A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details 'GREEN FAMINE' IN ETHIOPIA Understanding the Causes of Increasing Vulnerability to Food Insecurity and Policy Responses in the Southern Ethiopian Highlands Mulugeta Lolamo Handino Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX May 2014 ii STATEMENT OF DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature:............................................. iii UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX MULUGETA LOLAMO HANDINO DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 'GREEN FAMINE' IN ETHIOPIA UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF INCREASING VULNERABILITY TO FOOD INSECURITY AND POLICY RESPONSES IN THE SOUTHERN ETHIOPIAN HIGHLANDS SUMMARY This thesis examines the underlying causes of food insecurity, famine in general and green famine in particular in the enset-dominant livelihood zones of Kambata land in southern Ethiopia, which are historically considered more resilient and less vulnerable to food insecurity and famine than other parts of Ethiopia. Given Ethiopia’s long-standing history of food insecurity and famines, the discourse of food insecurity and famine is dominated by natural and demographic factors as the main causes. In order to unpack the multi-layered underlying causes of food insecurity in general and green famine in particular, the thesis adopts Sen’s analytical framework of ‘entitlement to food’. Using multi-site qualitative research techniques, this thesis captures the perceptions of different actors at different levels about the causes of green famine, identifies the sources of livelihood vulnerability and the types of livelihood strategies undertaken by households in the study area. By systematically capturing and analysing these different aspects, the study concludes that the causes of green famine extend beyond the dominant narratives of drought and population growth, and that these factors alone cannot fully explain famine occurrence. Green famine is caused by a web of complex and intertwined policy-related, political, natural, socio-economic and demographic factors that have long been present in the study area. The thesis further investigates how the contemporary understanding and classification of famine is dominated by anthropometric and mortality outcomes (‘objective indicators’) and thresholds set by outsiders and how ‘subjective indicators’ such as the perceptions, knowledge, experience and coping strategies of famine victims are undervalued and given less weight by ‘famine scales’. By incorporating ‘subjective indicators’ of famine, this thesis challenges conventional famine conceptualisation and measurement and recommends that these indicators be given equal treatment and weight to ‘objective indicators’ in famine classification. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I thank the Almighty God for his everlasting blessing, protection and guidance in my life. Many individuals and institutions have extended their support for successful completion of this study. It is impossible to list all of them here so I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to all people who have supported me throughout the entire process. The community groups in all three districts of Kambata land deserved special acknowledgement. It would not have been possible to complete this study without their willingness to participate and share their experience and knowledge of food insecurity, hunger and green famine. They have warmly embraced me, opened both their doors and their hearts, and shared their coffee or food and, most of all, their stories. I have learned a lot from their accounts about famine concept, its impact, ways of coping and classification. I dedicate this work to those who died during the 2007–08 green famine, particularly children. My special thanks to my supervisors Dr Stephen Devereux, Dr Jeremy Lind and Dr Rachel Sabates-Wheeler for their intellectual guidance, time and excellent support during the course of my study. I am extremely grateful for your patience, understanding and continued support. I am most grateful to Stephen, my main supervisor, who took on the bulk of work in reading through all my draft work and delivering comments and suggestions. Thanks for lending and kindly allowing me to use your works on food security and famine. No words can fully express my thanks and appreciation for your support. A special acknowledgement goes to Rie Harmsen and Tadelech Dafuche, the two most important people in my life, for unflagging encouragement, financial and emotional support. You are the two most amazing people, who have never flinched from supporting, loving and caring for me in whatever circumstances I find myself. You have always been there for me and you have taught me the values of hard work and dedication, humility and, above all, true love. I am eternally grateful to you and I also dedicate this work to both of you. My deepest gratitude also to Kebele and Woreda authorities, Development Agents, Woreda administrators and food security and livelihood experts in Kacha-Bira, Kadida-Gamela and Doyo-Gena Woredas who have facilitated and provided their support during my fieldwork. My appreciation also goes to various experts at different offices and bureaus at the Zone, Regional and Federal levels for providing valuable data and sharing exceptional local knowledge on a v complex livelihood system, food insecurity, green famine and policy responses in southern Ethiopia. I am also grateful to academics at University of Hawassa College of Agriculture, particularly Dr Tewodros Tefera, Dr Ayele Tessema and Dr Berhanu Nega, for their time and for sharing their insights and resources with me. My thanks also go to the academics at Addis Ababa University and Forum For Social Studies for their support and comments. Special thanks goes to Dr Degefa Tolossa, Dessalegn Rahmato and Alebachew Kemiso. I wish to acknowledge the contribution of different researchers and experts at various institutions in Ethiopia and abroad including Dr Wolde-Selassie Abbute (FAO Sudan), Yohannes Desta (WFP), Dr Kassaye Hadgu (UNOCHA), Dr Judith Sandford (London), Misrak Tamire and Desta Deboch. My special thanks go to Zelalem Desta, my fieldwork assistant who has been instrumental in mobilising communities, travelling long and difficult journeys and being available whenever I needed. I am grateful to my parents, Lolamo Handino and Tadelech Dafuche for their encouragement and love. Mom, you are my source of inspiration. When our family was seriously confronted with financial stress after the collapse of Dad’s business when I was finishing my high school, you didn’t give allow adversity to prevent me from pursuing from my dream. You have made a gutsy decision to take up a new challenge and new livelihood strategy of making local drinks to support my study and ensure our extended family has food on the table. You installed an intense will to fight and win whatever challenges I face in life. By following your principles in life, I believe I have made you proud. My special thanks go to Silke Pietzsch for excellent comments on my drafts, moral support and friendship. For all your support, I remain grateful. I wish to acknowledge my fellow PhD colleagues in IDS and Sussex University; Erick Manga, Dr Edem Selormey, Dr Charles Ankisiba, Edgar Cooke, Mineva Chibuye, Dr Rose Oronge, Tsegaye Gebrekidan and Dr Gemechu Ayana for their friendship and support. The support and encouragement from my brother Kassa Dentamo and his wife Tarikua Reta and their beautiful kids Heyaw and Hassiet in Baltimore was always refreshing. I am ever grateful for your support in my life. I am also grateful to Dr Ephraim Kebede for his unreserved support towards my study plan. Many people have made my stay in the UK and Brighton enjoyable, particularly Yadeta Bekri, Maliha, Firew, Messert, Bethlehem and Cath Morgan, thank you all. Special thanks to my friends Lealem Mekete, Meron Teka, Teshome Kemiso, my uncle Earmiyas Eargana, my brothers Tadele and Tafesse, my sisters Amarech, Alemush and Zemenesh and my sister in-law Berhane Antoniyos for all your support and prayers. Finally, my thanks also go to my little nieces for your smiles, hugs and warm welcomes after tiresome days in the field. vi CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES XI ACRONYMS XIII GLOSSARY OF AMHARIC AND KAMBATISSA TERMS XVI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1 1.1 Research context 1 1.2 Research objectives 4 1.3 Research questions 5 1.4 Thesis structure 6 CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS AND INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AREA 8 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Research methodology 8 2.3 Study area 10 2.4 Sampling process of woredas and kebeles 12 2.5 Wealth categorisation and identification of households 15 2.5.1 Agricultural seasonal calendar of the study area 17 2.6 Fieldwork 19 2.7 Ethical considerations and reflections on positionality 22 vii CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW