Literature Cited plants, spring and fall 1988. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1989- 8. Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1990a. Observations of flowering bedding Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1985. Evaluation of petunia: spring and plants, spring, summer and fall 1989. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. fall 1984. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 98:335-341. BRA1990-8. Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1986a. Observations of flowering bedding Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1990b. Observations of flowering bedding plants, spring 1985. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1986-6. plants, spring 1990. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1990-21. Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1986b. Observations of flowering bedding Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1991. Observations of flowering bedding plants, fall 1985. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1986-8. plants, fall-winter 1990-1991. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1987a. Observations of flowering bedding BRA1991-12. plants, spring 1986. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA 1987-13. Stanley, C. D. 1992. Temperatureand rainfall report for 1991. Braden Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1987b. Observations of flowering bedding ton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1992-2. plants, fall 1986. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1987-15. United States Dept. Agric. 1992. Floriculture Crops 1991 Summary. Nat'l. Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1988. Observations of flowering bedding Agric. Statistics Serv., USDA, Washington, D.C. plants, spring and fall 1987. Bradenton GCREC Res. Rept. BRA1988- Voight, A. O. 1992. Special report analyzing the 1991 bedding plant 12. season. Prof. Plant Growers Assoc. Season Sales Summary, Lansing, Howe, T. K. and W. E. Waters. 1989. Observations of flowering bedding MI.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:251-256. 1992.

THE CANDLENUT TREE, HANDSOME AND WIND-RESISTANT, IS A NEGLECTED ORNAMENTAL IN FLORIDA

Julia F. Morton having received a gift of seeds from the Philippine Bureau Morton Collectanea of Agriculture in Manila (Anon., 1915). University of Miami Of uncertain origin, possibly eastern Malaysia (Burkill, Coral Gables, FL 33124 1935) it occurs in Kwantung, China, at 3,000 ft altitude (Lee, 1935) and is common, naturalized and cultivated, in Additional index words. Aleurites fordii, A. moluccana, A. triloba, Pakistan and South India (Anon., 1985); abounds all over Imperata cylindrica, lalang, linseed, lumbang, tung. Malaysia, especially the Molucca Islands (Steinmetz, 1965); the Philippines, New Zealand, and Queensland, Australia. Abstract. The candlenut tree, or kukui, Aleurites moluccana It is barely able "to endure the winters of Melbourne" (von (L) Willd., of the family Euphorbiaceae, grows wild in the Mueller, 1885). It has become well established in Mauritius rainforests of the islands of Malaysia (but not on the main (Baker, 1877); also all over , including the land of Asia); also in Melanesia and Polynesia; and is widely Ryukyu Islands (Walker, 1954) and Hawaii where it grows cultivated in the tropics. Introduced by aborigines into profusely and is sometimes dominant (Merrill, 1943) in Hawaii, the tree became naturalized on the slopes of the wet, the lower rainforests. It does not do well on limestone in windward coasts. Normally 20-60 ft in height, it has a broad Guam but inhabits farmlands in the southern part of the canopy of triangular, evergreen leaves, white-woolly when island (Safford, 1905; Stone, 1970). As the seeds are be young, and hence showy in the forests. The small, white, lieved incapable of floating on ocean currents, man is con dioecious flowers are followed by clusters of nearly round sidered to be the main distributor (Barrau, 1960). Arabs fruits, to 2-1/2 in wide, with thick, fleshy rind and 1-2 blac conveyed them to East Africa (Burkill, 1935). In Hawaii, kish, rough seeds having crisp, white kernels. The tree is free solid groves of candlenut trees were cleared to make way of pests though the soft, rotting fallen wood is devoured by for sugar plantations. There are still some remnants of beetles, which are in turn eagerly roasted and eaten by local ancient sacred groves in remote areas where ceremonies people. The wood is used for fuel, floatsfor fishing nets, crates were conducted (Handy and Handy, 1972). and sometimes canoes. The foliage and wood are buried to In the New World, it has become common in Bermuda enrich the soil in taro fields. The kernels contain 60% of a (Britton, 1918), runs wild in waste places in the Bahamas drying oil formerly exported from Hawaii to Russian settlers (Correll and Correll, 1982), is occasionally grown in vari on the northwestern coast of America. Fishermen chew the ous Caribbean islands, including Dominica (Nicolson et al., raw kernels and spew them out over the water to calm it. 1991). In Puerto Rico it does best from sea level to 2,000 After roasting, the kernel is edible and widely consumed. ft in moist limestone areas (Little et al., 1974). It is a famil Various parts of the tree produce other economic products iar treein parts of Panama, where it is planted for shade (dye, tannin, etc., and folk remedies). The hollowed shells, (Escobar, 1972; Standley, 1928); alsoin El Salvador, after retting, smoothing and polishing to a "jet" finish, are Guatemala, Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil (Aguilar strung in necklaces (leis) selling for as much as $35. This Giron, 1966; Allen, 1943; Perez-Arbelaez, 1956; Schnee, useful tree might aid in reforesation in Latin America and 1960). should help to beautify South Florida. Because of its wide distribution, it has acquired a number of local names besides the best-known and well- A stately tree, so comely and faultless that it attracts earned "candlenut". Among them are: ama (Polynesia); little attention, the candlenut, Aleurites moluccana (L.) lama (Samoa); arbol de India (El Salvador); Bengal Willd., (syn. A. triloba R. Forst. and G. Forst.), of thefamily (India); kekuna (Ceylon); mayow (Thailand); kemeeri, de- Euphorbiaceae, is rare in Florida though it was introduced rekan (Java); Indian walnut (Malaya); tuitui (Cook Is by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1915, lands); kukui, when raw; inamora, when cooked (Hawaii);

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105: 1992. 251 is a crisp, cream-colored shell (resembling an egg-shell), enclosing 1-2 (rarely 3) irregular, angular, more or less oblate, black "nuts", appearing grayish because of a white, waxy coating (Brown, 1954). The white kernel is firm and walnut-flavored (Britton and Wilson, 1923-24; Dastur, 1951; Degener, 1945; Dickey etal., 1952; Little etal., 1974; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931; Quisumbing, 1951). It is somewhat toxic, indigestible, or purgative when raw (especially when immature) (Webb, 1948) but has been an important food of Australian aborigines (Cribb and Cribb, 1975). Arnold (1944) says the kernels are "perfectly wholesome" when cooked. Filipinos often employ the seeds as a mild laxative (Quisumbing, 1951), and I have known one Florida farmer who did so occasionally with no ill ef fect. There have also been instances when children in Florida have eaten raw seeds and shown no sign of illness. In Malaya, roasted seeds are added to curries (Burkill, 1935) and are sold as "snacks" in native shops (Corner, 1952). Howes (1953) says that the seeds are edible and palatable after "being stored for some time until they are thoroughly dry". However, they should not be consumed in excess (Cribb and Cribb 1975). Hawaiians roast the ker Fig. 1. The candlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd.) is strong nels, chop them, mix them with seaweed and serve as a and stately, with a broad canopy of evergreen foliage. Photo by Julia F. Morton. relish at feasts (Safford, 1905). In Java, kernels from which the oil has been extracted are soaked in water for 48 hrs lumbang, lumbang bato (Philippines); navi (New Guinea); and then steamed, after covering with a banana leaf and napa or nepa (New Hebrides); gem, gun, jem, maidu, kept in the dark under pressure in a basket for 4 days. The rhawa, tai, and veti (New Caledonia); lauci, sekeci, qere- fermented product (sauce) is esteemed for its flavor (Bur qere, tuitui, and toto (Fiji); nogal de la India (Panama and kill, 1935; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931). Venezuela); noyer de Bancoul; noguiera de Bancul In Sumatra, the processed kernels are used as a substi (Brazil); nuez de India (Puerto Rico); country walnut, tute for (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, Otaheite walnut (Virgin Islands); candleberry (Trinidad); 1931). Roasted kernels are added to curries, and are also tungo (Guatemala); varnish tree (various locales); and pounded with hot peppers, salt and shrimp paste, or the many more (Aguilar, 1919; Aguilar Giron, 1966; Allen, dried ink bag of the squid (Degener, 1945). Steinmetz 1943; Barrau, 1960; Benthall, 1946; Britton, 1918; Britton (1965) says that after World War II, small amounts of and Wilson, 1923-24; Brown, 1954; Burkill, 1935; Christo- candlenuts were being used in western restaurants to pherson, 1935; Corner, 1952; Escobar A., 1972; Fenzi, flavor "special Oriental dishes". 1915; Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922; Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium, 1976; Little et al., 1974; Merrill, 1943; Mors Candlenut Oil and Rizzini, 1966; Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, The expressed oil, "mixed with salt, is the universal 1931; Quisumbing, 1951; Richenda Parham, 1943; Roig y condiment of Hawaiians for seasoning fish and poi" Mesa, 1945; Safford, 1905; Schnee, 1960; Steinmetz, 1965; (Handy and Handy, 1972). The kernels contain 33 to Sturtevant, 1919; Williams and Williams, 1951).

Description

The candlenut is fairly fast-growing (Brown, 1954); it is usually a tree of medium size—30 to 45 ft—sometimes to 60, or even 90 ft in very favorable locations (Degener, 1945). It has a tall, straight trunk and broad, dense crown of evergreen foliage which is coated with a white or gray powdery substance, especially on the young leaves in sum mer, so that the tree stands out in the forest (Degener, 1945; Sturrock and Menninger, 1946). The long-stalked leaves, to 8 or even 12 in long (Williams, 1949), are gener ally ovate or triangular but variable in form, those of young specimens may be 3- to 5-lobed. Male and female flowers, borne on the same trees, are small, white, abundant, in large terminal, downy clusters to 9 in long (Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium, 1976). The fruits, in dangling clusters of 3-6 (Corner, 1952) usually are nearly round, to 2-1/2 in wide; with thick, indehiscent, olive-green rind (Benthall, Fig. 2. Candlenut flowers are small and white. Young leaves in sum 1946). One type in Indonesia has oblong, thick-walled mer are coated with a white or gray powder in contrast to the glossy, fruits (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931). Within dark-green mature leaves. Photo by Julia F. Morton.

252 Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105: 1992. The nuts are hard to crack, but if kept in a 95° F oven for 3-4 hrs and then soaked in cold water overnight, the shells burst, easily releasing the kernels. This method pro duces more oil per ton of nuts than extraction by crushing. Whole nuts can be kept in dry storage for at least 1 yr with no change in the quality of the oil (Aguilar, 1919; Burkill, 1935). The oil repels marine borers (Uphof, 1968) and, as a drying oil, has been valued by artists (Maiden, 1889) and generally for making paint and varnishes, putty, linoleum and soap (Burkill, 1935). It contains olein, palmitin, stearin, myristicin, magnesium and phosphoric anhydride compounds (Steinmetz, 1965). It dries more slowly than linseed oil (Raymond and Squires, 1952-53). There has been modest production of candlenut oil in Santa Catarina, Brazil (Mors and Rizzini, 1966). However, it can no longer compete with linseed oil because of the higher cost of man ual labor in its production (Degener, 1945). In Fiji, the oil has been applied on hair and skin (Altschul, 1973). Currently, in Hawaii, water-clear KUKUI SKINCARE ("Pure kukui nut oil") is sold as a skin mois turizer. It contains linoleic and linolenic fatty acids, also the antioxidants Vitamin C, A and E. It is the product of the HAWAIIAN KUKUI NUT COMPANY which also produces KUKUI CONDITIONING SHAMPOO which contains, besides the oil, water, ammonium lauryl sulfate, Fig. 3. Candlenut fruits are nearly round with a thick, olive-green sodium myreth sulfate, cocoamidopropyl betaine, rind which does not split open. The seeds are hard, irregular, black, more lauramide DEA, PEG-120 methyl glucose dioleate, glycol or less covered with whitish or grayish wax. The kernel is white and crisp; stearate, polysorbate-80, acetylated lanolin, cetyl acetate, edible when roasted. Photo by Julia F. Morton. propylene glycol, methylparaben, citric acid, panthenol, 62.40% (Aguilar Giron, 1966) of a pale-yellow, drying oil quaternium-15, fragrance and propyl paraben. which has been of great value as an illuminant in the Pacific Islands. A popular practice has been the stringing of dried Culture and Harvest or roasted kernels on sticks of bamboo, split roots of Pan- danus (Brown, 1954), or the midrib of a coconut leaflet, or The candlenut tree prefers a warm, humid to very on a reed, and the igniting of them for illumination. After humid climate (Holdridge and Poveda, 1975). It may be burning at the lower end, the strand is inverted and burn propagated by seed, cuttings, or air-layers (Fenzi, 1915). ing continues with renewed brightness (Brown, 1954). The seeds may take 38 to 150 days (Anon., 1985) to germi Each nut burned for 2-3 min (Degener, 1945). Sometimes nate, but sprouting may be hastened by spreading them on the kernels would be wrapped with tapa cloth to prevent the ground, covering with dried grass or leaves, and then burning too fast (Handy and Handy, 1972). A hollow piece burning. While still hot, the nuts are tossed into cold water. of bamboo, stuffed with kernels, also served as a torch or They will crack open and more than 30% will sprout. Some lamp (Degener, 1945). Crude candles were made by mash trees flower and fruit when only 3 yrs old (Brown, 1954). ing the kernels, blending with cotton fiber and forming The tree yields well at 14 x 27 ft spacing (Ngaloken Gint- the wax-like material around a slender splint of bamboo serving as a wick. The candles gave light but also produced malodorous smoke. Both men and women used the soot from the smoke to powder their hair (Steinmetz, 1965), and for tinting their eyelids (Dastur, 1951). It also pro vided a dye for tattooing (Degener, 1945). In Africa, lan terns have been made of banana stems holding bamboo adorned with candlenuts (Williamson, 1955). The extracted oil was burned in crude stone lamps (Brown, 1935; Dastur, 1945). It was not used for cooking (Hurst, 1942). Years ago Hawaiians exported candlenut oil to Russians living on the northwestern coast of America. It is very similar to linseed oil (Neal, 1965), was used for making candles in India, England and Europe (Benthall, 1946; Smith, 1882). At a time of high interest in the oil, exports amounted to 10,000 gals per yr (Neal, 1965). Candlenut oil was by far preferred to that from the thin ner-shelled A. trisperma Blanco (lumbang banucalag) which the Chinese considered irritant (Aguilar, 1919). It is said that 220 lbs of candlenut seeds will yield 44 lbs of oil (Guz Fig. 4. Removal of the fleshy rind reveals a second coat, ova], pointed, man, 1947). brittle, which splits and releases the bony seed. Photo by Julia F. Morton.

Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105: 1992. 253 In Java, candlenuts have been employed in a popular gambling game, the players striving to break each other's nuts by knocking them together (Ochse and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931). Fishermen in the Pacific make a practice of chewing a mouthful of kernels and then spew ing them out over rough water, the released oil making it calm and transparent (Degener, 1945; Handy and Handy, 1972). Similarly, crushed kernels are tossed into boiling sugarcane juice to prevent boiling over (Burkill, 1935). The candlenut is a favorite food of the cassowary (Cribb and Cribb, 1975). The kernels were an important food for wild hogs which were hunted by the Polynesians (Handy and Handy, 1972), but the residue from oil extrac tion, though it is rich in protein (up to 45%) (Burkill, 1935) cannot be used as cattlefeed (Brown, 1954; Steinmetz, 1965). It is valued for fertilizer because of its 8.5% nitrogen and 4% phosphoric acid content (Steinmetz, 1965). Fresh candlenut leaves and flowers are popular com bined in leis (Neal, 1965). Holes for taro planting were often enriched by candlenut leaves or rotting wood of old Fig. 5. A growing industry in Hawaii is the extraction of oil from candlenut trees (Handy and Handy, 1972). The pale, soft candlenut kernels for use in skin-moisturizing cosmetics and shampoo. wood weighs about 38 lbs per cu. ft (Benthall, 1946). It is Photo by Julia F. Morton. useful for fuel (Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922) and some times used for tea chests and (Sundaraj and Balasubraman- ings and Semadi, 1980). Young ones may produce 75-100 yan, 1969), canoes, roofing timbers, and water-catching lbs of nuts per yr (Neal, 1965). Yield from mature trees troughs (Handy and Handy, 1972), matchsticks (Burkill, may range from 5,000 to 15,000 nuts annually (Brown, 1935), etc. but it is not durable (Maiden, 1889) and is sub 1954). Candlenuts for oil production are not harvested ject to termite infestation (Walker, 1954). Beetles attack from the tree but allowed to fall and lie on the ground freshly felled logs (Anon., 1985) and their grubs are re until the husk decays (Aguilar, 1919). lished by the natives of New Caledonia (Barrau, 1960). Australians have found the wood suitable for paper-mak Candlenut Leis ing. It yields 62% cellulose (Burkill, 1935). In modern times, the candlenuts are principally used The bark of the tree is used for tanning. A resin ob for making leis (necklaces). At first, the nuts were pierced tained from the wounded bark of the tree was used to and buried in the rich earth of marshes or taro fields where catch birds (Brown, 1935). The feet of those released were the kernel rotted or was eaten by ants, and the shell became cleaned with candlenut oil. The resin was brushed onto jet-black (Brown, 1935) and ready for polishing with the kapa cloth to make it more permanent and waterproof, stipules of the breadfruit tree and oiled (Degener, 1945). imparting a dark, red-brown color (Degener, 1945). It was also useful for tanning fishing lines and mats (Brown, Today, the HAWAIIAN KUKUI NUT COMPANY oper ates a candlenut factory on the north shore of Oahu. Ac 1935). A brown dye for clothing is extracted from the tree's cording to the company's brochure, the nuts are first placed in tumblers and rotated with a mild abrasive (pul verized corn husks) for 30 hrs. Then a hole is drilled through each nut with an air drill. After rinsing, the nuts are returned to the tumblers for 6 hrs. Next, a trim wheel removes rough spots and the nuts are finished in polishing tumblers, strung on ribbons, and brought to a glossy glow by a buffing wheel. Fully mature nuts are all-black; imma ture nuts are medium-brown. The leis have been offered in mail order catalogs such as Brookstone, Peterborough, New Hampshire, at $35.00 for a 15-in (15-nut) lei, the same price as at the factory. Some are currently being pro duced and exported from Taiwan. The polished nuts are also used in costume jewelry, including rings (Degener, 1945), tie-clasps, ornamental pins, and earrings (Neal, 1965).

Other Uses of the Candlenut Tree

The candlenut tree, in olden days, was rated as second in importance to the coconut palm (Barrau, 1960). In

1965, Neal wrote: "recently the kukui was made the official Fig. 6. Candlenuts are transformed by retting and/or mechanical tree emblem for the State of Hawaii because of the multip polishing, into jet-black (mature) or chocolate-brown (immature) "beads" licity of its uses". for necklaces or other ornamental jewelry. Photo by Julia F. Morton.

254 Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105: 1992. roots in the Sandwich Islands (Dastur, 1951). The root Barrau, J. 1960. The candlenut tree. South Pacific Bull. Vol. 10, No 2 bark, mixed with charcoal, served to paint canoes black Pp. 39 and 42. (Degener, 1945). Benthall, A. P. 1946. Trees of Calcutta and its neighborhood. Thacker The candlenut tree is now being planted in Sumatra to Spink & Co. (1933) Ltd., Calcutta. Britton, N. L. 1918. Flora of Bermuda. Charles Scribner's Sons, New suppress the pantropical pest grass, lalang (Imperata cylin- York. drica (L.) Beauv.). Control is achieved 3 yrs after planting and P. Wilson. 1923-24. Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin at 14 X 14 ft spacing (Ngaloken Gin tings and Semadi, Islands. Vol. 5, Pts. 1-4. Sci. Surv. of P. R. and the V. I. New York 1980). In Java, the tree is cultivated for reforestation Acad. of Sciences, New York. Brown, F. B. H. 1935. Flora of Southeastern Polynesia. II. Dicotyledons. (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink, Jr., 1963). In Bull. 130. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. Southeast Asia, it has been utilized for "clothing sand- Brown, W. H. 1954. Useful plants of the Philippines. Vol. 2 (Tech. Bull. dunes" (Burkill, 1935). 10). Philippines Dept. of Agric. and Nat. Res.; Manila. Burkill, I. H. 1935. Dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Folk Medicine Peninsula. 2 vols. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, England. Christopherson, E. 1935. Flowering plants of Samoa. (Bull. 128). Bernice In the Marquesas, the juice of the green rind of the P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii. fruit was used to treat thrush in infants and to treat various Corner, E. J. H. 1952. Wayside trees of Malaya. Vols. 1 & 2. Gov't Ptg. Off., Singapore. skin ailments. The leaf sap was used similarly (Brown, Correll, D. S. and H. B. Correll. 1982. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago 1935). In Malaya, boiled leaves are poulticed on the tem (incl. the Turks and Caicos Islands). J. Cramer, Baduz, Germany. ples to relieve headache (Burkill, 1935). Leaves heated with Cribb, A. B. and J. W. Cribb. 1975. Wild food in Australia. William Col a flatiron are reportedly laid on rheumatic pains lins, Publishers Pty., Ltd., Sydney, Australia. Dastur, J. P. 1951. Useful plants of India and Pakistan. 2nd Indian ed. (Quisumbing, 1951). A leaf infusion is employed in In D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Ltd., Bombay, India. donesia against scrofula (Steinmetz, 1965). Tests in Florida Degener, O. 1930 (reprinted 1945). Plants of Hawaii National Park Illus showed that candlenut leaves are toxic to chickens but less trative of plants and customs of the South Seas. 1st ptg. author so than those of the tung-oil tree, A. fordii Hemsl. (Kings- (N.Y.B.G.), Bronx Park, New York. 1945 reprint. Edwards Bros., Inc., bury, 1964). In Fiji, the bark is grated and boiled in sea- Ann Arbor, Michigan. Dickey, R. D., S. G. Gilbert, and C. R. Gropp. 1952. The genus Aleurites water till reduced by 50%. Then the decoction is used as a in Florida. Bull. 503, pamphlet 40. Univ. of Fla. Agr. Exper. Sta., mouthwash or remedy for neuralgia (Richenda Parham, Gainesville, FL. 1943). Astringent, resinous sap from the tree's inner bark Escobar A., N. 1972. Flora t6xica de Panama. Editorial Universitaria, has been used to relieve sorethroat and as a diuretic Univ. de Panama, Panama. Fenzi, E. O. 1915. Frutti tropicali e semitropicali (Esclusi gli agrumi). Inst. (Brown, 1935). It is mixed with coconut milk and drunk Agric. Coloniale Italiano, Firenze, Italy. to relieve "sprue" (digestive and intestinal malfunction) Friese, F. W. 1934. Plantas medicinaes Brasileiras. Inst. Agron. de Estado. (Steinmitz, 1965). The bark is also employed to relieve Sao Paulo, Brazil. asthma (Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922). Guzman, D. J. 1947. Especies utiles de la flora Salvadorena. Imprenta Sometimes the ground kernels are used like linseed in Nacional, San Salvador, El Salvador. Handy, E. S. C. and E. G. Handy with Collab. of M. K. Pukui. 1972. poultices (Steinmetz, 1965). The baked, pulverized kernels Native planters in Old Hawaii, their life, lore and environment. Bull. enter into a mixture applied to ulcers and open sores 233. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. (Kaaiakamanu and Akina, 1922). A dose of 30 g of Holdridge, L. R. and L. J. Poveda A. 1975. Arboles de Costa Rica. Vol. candlenut oil has been prescribed as a purgative, acting 1. Centro Cientifico Tropical, San Jose, Costa Rica. Howes, P. N. 1953. Nuts: their production and everyday uses. 2nd ed like (Safford, 1905). The oil has also been applied Faber 8c Faber, Ltd., London, England. to the body to allay rheumatism (Steinmetz, 1965). Lepers Hurst, E. 1942. The poison plants of New South Wales. N. S. W. Poison in Brazil benefit from applying the oil externally while tak Plant Comm., Univ. of Sydney 8c N. S. W., Sydney, Australia. ing small doses internally (Freise, 1934). Kaaiakamanu, D. M. and J. K. Akina (Trans, by Akaiko Akana). 1922. Hawaiian herbs of medicinal value. Pacific Book House, Honolulu Charles E. Tuttle 8c Co., Rutland, Vt. and Tokyo, Japan. Literature Cited Kingsbury, J. M. 1961. Poisonous plants of the United States and Canada. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Aguilar, R. H. 1919. The lumbang-oil industry of the Philippine Islands, Lee, S. 1935. Forest botany of China. Commercial Press, Ltd., Shanghai. Philippine J. Sci. 14:275-285. Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. 1976. Hortus Third — a concise dictio Aguilar Giron, J. I. 1966. Relacion de unos aspectos de la flora util de nary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan Guatemala. Tipografia Nacional de Guatemala; for "Asoc. Amigos del Publishing Co., Inc., New York Bosque". Little, E. L., R. G. Woodbury, and F. H. Wadsworth. 1974. Trees of Allen, P. H. 1943. Poisonous and injurious plants of Panama (Supp. to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Vol. 2, Agric. Handbook 449. U. Amer. J. Trop. Med. Vol. 23, No. 1). Williams and Wilkins Co., Balti S. Dept. Agric, Forest Service, Washington, D. C. more, Md. Maiden, J. H. 1889. Useful native plants of Australia (ind. Tasmania). Altschul, S. von R. 1973. Drugs and foods from little-known plants. Har Technological Museum of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. vard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. Merrill, E. D. 1943. Emergency food plants and poisonous plants of the Anon. 1915. Aleurites moluccana (L. Willd.). #40977. Plant Immigrants islands of the Pacific. Tech. Manual 10-420. War Dept., Washington, No. 111-12. July-Aug. USDA Bur. of Plant Industry, Office of Foreign D. C Seed and Plant Introduction, Washington, D. C. p. 904. Merrill, E. D. 1945. Plant life of the Pacific world. The Macmillan Co., Anon. 1985. The Wealth of India: a dictionary of Indian raw materials New York. and industrial products. Raw Materials Vol. I: A. Publications and Mors, W. B. and C. T. Rizzini. 1966. Useful plants of Brazil. Holden-Day, Information Directorate, Coun. Sci. and Indus. Res., New Delhi. Inc., San Francisco, California. Arnold, H. L. 1944. Poisonous plants of Hawaii. Tongg Publishing Co., Neal, M. C. 1965. In gardens of Hawaii. Spec. Pub. 50. Bishop Museum Honolulu, Hawaii. Press. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii Backer, C. A. and Bakhuizen van den Brink, Jr. 1963. Flora of Java Ngaloken Gintings, A. and J. G. K. Semadi. 1980. Trial planting of kemiri (Spermatophytes only) Vol. I. N. V. P. Noordhoff, Groningen, The {Aleurites moluccana) in a shifting cultivation area in Tanjung Bintang, Netherlands. #339. South Lampung, Sumatra. Laporan-Lembaga, Penelitian Baker, J. G. 1877. Flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles: a description of Hutan (Indonesia). the flowering plants and ferns of those Islands. L. Reeve & Co., Lon Nicolson, D. with R. A. DeFilipps, A. C. Nicolson and others. 1991. Flora don.

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Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105:256-261. 1992.

DIEFFENBACHIAS TO KNOW AND GROW

R. W. Henley rymen for their value as ornamental pot plants. Although Central Florida Research and Education Center a few species, such as D. amoena and D. maculata (D. picta) IFAS, University of Florida were grown commercially in large numbers as recently as Apopka, FL 32703 the late 1970s, they are difficult to find today except in conservatories and private collections. Dieffenbachias are among the five most popular in Additional index word, foliage plant. terior foliage plants produced and sold in the United States. A Florida Department of Agriculture, Division of Abstract Terminal cuttings of 17 dieffenbachia cultivars Marketing report on 1991 foliage plant production in rooted under mist in 15-cm containers were grown to maturity Florida indicates dieffenbachias were 7% of the product at which time the number of basal shoots per plant was mix of the nurseries surveyed (Sheehan, 1992). Most mod counted. Five cultivars had no basal shoots, 7 produced from ern dieffenbachias are either hybrids resulting from plant 1 to 4 shoots, and 5 produced more than 4 shoots. A second breeding or sports from plants which spontaneously de evaluation included 26 dieffenbachia cultivars finished in 15- veloped in cultivation. Popular dieffenbachias of this dec or 20-cm pots from commercial nurseries. Leaf lamina length ade are generally highly variegated, have leaves with short and ratio of lamina length to width were determined. The petioles, and in most cases produce basal shoots freely, lamina length to width ratio is a good indicator of the leaf unlike the popular single-stem dieffenbachias of 20 years shape. A ratio of less than 2 to 2.9 was classified as wide, a ago and earlier. ratio of 3 or more was regarded as intermediate, and a ratio Dieffenbachias are most frequently used as specimen of more than 3 was considered narrow. Of the leaves exam plants for decorating homes and other indoor areas. Plants ined from 26 cultivars and species, 5 were wide, 15 were inter in 7- to 20-cm pot sizes are commonly used on tables, desks mediate and 6 were narrow. The remainder of the paper is and counters while plants set at floor level are usually in dedicated to descriptions of 34 cultivars of dieffenbachia, in 20-cm diameter pots and larger. Interiorscapers occasion cluding plants from the previously mentioned evaluations plus ally plant dieffenbachias in mass to obtain desired patterns some additional plants obtained from commercial growers. of color and texture in large spaces indoors. Small dieffen bachia plants, usually 10-cm or less, are useful in combina A member of the aroid family (Araceae), the genus Dief tion planters, such as dish gardens. fenbachia is composed of about 30 species of broad-leaved, The primary purpose of this article is to describe visual upright, herbaceous plants indigenous to South and Cen characteristics of most current commercial dieffenbachia tral America (Bailey et al, 1976). Most of the species have cultivars. Two popular books on tropical ornamental plant been evaluated by plant collectors and commercial nurse- material, Exotica III (Graf, 1968) and Tropica (Graf, 1978), do not reflect the cultivars of dieffenbachia which

Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. N-00734. were popular when these books were published.

256 Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 105: 1992.