverty alleviation in addition to their career.
5.5.2 Development of Monitoring Plan
Development of monitoring plan is necessary for the achievement of primary objective of the project through assessment of existing impact. These existing impacts may categorize as:
i) Expected impact that may define as those impacts which
introduced in the feasibility study of the dam;
ii) Unexpected impacts that may arise by the impacts of the dam
through changes in social, environmental and economical
conditions and it may be due to local or national or international
conditions.
98 Monitoring of above mention impact provide the required facility for responding to the crises. The major crisis that may create in Minab dam and its related area are illustrated in Fig. 5.4.
Major crisis of Minab Dam Years Years of Dry Earthquake Seepage Weather precipitation(Flood) Years ofYears High Overtopping
Poverty Development
Fig. 5.4 Proposed Minab dam crisis and their response to poverty.
The occurrences of these types of crisis may have green signal to poverty development. All above phenomena may consider as sources of development of poverty in the study area. They can destroy the flora and fauna life, property, cultural heritage, infrastructure and production in the study area. Through filed study it is understood that in case of occurrence of any crises in Minab dam there is no up to date and appropriate Emergency Action Plan (EAP) for response to the dangerous phenomena.
99 Minab Dam Area
Fig. 5.5 Seismic Hazard Map of Iran.
As it is presented in seismic hazard map of Iran (Fig. 5.5) the location of Minab dam and its related area are situated in dangerous seismic area.
Based on above mention a crisis management program should be provided in study area. In a broad sense, crisis management consists of planning for and responding to any emergency incidents that might occur. There are many publications and websites that address crisis management, and cover a broad range of topics. Here focused are more on physical damage to or failure of dams, and the resulting impacts on human safety and damage to infrastructure. Given this somewhat limited scope, and the focus on the dam sector, the crisis management program here consists of four
100 major components based on suggestion of United State Home Land Security
(USHLSP, 2008):
• Emergency Action Plans;
• Recovery Plans;
• Continuity Plans; and
• Exercises.
Each of these components is discussed here briefly, and in more detail in the following sections.
Emergency Action Plans
Dam safety programs have long relied on emergency action plans to guide response in critical situations. The objectives of these plans are to mobilize a pre- planned response to prevent uncontrolled release of water from the dam, and to initiate community actions to maintain public safety in case of such a release.
Recovery Plans
In addition to the immediate safety issues addressed in the emergency action plan, damage to or failure of a dam can have longer term economic impacts. These will certainly impact the dam owner, but might also have wider impacts on the community, other industries, or even regional or national economies. Therefore, rapid restoration of dam functions might be necessary to help minimize such impacts.
Recovery plans can be used to help prepare for quick repair of damage. Recovery plans might address both short-term repairs to partially restore project functions and long-term repairs to fully restore the project.
101 Continuity Plans
It might be necessary to continue dam operations during the absence of several key personnel. Continuity planning can be used to identify personnel with necessary skill sets and to define shifts of roles and responsibilities to respond to the major absence of personnel.
Exercises
While planning is essential for effective crisis management, to be more fully prepared it is necessary to conduct periodic exercises testing implementation of those plans. Exercises will raise the general awareness of potential crisis situations. They will ensure that key staff members are familiar with the plans and understand their roles and expected actions. In addition, exercises can help identify shortcomings in the plans, leading to possible improvements.
5.5.3 Use of Advance Technology
Availability of statistical data provides the best foundation for the development. Evaluation of data in the study area shows that there is vacancy of implementation of advance technology such as implementation of geographical information system (GIS). The GIS is one of the advanced technologies that have been quickly grown over last 15 years to become a standard tool for creating geographic datasets. Coupled with development of remote sensing technology which now provides very high resolution satellite imagery for any part of the world, datasets can now be created quickly for many parameters of land and water. Data on land use, vegetation, soil, elevation, surface water, rivers etc., can quickly be acquired through use of satellite imageries in study area.
102 Beside of GIS application, implementation of telemetry system may provide more safety in the study area. Telemetry is a technology that allows the remote measurement and reporting of information of interest to the system designer or operator. Telemetry typically refers to wireless communications (i.e. using a radio frequency system to implement the data link). It can also transfer data over other media such as a telephone or computer network or via an optical link. In advance country and countries where skilled engineers and long-term financial resources are available, a sophisticated technological solution may be most appropriate, such as managing dam operations automatically using information on rainfall or river flows by telemetry from remote stations. In many developed country telemetry has become indispensable for hydrometry and water management applications, including water quality and stream gauging functions. Major applications include AMR (Automatic
Meter Reading), groundwater monitoring, leak detection in distribution pipelines and equipment surveillance. Having data available in almost real time allows quick reactions to occurrences in the field. In this regard the telemetry system in study area shall provide as an operation and management tool for effective irrigation system management. Parameters including water level, temperature, relative humidity solar radiation, snow accumulation wind speed evaporation and rainfall shall electronically be measured in real time by appropriate transducers (sensors) at the measurement sites located along the rivers in the irrigation network. Once measured these parameters shall then be transmitted to the monitoring station at appropriate location. At present two telemetry stations are available in the area which are used only for seismological data recording for earthquake. The specifications of this two station are shown in
Table 5.7. These stations are controlled by Iranian Seismic Telemetry Network.
(http://irsc.ut.ac.ir/istn.php (Iranian Seismological Center).
103
Table 5.7 The specifications of telemetry station in Minab dam area.
Sub No. Station Name Station Latitude Longitude Altitude Network Code N E (m) (degree) (degree) 66 Bandar-abas BND 27.4489 56.5399 62 MINAB 67 Bandar-abas BNB 27.4489 56.5399 62
5.5.4 Development of Technical and Social Organizations
In study area there are some organizations that are located in the nearest city which is Minab. The survey of the area shows that there is necessity of an organization that should specify the duties of all concern organizations for optimum cooperation in management of Minab dam.
5.5.5 Providing of Training Courses
Implementation of the training courses for the participants provides capacity building needed for meeting goals of the project. It may answer the several questions of the beneficiaries and reduce the conflict in the system or project. It will develop the people participation in the project. The training course may provide acceleration towards meeting project goals through people participation.
5.5.6 Accountability Office
Accountability monitoring will cause promotion of the principle rule and regulation by implementation of law. The administrative procedures may develop in simple and standard manner in respect to diminish cumbersome and bureaucratic work processes that affect the efficiency of providing public services. It may be effective against corruptions.
104 5.6 PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR TARGET DEVELOPMENT
Achievement of primary objectives of the projects after many years of their completion is the basic aim in this framework. The proposed framework consists of four layers (Fig. 5.6) namely: i) Base line, ii) Synthesis, iii) Action areas, and iv)
Outcome. Goals of each activity are summarized in Table 5.8 while their explanations follow.
S us tainabl e Development C oncept for Poverty (i) Alleviation P.A P.A National Bas e Line e Bas International National UN/International NGO Role Role NGO
In te r n at ion al National Cons tituti onal National P.A P.A NGO Sustainable P.A Law of Developing Scholars International National Scholars Development Base Country/S ustainable Un ive r s it ie s Universities Experience Experience Knowledg e Line D evel opment Knowledg e
P.A National International B ank P.A private& government National In te r n at ion al sector Financial Support Financial S upport (ii) Main Social Organization Downstream Large Main Engineering Dam Impacts /Technical organization Synthesis Minor Caus es Major Causes of Poverty Of Poverty Office cen te r O ffic e Beneficial Adverse O ffi c e Services Services Record Office Record Security office Security Environmental Transportation /Land MIS/GIS and Maintenance and Surface & & Ground Surface Soil M anagement Water Resources Legislation/Soc ial Social cooperation En vi r o n m e n t Development Road Health M anagement (iii) association User water & Social
Action Area Capacity Building And Training Center Capacity Building And Training Center
Concern NGO Ministries SPO FOR DOWNSTREAM
Monitoring & Human Rig ht Accountability Representative (iv) Out Come offi ce Monitoring
Comprehensive poverty Al leviati on
P .A = Pove r ty Alle vi at ion SPO=Sustainable Project Organization
Fig. 5.6 Proposed institutional framework for poverty alleviation for dam and irrigation projects in developing countries.
105 Table 5.8 Description of the proposed framework.
Involve Related Studies &
Layer Organization Experiences Goals (National & (National & International) International) To provide the sustainable development United Nation, Poverty alleviation concept for Persons or International Bank, ,Sustainable Governmental Base line GOs &NGOs, Development Organizations or NGOs Universities, Constitutional law of for action towards Scholars the country poverty alleviation in the present of development projects. To manage beneficial and adverse impact of Department of projects in sustainable Environmental impact Synthesis Environment, Social manner by use of Assessment & Engineering concern social and Organizations engineering organizations Capacity building Capacity Building Institutional concept Development & people Action and Training Center for Sustainable participation for Area ,Concern Ministries Management performance of primary ,NGOs, objectives of projects Sustainable Project Organization, Sustainable management Monitoring and Institutional concept of project through Out Accountability for Sustainable cooperation of society Come office, Human Right Management and NGO and GO for Representative poverty alleviation Monitoring Office
The base line for execution and clear understanding of the on-going phenomena according to adequacy and authenticity is a sine qua non. Legal support in any activity cause promotion and provides the acceleration towards desired action. In the second layer of this framework which is called syntheses, action towards sustainability would be optimum by evaluation of beneficial and adverse impacts. These impacts will be
106 monitored based on their sensitivity in the study area through social and engineering organizations with respect to the responsibilities of various organizations.
5.6.1 Example of Design Strategy
To have better concept of the proposed methodology, a strategy can be designed to show the impacts in various stages of the project as explained below:
Natural condition: In this stage, no activity is visible and natural condition of an area is going on the variable P0, the initial conditions designed as T0 and I0 which states as area without project (P0) at zero time (T0) and zero impact (I0).
Commencement: In this stage, project (P1) starts at time T1 and having impact as I1.
Completion: In this stage, completion time of the project considered as T2 with impact I2 in time T2. All the three steps are shown in Fig 5.7.
P 0 P 1 P 2 T 0 T 1 . . . T 2 I 0 I 1 I 2
N at ural Condition Commencement Completi on
Fig. 5.7 Impacts of without (P0) project and with project (P1 and P2).
Evaluation of the above conditions involved in any development project emphases that impacts are sine qua non phenomena. The activity of impacts can be identified through time consideration (T0, T1, and T2) in project area by use of various impact prediction models. This can be written as:
I=∑Id + ∑Ii Where: I = Total Impacts, Id = Direct Impacts and Ii = Indirect Impacts
107 As it is clear from Fig. 5.6 in syntheses layer, the main effort is to manage the already identified impacts in direction of project goals through social and engineering organizations. Some of these main organizations categorized in social and engineering sectors are listed in Table 5.9 along with their responsibilities.
Table 5.9 Responsibilities of proposed social and engineering organizations. Organization Category Responsibility
Legislation /Social Social To save the right of society specially Security office manpower/providing the legal welfare/ monitoring the right between governmental and private sectors. Health management Social To provide health facility and manage break services out of diseases due to existence of projects. Transportation Social To facilitate goods transportation and related services welfares. Surfaces & Ground Social To provide people participation /water right/ water user cooperation between private and associations governmental organizations. Social Cooperation To provide opportunity of participation for Center individuals and NGOs and others MIS/GIS/Land record Technical To save and secure the land property in organization. government and private sector/ To eliminate dispute of property between the societies/ To establish a modern data base for requirement use. Environmental Technical To protect the environment organization. Water resources Technical To develop technical management use of organization. water between consumers/To protect quantity and quality of water /cooperation with regional water company in the area.
Soil management Technical To monitor the quality and quantity of soil / organization. To develop the soil in that area / To help farmers for better crop. Road development Technical For maintenance and development of roads and maintenance and respective operation and maintenance in office project area.
108 5.6.2 Sustainable Project Organization
In the action layer to achieve the goals in sustainable way, a permanent organization namely Sustainable Project Organization (SPO) is proposed that should work and coordinate with various organizations in the project area. These government and NGOs that may act with the SPO should have at least one representative in SPO
(Table 5.8).
The SPO will bridge governments and the beneficiaries. It will improve irrigation network through capacity building and by cooperation with main social, technical and engineering organizations. This will create cooperation among all the stakeholders in the project area. Also concerned Ministry and some NGOs will liaison with the SPO. Monitoring by SPO may provide the following sustainable improvements in the project area which might help to alleviate poverty.
Irrigation water supply and water conflicts;
Water quality, quantity and flood control;
Natural resource management;
Improvement for inland fisheries;
Improvement in range and Live stock Management;
Effective monitoring of environment issue;
Control of land property;
Institutional management;
Increased employment opportunities;
Poverty alleviation and improvement of standard of living;
Social Transformation towards better self-governance;
Public participation;
109 More security for water consumer by establishing Surface & Ground water User
Association;
Moving towards Millennium Development Goals (MDGs);
Closer movement with international development;
Use of International experience for local development;
Implementation of international fund for national development;
Sustainable health care organization;
Capacity building;
Technical umbrella for all activities by monitoring of SPO in area;
Development of natural resources; and
Generating local solution towards integration of water and land resource in the pilot projects and it can be replicated in other parts of Iran and world and experiences can be shared in other areas.
.
110 Chapter VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the results of this study:
1. The Landsat images of years 1989, 2001 and 2007 present developments in
agriculture in the study area due to irrigation from the dam. It is evident from
these images that there is significant increase in cropping intensity, crop yield
and irrigated area after construction of the irrigation network of the dam. For
example the irrigated area has almost doubled.
2. Socio-economic conditions improved significantly due to development in
agriculture as a result of irrigation from the dam. The literacy rate increased to
74 percent in 2006 which was 45 percent before construction of the dam.
Similarly job opportunities and quality of life increased due to availability of
various services leading to reduction in poverty from 38 to 9 percent by the
year 2006.
3. The lessons of this study support similar other studies that the lacks of
management in various organizations is the basis of less development and low
performance of many water resources projects in many countries.
4. A new institutional framework has been proposed in this study that aims to
strengthen management of water resources projects. Achievement of primary
objectives of projects after many years of their completion is the basic theme
of this methodology. The base line of this framework methodology is to
111 promote the knowledge of sustainable development that would lead to poverty
alleviation.
5. The main factors that lead to low irrigation efficiency include improper
design of irrigation facilities, poor maintenance, careless irrigation operations
(particularly in surface and traditional irrigation systems), and fragmentation
of responsibilities among different government agencies, negligible water
prices and inadequate knowledge of the farmers. There are big gaps among the
project managers, extension agents and the farmers for practical
implementation of the latest findings.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Specific recommendations of this study are:
1. Procurement of emergency action plan for the protection of the properties and
human life for downstream of Minab dam. In this regard safety may be optimum
by providing:
- Dam Break Analysis and Report
- Fault Rupture Study
- Seismic Studies
- Quality Review & Dam Assessment Report
- Dams Operation & Maintenance Plan
- Emergency Preparedness Plan
2. Based on the river morphology study at downstream of Minab dam, it is found
that Minab river is unstable. Erosion takes place in concave banks and
sedimentation deposit on the convex banks. These processes do not take place
112 with equilibrium. Due to these phenomena meander is gradually transferred to the
downstream of the river. Analyses of river shows that various meanders are
visible through route of Minab river. In one of the river section the Minab
municipality constructed a road inside of the river which unfortunately crosses the
meander. Such activity may disturb the ecosystem of river during flood period.
For the protection of downstream regarding to river activities following are
recommended:
• Implementation of canal regulators or any other structure may provide safety
to habitats at downstream.
• To prevent river from meandering it is necessary to construct the new channel
especially after Minab bridge, up to Naseerae village. Construction of this
channel will increase river slop and flow coefficient.
• The various villages are under impact of meandering formation at downstream
of dam. For prevention of this type of impact annual expenditure should be
provided for the bed stability.
3. Following are the more recommendations towards technical and management
approach for the study area:
- Basin wide water knowledge database development
- Review & upgrade existing monitoring scheme
- Implementation of new water right & pricing system
- Measures for reduction of water demands
- Develop Ecological Survey of River
- Prepare Environmental and Management Plan for Downstream river
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120 Appendix A
REACTION OF VARIOUS ORGANIZATIONS ON REPORT OF DAM AND DEVELOPMENT
Reaction by UNEP Remarks 1. UNEP is committed to disseminate the results and Looking at the recommendations of the World significant step taken Commission on Dams to a wider audience, particularly among by the WCD, and the United Nations agencies. taking into consideration 2.considered to have direct relevance to the work of the UNEP’s concerns Commission. and mandates, UNEP has started devising 3. The concept of ‘environmental flow’ should be its follow-up to the incorporated into national or basin-level water and final report of the environment management policies. UNEP will further World Commission promote incorporation of environmental flow and water on Dams. quality requirements into water and environment policies.
4. UNEP intends to develop a demonstration of activities to carry out an option assessment for national energy or water supply policy, also integrating demand-side management.
5. UNEP ntends to develop methodologies on assessment of environmental implications of policy instruments to be applicable to developing countries and countries with economies in transition.
6. Impacts of large dams are also pronounced in the coastal areas. Pilot studies and projects will highlight the linkages of river basins and their associated coastal areas, and will address issues . 7.UNEP believes that a mechanism should be established to The WCD report in continue the dialogue that the WCD has started. It should its chapter 10 makes involve all stakeholders. The “mechanism” or ‘forum’ should a set of clear be neutral, flexible and draw on existing expertise of various recommendations. organizations, and able to monitor the progress in the Among the tasks implementation on the follow-up activities. identified, I would highlight four, which in my opinion would require additional action
121
Reaction by World Bank Remarks
The WCD report is considered as an important and valuable contribution to the policy discussion on the development of dams
The proposed holistic approach emphasizing on the participation of affected people and beneficiaries as well as on adequate assessment of their rights and risks is welcomed.
As the report suggests, it is important that social and socio- economic aspects are considered on an equal basis as economic and financial aspects, if possible negative effects of dam constructions’ shall be mitigated and if dams shall really contribute to poverty reduction and development.
The proposed “rights-and-risks approach” which - if adopted - will foster the protection of the rights of affected people and make them beneficiaries rather than pure bearers of social costs is welcomed.
Taking into account the large and in future even increasing demand for drinking water and clean electricity from hydropower in developing countries, the option of building dams shall not be obstructed. Dams adequately planned and implemented by observing internationally agreed standards must remain a valid option.
The Bank will use it as a valuable reference to inform its How the Bank plans decision-making process when considering projects that to build on the WCD involve dams. Report
The Bank will continue to support dams that are economically well justified and environmentally and socially sound.
The Bank will, upon request, support strategic planning processes by borrowers to evaluate options and alternatives, and will support borrowers in financing the priority investments emerging from such processes.
The Bank will not adopt the twenty-six WCD guidelines, but will review how the principles of these guidelines may be put into individual use in the context of specific projects.
122
REACTION BY INTERNATIONAL REMARKS HYOPOWER ASSOCIATIONDR
1. The report does not recognise the imperative necessity to continue to build dams during this century, especially in the developing countries. These countries will represent 7 billion inhabitants in 2050, demanding fresh water, food and energy. Development and poverty alleviation is a core value of our association (and of the World Bank). It is not explicitly mentioned in the core values of the report.
2. With regard to the role of dams built during the last century, the overall tone of the Report is undoubtedly negative. By barely addressing or recognising the benefits of reservoirs, the Report gives an unbalanced picture of the social, environmental and economic costs of dams. Here, an opportunity has been lost, and an injustice has been done.
3. The conditions proposed in the recommendations for the planning and implementation of future dams are, in many instances, not realistic. They have not been subjected to the test of experience. Hastily imposing them as rules in developing countries would initiate a process of sustainable under-development. On too many occasions, it appears that the role of governments and elected authorities is undermined.
The WCD Report provides a "roadmap" to move from the present, often- unsatisfactory process for planning, design, construction, and operation of dams, to a more equitable and sustainable one.
The WCD "roadmap" is based on their principle of "rights and risks." But Prefer their alternative title -"rights at risk." That is, anyone whose right to well being, livelihood or quality of life is at risk from a project, should have a say in how those rights are restored.
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Reaction by ICOLD Remarks
1. it is claimed in the report that there was consensus among the Commissioners, this is an illusion after reading "A Comment of Medha Paktar" page 321 2.INDIA and CHINA, as ICOLD members, have emphatically rejected the WCD Report So have many others, especially in Asia where the most urgent needs appear.
3. No steps towards reaching possible consensus can be taken without the full co-operation of developing countries, and certainly not against their wishes! ICOLD will take appropriate initiatives soon.
124 Appendix B
DESCRIPTION ON LANDSAT 7 SATELLITE
The Landsat 7 satellite was successfully launched from Vandenburg Air Force Base on April 15, 1999. Its payload is a single nadir-pointing instrument, the Enhanced
Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+). S-Band is used for commanding and housekeeping telemetry operations while X-Band is used for instrument data downlink. A 378 gigabit Solid State Recorder (SSR) can hold 42 minutes of instrument data and 29 hours of housekeeping telemetry concurrently. Power is provided by a single Sun- tracking solar array (four 74" by 89.3" panels - 184 square feet) and two 50 amp-hour
Nickel-Hydrogen batteries. Attitude control is provided through four reaction wheels
(pitch, yaw, roll, skewed), three 2-channel gyros with celestial drift updating, a static
Earth sensor, 1750A processor, and torque rods and magnetometers for momentum unloading. Orbit control and backup momentum unloading is provided through a blow-down monopropellant hydrazine system with a single tank containing 270 pounds of hydrazine, associated plumbing, and 12 one pound-thrust jets. Spacecraft weight is approximately 4632 pounds at launch.
125 The Landsat 7 satellite as viewed from the sun side.
126 The resolution for the ETM+ sensor is shown below:
Resolution
Landsats 4-5 (meters)
Band 1 30
Band 2 30
Band 3 30
Band 4 30
Band 5 30
Band 6 60
Band 7 30
Band 8 15
Spectral Range
Landsat ETM Band characteristics
Sensor and # Description Landsat Wavelength (µm) Resolution
------
ETM+ band 1 blue 7 0.45 - 0.515 30 m
ETM+ band 2 green 7 0.525 - 0.605 30 m
ETM+ band 3 red 7 0.63 - 0.690 30 m
ETM+ band 4 near infrared 7 0.75 - 0.90 30 m
ETM+ band 5 shortwave IR 7 1.55 - 1.75 30 m
ETM+ band 6 thermal IR 7 10.40 - 12.5 60 m
ETM+ band 7 shortwave IR 7 2.09 - 2.35 30 m
ETM+ band 8 panchromatic 7 0.52 - 0.90 15 m
127 All TM bands are quantized as 8 bit data.
Micrometers and their relationship to the electromagnetic spectrum are explained in the glossary.
Landsat ETM+ Band spectral characteristics
Band 1: 0.45 - 0.52 µm (blue). Provides increased penetration of water bodies as well as supporting analyses of land use, soil, and vegetation characteristics. The shorter- wavelength cut-off is just below the peak transmittance of clear water, while the upper-wavelength cut-off is the limit of blue chlorophyll absorption for healthy green vegetation. Wavelengths below 0.45 m are substantially influenced by atmospheric scattering and absorption.
Band 2: 0.52 - 0.60 µm (green). This band corresponds to the green reflectance of healthy vegetation and is spanning the region between the blue and red chlorophyll absorption bands.
Band 3: 0.63 - 0.69 µm (red). This red chlorophyll absorption band of healthy green vegetation is one of the most important bands for vegetation discrimination. In addition, it is useful for soil-boundary and geological boundary mapping. Band 3 may exhibit more contrast than bands 1 and 2 because the effect of the atmosphere is reduced. The 0.69 m cut-off represents the beginning of a spectral region from 0.68 to
0.75 m where vegetation reflectance crossovers occur that can reduce the accuracy of vegetation studies.
128 Band 4: 0.76 - 0.90 µm (near infrared). For reasons discussed above, the lower cut- off for this band was placed above 0.75 m. This band is especially responsive to the amount of vegetation biomass present in a scene. It is useful for identification of vegetation types, and emphasizes soil-crop and land-water contrasts.
Band 5: 1.55 - 1.75 µm (mid-infrared). This reflective-IR band is sensitive to turgidity - the amount of water in plants. Turgidity is useful in drought studies and plant vigour studies. In addition, this band can be used to discriminate between clouds, snow, and ice which makes it important in hydrologic research. as well as being able to remove the effects of thin clouds and smoke.
Band 7: 2.08 - 2.35 µm (mid-infrared). This band is used to discriminate between geological rock formations. It is particularly effective in identifying zones of hydrothermal alteration in rocks.
Band 6: 10.4 - 12.5 µm (thermal infrared). This band measures the amount of infrared radiant flux (heat) emitted from surfaces. The apparent temperature is a function of the emissivities and true (kinetic) temperatures of surface objects.
Therefore, band 6 is used in locating geothermal activity, thermal inertia mapping, vegetation classification, vegetation stress analysis, and in measuring soil moisture.
Band 8: 0.52 - 0.90 µm (panchromatic). This band is used to merge with other spectral band to enhance the spatial resolution of the data.
129 Applications of Landsat Data
This table lists examples of various applications of Landsat data that have been demonstrated in the 26 year history of the Landsat program. Each application is accompanied by one or more representative Landsat images and a brief description of what the images show.
1. 2. Land Use 3. Geology 4. Hydrology 5. Coastal 6. Agriculture, and Mapping Resources Environmental Forestry and Monitoring Range Resources 1.1 2.1 3.1 Mapping 4.1 5.1 6.1 Monitoring Discriminating Classifying major geologic Determining Determining deforestation vegetative, land uses features water patterns and crop and boundaries and extent of timber types surface water turbidity areas 1.2 Measuring 2.2 3.2 Revising 4.2 Mapping 5.2 Mapping 6.2 Monitoring crop and Cartographic geologic maps floods and shoreline volcanic flow timber acreage mapping and flood plain changes activity map updating characteristics 1.3 Precision 2.3 3.3 4.3 5.3 Mapping 6.3 Mapping farming land Categorizing Recognizing Determining shoals, reefs and monitoring management land and classifying area extent of and shallow water pollution capabilities certain rock snow and ice areas types coverage 1.4 Monitoring 2.4 3.4 Delineating 4.4 Measuring 5.4 Mapping 6.4 crop and forest Monitoring unconsolidated changes and and Determining harvests urban growth rocks and soils extent of monitoring effects of glacial features sea ice in natural shipping disasters lanes 1.5 2.5 Aiding 3.5 Mapping 4.5 Measuring 5.5 Tracking 6.5 Assessing Determining regional volcanic turbidity and beach drought impact range planning surface sediment erosion and readiness, deposits patterns flooding biomass and health 1.6 2.6 Mapping 3.6 Mapping 4.6 5.6 6.6 Tracking Determining transportation geologic Delineating Monitoring oil spills soil conditions networks landforms irrigated fields coral reef and health associations 1.7 Monitoring 2.7 Mapping 3.7 Identifying 4.7 Monitoring 5.7 6.7 Assessing desert blooms land-water indicators of lake Determining and monitoring boundaries mineral and inventories and coastal grass and petroleum health circulation forest fires resources patterns 1.8 Assessing 2.8 Siting 3.8 4.8 Estimating 5.8 6.8 Mapping wildlife habitat transportation Determining snow melt Measuring and monitoring and power regional runoff sea surface lake transmission geologic temperature eutrophication routes structures
130 1.9 2.9 Planning 3.9 Producing 4.9 5.9 6.9 Monitoring Characterizing solid waste geomorphic Characterizing Monitoring mine waste forest range disposal sites, maps tropical and tracking pollution vegetation power plants rainfall 'red' tides and other industries 1.10 2.10 Mapping 3.10 Mapping 4.10 Mapping 6.10 Monitoring and managing impact craters watersheds Monitoring and mapping flood plains volcanic ash insect plumes infestations 1.11 2.11 Tracking Monitoring socio- irrigation economic practices impacts on land use Ref: http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/Landsat_Applications.html
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Appendix C:
10 Daily Sum of Minab-Dam's outflow
9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 output (mcm) output 2.00 1.00 0.00 Mar-98 Mar-99 Mar-00 Mar-01 Mar-02 Mar-03 Mar-04 Mar-05 Mar-06 Mar-07 10 Daily Time series
Figure: Ten daily sum of outflow from the Dams.
10-Daily Average of Minab-Dam's Volume
300.00
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00 Volume (mcm) Volume 50.00
0.00 1998/03/30 1999/03/30 2000/03/30 2001/03/30 2002/03/30 2003/03/30 2004/03/30 2005/03/30 2006/03/30 2007/03/30 10 Daily Time Series
Figure: Ten daily average volumes from the dam.
132 Appendix D
POVERTY METHODS
Poverty line
The poverty line is conceptualized as a minimum standard required by an individual to fulfill his or her basic food and non-food needs. Poverty line is used as a threshold to define the poor or non-poor households (or people). Poverty line could be relative or absolute.
A relative poverty line is applied for defining poorest segment (e.g. a fifth, or two fifths) of the population; these are the relatively poor. Therefore, rich countries have higher poverty lines than poor countries do.
An absolute poverty line is fixed in terms of the standard of living it commands over the domain of poverty comparisons. An absolute poverty line is essential if one is trying to judge the effect of anti-poverty policies over time, or to estimate the impact of a project (e.g. micro credit) on poverty. Legitimate comparisons of poverty rates between one country and another can only be made if the same absolute poverty line is used in both countries.
Billion of people worldwide live on less than US $1 per day, and b)poor: approximately 2.8 billion people worldwide live on less than $2 per day
Estimation of poverty line in Iran:
Measure poverty using a poverty threshold based on expenditures reported in household surveys. Estimates of household expenditures are generally preferred to income because personal incomes are recorded less accurately. Measurement of farm
133 income and the self employed in the informal sector and, in addition, individuals maybe unwilling to disclose their incomes if they identify interviewers as tax officials. Expenditures are on the other hand calculated from answers to numerous questions related to specific items which do not directly reveal a person's income.
Studies that measure poverty in Iran use the Household Expenditure and Income
Surveys collected every year by the Statistical Center of Iran. The survey asks households about their expenditures in the last 30 days or the last 12 months, depending on the type of expenditures, but do not ask about individual consumption.
The difference between expenditure and consumption can be large, especially for some rural households who buy their food in bulk at harvest time.
There are a number of papers in Persian on poverty and inequality that they employ varying methodologies and reaches.
The poverty line for are measured for based on the four approaches of minimum calorie requirement (2179 and 2300 calories), a percentage of average household expenditure (50 percent), a percentage of median of households expenditures (50 percent), and Angel’s Reverse Coefficient.
The study show that the poverty line might accept a range of values with regard to the poverty definition and the measurement approach adopted.
In recent years various studies on poverty and the size of it as well as the effects of economic policies on poverty phenomenon have been conducted across the nation.
The results of these studies are very different and constitute a diverse range. Some researchers, for example, believe that only 18% of the total population could be reckoned as poor; on the other hand, some claim that it is as high as 70%.
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In search of the causes of such a wide gap, one might refer to a number of reasons:
First, researchers hold different notions on the concept of poverty. Second, there is not a certain scientific procedure for poverty measurement and researchers draw on different approaches. Third, there are various variables used for poverty estimation, which contribute differently to the size of computed poverty line.
Sometimes, to estimate the absolute poverty line, in addition to the minimum income required for securing the basic needs, some minimum quantitative and qualitative criteria, such as minimum calorie and protein requirements per day per person, minimum per capita residential built-up area, minimum educational attainment of the head of the household, minimum number of literate people in the household, etc., are also taken into account. When an individual fails any of these criteria, they are considered as poor.
The relative poverty line is defined as a certain percentage (or average) of income or as an income borderline under which lies a certain percentage of the society’s population. Approaching the relative poverty line means that a certain proportion of the population is always marked as poor.
In a general definition of the poverty line one might claim that: poverty line consists of all expenses made by a person at a certain time in a certain place to enjoy the minimum level of welfare. The people who cannot afford it are considered poor, otherwise they are non-poor.
135 Poverty line estimation based on the calorie requirement
Poverty line measurement based on the calorie requirement relies on the absolute concept of poverty and basic needs of individuals. To estimate the poverty line, first the minimum calorie consumption per person was decided after consultations with a number of nutrition specialists, two amounts of 2179 and 2300 calories are in accepted standards range.
Then the total households under study shuld divided into ten expenditure (or income) groups according to their income. When the nutritional values received by any expenditure (or income) decile will estimated, the first decile with the received energy more than the standard amount of 2179/2300 will adopted.
Subsequently the difference with the standard amount will figured out. Then the decile’s total expenditure will divided to the energy received by the decile to obtain the price of a unit of calorie. The unit price multiplied by the amount of calorie more than the standard amount resulted the cost of surplus calories received, and, eventually, the decile’s total expenditure minus the cost of surplus calories resulted the size of poverty line.
Poverty line estimation based on a percentage of average household expenditure
In order to measure poverty line based on the relative concept, one may use the average household expenditure and take a certain percentage of it as the poverty line.
In this approach there is not a certain scientific procedure to determine the percentage.
Actually, the percentage taken is something optional and experimental and every
136 researcher may select it as he thinks suitable. In this approach the expenditure average is first calculated, and then 50 percent of the result is taken as the poverty line.
Poverty line estimation based on Angel’s Reverse Coefficient
To figure out the relation between the household’s food expenditure and income,
Ernest Angel used the index of proportion of food expenditure to income of the household. Later the method was accepted as a way to estimate the poverty line. In this approach also the poverty line relies on the relative poverty concept. To measure the poverty line, the household’s food expenditure is multiplied by the Angel’s
Reverse Coefficient following estimating the coefficient using econometric models.
The general formula for the calculation of poverty are as follow.
H= M/N * 100
Where
H= Percentage of poor family (Headcount Ratio)
M= Families below poverty line
N= Total no of families under consideration
Conclusion
As mentioned before, poverty line is not a fixed external reality, but rather it might assume a range of values depending on the researcher’s notion as well as the estimation approach employed. Table 6 provides evidence to this claim. A comparison between figures reveals that the poverty line based on the absolute poverty always lies below the poverty line based on the relative poverty.
137 Appendix E: Map of Study area
138
139
140 BIO-DATA
ALI ASGHAR IRAJPOOR
Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Water Resources Engineering
Dissertation: Development of an Optimum Framework for Large Dams Impacts on Poverty Alleviation in Arid Regions through Sustainable Development
Major Field: Water Resources Engineering
Biographical Information:
Personal Data: Born in Darab, Iran, August 23, 1967, Son of Ahmad Ali
Email: [email protected]
Education: Received secondary school certificates from Iran, completed Bachelor of Civil Engineering from University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore-Pakistan in 1999, received Master of Science in Hydropower Engineering (Civil) from Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore in 2002, completed the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Water Resources Engineering at Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore in 2010.
Affiliations: Iranian Engineering Council and International Association Hydrology Society-(IAHS) England
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