Hamilton, Jefferson, and Madison: The Secret Dinner
Hayden Goldberg Junior Division Historical Paper Paper Length: 2,500 words
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The United States Constitution originally did not set the country up for success. Already crushed by debt after borrowing during the Revolutionary War with no way to repay loans, the
Constitution affirmed, “[sic] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the
Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.”1 Congress, with its distinct, mostly clashing regional viewpoints and personalities was given power, “[sic] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, be Cession of particular
States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of Government of the United States,”2 meaning they had to agree on a location. These two distinct, critical issues were dealt with at the same time, led to the worst gridlock ever seen in Congress, threatened disunion long before the
Civil War, and created a rift that would not be closed until the Compromise of 1790. Without it, the United States as we know it would be vastly different, if it even existed.
The Articles of Confederation era was not kind to the new federal government. The document did not give the Continental Congress power to levy taxes,3 only to request funds from the states4 – themselves struggling to raise money. Professor Herbert Sloan of Columbia
University explained that while, “some states had made progress in paying off their
[Revolutionary War] debts, other states had not. In (…) Massachusetts, in part because of efforts to collect tax money to pay off those debts, there was a rebellion – what we call Shays’ Rebellion
1 U.S Constitution. Art. VI. 2 U.S. Constitution. Art. I, Sec. 8, Clause XVII. 3 State of New Hampshire, Delegates of the, et al. “The Articles of Confederation.” US Constitution Online. Article VIII, Clause II stated, “Taxes (…) shall be levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States.” 4 State of New Hampshire, Delegates of the, et al. “The Articles of Confederation.” US Constitution Online. Article VIII, Clause I stated, “All expenses (…) shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States.”
3 in 1786-87.”5 This dearth of funding meant the federal government could not compensate soldiers, pay off loans, or make other necessary payments. Lacking a permanent home, the nomadic Continental Congress met in eight places – mainly Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.6
After being signed by state delegates, the Constitution required state ratification. New
York’s delegate was Alexander Hamilton. Today his face resides on the American $10 bill and his storied life has been recreated in the aptly named Broadway musical, Hamilton. On October
27, 1787, Hamilton published the first of 85 essays supporting the ratification of the Constitution in New York under the pseudonym Publius. With the help of John Jay’s five essays and James
Madison’s 29, the 85th was published by Hamilton the following August.7 These essays, known as The Federalist (Papers),8 are frequently cited in judicial decisions,9 and have become
American classics.
Madison, nicknamed the Father of the Constitution,10 served in the First Congress beginning in 1789. Representing Virginia in the United States House of Representatives,
Madison proposed and ushered the Bill of Rights through Congress; prepared the Houses’ response to President George Washington’s First Inaugural Address (conveniently written by
5 Prof. Sloan, Herbert. Personal interview. 12 Dec. 2017. 6 Klein, Christopher. “8 Forgotten Capitals of the United States.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 16 July 2015. These locations included, but were not limited to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland; Princeton, New Jersey, New York City, New York; and Annapolis, Maryland. 7 The authorship of multiple essays is disputed. It is generally agreed that Jay wrote 5, Madison 29, and Hamilton 51. 8 “About the Federalist Papers.” Congress.gov Resources, United States Congress. “The Federalist, commonly referred to as the Federalist Papers, is a series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison between October 1787 and May 1788.” 9 United States Supreme Court. Cohens v. Virginia. For example, in the 1821 Cohens v. Virginia Supreme Court, Chief Justice John Marshall cited Federalist LXXXII. 10 History.com Staff. “James Madison.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2009. “Madison (…) earned the nickname ‘Father of the Constitution.”
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Madison) and Washington’s response back; and became the leading and agenda setting figure during his four congressional terms, concluding in 1797.11
Hamilton and Madison’s friendship helped them write The Federalist, as one Publius, but they clashed as enemies in the spring of 1790. While there was always congressional conflict, everything got resolved in a timely manner – except for two issues: managing the country’s finances and locating the constitutionally mandated capitol.
The House delegated the issue of finances to Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury
Department. On January 14, 1790, his prepared remarks, commonly known as the First Report on Public Credit (FRPC),12 were communicated to the House, “in obedience to the resolution
(…) [about] a proper plan for the support of Public Credit.” He established a set of, “undeniable truths,” mostly about loans; the need to borrow on good terms, or risk sky-high interest rates; and the understanding, “that exigencies are to be expected (…) in which there will be a necessity for borrowing.” Then, he explained the country's public credit situation. They needed to increase public support for the federal government and get their debt under control, thereby increasing the values of public securities (also known as bonds, see Figure 1, below) to their market value. This would stabilize the buying power of money because securities, which had fixed interest rates,
11 Bordewich, Fergus M. The First Congress. Simon & Schuster, 2017. Pages 71 and 89-90. 12 The First Report on Public Credit is officially known as "Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit." 5
would be, “equivalent to
payments in specie.”13 This
however, is when the country’s
finances begin to get
complicated.
The repayment of
government securities was an
important part of Hamilton’s
financial plan. Soldiers from the
Revolutionary War were given
securities as compensation and a
few businessmen had bought
them from the government as an Figure 1: A security worth $77 given to George Garland for his work as a sail and tent maker in 1781. As a paper document, it was easy to buy and sell. While it investment. However, the states that Garland is the owner, if he were to have sold it there would have been no way of. Image from Birth of the Nation: The First Federal Congress, 1789-1791. government did not have the means to pay them back, and people were forced to sell their securities out of necessity or governmental distrust. An excessive majority were sold at a fraction of face value. New owners sold them to someone else for the same reasons, who in turn sold them, and so on (see graphic organizer below). Since the 1790 security holders were likely not original owners, some politicians believed secondary holders should be discriminated against – hence the topic’s name, discrimination – and should not receive what current, original holders received. However, it was
13 “Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit, [9 January 1790],” Founders Online, National Archives, last modified November 26, 2017. Pages 1-2. 6 nearly impossible to determine if a present holder was an original holder, leading Hamilton to conclude, “[sic] a discrimination, between the different classes of creditors of the United States, cannot (…) be made,” (FRPC, page 5).
Further complicating finances were state ledgers, an albatross of poorly kept records. To provide for, “an orderly, stable and satisfactory arrangement of the national finances,” Hamilton suggested, “an assumption of the debts of the particular states by the union,” (FRPC, page 5). He estimated the total debt owed from state and federal governments to be a staggering 54.124 million 1790-dollars, equivalent to 1.4135 billion 2018-dollars.14 This proposal was called assumption and it created a rift that would not end until the country was on the brink of disunion.
Just like all issues that came across the House floor,
Madison led the charge on one side. He spoke out against assumption, exclaiming the dangers of a strong, central federal government. He feared it could morph into a tyrant imitating Figure 2: Graphic organizer I made to show the process of securities changing hands.
14 “Inflation Rate between 1790-2018 | Inflation Calculator.” Inflation Calculator.
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England’s King George III.15 Henry Lee, future father of Robert E. Lee wrote Madison of his pessimistic views on assumption, saying if it passed, “[sic] a monopoly will take place from the northern hives in this, as in every thing else in their power,”16 meaning the North was about to dominate all Southern issues.
Northern states supported the provision, having failed to pay most of their debt, angering the South who had paid significant portions of theirs and felt assumption would reward the
North.17 This lead to opinions becoming binary: opinions were fiercely for or against assumption, with no hope of change, leading to months of circular debates.
An equally important issue was being discussed simultaneously: the location of the capitol. House members banded together to get the capitol in their regional bloc while proposing locations in their home states. An early example of this cohesion was the eight-member
Pennsylvania delegation agreeing to vote together on all proposals.
As with assumption, the proverbial onion always has another layer: there would be two capitols. Early on, Congress agreed that while the infrastructure for the permanent capitol was built, a second location would serve as the temporary capitol for 10 or 20 years.18 In theory, getting past the gridlock should have been easier: one bloc gets the permanent capitol, and another gives the necessary votes in exchange for becoming the temporary capitol.
Unfortunately, the widespread belief was that the capitol would not leave the temporary location,
15 Ellis, Joseph J. “The Dinner.” Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation, Alfred A. Knopf, 2013, pp. 48– 80. When writing about Madison’s opposition to assumption, Ellis writes about Madison’s fear of the federal government consolidating powers on page 59. 16 Madison, James, and Henry Lee. Henry Lee to James Madison, April 3, 1790. April 3, 1790. Manuscript/Mixed Material. Retrieved from the Library of Congress. 17 Sutter, Erin. “The Compromise That Created Our Capital.” Teaching American History, Ashland University, 15 July 2012. 18 “Primary Documents in American History: Residence Act.” Library of Congress, 30 Oct. 2017. 8 so receiving the permanent capitol was not a win nor a consolation prize; it was merely a formality.
A bicameral Legislature did not help either. Whenever a bill passed one chamber, it was struck down by members of the other body who found it unfavorable.
In March 1790, future president Thomas Jefferson arrived in New York to serve as the
Secretary of the future State Department. By that point, 16 locations, including Baltimore, New
York, Philadelphia, Annapolis, and somewhere on the Potomac River had been considered. At one point, a Potomac capitol had been the leading candidate, with Madison at the forefront. By
March, hopes for a riverside capitol were fading and Madison led the debate against a
Pennsylvania capitol. The argument for one included that Pennsylvania was geographically centered, it was accessible because the Susquehanna River would be the center of the country.
Eastern Canada would enter the country while land beyond the Mississippi River would not.
Madison and company retorted that the capitol should be centrally located by populous, not geography; thus they should wait for the results of the 1790 Census before deciding.19
This debate continued for months and became known as the Residency Question. Each location was voted on, sometimes on multiple occasions. Like assumption, debates were circular.
A solution was not reached until June 21, 1790, when the Secretaries of Treasury and State ran into each other.20
“Hamilton was in despair,” Jefferson wrote in the only known account of the day and following events. “As I was going to the President’s one day, I met [Hamilton] in the street,”
19 Ellis, Joseph J. “The Dinner.” Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation, Alfred A. Knopf, 2013, pp. 48– 80. “The leading candidates…”and “the case Madison (…) tried to make for the Potomac [capitol]….” Page 70. 20 The exact day in June is not known. The 21st is the generally agreed upon estimate. 9 where he explained the situation regarding his assumption plan and the possibility of state secession, among other things. In his account, Jefferson made clear he was, “a stranger to the whole subject,” while understanding, “if [the plan’s] rejection endangered a dissolution of our
Union (…) I should deem that the most unfortunate of all consequences.” He “proposed to
[Hamilton] (…) to dine with me the next day,” where he would, “invite another friend or two, bring them into conference together (…) and form a compromise.”21
Hamilton accepted and was joined by Madison. The exact details of the discussions that took place during the dinner are unknown. Jefferson explained that they all agreed that,
“whatever importance had been attached to the rejection of [Hamilton’s assumption plan], the preservation of the Union and of concord among the states was more important,” meaning it was in the country’s best interest. Then he acknowledged that the South voting in favor would not be easy, so Southerners should receive something in return.22 A permanent capitol at Georgetown on the Potomac would do, with a 10-year temporary stay in Philadelphia, to secure the votes for a majority.
Madison convinced Virginia Representatives Richard Bland Lee and Alexander White and Maryland Representative George Gale, whose districts were on the Potomac, to vote in favor of assumption. They were joined by cousins23 Representative Daniel Carroll and Senator Charles
21 Jefferson, Thomas. The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson. New York: Round Table Press, 1903. Pages 33 and 34. 22 Jefferson, Thomas. The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson. New York: Round Table Press, 1903. “Some concomitant measure should be adopted, to sweeten it,” page 34. 23 “Carroll, Daniel - Biographical Information.” Congress.gov Biographies, United States Congress.
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Carroll, representing Maryland.24 Hamilton, assisted by Senator Robert Morris of
Pennsylvania,25 secured the votes for the capitol, finalizing the Compromise of 1790.
On July 9, 1790, the United States House of Representatives passed the Residence Act.26
Section I described, “a district of territory, not exceeding ten miles square, to be located (…) on the river Potomac (…) is hereby accepted for the permanent seat of the government of the United
States.”27 On August 4th, the Funding Act of 1790 passed,28 laying the foundations of debt repayment and how much money the federal government would assume from each state.29 Both bills narrowly passed.
A Potomac capitol was dead;30 how was it revived? Politicians and the public alike were confounded. As Hamilton playwriter, composer, and lyricist Lin-Manuel Miranda wrote in the song, “The Room Where It Happens,” Northerners wondered if Hamilton, “sold [the capitol] down the river.”31 Southerners, clearly interested in a slave holding capitol, were still highly skeptical of Madison and Jefferson’s choice on the financial side.
24 “The Compromise of 1790.” Edited by Kenneth R Bowling et al., Birth of Nation: The First Federal Congress, 1789-1791, George Washington University, Mar. 2013. 25 Jefferson, Thomas. The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson. New York: Round Table Press, 1903. “Hamilton undertook to carry [out his duty] (…) with the agency of [Senator] Robert Morris.” 26 “Primary Documents in American History: Residence Act.” Library of Congress, 30 Oct. 2017. “…officially titled ‘An Act for Establishing the Temporary and Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States’.” 27 “An Act for Establishing the Temporary and Permanent Seat of the Government of the United States.” A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875, Library of Congress. 28 U. S. Laws, Statutes, Etc. 1790. [An act making provision for the debt of the United States New York, 1790]. New York, 1790. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress. The Funding Act of 1790 is officially titled, “An Act Making Provision for the Debt of the United States.” 29 U. S. Laws, Statutes, Etc. 1790. [An act making provision for the debt of the United States New York, 1790]. New York, 1790. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress. Sections I-IV, XIII. 30 “From James Madison to James Monroe, 17 June 1790,” Founders Online, National Archives, last modified February 1, 2018, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-13-02-0174. [Original source: The Papers of James Madison, vol. 13, 20 January 1790 – 31 March 1791, ed. Charles F. Hobson and Robert A. Rutland. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1981, pp. 246–247.] James Madison wrote James Monroe on June 17, “The [sic] Potowmac stands a bad chance.” 31 “The Room Where It Happens.” Hamilton: The Revolution, by Lin-Manuel Miranda and Jeremy McCarter, Grand Central Publishing, 2016, p. 188.
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In a series of letters between Virginian’s, future President James Monroe wrote Jefferson,
“assumption (…) is disliked here, and will create great disgust if adopted under any shape what[so]ever. The minds of all are made up on it, and I doubt whether even the immediate
[placement of the capitol] to the [sic] Potowmk would reconcile them.”32
Regardless of what individuals at the time thought, the Compromise of 1790 ultimately worked because of its simplicity: to get something you give something. By keeping the greater good in mind, Hamilton, Jefferson, and Madison achieved their goals and kept the Union afloat.
As Jefferson mentioned in his letter, disunion was on the horizon. After learning of a failed attempt at assumption in April, Thomas Cushing of Massachusetts wrote his representative,
Benjamin Goodhue, “people seem almost ripe for a national division of North and South.
Perhaps it may be premature.”33
Preventing disunion was one of the major legacies of the Compromise of 1790. Without it, the finances of the Union in 1800 or 1810 would not have mattered because the country simply would not have existed. In the highly unlikely scenario the Union pulled through, it likely would have been every state for themselves financially.
The other major legacy of the compromise was that it successfully located the capitol.
Construction began after Pierre Charles L'Enfant’s design for the district was selected from a
32 “To Thomas Jefferson from James Monroe, 3 July 1790,” Founders Online, National Archives, last modified February 1, 2018, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-16-02-0354. [Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 16, 30 November 1789–4 July 1790, ed. Julian P. Boyd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961, pp. 596–597.] 33 Cushing, Thomas. Received by Rep. Benjamin Goodhue, 17 Apr. 1790. New York Society Library.
12 pool of public entries.34 It included a residential building for the President and a meeting place for Congress in the center of the district, with a road connecting them (see Appendix A for map of the city and Appendix B for comparison between it and present-day Washington DC).
The particulars of a Philadelphia capital are anyone’s guess. Whenever the Continental
Congress called Philadelphia home they met in present-day Independence Hall.35 If Congress stayed permanently, a new building likely would have been erected for their sole use. The
Supreme Court might have had its own building before 193536 or buildings may have been designed differently. It is probable something would be named after Benjamin Franklin, considering his impact on the city. The Liberty Bell might not be in its present location or the
Smithsonian might have different museums. The greater Philadelphia area might not be as large of an academic hub due to space issues, or even larger due to its proximity to other industries.37
Unequivocally, it would differ from the way it is today.
While not a direct legacy of the compromise, Madison’s worst fear of a strong federal government has become reality. The Necessary and Proper Clause38 has allowed for wide interpretation of the Constitution as it gives Congress power to, “[sic] make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the [powers granted to Congress] and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any
34 Scott, Pam. “The Most Approved Plan: The Competition for the Capitol’s Design.” Temple of Liberty: Building the Capitol for a New Nation, Library of Congress, 23 July 2010. “Thomas Jefferson decided that the Capitol's design should be chosen by a public competition.” 35 Klein, Christopher. “8 Forgotten Capitals of the United States.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 16 July 2015. “the Continental Congress met (…) inside the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall).” 36 Capitol, U.S. A Visual Timeline 220 Years of Growth on Capitol Hill. Youtube, Architect of the Capitol, 16 July 2013. 37 Prof. Sloan explained that, “Philadelphia had a University, it was the center of American publishing, medicine, and science.” 38 U.S. Constitution. Art. I, Sec. 8, Clause XVIII.
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Department or Officer thereof.” This has given Congress the ability to pass bills that are on the fringe of relating to congressional powers described in Article I, Section VIII.
The founders believed that, “Congress was [and would remain] the superior branch of government.”39 While this was arguably true, it is no longer. For example, the President has sent troops into warzones without a Congressional Declaration of War,40 a power granted by the War
Powers Clause.41
The details of the secret dinner between Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and
James Madison will always be unknown. Nevertheless, the possibilities of what could have happened without the Compromise of 1790 and how the United States would be different are nearly endless, making the deal the most crucial in United States history.
39 Bordewich, Fergus M. The First Congress. Simon & Schuster, 2017. Page 295. 40 “Official Declarations of War by Congress.” U.S. Senate: Official Declarations of War by Congress, United States Senate, 20 Mar. 2017. Congress has only formally declared war on 11 countries: Great Britain in 1812; Mexico in 1846; Spain in 1898; Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1917, Japan, Germany, and Italy in 1941; and Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania in 1942. In addition to the War of 1812, Mexican-American war, Spanish-American War, World War I, and World War II, the United States has been involved in the Korean War, Vietnam War, and others which were not formally declared. 41 U.S. Constitution. Art. I, Sec. 8, Clause XI. 14
Appendix A
Figure 3: Pierre Charles L'Enfant’s design, including the Presidential Mansion (White House), Capitol (Building), and a road connecting them (Pennsylvania Avenue). The image is from the Library of Congress and I annotated it by adding the labels and arrows.
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Appendix B
Figure 4: A cropped image of United States Capitol and surrounding area overlaid with a cropped portion of L'Enfant's design to show how it was implemented.
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Works Cited
Primary Sources
“An Act for Establishing the Temporary and Permanent Seat of the Government of the United
States.” A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and
Debates, 1774 - 1875, Library of Congress, https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=253.
This is an image of the bill that was passed by the First Congress in their second
session in 1790 and was signed into law by George Washington. It designated a section
of land on the Potomac River as the future, permanent capitol of the United States and
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania as the temporary one. The bill was passed as a result of the
Compromise of 1790, and I quoted it in my essay when explaining what the bill actually
did and said.
“Certificate Issued by Timothy Pickering, Continental Army Quartermaster General, April 1,
1781.” Birth of Nation: The First Federal Congress, 1789-1791, George Washington
University, 2013, www2.gwu.edu/~ffcp/exhibit/p13/p13_8.html.
I used this image in my appendix to show what a security was like and why it was
easy to buy and sell them. This was a scanned copy of the original, making it a primary
source.
Cushing, Thomas. Received by Rep. Benjamin Goodhue, 17 Apr. 1790. New York Society
Library.
This is a letter written by Thomas Cushing to his congressman, Rep. Benjamin
Goodhue. Cushing said that people of Salem, Massachusetts (where he lived) had heard
that Congress voted to not take on state debts (the Compromise of 1790 happened in June 17
of 1790, this letter was written in April, talking about the failed vote) and that people
were starting to talk about, "a national division of North and South." I used his letter
when talking about viewpoints on assumption.
“From James Madison to James Monroe, 17 June 1790,” Founders Online, National Archives,
last modified February 1, 2018, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-13-
02-0174. [Original source: The Papers of James Madison, vol. 13, 20 January 1790 – 31
March 1791, ed. Charles F. Hobson and Robert A. Rutland. Charlottesville: University
Press of Virginia, 1981, pp. 246–247.]
This letter was written by James Madison four days before his dinner with
Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. I referenced it when talking about the
chances of a Potomac capitol in June of 1790.
Hamilton, Alexander. “The Utility of the Union in Respect to Revenue.” New York Packet, 27
Nov. 1787. Congress.gov/Resources,
www.congress.gov/resources/display/content/The+Federalist+Papers#TheFederalistPaper
s-12.
All 85 of the Federalist Papers essays were originally written by Alexander
Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay; and published under the pseudonym Publius. It
was not until Madison corrected the essays, and sent them to Jacob Gideon, along with a
list of who wrote which ones, that the world found out who the authors were. Number 12,
The Utility of the Union in Respect to Revenue, was written by Hamilton, and published
in the New York Packet on November 27, 1787. This essay provided me insight as to
how the nation would make money and how it could maximize revenue. For example,
Hamilton proposed national taxes and duties on articles, so that people would not be 18
inclined to skirt duties or dock in certain states in an effort to pay less. By reading into
Hamilton’s thoughts on this subject matter, I gained knowledge about how he proposed
taxation would work, although I did not reference it in my essay.
Jefferson, Thomas. The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson. New York: Round Table Press,
1903.
This book is collection of various writings by Thomas Jefferson, including his
account (on pages 33 and 34) of the Compromise of 1790, the only record that exists. I
used this account to understand how the dinner came about and what happened at the
table. I quoted it when explaining that the preservation of the Union was of the utmost
importance to Jefferson and when explaining the South's opinion of assumption.
Madison, James, and Henry Lee. Henry Lee to James Madison, April 3, 1790. April 3, 1790.
Manuscript/Mixed Material. Retrieved from the Library of Congress,
Henry Lee’s letter to James Madison provided me insight as to what Virginians
were thinking about assumption at the time. Multiple secondary sources said that some
southerners would rather see various – negative – things happen before they would accept
assumption, as it was seen to be benefiting the North, who had not paid off most of their
debts, contrary to the South, who had paid off large portions. Lee’s letter confirmed that,
as he wrote that he would, “rather myself submit to all the hazards of war & risk the loss
of every thing dear to me in life, than to live under the rule of a fixed insolent northern
majority.” I used this quote in my essay when describing southerners’ feelings about
assumption. 19
Pierre Charles L'Enfant. "Plan of the City of Washington," March 1792. Engraving on paper.
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (29)
This is a copy of the map Pierre Charles L’Enfant created for the city of
Washington, the permanent seat of government. It included the location of the US Capitol
Building and, as it was called then, the Presidential Mansion. L’Enfant was the winner of
the design challenge for the city, so his concept was implemented. I overlaid the image
with a present-day map of the capitol to demonstrate that, in addition to annotating the
image to make it clear what the text on it said. Both versions of the image were used in
my appendix.
“Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit, [9 January 1790],” Founders
Online, National Archives, last modified November 26, 2017,
http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0076-0002-0001. [Original
source: The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 6, December 1789 – August 1790, ed.
Harold C. Syrett. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962, pp. 65–110.]
On September 21, 1789, the U.S. House of Representatives ordered Treasury
Secretary Alexander Hamilton to write a report on public credit in the United States. On
January 9, 1790, it was submitted to the House of Representatives and communicated 5
days later. In his report, Hamilton began by explaining why he believed maintaining
public credit was important then explained multiple actions the US could take to improve
its credit. He moved on to explain the country's dilemma in regard to public creditors and
securities (essentially bonds) they purchased. When people bought these securities during
the Revolutionary War, they expected full payment plus interest back. However, since it
took so long for the federal government to pay them, most people sold their securities, 20
almost always for less than the government was to pay them. Sometimes they sold out of
financial necessity and other times to protect themselves from losses. The dilemma the
government faced with was who to pay and for how much. This was known as
discrimination. Later in the report, Hamilton suggested that the federal government
assume state debt to simplify the debt and improve public credit. I quoted the Report
when talking about assuming state debts and discrimination.
“The Room Where It Happens.” Hamilton: The Revolution, by Lin-Manuel Miranda and Jeremy
McCarter, Grand Central Publishing, 2016, p. 188.
I used Lin-Manuel Miranda’s book to gather the lyrics for the song “The Room
Where It Happens.” This song is about the Compromise of 1790 and I quoted it when
talking about Northerner’s reaction to the deal. I listed this book as a primary source
because it contains exact copies of the songs Miranda wrote for the play.
State of New Hampshire, Delegates of the, et al. “The Articles of Confederation.” US
Constitution Online, www.usconstitution.net/articles.html#Article8.
The Articles of Confederation were the nation's first governing documents.
However, while they were enacted, they gave way to the worst era in American history,
in part because they gave almost all power to the states and prevented the federal
government from taxing. I used them in my essay when talking about the debt.
“To Thomas Jefferson from James Monroe, 3 July 1790,” Founders Online, National Archives,
last modified February 1, 2018, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-16-
02-0354. [Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 16, 30 November 1789–
4 July 1790, ed. Julian P. Boyd. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961, pp. 596–
597.] 21
I used a quote from this letter written by James Monroe when explaining what
Virginian’s thought of assumption and a Potomac capitol.
United States Supreme Court. Cohens v. Virginia.
www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/19/264.
I used this Cornell Law School website to get the text of the Cohens v. Virginia
Supreme Court case. I used it to confirm a quote from a Yale report regarding The
Federalist Papers’ usage in judiciary decisions. I listed this website as a primary source
because it contains the text of the primary source, following suite with other websites that
contained texts from primary sources. I referenced the case when talking about when The
Federalist Papers were cited in court cases.
“U.S. Capitol Map.” Visit the Capitol, US Government,
www.visitthecapitol.gov/sites/default/files/documents/maps/us-capitol-mapen.pdf.
This file contains a map of Capitol Hill in Washington DC, providing me with a
visual as to how the Hill is laid out in the present day, making it a primary source. I used
it in my essay when describing how Capitol Hill looks today. While looking at the map, I
wondered what order buildings were erected in, which became my next step in my
research, leading me to find the Youtube video published by the U.S. Capitol channel.
U.S. Constitution.
I quoted the Constitution of the United States multiple times in my essay to
introduce new topics and show their importance.
U. S. Laws, Statutes, Etc. 1790. [An act making provision for the debt of the United States New
York, 1790]. New York, 1790. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress,
This PDF is a word for word copy of the bill that fulfilled the financial side of the
Compromise of 1790. The bill included the amount of debt from each state the federal
government assumed, such as $1.2 million 1790 dollars from New York, $3.5 million
from Virginia, and $300,000 from Georgia. It also included provisions for how the
assumed money and existing federal debt would be paid. I used it in my essay when
describing these.
Secondary Sources
“About the Federalist Papers.” Congress.gov Resources, United States Congress,
www.congress.gov/resources/display/content/About+the+Federalist+Papers.
This is a short description of The Federalist Papers, provided by the United States
Congress. I referenced it when introducing the essays.
Bordewich, Fergus M. The First Congress. Simon & Schuster, 2017.
This book was instrumental in my NHD process. I started reading it over the
summer and it sparked my interest in Early American history. Between it and my interest
in the musical Hamilton, I decided that I wanted to do my NHD project on some event
from this time. This book provided me many snippets of information used in my essay,
specifically with regards to James Madison and the general proceedings of the First
Congress.
Capitol, U.S. A Visual Timeline 220 Years of Growth on Capitol Hill. Youtube, Architect of the
Capitol, 16 July 2013, youtu.be/Os1djKfl7ZU.
This Youtube video, published by the U.S. Capitol channel shows the construction
of all the buildings on Capitol Hill in a chronological timeline. I used this source to learn
more about when builders were constructed. While watching this video, I used the U.S. 23
Capitol map to get a better understanding of where buildings being constructed were in
proximity to other buildings, offices, and the Capitol building itself.
“Carroll, Daniel - Biographical Information.” Congress.gov Biographies, United States
Congress, bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=c000187.
I used this website to confirm the biological relationship between cousins Charles
and Daniel Carroll. Both switched their votes at James Madison’s urging to pass the
Funding Act of 1790.
“Compromise of 1790.” Dictionary of American History, Encyclopedia.com,
www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-
releases/compromise-1790.
This source gave a short, paragraph synopsis of what the Compromise of 1790 did
and how it came about, perfect for someone who wanted a quick answer. However, it did
not suite my needs as it d
id not provide me any new information, so I merely used it to verify information.
“The Compromise of 1790.” Edited by Kenneth R Bowling et al., Birth of Nation: The First
Federal Congress, 1789-1791, George Washington University, Mar. 2013,
www2.gwu.edu/~ffcp/exhibit/p14/.
This was one of the first sources that I used when learning about the Compromise
of 1790 to get background information when trying to decide my topic. This included
information such as what people thought of assumption and what the compromise did. I
used this site in the essay to provide the reader with information about what people
thought of the compromise at the time and who changed their votes to make it possible.
The source did not have a bias towards one side of the compromise, which was shown 24
through the webmaster incorporating primary sources that had different viewpoints. As
well, the website was created to, "document the history of the First Federal Congress,"
not to argue about decisions the First Congress made. This, along with the fact that the
site was created with George Washington University means it is reliable.
Ellis, Joseph J. “The Dinner.” Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation, Alfred A.
Knopf, 2013, pp. 48–80.
This Pulitzer Prize winning book was used in a variety of ways in my essay and
was hugely beneficial. I used it to gather views on assumption and the location of the
capitol, what Madison was doing in Congress when the dinner was held, and more. The
author’s purpose to write this book was to prove that the 1790’s were one of the most
decisive decades in US History, so it generally supported my thesis.
Goldberg, Hayden. Discrimination Graphic Organizer. 10 Jan. 2018,
docs.google.com/drawings/d/1RJGHMqVtuHxb2ACwQasw_SQ85aZWQpEH_HngQ_Y
EbcA/edit?usp=sharing.
I created this graphic organizer to help explain who owned securities in 1790 and
how they obtained them. By using arrows, text blocks, shapes in Google Drawings and
using information I learned from various sources, I mapped out who had originally held
securities, why they held them, how they sold them, and why. It was inserted as an image
in my essay when I talked about these securities and their related debates.
History.com Staff. “James Madison.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2009,
www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/james-madison. 25
I used the History.com article to gather background information about James
Madison, specifically his relationship with the US Constitution. History.com is a
reputable and reliable source, so I had no issue quoting or referencing it in my essay.
“Inflation Rate between 1790-2018 | Inflation Calculator.” Inflation Calculator,
www.in2013dollars.com/1790-dollars-in-2018?amount=54124464.56.
I used the Inflation Calculator to determine how much the debt in 1790 was worth
in 2018.
“Jefferson Signs the Funding Act, a Key Part of Hamilton’s Assumption Plan.” Seth Kaller, Inc.,
www.sethkaller.com/item/1078-23219-Jefferson-Signs-the-Funding-Act,-a-Key-Part-of-
Hamilton%E2%80%99s-Assumption-Plan-(SOLD).
I used this source to verify information regarding and it was not quoted in my
essay. While it might not have provided the best or most in-depth information, I can trust
it as it is verified by other sources.
Klein, Christopher. “8 Forgotten Capitals of the United States.” History.com, A&E Television
Networks, 16 July 2015, www.history.com/news/8-forgotten-capitals-of-the-united-
states.
Coming from a reputable website, I had no issue referencing this article when
talking about where the Continental Congress met before settling in Washington DC.
After reading through it, I became interested in learning more about Philadelphia and
New York and their time being the US Capitol.
Kratz, Jessie. “The Compromise of 1790.” National Archives and Records Administration,
National Archives and Records Administration, 21 May 2015,
prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2015/05/31/the-compromise-of-1790/. 26
This source provided introductory level information about the Compromise of
1790, but that was all I needed as I went through this source in the introductory stages of
my research. It provided information such as what locations were considered for the
capitol city, why southerners did not want assumption, and the belief systems of
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Thomas Jefferson. The source also introduced
the concept of "logrolling" in the legislator, where votes are traded for support in
different causes. However, I did not reference this source in my essay.
“Official Declarations of War by Congress.” U.S. Senate: Official Declarations of War by
Congress, United States Senate, 20 Mar. 2017,
www.senate.gov/pagelayout/history/h_multi_sections_and_teasers/WarDeclarationsbyCo
ngress.htm.
I used this website to learn about when Congress has formally declared war.
While the website contained images of primary sources (the declarations), I listed this as
a secondary source because I only wrote about who war was declared on, not what the
declarations said.
“Philadelphia Firsts 1681-1899.” Philadelphia History, Independence Hall Association,
www.ushistory.org/philadelphia/philadelphiafirsts.html.
I used this website to gather context about the city of Philadelphia and what was
going on in the late 1780s. It was not quoted or referenced in my essay.
Pierson, Charles W. “The Federalist in the Supreme Court.” Yale Law School, 1924.
I used this PDF to find Supreme Court cases that referenced The Federalist
Papers. It had a quote from the Cohens v. Virginia decision, and I confirmed the quote by
using the Cornell Law School text. This is a secondary source because while it includes 27
content from primary sources, it contains text written by someone who was not alive
when the cases were decided.
“Primary Documents in American History: Residence Act.” Library of Congress, 30 Oct. 2017,
www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Residence.html.
I used this source in my project as conformation that the Residency Act’s official
name is, "An Act for Establishing the Temporary and Permanent Seat of the Government
of the United States.” It provided a summary of what the Act did, not a word for word
copy, thus it is a secondary source.
Prof. Sloan, Herbert. Personal interview. 12 Dec. 2017.
After reaching out via email to speak with Professor Andrew Delbanco at
Columbia University, he recommended that I contact Professor Herbert Sloan, the
Professor Emeritus of History at Barnard University, a colleague and friend of his. After
doing so, Professor Sloan (whose teaching interests include the Colonial and
Revolutionary periods) and I arranged a time for me to call him. I spoke with him about
the impacts of the two things that made up the Compromise of 1790: assumption of state
debt and the location of the capitol. He explained to me how the United States' debt grew
larger because the Continental Congress of the Articles of Confederation era could not
levy taxes and the opinions of James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander
Hamilton regarding securities that people had purchased during the war. Further,
Professor Sloan talked to me about what would have happened if assumption had not
passed and why he thought Philadelphia, Pennsylvania would have been a better capitol
location then the middle of nowhere on the Potomac River, which was where it ended up.
Finally, he spoke to me about some of the major differences between things going on in 28
that time when compared to their present-day counterparts and what they can/cannot do,
such as money (you could buy a human, now you cannot) and banks (they were meant for
the merchant class, now you can take out loans of all sorts and have multiple types of
bank accounts). I quoted him in my essay when talking about how the debt got bigger
before the compromise and what that looked like in the 1780’s.
Scott, Pam. “The Most Approved Plan: The Competition for the Capitol’s Design.” Temple of
Liberty: Building the Capitol for a New Nation, Library of Congress, 23 July 2010,
www.loc.gov/exhibits/uscapitol/s2.html.
This is an online exhibit about the construction of the U.S. Capitol, curated by
Pam Scott. I found out about this exhibit after emailing the Library of Congress seeking
resources about the capitol and the compromise. This was where I pulled Pierre Charles
L'Enfant's design for the city, which was used in my essay.
Sutter, Erin. “The Compromise That Created Our Capital.” Teaching American History, Ashland
University, 15 July 2012, teachingamericanhistory.org/past-programs/hfotw/07152012-
2/.
This website talked about a variety of things, including the reasons Hamilton
wanted assumption (economy stabilization and a federal bank) and how the North and
South felt about assumption. I referenced this website when talking about the latter. As a
teaching resource it is reliable. After reading it, I became more interested in the benefits
of assumption, something I continued to research.