Enhancing Resilience in the Horn of Africa

Derek Headey and Adam Kennedy

13–14 DECEMBER 2011 | WASHINGTON, DC

® IFPRI A member of the CGIAR Consortium ABOUT USAID Since 1961, USAID has been the principal U.S. agency to extend assistance to countries recovering from disaster, trying to escape poverty, and engaging in democratic reforms. U.S. foreign assistance has always had the twofold purpose of furthering America’s interests while improving lives in the developing world. The Agency carries out U.S. foreign policy by promoting human progress at the same time it expands stable, free societies, creates markets and trade partners for the United States, and fosters good will abroad. Spending less than one-half of 1 percent of the federal budget, USAID works in over 100 countries to: promote economic prosperity; strengthen democracy and good governance; improve global health, food security, environmental sustainability and education; help societies prevent and recover from conflicts; and provide humanitarian assistance in the wake of natural and man-made disasters. ABOUT IFPRI The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) was established in 1975 to identify and analyze alternative national and international strategies and policies for meeting food needs of the developing world on a sustainable basis, with particular emphasis on low-income countries and on the poorer groups in those countries. While the research effort is geared to the precise objective of contributing to the reduction of hunger and malnutrition, the factors involved are many and wide-ranging, requiring analysis of underlying processes and extending beyond a narrowly defined food sector. The Institute’s research program reflects worldwide collaboration with governments and private and public institutions interested in increasing food production and improving the equity of its distribution. Research results are disseminated to policymakers, opinion formers, administrators, policy analysts, researchers, and others concerned with national and international food and agricultural policy.

IFPRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium.

ISBN 978-0-89629-797-5 DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/9780896297977

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Copyright © 2012 International Food Policy Research Institute. For permission to republish, contact [email protected]. The views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of the cosponsoring or supporting organizations of the conference. Derek Headey and Adam Kennedy

CONTENTS LETTER FROM USAID ADMINISTRATOR RAJIV SHAH VII INTRODUCTION 1 LIVELIHOODS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA: CONTEXT 1 RESILIENCE 101: DEFINING AND FRAMING RESILIENCE 3 Building Resilience through the Productive Safety Net Programme THE IMPLICATIONS OF RESILIENCE 4 EXPLORING THE EVIDENCE BASE IN FIVE DOMAINS 5 Economic Growth and Transformation Natural Resource Management Health and Nutrition Social Dimension Governance, Institutions, and Building Peace MOVING THE AGENDA FORWARD 8 REFERENCES 10 PLENARY SESSION NOTES 11 Resilience 101 Arid and Marginal Lands Recovery Consortium (ARC) Program in Kenya Disaster Risk Reduction/Hyogo Framework Pastoralist Livelihood Initiative in Ethiopia Keynote Address The Nairobi Strategy: Enhanced Partnership to Eradicate Drought Emergencies Consensus Building and the Productive Safety Net Programme The Links between Resilience, Conflict, and Food Security Some Lessons from Ethiopia’s PSNP The Value Chain Model DFID’s New Resilience Agenda Early Lessons from the Graduation Model Moving Forward in the Horn BREAKOUT SESSION NOTES 17 DAY 1: BREAKOUT SESSIONS BY SECTOR 17 Natural Resources Social Factors Health and Nutrition Governance and Institutions Economics DAY 2: MIXED GROUP BREAKOUT SESSIONS 25 Strategies and Policies to Build Resilience WORKSHOP AGENDA 29

Dear Partners,

In 2011, the Horn of Africa faced the worst drought in 60 years, leading to emergency food insecurity levels in Kenya and Ethiopia and famine in Somalia. At the height of the drought, more than 13 million people across the region required humanitarian assistance, and more than 700,000 refugees fled Somalia.

At the same time, many communities showed resilience in the face of these harsh conditions, demonstrating effective coping strategies that reduced the economic impact of the drought and enabled them to maintain a sufficient degree of food security, health, and well-being.

It is in this context that the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) hosted a workshop titled, “Enhancing Resilience in the Horn of Africa: An Evidence Based Workshop on Strategies for Success.” The workshop, held December 13—14, 2011, at the Madison Hotel in Washington, DC, was co-hosted by USAID’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance, Bureau for Food Security, Bureau for Africa, and Bureau for Policy, Planning, and Learning. It was facilitated by USAID’s Office of Food for Peace-funded TOPS program, as well as the International Food Policy Research Institute.

Providing a platform for learning, the workshop identified successful strategies, enabling conditions, and policies for strengthening resilience, as well as approaches that have been less successful. The workshop was principally designed to initiate a dialogue among donors, private voluntary organizations, researchers and academics, and the private sector on evidence-based strategies for enhancing resilience in the Horn of Africa. The dialogue centered on several key issues:

• What is meant by resilience and resilience programming? • What are successful strategies and enabling conditions that can help build resilience, and what lessons can be learned from previous efforts? • What value does resilience programming have in mitigating the effects of shocks, speeding recovery from them, and building “pathways out of poverty”? • What are the linkages between resilience and economic growth?

More than 180 participants with diverse backgrounds and disciplines, including agriculture, livestock, nutrition, conflict, gender, governance, economics, and health, participated in the workshop. The format consisted of formal presentations and more informal roundtable and plenary discussions to maximize participation and draw from the group’s broad base of knowledge. All material from the workshop, including videos and Power Points of the plenaries, are available at the workshop: http://agrilinks.kdid.org/library/enhancing-resilience-horn-africa- evidence-based-workshop-strategies-success-agenda.

This workshop is part of our Agency’s larger effort to help countries and communities withstand increasingly frequent and severe environmental shocks. USAID recently launched a planning process to more effectively link our humanitarian assistance and development programs to enhance resilience in the Horn of Africa and elsewhere. In addition, we are supporting a newly established consortium of research institutions, international organizations, and nongovernmental partners to provide analytical support for country and regional level programming, including the development of the common program framework for ending drought emergencies in the Horn of Africa.

In support of the resilience agenda for the Horn of Africa, USAID, together with the African Union, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, and a number of other development partners, co-hosted a Joint Ministerial and High-Level Development Partners Meeting on Drought Resilience in the Horn of Africa. The meeting took place on April 4, 2012, in Nairobi, Kenya, and demonstrated commitment to country-led, regional level programming on ending drought emergencies in the Horn of Africa. It resulted in the formation of a new partnership—the Global Alliance for Action for Drought Resilience and Growth—to strengthen coordination within the development community, spur economic growth, build new partnerships with the private sector, and reduce food insecurity. The role of the alliance will be finalized with development partners over the coming months.

Across USAID, we are examining our policies and operations to see how we can more effectively build resilience, a key Agency priority. It is our hope that these workshop proceedings, which combine research findings with discussion points from the December workshop sessions, will contribute to the growing body of evidence on strategies for enhancing resilience in the Horn of Africa and help to focus collective efforts on the resilience agenda. We look forward to continuing to work with our partners and finding new ways to collaborate.

Sincerely,

Rajiv Shah

INTRODUCTION

he Horn of Africa is acutely vulnerable to food security crises that arise from complex causes, including swift shocks from the vagaries of climate—particularly exposure to drought and flooding—and slower-moving stresses like the complex nexus of Trapid population growth, land fragmentation, natural resource degradation, and conflict. The 2010–2011 crisis in the region emphasized the shortcomings, as well as some of the strengths, of international and national relief efforts—namely that while they have saved lives, and increasingly livelihoods, they have not sufficiently increased the capacity of the region to withstand future shocks and stresses. In short, they have not done enough to enhance resilience to the point where the region can avert crises similar to the one it endured in 2010–2011. For a region like the Horn of Africa, resilience has profound implications for development programming. As US Agency for International Development (USAID) Administrator Rajiv Shah said, “For too long we have segregated humanitarian support and activities and development activities.… We haven’t seen the beauty of the possibilities that exist when we think of these things as a more integrated whole.”1 In that sense, resilience—in both concept and action—can bridge the two traditionally distinct domains of humanitarian assistance and development support programs. But how exactly should we define resilience, and what does this concept imply for programming, capacity strengthening, institution building, and development strategies as a whole? Is resilience already an important (if implicit) dimension of these -ef forts, or do we need to rethink and redesign the way our efforts are conceived and implemented? Based on previous and ongoing substantive efforts to build resilience, what types of interventions work or don’t work—and where is the evidence to show for it? These questions and issues that arise in the programming of our work together with our development partners in the Horn of Africa are the subject matter of much of the dialogue that took place at the “Enhancing Resilience in the Horn of Africa” workshop hosted by USAID in December 2011. The purpose of this set of proceedings is thus to present the key messages from the workshop and communicate evidence-based strategies that were highlighted to inform future programming of humanitarian and development assistance efforts. The goal is to bridge the two in a way that maximizes the impact of development partners’ efforts and enhances resilience to lift millions out of poverty, food, and social insecurity in the Horn of Africa.

LIVELIHOODS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA: CONTEXT

he arid and semi-arid lowlands variation in rainfall and abundant land gion have longstanding traditional coping (ASALs) of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, resources, which require and histori- mechanisms—including the mobility of Tand Somalia are geographically, lin- cally have allowed households to move pastoralism and traditional family and guistically, and economically very distinct livestock herds in response to differences clan support systems—there is consider- from the highland areas of these coun- in grazing and water resources that ex- able evidence that these techniques are tries. While the highland economies are ist over space and time. Although exact breaking down. Mobility, in particular, is largely dominated by settled crop produc- numbers are unavailable, it is estimated now thought to be much more restricted tion and nonfarm industries, the lowlands that approximately 40 million people live than in earlier times due to the com- are heavily dominated by urban dwell- in these areas, with perhaps half of them plex combination of population growth; ers (10–20 percent of the total ASALs loosely amenable to being described as fragmentation of grazing lands caused population), pastoralism (mobile livestock “pastoralists” (Headey, Seyoum Taffesse, by cropland expansion, pest invasion, rearing), and secondary livelihoods, such and You 2012). and land grabs; and local, regional, and as collection of natural products for con- Although the Horn of Africa is full of international conflict (Flintan 2011). Such sumption and sale (including firewood, different types of people and distinct stresses and shocks initiate a vicious charcoal, and gum-resin) and dryland crop economies, the climate and its related cycle of insecurity: traditional social pro- production (both irrigated and rainfed). risks, particularly acute vulnerability to tection systems erode, making it harder The dominance of pastoralism is a direct drought, are shared across the region. for households to recover from shocks, result of interseasonal and interannual Moreover, while the peoples of the re- which now occur more frequently and

1. For a summary of Administrator Rajiv Shah’s presentation, see page 13. See the full presentation here: http://agrilinks.kdid.org/library/usaid-resilience- workshop-keynote-address.

1 FIGURE 1. Estimated food insecurity at the height of the Horn of Africa famine leave households further exposed to POPULATION REQUIRING ESTIMATED FOOD ASSISTANCE SECURITY LEVELS Djibouti 165,642 subsequent shocks (Devereux 2006). It No acute food insecurity Kenya 4,310,587 SAUDI Moderately food insecure is within this environment that millions Somalia 4,000,000 RED ARABIA Ethiopia 4,828,757 Highly food insecure of people have become continuously de- TOTAL 13,304,986 SEA Extremely food insecure Source: OCHA (09/08/11) SUDAN Famine pendent on humanitarian assistance for SOURCE: FEWS NET, Current Conditions ERITREA SEPTEMBER 2011 Asmara Sana’a food and financial aid, and refugee situ- Khartoum ations in Kenya and Ethiopia that were YEMEN TIGRAY originally designed as temporary miti- Gulf Gonder of gating strategies have been prolonged Weldiya Aden AFAR DJIBOUTI Djibouti Bossaso for years. This is certainly unsustainable AMHARA Dese BENESHANGUL GUMUZ AWDAL GALBEED WOQOOYI BARI and new thinking and actions on how to DIRE DAWA Borama SANAAG Hargeysa Burco Harrar ADDIS ABABA Addis Ababa HARAR TOGDHEER make these communities resilient and ul- SOOL Laas Caanood Gambela Garoowe timately prosperous is urgently needed. NUGAL SOUTH GAMBELLA ETHIOPIA SUDAN SOMALI Megalo Conflict, poor governance, and the Werder Gaalkacyo SNNPR MUDUG Gode OROMIYA related breakdown in traditional coping Dhuusamarreeb DOLLO ADO Ferfer SOMALIA REFUGEE mechanisms also characterize the ASALs COMPLEX Dollo Ado BAKOOL Belet Todenyang " "" Weyne GALGADUD KAKUMA " Xuder Moyale in the Horn of Africa. These challenges REFUGEE HIRAN p CAMP MANDERA Garbahaarey MIDDLE SHABELLE Baidoa TURKANA MARSABIT El Wak BAY Jowhar largely explain the apparently increased Loiyanggalani GEDO Afgooye Lokichar WAJIR BANADIR UGANDA WEST Wajir MIDDLE Mogadishu vulnerability of ASAL populations to POKOT KENYA JUBA LOWER Marka E. MARAKWET SHABELLE TRANS-NZOIA SAMBURU ISIOLO Du’aale BARINGO drought and also the regional pattern of Kampala BUNGOMA UASIN LOWER BUSIA GISHU JUBA KAKAMEGA LAIKIPIA Meru NANDI MERU " SIAYAVIHIGA GARISSA " INDIAN NYANDARUA NITHI " drought impacts. Data from the Emer- KISUMU KERICHO NYERI " NAKURU HOMA BAY KIRINYAGA DADAAB Kismaayo OCEAN NYAMIRA MURANGA EMBU MIGORI KISII BOMET KIAMBU REFUGEE NAROK Nairobi COMPLEX gency Events Database (EM-DAT) show MACHAKOS Kigali KITUI NAIROBI TANA RIVER MAKUENI that the number of people adversely KAJIADO LAMU Bujumbura KILIFI affected by drought has been increas- TAITA TAVETA MOMBASSA Mombassa ing over time (Headey, Seyoum Taffesse, KWALE

0 60 120 180 240 and You 2012) (Figure 2). Other research TANZANIA mi km 0 80 160 240 shows that conflict and poor governance Dar es Salaam are associated with the severity of the 2011–12 humanitarian crisis across the Source: DFID 2011. region, with famine declared mainly in the most conflict-affected areas of south- 2010).2 First, large-scale physical and due understanding of the importance of ern Somalia (Maystadt et al. 2011). So, social infrastructure have been neglected mobility for livestock rearing and trade while climate change cannot yet be de- in the region; policies and investments in the region. Second, where at-scale clared—or discounted as—a contributing that would benefit the livestock sector— interventions have taken place, they have factor to the famine and food scarcity in the primary sector in the region—have at best a modest track record of efficacy, the Horn of Africa, it is well established also been lacking. Education and health sustainability, and poverty reduction. that the region’s vulnerability to major outcomes in ASAL regions, for example, In the past, efforts to promote ranch- shocks is by no means caused solely by are far below those of highland regions style livestock systems did not yield the climate-related influences. in these East African countries and broad-based pro-poor economic impacts Inadequate governance is just as deplorably so in an absolute sense (for needed to widely enhance resilience problematic to building resilience as example, often less than 20 percent of among the poorer pastoralists (McPeak conflict—a conclusion drawn from major adults can read). Governments in the et al. 2011). More recently, a number studies of the successes and failures of region have also emphasized sedenta- of efforts to promote commercialization interventions in this region (for example, rization of mobile communities, without through value-chain approaches have be- McPeak et al. 2011 and Little et al. gun, and while a select few, particularly 2. See the discussion notes from the workshop’s livestock traders, have benefited from- session on governance on pages 22-23.

2 Notes: These estimates of the total number of people affected are only very approximate. See Headey, Seyoum Taffesse, and You details. and (2012) more for Taffesse, Seyoum Headey, See approximate. very only are affected people of number total the of estimates These Notes: 2011. EM-DAT from You and (2012); estimates Taffesse, Seyoum Headey, Source: horn. workshop-plenary-presentation-moving-forward- http://agrilinks.kdid.org/library/usaid-resilience- here: presentation full the 16. See page see presentation, Brooks’s Karen of asummary For 3. stakeholders involved. and substantial commitments from all pears to require sustained intervention short time, butenhancing resilience ap from assistance programs inarelatively results andgraduation ofbeneficiaries development partners demand rapid intended. Too often governments and induce outcomes opposite thanthe ones of potential impactandmay actually up to five years), whichlimitsthe scope have beenrelatively short-lived (usually workshop, many development programs not been sustained. Asnoted inthe most have lacked scale orsimplyhave effective interventions inthe region, a relatively smallscale. programs thusfar have alsooperated at Hashi andMohammed2010).Most most vulnerable andpoor(Barrett 2004, such programs, they tend notto bethe

Estimated number of people 1970–2010 Africa, of Horn the in by droughts affected adversely people of Number 2. FIGURE Finally, while there have been many affected by drought (millions) 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 1970

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1982 resilience-workshop-lessons-from-mercy-corps. here: http://agrilinks.kdid.org/library/usaid- presentation full the 14. See page see presentation, Konyndyk’s Jeremy of asummary For 4. to markets). increased mobilityandbetter access better protected (for example, through significant wealth—wealth that could be tunities ofthelivestock sector create able to drought, theeconomic oppor that they although are certainly vulner region. Pastoralists often emphasize still somepositive developments inthe the region. deeper cause ofmany oftheproblems in nisms. Governance issues are therefore a of traditional conflict resolution mecha increased insecurityandthebreakdown marginalization hasalso contributed to from often distant policymakers. That marginalization ofASAL communities and international policymakers andthe conceptions aboutpastoralism by federal of any efforts—has stemmed from mis of these efforts—and sometimes lack the

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1998 I and You 2012). the region (Headey, Seyoum Taffesse, successful economic transformation in would condition seem anecessary for increasing demand for education, which in various nonfarm livelihoods) andan water harvesting methods and engaging (for example, usingirrigation andbetter there are opportunities for diversification all) peopleintheHornofAfrica. Likewise high potential sector for many (butnot the region itselfmeanthat livestock isa demand intheMiddleEast andwithin tional meat prices andsubstantial export explained both theconcept of resilience Poverty, Health,andNutritionDivision, FRAMING RESILIENCE DEFINING AND RESILIENCE 101: Hoddinott, deputydirector ofIFPRI’s the beginningofworkshop, John n akeynote presentation delivered at 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010 3 and the practice of building it.5 He said fers, food transfers, or paid labor within The impacts of including the HABP that the term “resilience” originally re- a public works program. This program with the PSNP are even more pro- ferred to “the ability…to [both] withstand works in combination with the Household nounced. The months of food insecurity severe conditions and jump back.” The Asset Building Program (HABP), which decrease by an additional half a month term has increasingly gained traction in links people in the PSNP with the agricul- per year, and households accumulate an various twentieth-century sciences, espe- ture extension service that disseminates additional 0.6 TLU more than they ac- cially ecology (“a resilient ecosystem can technological packages and on-farm tech- cumulated through the PSNP on its own withstand shocks and rebuilding itself”), nical advice. By building institutions to (1 TLU under PNSP+HABP compared to psychology (“coping with stress and adver- plan and manage public works, integrating 0.4 TLU with PSNP alone). The HABP’s ad- sity”), and, of course, in the fields of de- public works into woreda development ditional impacts are thought to be the re- velopment and disaster risk management plans and early warning systems, and sult of the program providing households (DRM). Development and DRM specialists working with communities to determine with (1) a safety net (in the form of cash emphasize many dimensions of resilience, beneficiaries, the PSNP builds resilience or food transfers) during times of shock, including social and collective action (reci- into government structures and strength- (2) working capital through public works procity, trust, and social norms), economic ens capacity for better governance.6 The programs, and (3) technical expertise. capital (income and savings), human PSNP is also building resilience into the capital (education, health, and skills), and natural resource base by focusing on tree political capital (long-term investments, planting, rehabilitation of stream beds THE IMPLICATIONS government capacity, DRM structures and and gullies, and terracing to prevent ero- OF RESILIENCE plans, preparedness, and responsiveness). sion. arious speakers and discussants Some definitions emphasize resilience The impacts of the PSNP can also be at the workshop deliberated on as a process (a dynamic phenomenon) seen at the household level. Households the implications of a resilience rather than a state; some see it at differ- V that received five years of support from paradigm, which would involve rede- ent levels, namely those of individuals, the PSNP public works programs have signing development strategies in the households, institutions, communities, seen an improvement in food security of Horn of Africa, bridging the gaps among ecosystems, and governments. approximately one month per year. In the traditionally distinct development and drought-prone areas where people have DRM activities, monitoring and evaluation Building Resilience experienced two or more droughts in (M&E), and operations.7 John Hoddinott through the Productive the past five years, the food security has began by emphasizing that while much Safety Net Programme improved by 0.93 months per year com- of what USAID and others already do fits From 1993 to 2004, Ethiopia relied heavily pared to those who did not participate within the resilience paradigm, the false on emergency assistance to avert mass starvation. Although “You are dealing with very poor households in poor communities, successful to some degree, this experiencing frequent drought. Yet, despite that, the program is practice did not prevent asset improving food security and asset holding. In other words, we begin depletion or integrate well with to see that this program is improving resilience.” ongoing economic development activities that might reduce the — John Hoddinott, IFPRI threat of future famine. The Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) in the program for five years. The same and discredited “relief and development” was created to change this by providing households experienced an improvement dichotomy still persists in USAID and other recipients with a predictable source of in livestock holdings of 0.39 tropical live- institutions. A range of speakers also household income either via cash trans- stock units (TLU) compared to those not emphasized that since resilience is a pro- participating in the program (Berhane et cess—rather than a state to be achieved 5. For a summary of John Hoddinott’s al. 2011; Coll-Black et al. forthcoming). within a set timeframe—achieving it presentation, see page 11. See the full presentation here: http://agrilinks.kdid.org/library/usaid- resilience-workshop-plenary-presentation- 6. A woreda is a division of local government similar resilience-101. to a county. 7. See additional discussion on page 17.

4 depends on demonstrable long-term com- individual, community, and various levels McPeak 2006; Barrett, Carter, and Ike- mitments.8 In practice this means longer of government—necessitate multiple gami 2008). In the ASAL context, there is timeframes (for example, a minimum of indicators of both the quantitative and some evidence that much of the region’s five years but optimally between ten and qualitative variety. transformation to date involves people twenty), less obsession with graduation, falling out of pastoralism into low-return and no more “going it alone”—more EXPLORING THE and highly unsustainable activities, such specifically, building stronger partnerships as firewood/charcoal collection (Devereux with regional governments and other EVIDENCE BASE IN 2006). Thus, a push-pull paradigm may be international bodies. FIVE DOMAINS the best approach, with some actions de- While there was broader agreement n addition to the more generic dis- signed to pull the poor into new activities on the value of explicitly moving toward cussions of the organizational and that have lower, less-risky entry points a resilience paradigm, there was little operational implications of a resilience and some designed to push them to take consensus on what this meant in prac- I more risks by building up their technical paradigm, much of the workshop fo- tice. USAID Administrator Rajiv Shah cused on exploring the evidence base of capacity. The Household Asset Building and various assistant administrators resilience building within the domains of Program (HABP) in Ethiopia is an example emphasized the importance of internally economic development; natural resource of a multifaceted push-pull approach. It reorganizing the way the Agency does management; health and nutrition; social involves training and extension to cover business by developing more efficient development; and governance, institu- skill and managerial development of poor procurement systems and flexible fund- tions, and conflict. These deliberations in- households, rural savings and credit co- ing streams, improving the linkages and volved a mix of presentations, small-group operatives, and microfinance institutions synergies between relief and develop- discussions, open floor plenary speeches, on the finance side; traders and farmers ment, and sustaining donor commitment information-sharing across the various on the input-technology side; improved in the long term. domains, and stocktaking of key lessons.9 storage, processing, and quality control Given the complexity of quantifying on the marketing side; and strengthening resilience outcomes and processes, M&E 1. Economic Growth and management capacity on the government will also be critical, and attention should Transformation side. But there is also evidence suggest- be given to addressing the significant Economic growth and transformation ing limited absorptive capacity of irriga- challenges to conducting it in isolated would seem to be a necessary if insuf- tion and urbanization, as compared to and highly mobile communities. But how ficient condition for lifting ASAL people the substantial economic potential of the should resilience be measured? Work- out of poverty, increasing their capacity livestock sector and its downstream value shop participants discussed whether to withstand and “bounce back” from chain activities (Headey, Seyoum Taffesse, there should multiple indicators with shocks, and decreasing their vulner- and You 2012). perhaps one or two primary ones to cap- ability to those shocks from the outset. In addition to strong export growth ture overall achievements. For example, Transformation entails both movements in livestock (in Ethiopia), there have also some speakers emphasized decreased of people and resources out of tradi- been successful emergency destocking dependence on food aid as an overall tional agriculture and herding, but also a interventions (Aklilu and Wekesa 2002; target while others noted the advantages modernization of those traditional sectors Catley, Aklilu, Admassu, and Demeke of more objective indicators, such as and their accompanying technologies, 2007), high returns to animal health nutrition outcomes, which could indicate physical capital formation, and increased services and improved market access performance in both acute and chronic human capital. Existing transformation (Nin-Pratt, Bonnet, Jabbar, Ehui, and undernutrition and food insecurity. There paradigms have largely ignored the role of Haan, 2004), and viable prospects for was a general consensus, however, that resilience, however, which is a goal in and formalizing informal trade and increas- the multiple domains of resilience— of itself, but also an instrumental factor ing government revenue (Negassa et economic, political, social, ecological, for asset accumulation—as the literature al. forthcoming). In short, these make on poverty traps indicates (Barrett and the case for a balanced development 8. See presentations here: http://agrilinks.kdid.org/ strategy, something that has largely been library/enhancing-resilience-horn-africa-evidenced- 9. See breakout session discussion summaries missing in much of the region. There is based-workshop-strategies-success-summary. beginning on page 17.

5 also wide acknowledgement of the in- use has led to displacement of popula- from other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, teractions with other resilience domains, tions to other areas, further exacerbating including the Sahel; were noted at the particularly the sustainability of the resource-related conflict. In cases where workshop, however, there was a general natural resource base for livestock and displacement has not taken place, conflict consensus that much is yet to be learned crop-based farming (and the implication arises from unequal access to resources regarding how these interventions would for livelihood diversification), the role of by competing groups. be applicable in the particular arid and education and health investments in economic develop- “For too long we have segregated humanitarian support and ment, and the critical role activities and development activities.… We haven’t seen the of governance and conflict resolution in the region. beauty of the possibilities that exist when we think of these There was further dis- things as a more integrated whole.” cussion of other possible — Rajiv Shah, Administrator, USAID interventions in the region, including index-based livestock insurance (currently in a trial phase Degradation of natural resources semi-arid environments of the Horn of in Kenya), education investments, and due to overuse has led to diminished Africa. training and extension programs. While productive agricultural and livestock Generally NRM has been shown to there was no consensus on the potential areas, nutrient depletion of soil, soil work best when integrated within multi- of each of these interventions, there was erosion, and declining quality of range- sectoral approaches—combining eco- general agreement on the need for more lands and watersheds. With the decline nomic development, improved farming innovative experimentation and learning in input quality has come a subsequent practices, clear incentives, and increased in these settings, balanced with caution decline in yields and overall productiv- awareness and behavioral change. In in the face of often excessive enthusi- ity. The combined effects of unregulated addition, community ownership was asm. resource competition and degradation identified as critical particularly because have created hazardous conditions that of the often high labor efforts and costs 2. Natural Resource will likely get worse without effective involved in such projects. Management interventions. Still, many knowledge gaps in NRM Depletion and degradation of the natural Strategies and programs must im- that need to be filled by research remain, resource base is a major cause of deterio- prove resource-use rights (including land particularly with regards to the con- rating livelihoods in the arid and semi-arid rights and grazing rights for pastoralists), tentious issue of whether human and lands of the Horn of Africa, so natural protect and bolster existing resources livestock populations exceed the carrying resource management is an important that are threatened by degradation capacity of land and water resources. foundation upon which to build resilience (through, for example, conservation Many ASAL populations (both human in the region. The prevalence of natural agriculture), and promote improved and livestock) are estimated to have resource degradation is mainly due to un- management strategies for existing re- more than doubled in size in recent sustainable and unregulated production sources (such as rainwater harvesting or decades. They are continuing to grow activities that decrease the provision of commercial destocking). Other successful despite significant constraints on natural ecosystem services and thereby increase initiatives to protect natural resources resources and mobility. the vulnerability of people’s livelihoods. have included early warning systems Due to underdeveloped management (although these have been plagued by 3. Health and Nutrition practices, weak and unenforced property poor response time), long-term educa- Surveys of pastoralist community devel- rights institutions, and common property tion, community-based conservation and opment priorities regularly uncover that resource governance, greater competition management programs, grazing associa- improved health and nutrition outcomes for resources has led to increasing inci- tions, and community gardens for pasto- top the list (McPeak et al. 2011; Devereux dences of violent conflict. In some cases ralist “drop-outs.” Examples of natural re- 2006). This is not surprising insofar as conflict over resource ownership and source management (NRM) interventions health outcomes and services in ASAL

6 regions are far below those in highland mechanisms, rising ethnic strife, and a have tremendous benefits to society that regions in these countries while health- concurrent breakdown in the structure outweigh the social costs associated with related shocks rapidly diminish household of acknowledged means of resolving con- such programs. assets as the assets are instead used flicts and deriving sustainable resolutions. Other interventions that were men- to smooth out consumption changes, While faced with uncertainty and mount- tioned as being effective include mental thereby magnifying the incidence of acute ing stress on the structure of societal health and psychosocial support services nutrition and health problems (Hoddinott relationships, individuals have become in Dadaab, which involved case manage- 2006). There is also growing evidence that increasingly fatalistic and lack a broader, ment sessions, community-based psycho- malnutrition early in childhood and during optimistic vision of the future. Survey social activities, life skills training, savings gestation lowers cognitive development, results on attitudes indicate that low as- and loans groups, support in setting up achievement in school, and future earning pirations are widespread and characterize self-help groups and revitalization of potential; even temporary shocks to nutri- individuals as becoming more risk averse traditional resources, training in problem tional status in early childhood can have when dealing with issues pertaining to solving, community health and nutrition lasting irreversible consequences (Beh- the future (Bernard, Dercon, and Seyoum programs, strengthening social networks, rman, Alderman, and Hoddinott 2004; Taffesse 2011). Research has shown that peacemaking, value chain development, Black et al. 2008). being discouraged about positive out- and natural resource management. To The determinants of health and nutri- comes in the future has led many to forgo boost social resilience, there is a need tion outcomes in ASAL regions are partic- investing in long-term well-being and to address the immediate stressors or ularly complex and multifaceted, so im- instead to focus on immediate survival causes of trauma; identify positive and proving them will require interventions (Bernard et al. 2011). hopeful role models; establish oppor- on multiple fronts, including agriculture, Discriminatory attitudes toward wom- tunities for future empowerment; build livestock and livelihood programs, water en were also noted as having resulted in social networks and institutions to help management, hygiene and sanitation, systemic undervaluing of women’s role in cope with challenges; and maintain links and disaster risk management. These interventions, “This year there was a crisis comparable to 2002–2003 in Ethiopia, and when accompanied by other investments in communica- there [were] 4.6 million beneficiaries.… That’s a lot less than the 14.6 tion strategies that promote million that [had to be] covered in 2002–2003.… We can definitely say positive behavior within the that PSNP reversed the trend to destitution across the areas it was local context, have been working in.” shown to improve nutrition — John Graham, USAID/Ethiopia outcomes (Berti, Krasevec, and FitzGerald 2004; Faber, Jogessar, and Benadé 2001; Ruel 2001). agriculture and other income-generating with services, markets, and economic However, there is a need for more ex activities and women’s exclusion from opportunities. Some of the hindrances to post impact evaluations of behavioral access to resources and absence from social resilience pointed out at the work- change communication methods to positions of importance in political shop include insufficient attention to- psy determine how to improve programmatic structures of varying complexity. While chosocial stressors and trauma, political successes. Strategies that, by design, in- there are many constraints on social instability, unresolved conflict, isolation, clude preventative methods as opposed resilience in the region, it was pointed and dissolution of social networks. to reactive methods have also been more out that traditional coping mechanisms effective both in cost and impact (Ruel must be recognized and strengthened. 5. Governance, Institutions, and Menon 2003). The need to impart new mindsets, and Building Peace skills, and facilitation mechanisms was Governance and institutions in the Horn 4. Social Dimension also identified. Moreover, public safety of Africa were described as a fundamen- Disintegrating social networks have re- nets such as the Productive Safety Net tal centerpiece to enhancing resilience sulted in an erosion of traditional coping Programme are important because they but significant challenges were acknowl-

7 edged, including the lack of coordination address both causes and consequences was also some consensus on what kinds and ability to enforce policies of various of conflict with peace-building efforts of steps could make resilience program- de jure institutions. There was recognition (namely, dialogue and dispute-resolution ming an effective reality. First, it was that several levels of governance exist training) and tools (including economic argued that there might be real value in (community, subnational, national, and development, natural resource manage- a common framework to help guide both regional) and that these need to be in ment practices, and youth interventions) the design and implementation. Concep- harmony while maintaining national sov- were said to have had the most success. tually, this could entail refining the type ereignty to effectively enhance resilience One speaker highlighted the important of framework that the UK Department for of the whole region. Two important levels role of nongovernmental organizations International Development has already on which positive changes have recently begun are the country “The workshop reinforced that we have a critical moment of level—through the Comprehen- alignment: heads of state, regional institutions, UN agencies, sive Africa Agriculture Devel- nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector have all opment Programme (CAADP) converged in their understanding that resilience is critical as we seek framework—and the regional to reduce suffering and increase the ability of families to survive the level, where governance institu- inevitable shocks of drought, floods, and other natural disasters. We tions under the African Union’s have the tools to address the challenges ahead, but it is clear that Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) are coming none of us can succeed alone.” together with development — Nancy Lindborg, USAID partners to facilitate trade and investments in the ASALs. These institu- and presented a hybrid model of peace- developed to include additional emphasis tions have allowed for a country-led ap- building tools that incorporated dispute- on different levels and domains in which proach that can also be matched with the resolution training that links customary resilience operates.10 Operationally it may regional development agenda. A summit conflict resolution methods with support mean something similar to the “crisis held in Nairobi in September 2011 signi- for reconciliation processes, thereby modifier” approach used in the Pastoral- fied the level of political commitment that leading to localized peace agreements at ist Livelihoods Initiative in Ethiopia. This has arisen to buttress the regional institu- the community and subnational levels. approach allowed relief resources to be tions to facilitate trade, investments, and The need to couple these tools with eco- programmed through a standup develop- security at the regional level. The involve- nomic opportunities was stressed, since ment mechanism in a way that assured ment of the African Union and national much of the localized conflict arises from complementarity of relief and devel- governments at this heightened level has competition for economic opportunities opment programming. The latter was set the stage for concrete action to follow. and access to resources. particularly viewed as useful in establish- Of particular concern were the continuing ing that development and relief activities security challenges in Somalia, which re- MOVING THE AGENDA should never undermine each other. main despite several governments within FORWARD A common framework will also need the region attempting to address them. a significantly more rigorous monitoring At the subnational levels the pri- he workshop culminated in several and evaluation (M&E) system, comprised mary source of local conflict was said to deliberations on how best to move of greater efforts to collect indicators pertain to livestock raids and disputes Tthe resilience agenda forward in and to establish impact through more over grazing and water-use rights along the region. There was real consensus that rigorous research and evaluation. While livestock trading routes, which are in es- resilience programming had value added, there was no consensus as to what an sence a coping mechanism for livestock particularly if it resulted in long-term ideal summary indicator of resilience losses, particularly during drought when strategies that were process oriented and is—or whether such an indicator is pastoralists have to traverse extensive capable of bridging the divide between needed—there were many productive areas to feed their livestock and conduct development and relief. Among opera- trade. Hence, approaches that seek to tions and implementation partners, there 10. See Andrew Preston’s presentation summary on pages 15–16.

8 ideas on which indicators suited which and places in the Horn? community in drafting technical papers resilience domains. In health and nutri- 5. To what extent do cultural and summarizing the long-term research al- tion, M&E systems are highly developed, behavioral factors constrain in- ready carried out in the Horn of Africa on for example, and largely consist of vestment, entrepreneurship, and the effectiveness of various approaches. well-established physical indicators. In cooperation in the region? Finally, there was a consensus that governance and conflict there is a greater need for qualitative “Donors have different priorities, expertise, and resources; creating a indicators, and where possible consensus around a specific agenda is not only straightforward but the development of more ob- the PSNP has shown that it is possible and can be effective.” jective quantitative indicators (such as “number of violent — Alemayehu Seyoum Taffesse, IFPRI conflicts”). In natural resource management, indicators of technology In truth, we have quite incomplete greater effectiveness entails tackling the uptake, conflict incidences, aerial data, answers to all of these questions and problem at scale, working more closely and geographic information systems data many others. So, how can operations in with national governments and devel- are all relevant. Economic development the region receive better support from opment partners, being there for the is perhaps the most challenging domain, research institutions, such as the CGIAR long haul, and developing both greater given the difficulties of systematically Consortium, land grant universities in the flexibility in funding streams and more surveying mobile and dispersed popula- United States, and educational institu- efficient procurement mechanisms. In tions and of quantifying livestock, their tions in Africa? Indeed, while there are her blog post about the workshop, Nancy most important asset. already efforts underway to provide Lindborg, assistant administrator of Beyond M&E, there is clearly a short term assistance on this front, US- USAID’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, broader need to strengthen and expand AID and other development partners also and Humanitarian Assistance, noted that, the evidence base for policymaking in need to develop research capacity and “The workshop reinforced that we have the Horn of Africa, where some of the demand in the long run. Research should a critical moment of alignment: heads of most fundamental questions remain also help improve program learning. state, regional institutions, UN agencies, unanswered. Some workshop participants felt that nongovernmental organizations, and the 1. What has actually been happening there was too much emphasis on success private sector have all converged in their in the region in terms of economic stories and not enough on failures, which understanding that resilience is criti- growth, poverty, and asset owner- can also be instructive. Similarly, a better cal as we seek to reduce suffering and ship (particularly herd sizes)? understanding of the adaptations that increase the ability of families to survive 2. To what extent are human and occur in moving from strategy and pro- the inevitable shocks of drought, floods animal population growth straining gram design to program implementation and other natural disasters. We have the the carrying capacity of the region’s will provide opportunities to learn and tools to address the challenges ahead, natural resource base? identify examples of adaptive responses. but it is clear that none of us can succeed 3. To what extent should resources However, it was also stressed that many alone.” The next step is to make working be devoted to pastoralism versus impact assessments and evaluations lead together a reality. other sectors? to evidence that is not always translated 4. How should development strate- into program design or implementation gies vary across different regions, guidance. Indeed, one activity for the given the heterogeneity of peoples near future is to engage the research

9 REFERENCES Aklilu, Y., and M. Wekesa. 2002. Drought, Livelihoods-Based Drought Interven- Mahmoud, H. 2006. “Innovations in Pasto- Livestock and Livelihoods: Lessons from tions in Moyale and Dire Woredas. ral Livestock Marketing: The Emergence the 1999–2001 Emergency Response in London: Orana. and the Role of ‘Somali Cattle Traders- the Pastoral Sector in Kenya. London: Coll-Black, S., D. O. Gilligan, J. Hoddinott, cum-Ranchers’ in Kenya.” In Pastoral Network. N. Kumar, A. Seyoum Taffesse, and Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Barrett, C., S. Osterloh, P. D. Little, and J. W. Wiseman. 2012. “Targeting Food Research and Policy Challenges, edited G. McPeak. 2004. Constraints Limit- Security Interventions in Ethiopia: The by J. G. McPeak and P. D. Little, 129- ing Livestock Marketed Offtake Rates Productive Safety Net Programme.” 144. Warwickshire, UK: Intermediate among Pastoralists. Research Brief In Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Technology Publications. 04-06-PARIMA. 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10 PLENARY SESSION NOTES Resilience 101 of future famine. The PSNP was created cally and programmatically. This session to change this by providing recipients highlighted three programs that have John Hoddinott, Senior Research Fellow, with predictable cash transfers, food achieved results. IFPRI transfers, or paid labor within a pub- Resilience has traditionally been un- lic works program to generate regular derstood in two different ways. In one Arid and Marginal Lands income. This program is complemented sense, “resiliency,” as adopted from the Recovery Consortium by the Household Asset Building Program ecological literature, is about tolerating (ARC) Program in Kenya (HABP). The HABP ensures that people in disturbance without collapse. In psychol- Shep Owen, Regional Director, Food for the PSNP receive technological packages ogy, however, resilience is portrayed in a the Hungry and on-farm technical advice through an slightly more nuanced way and is defined The Arid and Marginal Lands Recovery agriculture extension service. Also, the as somebody’s ability to bounce back Consortium (ARC) program in Kenya PSNP builds resilience into government from shock or stress. In the psychological decided that with the right investments structures and improves governance ca- sense, resiliency is therefore a process there was the potential for positive pacity by constructing institutions to plan and not an outcome. change in the pastoralist areas. This proj- and manage public works, integrating There are a number of commonalities ect strove to increase agricultural produc- public works into woreda development that can be found in the various defini- tivity, to protect and diversify household plans and early warning systems, and tions of resilience that can guide the way asset bases, and to strengthen livelihood working with communities to deter- we understand it. First, resiliency can be options to increase household purchasing mine beneficiaries. The PSNP also builds seen at different levels and in different power. By making strategic investments resilience into the natural resource base domains such as the individual, house- in creating livestock markets, the project through an emphasis on planting trees, hold, or the ecosystem. People should ensured that sales of US$185,000 in 2005 rehabilitating stream beds and gullies, also be able to adapt to adverse events (the first year of the program) quadrupled and terracing to prevent erosion. or shocks without permanent conse- to reach US$850,000 annually. In addition, quences. We must also remember that Drawing on the experiences of PSNP, sales have been surprisingly buoyant dur- resiliency is not just about economics USAID could improve its resiliency ing the latest drought. Likewise, market and requires the development of govern- programming by beginning to better prices for livestock have gone up due to ment institutions, building appropriate integrate relief programming with devel- key contributions from the program to social structures, maintaining a natural opment initiatives. Additionally, building improving community veterinary services, resource base, and developing human resilience is a process and as such it re- raising the quality of animals, regular- capital (health, nutrition, education). quires long-term commitment especially ization of market days, and transpar- Finally, initiatives that build resilience given that the impacts of many resilience ent market information. The activity of involve reducing the likelihood and programs are not seen until five or more the market indicates that with the right severity of adverse events, enhancing the years after the program began. Without investments, such as market creation and magnitude and speed of the response to that long-term commitment, expecting other services, pastoralists are willing to cope with shocks, and diminishing the mutual commitment from partners is sell animals. impacts of adverse events. unrealistic. USAID must also continue to The program has provided a positive The Productive Safety Net Programme work in partnership with other donors learning opportunity. The engagement (PSNP) is an example of building resil- and governments given the magnitude with the private sector was essential in ience at scale. From 1993–2004, Ethiopia of these programs and the size of the providing credit and stable demand from relied heavily on emergency assistance investment. buyers to maximize market opportuni- to avert mass starvation and although We have a strong evidence base avail- ties. The accessibility of the market is successful to some degree, this did not able for a number of programs designed also important, and the construction of prevent asset depletion or integrate well to strengthen resilience. This provides a main road by the Kenyan government with ongoing economic development important insights into what works may have made a significant contribu- activities that might reduce the threat and what does not work both strategi- tion to the success of the project. With

11 capacity in the region low, the long-term making, which significantly degrade the link between emergency response and engagement of the program with com- environment when practiced on a large- development, on the principle that emer- munity workers, the private sector, and scale. Given the additional productivity, gencies should not undermine long-term pastoralists also was essential to improv- farmers are becoming more food secure progress. The Initiative has chosen to ing the provision and usage of technical and are able to dedicate more money to focus on saving livelihoods by maintaining services such as veterinary care, savings school fees and diversify into other assets the asset base of pastoralists and reduc- and loans programs, and business opera- such as livestock or businesses. ing chronic dependence on humanitarian tion. There is, however, still a need for Through crop diversification, another assistance. better monitoring and evaluation of the component of the program, families have There have been several components project, switching the focus from inputs increased the diversity of their plots, that have contributed to the program’s and outputs to outcomes and impact. which now include more drought-toler- success. First, the program is strongly Achieving this will require a harmoniza- ant varieties and leguminous species that linked to early warning systems. This tion across donors and more flexibility. improve soil fertility and help to increase allows the initiative to respond faster to protein intake and diversify diets. The shocks and trigger livestock destocking Disaster Risk Reduction/ challenges that the communities now programs and the provision of emergen- Hyogo Framework face have shifted from food scarcity to cy water and fodder provision. The very Harlan Hale, Principal Regional Advisor post-harvest losses, the development of successful destocking program—the first for Southern Africa, Office of US Foreign value chains for legumes and horticulture of its kind in Ethiopia—began in 2006 Disaster Assistance, USAID crops, and the lack of business skills. and in that year alone was responsible The USAID Office of US Foreign Disaster These challenges are important and will for the purchase of 100,000 animals. Assistance implements a disaster risk be addressed with additional support. Fostering linkages between the highlands reduction program to target disaster-prone areas. It is fo- “We’ve concluded that pastoralism is a viable livelihood and that cused on reducing losses rather with the right investments in the area, the arid and marginal lands than increasing incomes, in of Kenya can not only begin to overcome the trend of perpetual alignment with the UN’s Inter- decline, but they can grow and contribute significantly to national national Strategy for Disaster growth.” Reduction Hyogo Framework. The Southern Africa Regional — Shep Owen, Food for the Hungry disaster risk reduction program comprises multiple components, Pastoralist Livelihood and the lowlands has also improved mar- all of which cater to the southern African Initiative in Ethiopia ket linkages and the commercial off-take environment. The first of these focuses Abdifatah Ismail, Somali Regional State of animals. The program has also found on conservation agriculture, a practice in President Advisor on Humanitarian and that cereal banks are an effective tool to which soil tillage is reduced, causing resi- Development, Government of Ethiopia stabilize grain prices and that by working dues to remain on the soil surface. This The 1999–2000 drought in the Somali with pastoralist communities it is pos- creates mulch that reduces weeds and region of Ethiopia showed the need for a sible to establish grazing reserves. groundcover that reduces moisture losses. large-scale initiative to improve the rate The PLI has also partnered with Tufts The program also emphasizes small-scale at which food and nutrition assistance University to implement a system of water harvesting and irrigation to extend was provided in times of need. When monitoring and evaluation, which has led the growing season, regulate variable drought again came in 2002–2003, the to the creation of a best practices guide rainfall, and allow for diversification out- humanitarian response rate had improved adopted by the Ethiopian government. side of rainy seasons. Through this work because of intragovernmental coordina- In addition, rigorous academic impact smallholders are seeing an additional tion, but there was still a significant loss evaluation has shown that the PLI has three to four months of productivity dur- of animals—the main livelihood of the been a very effective use of resources in ing the dry season and no longer need to population. The Pastoralist Livelihood Ini- the region, with a benefit–cost ratio of focus as much effort on charcoal and brick tiative (PLI) was created to make a strong 44 to 1.

12 Keynote Address es and not realized the potential syner- to build resilience in natural systems, gies of these two things as an integrated and integrate the Drought Risk Reduction Dr. Rajiv Shah, Administrator, USAID whole. framework and climate change adapta- The best way for the development com- The US government is committed to tion into development planning and munity to demonstrate what has been using its resources to make sure that we resource allocation frameworks. learned from past crises is through our demonstrate that we have learned a lot actions and responses to the present crisis as we recover from the crisis in the Horn Developing a Common in the coming months and years. This of Africa. We intend to invest resources, crisis—the worst in a long time, affecting Agenda for Building planning efforts, and our intellectual more than 13 million people—is a mani- Resilience: Lessons leadership in building a resilience strat- festation of weak and abusive governance Identified from Recent egy that is robust, that is country-owned, in Somalia, drought, and low-performing Efforts and Gaps that connects to and is a part of our Feed agriculture in the region. This has led to the Future program and agricultural de- Remaining acute hunger, loss of livestock and assets, velopment strategies country by country, and displacement not only in Somalia but and that really does represent the best Consensus Building and in other countries in the region. integrated thinking of all parties and all the Productive Safety Net The US government has been able partners. to mount a significant humanitarian Programme John Graham, Senior Policy Advisor, response, which accounts for more than The Nairobi Strategy: 50 percent of the global total. Some of USAID/Ethiopia that response has come in the form of Enhanced Partnership The formulation and development of improved and fortified foods targeted to Eradicate Drought many of Ethiopia’s food security programs especially toward women and children. Emergencies has often come on the heels of a crisis. This food aid response has helped to re- H.E. Elkanah Odembo, Ambassador, Em- The 2002–2003 drought affected nearly duce malnutrition rates over the last five bassy of the Republic of Kenya, Washing- 14.6 million people in Ethiopia and was months, in some places to pre-famine ton, DC the impetus for the formation of the levels. We have also seen a response in During a regional meeting in September PSNP and the PLI. Similar programs were Al-Shabab-controlled areas, which many 2011 to discuss the current drought, started in the productive highland areas in thought, given the challenges, was not several heads of state admitted that they 2008 to improve productivity and combat possible. This has been in large part have not made sufficient investments in food price inflation during the food crisis. because of local partners. the semiarid and pastoralist communities With the latest crisis in the Horn, there is The resiliency agenda must include in the Horn of Africa. There was also wide now the opportunity to create platforms other types of interventions that make acknowledgement that there is a need for for disaster risk reduction. use of modern technology. We have seen long-term programming. Within a matter The experience of working to develop the success and uptake of index-based of weeks Ethiopia, Kenya, South Sudan, the PSNP offers many lessons that can livestock insurance provided by the and Djibouti had developed medium- and now be applied elsewhere. First, analysis private sector that relies on independent long-term plans to begin to address the formed an integral part of the formula- verification through satellite imagery longstanding crisis in the region. tion of the project and that preparation to trigger payout. We have also seen This meeting was followed by another helped to consolidate viewpoints and how low-cost, high-yield public health in Djibouti three months later to reaffirm create a common agenda. Second, for interventions can be equally, if not more, development commitments and outline development partners and donors, sup- effective at preventing fatalities in times program strategies. During this meeting, porting the PSNP meant a combination of crisis. The US Feed the Future Initia- heads of state agreed to support the of direct budget support and grants to tive has tried to build on this, providing Intergovernmental Authority on Develop- implementation partners. Direct budget not only emergency assistance but also, ment (IGAD) Climate Prediction and Ap- support provided the Ethiopian govern- together with FAO, providing productive plications Center (ICPAC), invest in better ment with ownership of the project while agricultural technologies. For far too long water management and harvesting prac- direct funding to implementing partners we have segregated these two approach- tices, improve ecosystem management allowed development partners like USAID

13 flexibility in their partner funding. of peace-building tools such as dispute nation by government and development The results of the project can be seen resolution training, linking customary partners. at scale. Whereas in 2002–2003 the conflict resolution forums with formal There are several principles which program supported nearly 14.8 million institutions, and supporting reconcili- contributed to the success of the PSNP. individuals, with the latest crisis there ation processes that lead to localized Coordination between the nine develop- were only 4.6 million beneficiaries. With- peace agreements. These are linked with ment partners and the various ministries out the PSNP these individuals would development tools, which often address of government was essential in creat- have been given food aid but it would the root causes of conflict such as the ing agreement on the framework of the have been disorganized and late and lack of economic opportunities or natural PSNP and a common agenda. By working there would have been a deterioration resource scarcity. together in partnership, the Ethiopian of livelihoods. With the PSNP in place, as While the outcomes presented are government was able to internalize the has been shown by Berhane et al. (2011), preliminary, communities thus far have PSNP and assume ownership. This fur- we can see that people actually have accumulated assets even in the face of “Resilience implies that transitory adverse events should not have crisis. permanent consequences, and that agents can adapt to adverse events.” While the PSNP did not — John Hoddinott, IFPRI accomplish everything, we can definitely say that PSNP reversed the trend to destitution reported that, because of the peace pro- ther contributed to the integration of the across the areas it was working in. That’s cess, elders are better able to negotiate PSNP within the broader food security a huge number of households. The PSNP shared access to scarce grazing resources agenda and the national development was a huge step forward. and that pastoralists are able to enjoy plan. greater freedom of movement and fewer Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) The Links between conflict-related obstacles when access- were also a part of the initial design and Resilience, Conflict, and ing pasture and water. Likewise, families mutual understanding of the PSNP. With Food Security are better able to access markets, which government support, the M&E frame- Jeremy Konyndyk, Policy and Advocacy increases their trade opportunities com- work was able to integrate the expertise Director, Mercy Corps pared to those of the control groups that and capacity of the national statistical The second presentation by Jeremy were not targeted by the program. This agency and external evaluators. The Konyndyk addressed the nexus between has provided them with greater econom- learning opportunity that came out of in- conflict and food security and its impact ic opportunities and alternative coping terim evaluations also allowed the PSNP on resilience. The presentation outlined strategies in times of crisis. to adjust the program to better target these linkages and how they manifest those in need. themselves in the Horn of Africa while Some Lessons from also addressing how this issue could be Ethiopia’s PSNP Pathways Out of Poverty: xploring the inkages more fully addressed through changes to Alemayehu Seyoum Taffesse, Research E L the focus of policies and programs. Fellow, IFPRI between Resilience and Frequently in the development para- The Productive Safety Net Programme has Economic Growth digm, conflict is seen as an exogenous provided an example of how emergency factor and not necessarily something The Value Chain Model aid and programs to enhance resilience that we can address. When households Steve McCarthy, Senior Technical Direc- and promote development can be in- fear conflict or violence, seasonal migra- tor, Enterprise Development, ACDI/VOCA cluded in a large-scale program. It has also tion and herd splitting become difficult, Economic growth can be achieved by the provided an example of how a program as does accessing markets for destocking growth of industries and the private sec- can work at scale, covering nearly 8 mil- or purchasing nonfarm goods. tor but economic growth alone is insuffi- lion people and 300 woredas, with the Mercy Corp’s approach is a hybrid cient for reducing poverty unless the poor right mixture of commitment and coordi-

14 FIGURE 3. UK Department for International Development Resilience Framework

CAPACITY REACTION capacity to deal with disturbance example: survive, cope, recover, learn, DISTURBANCE transform example: natural hazard, conﬂict, insecurity, CONTEXT food shortage, high fuel prices example: social group, region, institution

Bounce back better SHOCKS EXPOSURE Bounce back SYSTEM ADAPTIVE OR CAPACITY Recover, but worse than before

PROCESS SENSITIVITY STRESSES Collapse R es at? ilience of wh Re t? silience to wha

Source: DFID 2011. are linked to growth opportunities. Poor ing Program (HABP) is part of a broader The Humanitarian Emergency Response households tend to be more isolated from strategy by the Ethiopian government to Review (HERR), or Lord Ashdown Re- the mainstream economy and as a conse- incrementally graduate large numbers of view, was launched soon afterward to quence do not have the ability to maxi- its citizens out of poverty. This program make recommendations on how the UK mize productivity of their land and labor. selects value chains based on livelihood government can respond to emergencies They often lack non-physical assets such clusters and develops household busi- and improve responses to humanitarian as social relationships, skills, and educa- ness plans at the same time it builds the crises; certain core messages emerged. tion, which can be important to participat- institutional capacity of financial -ser The UK must better anticipate crises by ing in new economic opportunities. vice providers for sustained delivery of using a combination of science and on- We therefore need push strategies multiple financial products. The program the-ground experience. This should be that help vulnerable households to par- also builds linkages between suppliers complemented by spurring innovation to ticipate in value chains through capacity and users of inputs and technologies and bring new techniques and technologies building to take advantage of opportuni- improves storage, processing, and quality to bear on humanitarian challenges and ties and to improve household ability to control for increased value addition to working with nations and communities to take more risks. Households and private the implementation of business plans. make them more resilient to disaster. sector firms must remove key constraints The DFID resilience framework and take advantage of opportunities to DFID’s New Resilience consists of the following elements (see upgrade strategies that use small, low- Agenda Figure 3): risk steps. On the other hand, pull strate- Andrew Preston, Counsellor Develop- 1. Context: Resilience should always gies targeted toward the poor strengthen ment, Foreign and Security Policy Group, be clearly contextualized, allowing value chains to create opportunities British Embassy, Washington, DC a coherent answer to the question: for vulnerable households. They do so DFID’s disaster resilience agenda has resilience of what? by strengthening competitiveness and evolved from work on disaster risk reduc- 2. Disturbance: Understand whether the focusing on local markets that have less tion (DRR) in 2006, which committed disturbance is a shock or an ongoing stringent product requirements. By doing 10 percent of humanitarian spending to stress to determine the answer to the so, they create less risky entry points and post-disaster programs meant to “build question: resilience to what? lower barriers to entry. back better” and incorporate DRR into • Shocks are sudden events that im- The Ethiopian Household Asset Build- mainstream country strategies by 2015. pact the vulnerability of the system

15 and its components. Currently, CGAP’s pilot program has been operating for 20 years and has • Stresses are long-term trends that operates in Tigray, Ethiopia, and tries to components that develop and monitor undermine the potential of a given build on the PSNP by using a five-step early warning systems, generate alterna- system or process and increase the program to achieve graduation. First, the tive livelihood options, provide a contin- vulnerability of actors within it. program targets the poorest beneficia- gency fund to destock during times of 3. Capacity to deal with disturbance: ries through participatory wealth ranking drought, initiate capacity building, and • Exposure to risk is an assessment and household surveys. Second, the promote conflict resolution. The World of the magnitude and frequency of program provides consumption support Bank strongly feels that the long-term shocks or the degree of stress. on the premise that being food insecure commitment of this program is in part • Sensitivity is the degree to which causes significant stresses that prevent responsible for its successes and has been a system will be affected by, or the poorest from planning for the future essential in order to develop and sustain respond to, a given shock or stress. and taking advantage of opportunities. resiliency in the region. This can vary considerably for dif- Stabilizing consumption allows people There have been many indicators ferent actors within a system. to begin to think about their aspirations that the program has had success in 4. Reaction to disturbance: The adap- and plan for the future. Third, the pro- building resilience. The number of peo- tive capacities of actors—individuals, gram makes saving mandatory, putting ple needing food aid has decreased by communities, regions, governments, households in a better position to buffer half between the 2001–02 and 2008–09 organizations, or institutions—are against shocks. Fourth, by working with droughts, as seen in a recent evaluation determined by their ability to adjust partners, CGAP does a value-chain analy- of intervention and control groups. The to a disturbance, moderate potential sis to determine what mixture of short- response time to shocks has also been damage, take advantage of opportuni- term and long-term assets has the most cut in half in part because of the success ties, and cope with the consequences potential to diversify incomes. Finally, of early warning systems. Child nutri- of a transformation. the program works directly with house- tion indicators have not shown as much holds on a case-by-case basis to mentor, improvement, but it was clear that dur- The Graduation Model set up graduation goals, and provide ing drought those most at risk for acute Alexia Latortue, Deputy CEO, CGAP, complimentary training. malnutrition were positively impacted by World Bank CGAP has also implemented a thor- the program. CGAP is currently working on advanc- ough monitoring and evaluation strategy There are also many lessons that ing financial access for the world’s poor. that documents program implementa- have been learned from this program. However, financial services are not always tion, monitors participant progress, and First, natural resource management enough to move households out of pov- measures outcomes and causality with should be part of any long-term resil- erty and micro-finance around the world both qualitative and quantitative impact ience or drought-management program. generally tends to reach those that are assessments. While results from Ethiopia Likewise, conflict resolution should be just below, at, or just above the poverty are not available due to the newness of a component of strategies in the region line while not reaching the poorest of the the program, evidence from India has and can be an effective tool for enhanc- poor. shown that there have been positive ing development programs. Projects CGAP’s model is based on BRAC, a outcomes in terms of consumption of can also benefit from a strong system of nonprofit organization in Bangladesh, nutritious foods and dietary diversity. monitoring and evaluation that should which brought together the social-safety- be developed during the program-design nets aspect of social protection with the Moving Forward in the phase in order to ensure accountability idea of linking the very poor to markets Horn and transparency. Finally, because the and financial services. Taking this ap- Karen Brooks, Africa Region Agricultural development agenda and environment proach, CGAP has tried to help people Programs Manager, World Bank is complex, we cannot monitor every graduate out of poverty and safety nets The World Bank’s experiences in the Horn single issue and relationship. As such, the by providing them with assets, income, of Africa have been primarily through its systems of monitoring and measurement and food security. work with the Kenya Arid Lands Resource must not be overly complex, and the Management Program. This program results must be easily accessible.

16 BREAKOUT SESSION Two critical vulnerabilities were identified: and integration of ecosystem science into NOTES heightened pressure on limited resources development activities). Other successful and degradation of the existing resources. initiatives have been early warning sys- On the first day of the workshop, partici- A rise in demographic pressures has tems (although these are plagued by poor pants were invited to participate in one increased demand for land and poten- response time), a focus on long-term edu- of five breakout sessions. These sessions tially pushed natural resources beyond cation, community-based conservation provided an opportunity for participants their carrying capacities. Underdevel- and management, grazing associations, to bring their various experiences into the oped management practices, property and development of community gardens discussion so as to identify and under- rights regimes, and common property for pastoralist “drop-outs.” stand (1) context-specific vulnerabilities resource governance have led to in- Strategies and programs that have and the most effective responses, (2) how creased resource competition and violent thus far been unsuccessful have com- to build on traditional coping capacities conflict. Populations have been displaced pounded the problem instead of provid- and indigenous knowledge, (3) the inter- because of conflict over resource owner- ing innovative and simple solutions. An related nature of this area of vulnerability ship, which serves to aggravate resource- example was the fish-processing-plant with other areas, and (4) key cross-cutting related conflict further. Where people program that was implemented in Lake issues, among others. Each session are not displaced, conflict still occurs as Turkana in Kenya. The local population opened with introductory presentations a result of unequal use of resources by was both unfamiliar with fishing and pro- on the topic by a member of the private competing groups. cessing fish products and unmotivated voluntary organization (PVO) community Overuse has degraded natural re- to pursue these activities. This example and a member of the academic commu- sources, thereby reducing productive speaks to the necessity of developing nity in order to frame the conversation agricultural and livestock areas, eroding need-based, contextual solutions using that followed in small group discussions soil and depleting soil nutrients, and valuable cultural inputs from the com- around a set of key questions and cross- diminishing the quality of rangelands munity. cutting issues. Workshop participants and watersheds. With declining quality mixed with members of other breakout of inputs into the production process, 3. Which factors or enabling conditions groups to identify commonalities and dif- yields have subsequently declined. have helped build resilience and which ferences across sectors regarding vulner- Resource competition and degradation ones have hindered it or even destroyed abilities and resilience. have fostered hazardous conditions that previously successful resilience efforts? will probably worsen without effective Building natural-resource-based resil- DAY 1: BREAKOUT interventions. ience has benefitted from risk spreading, SESSIONS BY SECTOR agricultural diversification, functional and 2. Which resilience-building strategies transparent markets (including insurance), Natural Resources and programs have been successful? land rights reform, and community level Presenters: Jesse T. Njoka, Center for Sus- Which ones have not? To what degree buy-ins. Factors such as risk aversion, tainable Drylands, University of Nairobi, have the successful ones built on tradi- government capture of gains, and lack of and Paul Macek, Senior Director, Food tional coping capacities, assets, or other consensus in project development have Security and Livelihoods Team, World practices? hindered—and, in some cases, negated— Vision Successful strategies and programs identi- resilience-building efforts. Although fied by discussants improved resource-use discussants were able to identify crucial Session I rights (including land rights or pastoralists’ factors that either help or hinder resil- 1. How have vulnerabilities in natural grazing rights), bolstered existing resourc- ience-building efforts, the dialogue did resources manifested themselves in the es threatened by degradation (by meth- not delve into the determinants of those Horn of Africa? ods including conservation agriculture, factors or the possible channels through The discussion began by cataloging the watersheds, and sand dams in rivers), and which they worked. vulnerabilities that relate to natural found better management strategies for Agricultural diversification that in- resources (and straddle other sectors) as existing resources (for example, com- cludes adopting drought-resistant crops they exist in regions of the Horn of Africa. mercial destocking, rainwater harvesting, (and moving away from maize), tree

17 planting, and climate-smart agricultural The discussions on measuring success differential access rules under customary practices has produced beneficial results. produced both immediate and long-term practice. Access, use, and ownership rules Community buy-ins are a strong deter- metrics. In the more immediate time are quite restrictive for women, effectively minant of success in resilience-building horizon, it is important to set goals that excluding them from making decisions efforts. These buy-ins communicate an are achievable. An example put forth was regarding production on land, as well as expressed agreement with the project the goal of the Office of Foreign Disaster the rental, sale, or use as collateral of par- objectives and goals as well as tacit Assistance Southern Africa program. This cels of land. Implementing programs that understanding of its beneficial effects in goal—to endure one drought season with- reform these rules will be very difficult, the long run. out external assistance—could be used but innovative solutions that empower as a foundation for future sustainable women with greater gender-specific 4. What are the key elements of a strat- practices. With the long term in mind, production opportunities do not place egy designed to address vulnerability in resilience programs can be categorized an excessive burden on resources. Such a natural resources? as successes either if groups or commit- burden would lead to further degradation The key elements identified were com- tees (for example, water user, savings, or future conflict. munity-based resource management, re- or microfinance groups) formed during The discussants felt that while generative projects, improving access and the program’s duration exist and func- programs designed to mitigate conflict rights to resources (especially land), and tion after its conclusion or if new groups will have obvious positive impacts as long-term financing. Community-based or committees organically form based on far as reducing natural resource vulner- resource management systems, support- area needs. abilities (including greater cooperation ed by local government involvement and Other indicators that can be used to in use or access to resources), there are community buy-in, can be instrumental in determine success in resilience pro- some potential drawbacks to consider. identifying the causes of degradation in a gramming are community ownership Some participants suggested that greater local context because such systems take of projects/programs (which allows for land tenure and security will decrease into account trends and behaviors among a decrease in dependence on donor movement of pastoralists and potentially local users. This identification can enable funding or other assistance over time), increase natural resource degradation. a bottom-up approach that uses custom- gender equity in access to resources, and Complementary land-management prac- ary networks to build capacity within reduced degradation or signs of regen- tices must be developed to prevent both communities to enable change in use eration. Another important measure of overburdening and future degradation. behavior. Regenerative or rehabilitative success would be a reduction in conflict Climate change is perhaps the most projects developed within this framework or contests over use of resources, and, in challenging issue to address when have the potential to create sustainable cases where conflict arises, a fair resolu- designing strategies to reduce vulner- agricultural techniques that improve tion using proper adjudication mecha- abilities related to natural resources. production. nisms (although this is rather difficult to Discussants argued that interventions A lack of secure access, use, or own- measure quantitatively). targeted at mitigating climate change ership rights to resources is a significant are often the same interventions that obstacle to governing or managing natu- Session II would be recommended for managing ral resources and thus to building resil- 6. Consider the role that each of the natural resources. However, the long- ience. In the opinion of the discussants, following cross-cutting issues—gender, term impacts of climate change on those this is a defining element of any strategy conflict, and climate change—plays practices (for example, using irrigation that addresses vulnerability in natural re- in influencing risks or vulnerabilities to build resilience without considering sources. In addition to assuring access to related to natural resources. How might the long-term impacts of precipitation on resources, developing clear mechanisms strategies and programs designed to these water resources) would need to be for adjudicating disputes is critical to a address each of these cross-cutting seriously considered. robust resource rights regime. issues impact vulnerabilities in natural resources? 7. What role do the other four areas of 5. How can we measure success in resil- Interventions addressing gender issues vulnerability play in natural resources? ience programming? will need to focus primarily on reforming What are those vulnerabilities?

18 The relationship between economic sys- resources, however, participants were is evidenced by rising ethnic strife and a tems and rules of governance has a signifi- able to capture the most important social concurrent breakdown in the structure cant impact on the use and management factor-related issues: gender inequity in of acknowledged conflict resolutions. of natural resources. Changing patterns resource access, erosion of practices and Uncertainty and increased stress on so- of economic opportunities—for example, habits that have organically evolved, and cietal relationships’ structure has made trends in privatization and resettlement— inadequate investments in education for people more fatalistic and undermined could have unpredictable impacts on the long term. a broader, optimistic view of the future. natural resources. Discussants felt that Surveys conducted on attitudes indicate it is imperative to implement projects to Social Factors that low aspirations are widespread ameliorate worsening conditions of high- Presenters: Carla Koppell, Senior Coordi- and characterize individuals as becom- risk resources and safeguard potential nator for Gender Equality and Women’s ing more risk averse when considering high-value resources that might be at risk. Empowerment, USAID, and Mara Russell, issues that might arise in the future. In the immediate future it is crucial that Practice Manager for Food Security and Discussants felt that being discouraged economic systems adapt to pastoralism by Livelihoods, Land O’Lakes about positive outcomes in the future building resilience in pastoral ecosystems has led many people to forgo investing in while creating opportunities for pastoral- Session I their long-term well-being and to focus ists to find more sustainable means of 1. How have vulnerabilities in social fac- instead on immediate survival. income generation. Some suggested that tors manifested themselves in the Horn steps be taken to formalize the movement of Africa? 2. Which resilience-building strategies of commodities and labor across interna- The discussion began by informally cata- and programs have been successful? tional borders in the Horn of Africa. loging the vulnerabilities related to social Which ones have not? To what degree Governance rules regarding land use factors that exist in regions of the Horn of have the successful ones built on tradi- and natural resources are influenced, Africa. Out of this dialogue, a few critical tional coping capacities, assets, or other to a large degree, not only by economic vulnerabilities surfaced: gender dispar- practices? priorities, but also by custom. At the ity, disintegrating social networks, ethnic Programs designed to emphasize aggregated level, this leads to exces- strife, and absence of effective social strengthening social protection and sive centralized decisionmaking that can safety nets. (The first two topics received creating fertile ground for participation disrupt local governance structures; at the bulk of the attention.) by members of the community to engage the disaggregated level, informal and Discriminatory attitudes have led to in broad dialogue were common sub- customary institutions often conflict with women’s roles in agriculture and other jects discussed by participants. Network formal policy on tenure and access. The income-generating activities being sys- strengthening or intensification strategies lack of checks and balances in gover- temically undervalued. Such attitudes that have been successful were motivated nance has resulted in widespread cor- have also caused women to be denied by social protection following traumas or ruption at local levels. This has the effect resource access and to be absent from crises where the links between individuals of reducing equity, as well as incentives important positions in political structures and communities allowed both to cope for people to support local projects and of varying complexity. As a result of emotionally with the recent stress. initiatives aimed at building resiliency. women’s secondary status, gender-spe- An unsuccessful strategy that was Although tackling corruption is impor- cific issues are often overlooked at times brought up during discussion dealt with tant, it is also a highly differentiated and of crises and their economic potential is repatriation programs or programs that difficult problem. not put to best use when the male head- included cash transfers to refugees. A To avoid repeating arguments from of-household is away. cash stimulus inadvertently led to a black the previous discussion question, the Disintegrating social networks have market for relief items, thus undermining groups did not separately discuss the resulted in sparse distribution of effec- the relief efforts’ attempts to reach refu- relationship between vulnerabilities tive mutual support and cooperative gees consistently. Monetary assistance in social factors and those in natural groups, erosion of traditional coping also plays a role in corrupting natural resources. In discussing the role of mechanisms, and an increase in distrust supply chains (characterized as individu- strategies addressing gender and natural within communities. The growing distrust als or groups that would voluntarily sup-

19 ply others with assistance) by bypassing and female genital cutting). Session II existing social networks. Discussants 6. Consider the role that each of the failed, due to unspecified constraints, to 4. What are the key elements of a strat- following cross-cutting issues—gender, capture how strategies and programs im- egy designed to address vulnerability in conflict, and climate change—plays in proved or built upon pre-existing coping social factors? influencing risks or vulnerabilities -re capacities or assets, but they did raise Discussants expressed strong support for lated to social factors. How might strate- for future exploration such issues as the development strategies that integrate gies and programs designed to address effectiveness of existing social networks resilience as a core element and are each of these cross-cutting issues impact and how future interventions can bolster preventative rather than for strategies vulnerabilities in social factors? existing frameworks. An effective strat- that do not include resilience and are egy should augment positive traditional reactive to crises. However, vulnerabilities Interventions addressing gender issues mechanisms that have evolved over manifest themselves in different ways commonly are designed to address wom- time, but it should also ameliorate any and thus any resilience strategy must be en’s empowerment, access, and agency. negative consequences from these mech- nuanced. Therefore, capacity-building The positive results of such programs are anisms, which, in developing countries, efforts that use local organizations and quite easy to identify: improved access tend to discriminate against or isolate networks coupled with participation by to resources, strengthened sources of marginalized or vulnerable groups within community leaders and members should income generation, and better social in- that society. be at the core of any strategy. Within the tegration, among others. Negative results community, likeminded individuals should are rather minimal and mostly involve the 3. Which factors or enabling conditions be linked and organized around specific reaction of the society’s male members. have helped build resilience and which challenges and vulnerabilities to encour- For example, excluding men from certain ones have hindered it or even destroyed age collective action while community programs, designing interventions that previously successful resilience efforts? leaders must be nurtured. lack a male presence, or, more simply, not While the discussion of conditions or fac- educating men on the importance of em- tors that have either enabled or hindered 5. How can we measure success in resil- powering women might lead to programs resilience efforts was lively and engaging, ience programming? being interpreted as external intrusions the participants missed the opportunity to Discussants felt that success in resilience into domestic affairs. This could cause em- discuss region-specific or community-spe- programming is probably best measured powerment efforts to backfire and instead cific conditions that have helped interven- by using a before-and-after evalua- further damage women’s prospects in tions. An important takeaway from the tion—meaning a baseline survey would their communities. discussion was that enabling conditions— be conducted before the program begins The positive outcomes of addressing those that build resilience and generate and a follow-up survey after it concludes. conflict stem from a core objective: miti- social cohesion—consist of psychosocial Some participants also expressed concern gation. Strategies or programs designed support within networks, positive role about the way success is often defined to address conflict mitigation can take models, and responsive leadership. Fac- in resilience efforts. In social structures, the form of both “soft” programs (for tors that have hindered successful efforts it can be measured by either a decline in example, dialogue and participatory ap- have been just the opposite and have violent incidents (particularly incidents of proaches) and “hard” programs (includ- included rigid political responses and gender-based violence) or an increase in ing non-local tribunals), with the former policies, restricted migration, and weak employment, school enrollment, chil- likely to have a sustained effect. The collective action. dren’s nutritional conditions, or access to sensitivity in presenting why the sharing More generally, discussants empha- resources by marginalized populations. of resources or strengthening collective sized the importance of further longitudi- Some measurement indexes mentioned action is imperative in resilience build- nal analysis of the interconnected nature were the Lubben Social Network Scale ing is difficult to convey and is often lost of resilience building within communities and the Berkman-Syme Social Network in translation from policy or academic and their cultural spaces, especially as it Index. theories to application in the field. relates to women’s issues (for example, Climate change is perhaps the tricki- gender-based violence, early marriages, est of subjects to approach through in-

20 terventions. Repeating cycles of drought cal Director of Nutrition, Food Security, level of pastoralists. A better profile of and famine suggest the need to imple- ACDI/VOCA behavior would inform the various char- ment programs to strengthen farming acteristics of future interventions in such and livestock practices, build productive Session I communities. A similar approach would safety nets and emergency stocks, and 1. How have vulnerabilities in health be beneficial in addressing behavioral create community networks across the and nutrition manifested themselves in changes in nutritional and hygiene prac- region. Climate change in the future the Horn of Africa? tices as well as broader health prospects. will only worsen existing vulnerabilities Three key issues were discussed: the use Rigorous country-specific and communi- within society as competition for re- of data and responses to early warning ty-specific studies are needed to develop sources increases. Thus holistic manage- systems, education, and women’s empow- a typology of specific behaviors and ment practices should be the focal point erment. Other vulnerabilities discussed in identify social, political, and religious of future strategies. less detail included indicators for disease constraints to changing those behaviors. patterns, healthcare infrastructure, exten- The discussion reflected the well- 7. What role do the other four areas of sion services, and macroeconomic factors, known application of social choice theory vulnerability play in social factors? What such as food prices and trade. towards gender inequality in bringing are those vulnerabilities? A key vulnerability that was discussed up ways to improve women’s agency. The discussion on this topic was largely is the absence of timely and high-quality Similar to other developing countries, informal and consisted of a general information about local conditions and understanding gender roles in the con- conversation on “non-social” issues and trends that is available to pastoralists. text of the community and the family did not cover any concrete vulnerabilities The absence of this information gener- is still poorly understood. The role of in other areas. Economic vulnerabilities ally leads to a shrinking set of spatial and women’s empowerment, educational were mentioned, however, and specifi- temporal options prior to and during a attainment, and ability to affect decisions cally as they relate to women. Under-di- crisis. Concerns have been raised that that influence intrahousehold allocation versified sources of income, sensitivity to while an early warning system designed of resources (that is, income, savings, weather shocks, and women’s restricted to monitor and analyze conditions does reproduction) in the Horn of Africa must access to economic opportunities have exist in the Horn of Africa, inaction and be better understood in order to affect a direct link to social issues related to negligence at the core (federal and local health and nutrition outcomes. women. A lack of economic opportunities governments) due to a combination of or sustainable employment generation unwanted political risks and underesti- 2. Which resilience-building strategies can result in worsening of social cohe- mation of the impact of drought inhibits and programs have been successful? sion, levels of conflict, and marginalization response and dissemination of informa- Which ones have not? To what degree of women. Governance vulnerabilities tion to pastoral households. An alternate have the successful ones built on tradi- resulting from dysfunctional institutions concern is how to effectively reach pas- tional coping capacities, assets, or other might yield power to the people be- toralists to share information since they practices? ing governed. Return to such pre-state are largely a mobile community. Failure Strategies that have succeeded in building conditions can disintegrate into violent or to respond effectively to early warning resilience have generally included various unstable solutions (for example, “strong- systems has led to the health of affected modes of targeting. Many targeting pro- man rule,” wherein the majority ethnic populations worsening, an outcome that grams have been designed to empower groups oppress the minority groups). The could have been lessened in magnitude women through education, microfinanc- discussion, due to time limits, was unable by a proper response. ing, and income generation. The relative to cover the impacts of vulnerabilities in Another vulnerability which many feel importance of educating men on the natural resources or health and nutrition needs to be addressed in the long run is importance of women having significant on social issues. deficient or missing translation of educa- input in household decisions was also tional programs into improved behavior. discussed. Health and Nutrition Leading back to the previous point, it In addition, strategies have been Presenters: Dan Gilligan, Senior Research is imperative to better understand the shown to be more effective in cost Fellow, IFPRI, and Kristi Ladd, Techni- psychology at the individual and societal and impact when they are designed to

21 include preventative methods instead The resulting consensus from the discus- time horizon. of reactive ones. One example would be sants reflected an integrated, holistic Furthermore, there is a need to use the age-based preventive targeting of strategy developed for the long term more rigorous methodology that in- food assistance and behavioral change to which combines elements from previously corporates randomized control trials, reduce childhood undernutrition in Haiti successful programs and new innovations. where possible. While quantitative data carried out by Marie Ruel at IFPRI. Broader investments in health, collection agencies in the region remain Behavior change communication education, consensus building and par- weak and capacity building is necessary, (BCC) is an instructional process by which ticipatory forums within communities, projects still can do more to invest in individuals and communities develop and natural resource management are proper evaluation that provides more communication strategies to encourage needed. More generally, resilience build- conclusive results. positive behavior within local contexts. It ing should be central to all development was suggested that targeting formative and humanitarian interventions. Governance and research on identifying behaviors and There is also the need to develop Institutions constraints will be key. However, there health service delivery systems (for Presenters: Girma Kassa, Conflict Man- is a dearth of ex post evaluation of BCC example, immunizations, emergency agement Advisor, Conflict Early Warning methods, and such studies in the future care, reproductive services, and special and Response Mechanism (CEWARN), would help further improve techniques. nutrition products) complemented by Intergovernmental Authority for Devel- Other strategies that have been suc- robust logistics that function efficiently opment (IGAD), Ethiopia, and Hussein cessful are integration of codependent during non-crisis periods and withstand Halane, Senior Advisor, Global Humani- programs, risk insurance, health system pressures of crises. tarian Accountability, Save the Children strengthening, and workers’ health pro- Apart from the components of the grams (see the examples of Pakistan and strategy, discussants felt that the inher- Session I Ethiopia). ent design of the overall strategy should 1. How have vulnerabilities in gover- be highly contextualized to the local con- nance manifested themselves in the 3. Which factors or enabling conditions ditions (preferably including communal Horn of Africa? have helped build resilience and which ownership and participation), and that The key vulnerabilities in governance that ones have hindered it or even destroyed it should contain feedback mechanisms emerged from this discussion were the previously successful resilience efforts? that enable prioritizing actions as well as informal status of customary institutions Enabling factors that have helped build funding based on immediate needs. and the weak capacity of local govern- resilience mostly include capacity building ments in implementing and sustaining within governments and women’s groups, 5. How can we measure success in resil- projects. The informal status of customary effective outreach mechanisms (such as ience programming? institutions undermines the validity of clean water promotion) and extension Measuring success in programming, es- their initiatives and rules set for access, services, and civil society strengthening pecially in this region, is a challenge. The management, and adjudication. Often (for example, improved access to health- key conclusion the discussants reached they act as a parallel set of rules, creating care within communities). was that assessing successful interven- further confusion. A lack of decentralized Factors brought up by discussants as tions requires that programming be better decisionmaking or inclusion of traditional having inhibited or hindered resilience integrated with research and academic in- leaders in the decisionmaking process efforts include lack of public services on stitutions. Baseline and endline surveys to prevents them from generating robust the ground, restrictive migration policies, measure intervention-specific indicators social protection mechanisms that would infrastructure failures, and the broader are crucial in understanding what works. allow people to equilibrate their liveli- confusion at the institutional level on the Because the sustainability of interventions hoods following a crisis. best strategy to pursue. is a concern, surveys and monitoring must Weak capacity in terms of organi- be of adequate duration to capture long- zation, accountability, and resources 4. What are the key elements of a strat- term changes. This has not been done prevents institutions from implementing egy designed to address vulnerability in in the past, with many programs instead legitimate strategies or programs due health and nutrition? focusing on results within a very limited to an uncertain time horizon in terms of

22 human and financial resources. Addition- Key elements of a strategy to address will benefit by making structural changes ally, the weak capacity of institutions pre- vulnerabilities in governance must include that allow women to become part of vents them from responding in a timely a multidisciplinary approach that inte- the decisionmaking process as well as manner to early warning systems. grates solutions into the framework of developing differentiated programs that all relevant government institutions and address specific coping needs for women 2. Which resilience-building strategies bolsters government ownership at various during crisis. and programs have been successful? levels, with clear designation of roles in Strategies designed to tackle the Which ones have not? To what degree management and implementation. impact of climate change might include have the successful ones built on tradi- provisions regarding governance that tional coping capacities, assets, or other 5. How can we measure success in resil- reform current regulations on migration, practices? ience programming? allowing affected populations to move Strategies and programs that have suc- Measuring success in programs developed during times of crisis. However, move- ceeding in addressing vulnerabilities in for building resilience in governance can ment of large groups needs to be done governance and building resilience have benefit from regular reviews of a number in a sensitive manner so as not to fuel focused on long-run investments and of different indicators. First, and perhaps further conflict. Other strategies that engaging communities in a participa- most importantly, reviewing the govern- address creating structured rules that tory manner. Investments in agricultural ment’s revenue collection apparatus and monitor land and natural resource usage technologies and inputs (such as fertilizer, programmatic spending trends is essen- more closely, develop better response improved seeds, and drought-resistant tial to understand progress on resilience mechanisms to early warning systems, crops) and large-scale investments in initiatives. Second, monitoring participa- and increase public spending on infra- reserves of water and food have been tion in local governments (especially by structure will have both short- and long- fruitful. Those that have been unsuccess- women) provides a useful indicator of term positive effects. ful have lacked a broader, more regional, decentralization and shifting gender roles. focus on resilience building. Since the Finally, studying long-term usage behavior 7. What role do the other four areas of effects of crisis often cross borders with and adoption of improved technologies in vulnerability play in governance? What ease, planning for negative spillover from agriculture, changing costs and provision are those vulnerabilities? neighboring countries will serve to build of service delivery, and indicators of child Vulnerabilities in all other sectors play a a more rounded approach to building nutrition and household income measures strong negative role in governance. Even resilience. is also useful for measuring resilience. under strong governance, situations of crisis and general structural vulnerabilities 3. Which factors or enabling conditions Session II in related sectors are difficult to respond have helped build resilience and which 6. Consider the role that each of the to and require significant dedication of ones have hindered it or even destroyed following cross-cutting issues—gender, resources. Interventions aimed at improv- previously successful resilience efforts? conflict, and climate change—plays in ing other sectors invariably should contain A fatal error in building resilience has influencing risks or vulnerabilities -re components that go towards improving been investment in crisis management lated to governance. How might strate- governance. and rehabilitation alone without invest- gies and programs designed to address ment in either preventative or long-term each of these cross-cutting issues impact Economics developmental measures. Discrimination vulnerabilities in governance? Presenters: Derek Headey, Research Fel- against women or other minority groups Interventions addressing gender issues low, IFPRI, and Penny Anderson, Director have compounded difficulties in building will generally have a positive impact in of Food Security, Mercy Corps resilience as it leaves out high-risk popula- reducing vulnerabilities in governance, tions. but as brought up during the social factors Session 1 sessions, it is important to involve men 1. How have vulnerabilities in econom- 4. What are the key elements of a strat- as part of the initiatives or there could be ics manifested themselves in the Horn egy designed to address vulnerability in a negative backlash due to exclusion of of Africa? governance? traditional decisionmakers. Governance The group felt that the occurrence of

23 repeated prolonged drought has led to 2. Which resilience-building strategies generally targeted for short-term aid a degradation of the natural resource and programs have been successful? and thus largely neglected development base, making pastoralism no longer a Which ones have not? To what degree programs in the region. It was suggested viable livelihood for everyone. There has have the successful ones built on tradi- that development partners should make also been greater stress on the limited tional coping capacities, assets, or other a longer-term commitment to helping amount of water, causing conflicts of user practices? the region and that funding streams rights and competition among pastoralists Some participants stressed that we still should have a longer time horizon given and sedentary farmers. This has caused do not have enough knowledge or data that making real change and impact may a number of pastoral drop-outs and to really know what traditional programs take several years. Likewise, it was sug- increased urban migration. Given this, the have and have not worked. This issue in gested that there needs to be a marriage participants agreed that more must be itself can become a vulnerability, and we between short-term humanitarian aid and done to understand the extent of the land therefore need new and more complete development efforts. degradation and the carrying capacity and impact evaluations and differential analy- that currently there is not enough infor- sis that more finely disaggregates house- 4. What are the key elements of a strat- mation available in this area. holds based on livelihoods and incomes to egy designed to address vulnerability in Others felt that pastoralists have better understand what has worked and economics? been vulnerable to government land for whom. One of the key successes of the Produc- policy that limits privately held land and We have also traditionally focused tive Safety Net Programme in Ethiopia restricts migration that has traditionally on strategies that have been based on was that it was able to provide a basic been a means of coping with climate- preserving pastoralism, but with popula- level of household protection and prevent related shocks. Given that no one person tion growth we realistically need to begin the erosion of household assets, allow- or group can lay claim to the land, it to provide an exit for some pastoralists ing households to shift their focuses currently is suffering from a “tragedy of for whom this livelihood is just not pro- away from meeting immediate needs. By the commons.” Some felt that providing ductive. Some cited improving (mobile) removing these constraints the poor are ownership will motivate people to invest education as being a key strategy to better able to take advantage of opportu- in their land to maintain its productiv- facilitate the movement of people out nities in small, low-risk steps. The eco- ity, as well as reduce conflict over usage of pastoralism and into non-agriculture nomics group felt that there is a need for rights. based livelihoods. strategies that help to push households to Finally, participants felt that there For those who wish to remain in participate in value chains through educa- were missing markets and that this has pastoralism, the government could do tion and capacity building, allowing them made pastoralists vulnerable. Some cited more to help this sector. Some partici- to take advantage of opportunities and to evidence that as pastoralists become pants suggested government-initiated improve their ability to take on more risks. more commercial they are more likely insurance (or public–private partner- On the other hand, there is also a need to sell livestock, especially as conditions ship) as being one piece of the solution for pull strategies that strengthen value worsen. However, there is also evi- but evidence is still needed. However, chains to create opportunities for vulnera- dence from the USAID-funded Improv- because insurance is very context specific ble households by improving competitive- ing Pastoral Risk Management on East it needs to be suited to the specificities ness. By doing so, they create less risky African Rangelands project (PARIMA) of pastoralist needs. entry points and lower barriers to entry. that the best means of recovering from a drought is to maintain as large a herd 3. Which factors or enabling conditions 5. How can we measure success in resil- as possible to guarantee some breeding have helped build resilience and which ience programming? stock following drought to replenish herd ones have hindered it or even destroyed There was some discussion that much sizes during favorable times. This would previously successful resilience efforts? of the data and evidence that we use indicate that there are missing markets The participants suggested that in the now is based on correlations but does for not only destocking (during times of past programs often have been devel- not specifically explore cause-and-effect drought) but also for restocking. oped in response to an immediate crisis. relationships. The most effective way to As such, the funding response has been understand the relationships between

24 program actions and outcomes is through portunities. as we currently see between Soma- independent impact assessments that Conflict: Many participants felt that lia and Kenya, leading to concen- provide a strong causal relationship. the drought and population growth have trations of displaced people who Baseline data throughout the region exacerbated conflict by increasing the ultimately will compete for natural has also been lacking, making analysis competition for limited resources. In -ar resources. difficult. Establishing baseline surveys eas of conflict, market systems have bro- Ultimately, the groups felt that the is particularly difficult in remote- ar ken down, further increasing the vulner- best means of addressing conflict and eas, among mobile populations, and in ability of communities to shocks. There is climate change were to build on existing conflict zones. While survey data is ideal, some evidence that where communities practices and safety nets within com- it is also costly and requires long-term have worked on conflict programming munities. Given that community groups commitments. Given these challenges it there is better resource sharing and (for savings, health, or women, among may be worthwhile to consider and fund communities were better able to develop others) are the first to react to shocks, alternative means of performing assess- strategies to migrate. The strategies ex ante programming should do more ments, such as remote sensing based on that have been the most successful are to empower and strengthen them so satellite imagery, or GIS, or both. those that take into account traditional that they are better prepared in times Other participants suggested these institutions and merge them with formal of crisis. Many participants also felt that indicators as potential benchmarks for institutions. Greater transparency in through the presence of social networks measuring resilience: decisionmaking may also help to prevent and customary practices of wealth dis- • Anthropomorphic measures conflict in the future. tribution and social protection, some of • Number of people participating in those affected by the current crisis have safety nets been able to maintain or restock assets • Household expenditures DAY 2: MIXED GROUP more quickly. The groups also provided • Measurements of variability in BREAKOUT SESSIONS examples whereby customary gover- income nance institutions of respected elders or • Maintenance of assets Strategies and Policies to groups of elders were the most effective Build Resilience at solving conflicts, particularly those 6. Consider the role that each of the How were the cross-cutting themes of related to access to resources. In the face following cross-cutting issues—gender gender, conflict, and climate change dif- of growing incidences of environmental and conflict—plays in influencing risks ferentially addressed by each group? shocks due to climate change, these or vulnerabilities related to econom- There was a general consensus that the institutions should play a greater role in ics. How might strategies and programs cross-cutting themes overlapped and local governance. designed to address each of these cross- could not be thought of alone, so that im- However, many participants also cutting issues impact vulnerabilities in pact in any one area can have a significant expressed concern that supporting cus- economics? impact in other areas. tomary institutions may reinforce biases Gender: Within pastoralist households • Climate change can lead to changes that promote gender inequality. In their most decisions are made by men while in the natural environment and view, customary gender roles place much women are limited in their right to own ultimately to a scarcity of produc- of the control of productive assets in the and control household assets. As such, tive resources. This in turn can then hands of men, limiting women’s ability women have traditionally not been able fuel conflict as groups compete for to control household decisionmaking. to participate in economic activities. Still, access to a limited resource base. Deferring to local institutions is unlikely evidence from elsewhere has shown that That competition for resources will to change this. Similarly, traditional male if women are given greater opportunity ultimately have gender implica- roles in pastoralist areas have centered to make household decisions and control tions as women’s user rights are on the movement and provisions of wealth, they are more likely to invest in acknowledged or denied based on family herds, lowering the emphasis on education, health, and nutrition. It was customary gender roles, particu- education for boys and lowering enroll- therefore suggested that programs focus larly in pastoralist communities. ment in schools. Many felt that lower on giving women greater economic op- • Conflict can also cause migration, education levels made young boys and

25 men more susceptible to recruitment by Horn, education therefore gives those sible way to effect measurable change. militant groups. that choose to drop out of pastoralism a Some discussion group members shared Most participants agreed that estab- greater chance of a secure livelihood. experiences whereby community care lishing and developing women’s groups Discussion group members of all groups and women’s groups were able and networks can lead to an increase sectors felt that a substantial evidence to have a broad impact on maintaining in the status of women in society and base is still lacking and that even basic stability in the face of conflict. Likewise, may have a broader impact across the statistics of pastoralist household and informal groups and social networks have community as a whole. Several discus- livestock numbers are absent, making traditionally provided financial and care sants cited numerous examples of how informed political decisions difficult. support during times of crisis. Strength- women’s empowerment translated into Others stated that understanding the ening these existing groups is a better higher enrollment in schools, greater scale and impact of the current crisis and approach than creating new ones. household savings, and improved nutri- drought is nearly impossible and under- Finally, some suggested that le- tion indicators for children. standing differential impacts among vari- veraging technologies such as mobile ous livelihood groups (including pastoral- telephones may play a critical role in The programming context in the Horn of ists and agro-pastoralists) is problematic. resilience programming to overcome Africa is rife with intractable obstacles. Moving forward many advocated placing the obstacles of isolation. Some cited What other adaptive strategies, not yet greater emphasis on the regular collec- examples of how mobile telephones cited, could be applied to minimize these tion of statistics, because without this have gone a long way to better con- obstacles? information it will be difficult to advo- nect communities, providing not only a The discussion groups felt that engage- cate for political change with regards to social networking opportunity but also ment had to take place at both the local arid and semi-arid lands and pastoralist a means to improve rural market link- level and with central governments. Some groups. ages. Other cited examples from other felt that the central governments in the Similarly, the evaluation of the PSNP countries where telephones can be used Horn need to take the lead in creating a was really the only large-scale program to improve mobile banking and transfer policy framework, critical institutions, and that group members could cite as a rigor- money. an enabling environment in order to suc- ous evaluation of a safety-net program cessfully implement resilience program- in the region. As we move forward some What institutional, organizational, and ming. One group felt that the Compre- were concerned that without adequate other enablers and barriers exist that hensive Africa Agriculture Development information, given the scale of these facilitate or hinder integrated programs Programme (CAADP) process provided projects, mistakes could be very costly. that would address vulnerabilities in new opportunities for development And, even though the rates generally multiple spheres? partners and governments to interact to are not favorable in sparsely populated The current crisis in the Horn of Africa develop investment plans and policies areas, we still have much to learn about calls for an integrated development ap- that would a provide a framework to build the benefit–cost ratios of investments in proach but within development partners resilience while making sure that such pastoral regions. One of the things that and country governments alike there has policies were country-owned and country- the PSNP evaluation has taught us is that been a lack of coordination. Even within specific. a sequential process with key interven- an agency like USAID, there is often no Participants cited strategic invest- tions can oftentimes improve outcomes uniformity of how to respond to crises ments in education such as mobile and success rates. Creating partnerships in different countries. In addition, many schools as being crucial to support the with the academic community for re- participants felt that USAID policies and livelihood and lifestyle of pastoralists, search and improved M&E will be critical approaches do not allow for much flexibil- allowing them to receive education as we move forward to inform resilience ity in resilience programming. Therefore while migrating. Evidence was also cited programing. there is a need for better advanced plan- whereby those with an education were In areas of conflict or those that are ning to promote vertical and horizontal in- better able to adapt to non-agricultural particularly neglected by the central gov- tegration. There is also need for coordina- employment in urban areas. Given the ernment, many advocated that working tion of response—both active responses recent trends in urbanization in the at the community level was the best pos- and financial ones—among the donors

26 together with the local governments. tion of cross-border trade have forced ary institutions are the most important Participants also indicated that a com- most trade and marketing to become for addressing problems, and the aid mon framework for resiliency is still lack- informal and limited development efforts community must be careful not to break ing. Given this, linking and coordinating to formalize livestock marketing. Shifting down these mechanisms. However, if different sectors of government to create attitudes within government towards the these institutions are to be supported integrated programs is difficult. Likewise, needs of ASALs may greatly contribute to they must first be validated by the common measures of resilience have improving resilience programing. groups that they represent and serve. not been agreed on nor have we decided Participants found that, given both what constitutes a good resilience indica- What policies could facilitate efforts the lack of physical infrastructure and tor. Resilience is a complicated, multi-lev- to strengthen resiliency in multiple the low level of human capacity in the el objective, so there should be multiple spheres? region, there were a number of policies indicators starting at the household level. In order to design policies that engage that could be enacted that would have So, while a single indicator may not accu- and strengthen resiliency in multiple a cross-cutting impact. First, there is a rately reflect broader resilience thinking spheres, participants felt that within the need for more investment in physical in an integrated framework, we must de- program design phase there must be a infrastructure such as roads, telecom- velop some easily quantifiable measures strategic coordination piece. This communication systems, health systems, and that we can agree on and these indica- mitment to engaging multiple disciplines schools. Roads and telecommunications tors and the assessment of them must be and ministries will ensure that the design will help facilitate the participation in dynamic rather than static. and implementation of resiliency efforts markets that is desperately lacking while In Ethiopia and Kenya there has also are multisectoral. The planning phase schools will enable greater income diver- been government bias against pastoralist within the CAADP framework was cited as sification into nonagricultural sources. areas hindering development efforts. In providing a positive example to encour- Second, given the size and impor- Kenya, given the large influx of displaced age cross-sector collaboration. Similarly, tance of the livestock sector in the ASALs people coming from Somalia, most mon- stronger joint planning will also further there is also the need for pro-pastoralist ey has been directed toward dealing with integrate humanitarian and development land policies which support rather than immediate food security needs rather spending, something that the PSNP has hinder the mobility of pastoralist com- than making investments to foster long- demonstrated to be effective in resiliency munities. These, along with facilities to term growth. The Kenyan Equalization programming. These joint planning cells trade and market livestock products, will fund, which directs 0.5 percent of total should also include the PVO community, help formalize pastoralist livelihoods. government revenues to the most mar- given that their action at the community Similarly, water management policies ginalized areas, was cited as a good ex- level with small groups is often successful (including the use of rivers and borehole ample of a remedy for this past neglect. at integrating multiple sectors such as se- development) have been neglected and In Ethiopia there has been long-running curity, health and nutrition, and gender. In tribally administered. Ratifying and for- neglect of the pastoralist areas with most their experience, objectives within these malizing these agreements will not only groups vastly underserved in education, small cells tend to be met at a high rate reduce conflict in the region but facilitate health, and extension services. Likewise, and could feed into integrated program- greater mobility during times of crisis. government policies restricting the use ming at other levels. of Somali currency and stricter regula- Overall, the group thinks that custom-

27 28 13–14 DECEMBER 2011 | WASHINGTON, DC

Jointly hosted by the US Agency for International Develop- 10:15–11:45 | Plenary Panel Discussion ment’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian The Evidence Base: What Do We Know about What Works and Assistance, Bureau for Food Security, and Bureau for Africa What Doesn’t? in partnership with the International Food Policy Research Chair: Dina Esposito, Director, Office of Food for Peace, Bureau Institute (IFPRI) and the USAID/Office of Food for Peace-Funded for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance, USAID TOPS Program in support of the Feed the Future Initiative. Arid and Marginal Lands Recovery Consortium (ARC) program in Kenya OBJECTIVES Shep Owen, Regional Director, Food for the Hungry • Foster a common understanding of what is meant by resil- Disaster Risk Reduction / Hyogo Framework ience and resilience programming. Harlan Hale, Principal Regional Advisor for Southern Africa, Of- • Identify successful strategies and enabling conditions to build fice of US Foreign Disaster Assistance, USAID resilience and lessons learned from less successful strategies. Pastoralist Livelihood Initiative in Ethiopia • Demonstrate the value of resilience programming in miti- Abdifatah Ismail, Somali Regional State President Advisor on gating the effect of shocks and recovery from them, and its Humanitarian and Development, Government of Ethiopia potential role in any “pathway out of poverty.” 11:45–12:15 | Keynote Address • Identify the linkages between resilience and economic Dr. Rajiv Shah, Administrator, USAID growth. Chair: Dina Esposito, Director, Office of Food for Peace, Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance, USAID AGENDA 12:15–12:30 | The Nairobi Strategy: Enhanced Partnership to Day 1: December 13, 2011 Eradicate Drought Emergencies 8:00–8:30 | Registration and continental breakfast H. E. Elkanah Odembo, Ambassador, Embassy of the Republic of 8:30–8:45 | Welcome Remarks by USAID Kenya, Washington, DC Nancy Lindborg, Assistant Administrator, Bureau for Democ- Chair: Susan Fine, Director, Office of East African Affairs, Bureau racy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance, USAID for Africa, USAID 8:45–9:00 | Welcome Remarks by IFPRI 12:30–1:30 | Lunch Paul Dorosh, Director, Development Strategy and Governance 1:30–2:45 | Breakout Session 1: Identifying and Understand- Division, IFPRI ing Context-Specific Vulnerabilities and the Most Effective 9:00–10:00 | Plenary Presentation: Resilience 101 Responses John Hoddinott, Senior Research Fellow, IFPRI Economics Chair: Beth Dunford, Director of Country Strategy and Implemen- • Derek Headey, Research Fellow, IFPRI tation, Bureau for Food Security, USAID • Penny Anderson, Director of Food Security, Mercy Corps 10:00–10:15 | Break

29 Governance and Institutions sues—gender, conflict, and climate change—plays in influenc- • Girma Kassa, Conflict Management Advisor, Conflict Early ing risks or vulnerabilities related to the area being discussed. Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN), Intergov- How might strategies and programs designed to address each ernmental Authority for Development (IGAD), Ethiopia of these cross-cutting issues impact vulnerabilities in that • Hussein Halane, Senior Advisor, Global Humanitarian Ac- area? This might include (1) how strategies designed to ad- countability, Save the Children dress each of these cross-cutting issues may impact vulnera- Health and Nutrition bilities in your chosen area and (2) how programs designed to • Dan Gilligan, Senior Research Fellow, IFPRI strengthen resilience may help to minimize or inadvertently • Kristi Ladd, Technical Director of Nutrition, Food Security, increase their negative impacts. ACDI/VOCA 7. What role do the other four areas of vulnerability play in the Natural Resources area being discussed? What are those vulnerabilities? • Jesse T. Njoka, Center for Sustainable Drylands, University 4:30–5:15 | Plenary Discussion of Breakout Session 1 of Nairobi Facilitator: Tim Frankenberger, President, TANGO International • Paul Macek, Senior Director, Food Security and Livelihoods 5:15–5:30 | Closing Remarks Team, World Vision Raja Jandhyala, Deputy Assistant Administrator for the Bureau Social Factors for Africa, USAID • Carla Koppell, Senior Coordinator for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment, USAID Day 2: December 14, 2011 • Mara Russell, Practice Manager for Food Security and 8:30–8:45 | Welcome Remarks Livelihoods, Land O’Lakes Susan Reichle, Assistant to the Administrator for the Bureau for Presenters representing the research community and the field Policy, Planning and Learning, USAID implementing community will each deliver a short 10-minute 8:45–9:15 | Day One Summary framing presentation on vulnerability in this area, followed by a Tim Frankenberger, President, TANGO International 20-minute Q&A session. The questions to be addressed by each 9:15–10:45 | Plenary Panel Discussion: Developing a Common presenter will include: Agenda for Building Resilience: Lessons Identified from Recent 1. How have vulnerabilities in this area (economics, governance, Efforts and Gaps Remaining health and nutrition, natural resources, or social factors) Chair: Neil Levine, Director of Office of Conflict Management manifested themselves in the Horn of Africa? and Mitigation, USAID 2. Which resilience-building strategies and programs have been Consensus Building for the Ethiopia New Coalition for Food successful? Which ones have not? To what degree have the Security and How that Led to the Safety Net Program successful ones built on traditional coping capacities, assets, John Graham, Senior Policy Advisor, USAID/Ethiopia or other practices? The Links between Resilience, Conflict, and Food Security 3. Which factors or enabling conditions have helped build Jeremy Konyndyk, Policy and Advocacy Director, Mercy Corps resilience and which ones have hindered it or even destroyed Some Lessons from Ethiopia’s PSNP previously successful resilience efforts? Alemayehu Seyoum Taffesse, Research Fellow, IFPRI 4. What are the key elements of a strategy designed to address 10:45–11:00 | Plenary Remarks: Strategies and Policies to this area of vulnerability? Build Resilience 5. How can we measure success in resilience programming? Tim Frankenberger, President, TANGO International 2:45–3:30 | Small group discussion 11:00–11:15 | Break Each small group table will discuss the five key questions in 11:15–12:45 | Breakout Session 2: Strategies and Policies to more depth, building on the concepts presented in the framing Build Resilience presentations and raised in the Q&A. Participants will move into small groups including one represen- 3:30–3:45 | Break tative from each separate vulnerability group from the previous 3:45–4:30 | Breakout Session 1 (continued) day. Small group discussion will address the following questions: Participants continue small group discussions in chosen “area • How were the cross-cutting themes of gender, conflict, and of vulnerability,” addressing the following questions: climate change differentially addressed by each group? 6. Consider the role that each of the following cross-cutting is- • The programming context in the Horn of Africa is rife with

30 intractable obstacles. What other adaptive strategies not yet DFID’s new resilience agenda cited could be applied to minimize these obstacles? Andrew Preston, Counsellor Development, Foreign and Security • What institutional, organizational, and other enablers and Policy Group, British Embassy, Washington, DC barriers exist that facilitate or hinder integrated programs 4:00–4:15 | Break that would address vulnerabilities in multiple spheres? 4:15–4:45 | Plenary Presentation: Moving Forward in the • What policies could facilitate efforts to strengthen resiliency Horn in multiple spheres? Karen Brooks, Africa Region Agricultural Programs Manager, 12:45–2:00 | Lunch World Bank 2:00–2:30 | Plenary Discussion of Breakout Session 2 Chair: Michael Curtis, Director of Office of Sustainable Develop- Facilitator: Tim Frankenberger, President, TANGO International ment, USAID/Bureau for Africa 2:30–4:00 | Plenary Panel Discussion: Pathways Out of Pov- 4:45–5:30 | Plenary Discussion: Synthesis of Key Lessons erty: Exploring the Linkages between Resilience and Economic Learned and Next Steps Growth Paul Dorosh, Director, Development Strategy and Governance Chair: Paul Dorosh, Director of the Development Strategy and Division, IFPRI Governance Division, IFPRI After a 15-minute synthesis of both days, participants will have The value chain model 15 minutes to discuss recommended next steps with their Steve McCarthy, Senior Technical Director, Enterprise Develop- tables. Each table will present recommendations to the plenary. ment, ACDI/VOCA 5:30 | Closing Remarks The graduation model Paul Weisenfeld, Assistant to the Administrator for the Bureau Alexia Latortue, Deputy Chief Executive Officer, Consultative for Food Security, USAID Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP), World Bank

31 www.usaid.gov | www.ifpri.org

Enhancing Resilience in the Horn of Africa en