ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: DECENT, SAFE, AND SANITARY? PUBLIC HOUSING AND THE ENVIRONMENT OF EASTERN WASHINGTON, D.C., 1940-1965 Justin Shapiro, Doctor of Philosophy, 2020 Dissertation directed by: Associate Professor Dr. Thomas Zeller, Department of History This dissertation examines the relationships between the physical environment and the history of public housing in Washington, D.C. from the 1940s to the 1960s The environmental features of public housing complexes, as well as those of the landscape around them, significantly shaped the outcomes of the National Capital Housing Authority’s (NCHA) projects. The scale of public housing construction during that period entailed sweeping and dramatic transformations in the landscape. At the same time, the NCHA found itself constrained by material and financial pressures coming from a variety of bureaucratic and institutional sources. Those pressures limited the NCHA’s ability to respond to environmental stresses at various public housing sites. In the absence of adequate responses from the NCHA, the environment played a significant role in determining the outcomes of the District of Columbia’s public housing program. The physical nature of the NCHA’s choice of sites, as well as the materials that it used, turned public housing complexes into sites of environmental injustice rather than the decent, safe, and sanitary housing that the Authority envisioned. DECENT, SAFE, AND SANITARY? PUBLIC HOUSING AND THE ENVIRONMENT OF EASTERN WASHINGTON, D.C., 1940-1965 by Justin Shapiro Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2020 Advisory Committee: Professor Thomas Zeller, Chair Professor David Freund Professor Robert Friedel Professor Marian Moser Jones Professor David Sicilia © Copyright by Justin Shapiro 2020 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Susanne, and my father, David. Thank you for encouraging me over the past twenty-eight years. ii Acknowledgements This project would not have been possible without the guidance, oversight, and support of Dr. Thomas Zeller. As the Chair of the Dissertation Committee, Dr. Zeller took on the crucial role of coordinating committee members’ time, scheduling pre- defense meetings, and ensuring an orderly examination process, which resulted in this dissertation. Prior to the defense procedure, however, Dr. Zeller was my teacher and mentor, helping me through the research and writing process and making sure that I met my obligations in a timely fashion. Even in my moments of doubt, Dr. Zeller proved to be an eminently supportive advisor. Dr. Freund, Dr. Friedel, Dr. Moser Jones, and Dr. Sicilia have, at various points in my graduate studies, also provided help and guidance as teachers, advisors, and mentors. Each brought a valuable perspective on the dissertation, as well as deep and thoughtful analyses based in their own fields and research. While the process of reconciling their diverse comments and suggestions was far from easy, in the end their contributions to this dissertation made it far stronger. Their commitment to this project made an invaluable difference. Furthermore, I appreciate the committee members’ willingness to participate in the dissertation defense process while in the midst of the logistical difficulties posed by Covid-19. Much credit is due to the librarians and archivists who helped me on this project. Over the course of the past several years, I undertook research at the Washingtoniana Collection, the National Archives, the special collections of the George Washington University library, the Smithsonian Anacostia Museum, and the District of Columbia Archives. The abundant knowledge and expertise of the archivists at those institutions— as well as their often kind and welcoming manner—made the dissertation research process both fruitful and amusing. I have particular gratitude for the efforts of Sarah LeClaire and Rebecca Katz at the District of Columbia Archives. Finally, I would like to thank my sister, my brother, and my family and friends. Your emotional support helped me move through this process. Without your presence and kindness I would not have been able to complete this project. Thank you to all of those involved, and a very special thank you to Nicole. iii Table of Contents Dedication .................................................................................................................................................. v Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................. vi Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ x List of Acronyms ................................................................................................................................... xiv Introduction: “Decent, Safe, and Sanitary?” Public Housing Transforms the Metropolitan Landscape ....................................................................................................................... 1 The Envirotechnical Framework: Nature and Artifice Intertwined in Eastern Washington, D.C ............................................................................................................................................................. 6 Remaking the City in Their Image: The Environmental Legacy of Urban Renewal ............ 10 Public Housing and Environmental History: The Envirotechnical Landscape as an Active Agent in Public Housing Outcomes ..................................................................................14 Environmental Justice: The NCHA as a Contributor to the Unequal Distribution of Environmental Burdens ...................................................................................................22 The Historical Significance of Washington, D.C ................................................................28 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................31 Chapter One: Reconciling Changing Political and Economic Realities: A Brief History of the NCHA and its Efforts to Build Decent, Safe, and Sanitary Housing in the Mid- Twentieth Century .............................................................................................................................. 36 A Progressive’s Progress: John Ihlder Encounters the Housing Reform Movement, 1900- 1934 ....................................................................................................................................................................... 37 From the ADA to the NCHA: The New Deal, World War Two, and New Directions in Washington’s Housing Program, 1938-1945 ..................................................................................... ...41 Postwar Housing Construction: Urban Renewal and the Development of Eastern Washington, D.C. ............................................................................................................................................ ...49 Chapter Two: Hills, Valleys, and Creeks: The Historical Landscape of Eastern Washington, D.C. ................................................................................................................................... 53 Tidal Flats and Wooded Ridges: The Different Geographies of Western and Eastern Washington, D.C. ............................................................................................................................................... 53 Surveying and Appraising: Two Approaches to Mapping the Landscape of Public Housing .................................................................................................................................................................................. 59 Chapter Three: Early Attempts, First Obstacles: Barry Farms and the Construction of a New Envirotechnical Regime, 1867-1981 ................................................................................... 67 From Barry’s Farm to Barry Farms: The Collapse of the Plantation System and the Rise of Black Smallholders in Eastern Washington, D.C., 1854-1920........................................................ 69 The Emergence of a Local Housing Program: The ADA Builds a New Envirotechnical Regime, 1940-1943 ......................................................................................................................................... 72 Defending the Old Envirotechnical Regime: Residents Resist Displacement, 1943-1954 76 Running Barry Farms: Daily Life on a Sensitive Site, 1954-1983 ................................................ 82 iv Conclusion: Barry Farms, Siting, and the History of Envirotechnical Regimes ...................... 90 Chapter Four: Shifting Soils, Uneven Terrains, Poor Materials: The NCHA Confronts Environmental and Economic Pressures at Lincoln Heights ................................................ 96 Setting the Stage: The Environmental Features of Lincoln Heights ............................................ 98 Building Lincoln Heights: Contractors Face Seasonality and Flooding, 1943-1945.......... 100 Eroding Slopes and Pooling Water: Lincoln Heights in the 1950s and