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The Spatial Configuration of Agricultural Practices and the Role of Resilience in Farming at Khutwaneng, Bokoni

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The Spatial Configuration of Agricultural Practices and the Role of Resilience in Farming at Khutwaneng, Bokoni THE SPATIAL CONFIGURATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND THE ROLE OF RESILIENCE IN FARMING AT KHUTWANENG, BOKONI Tiffany Fae Henshall A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2016 DECLARATION I declare that this Theses* is my own, unaided work. It is being submitted for the Degree of Master of Science at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other University. _______________________________________ (Signature of candidate) ____________________day of _______________________20________________in_____________ i | P a g e Abstract Despite the expansive size of the Bokoni complex, our knowledge with regards to many aspects of its occupancy is limited. Due to the agriculturally centred nature of the Bokoni, it is important to understand this facet of Bokoni life from as many perspectives as possible. This project aims to take us one step closer to achieving a deeper understanding of the agricultural practices of the Bokoni people. Through my fieldwork and the processing of collected data on land management practices of this society have been explored. Additionally Khutwaneng and the Bokoni complex in general, provide an interesting case study in the role of resilience in agricultural communities. Their agricultural success is inseparably linked to the adaptive strategies employed throughout their occupancy. This allowed for the consideration of the recursive relationship between resilience and sustainability, furthering our understanding of the Bokoni complex. ii | P a g e For my father The inimitable, Jonathan Howard Henshall. 1952-2007 iii | P a g e Acknowledgements Foremost I would like to thank my Supervisor, Dr Alex Schoeman for all of her invaluable advice and guidance, without which this project would have been impossible. I would also like to thank Mr Nico Cross, Mr Martin Coetzee and Mr Andre Schoeman for allowing us access to their farm for our research. Many thanks to Lauren Solomon, Oupa Mkhabela and Lucas Mathabula for their assistance during my field work. A special thanks to Lynda Whitfield for her assistance with the redrawing of maps. I would also like to thank my partner Timothy Marais for his assistance of my field work as well as his unconditional support during the duration of this project, I could not have done this without you. Lastly I would like to thank my friends and family for their understanding and encouragement, particularly Adam Saber – my personal cheerleader and the best friend imaginable. iv | P a g e Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... iv Chapter1: Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Literature review .............................................................................................................. 5 Agriculture in global archaeology ................................................................................................... 5 An overview of agriculture in Africa ............................................................................................... 5 The history of agriculture in Southern Africa ................................................................................ 10 The necessity of land management .............................................................................................. 11 Environmental change in Bokoni.................................................................................................. 13 Farming strategies ....................................................................................................................... 15 Resilience and sustainability ........................................................................................................ 19 Bokoni ......................................................................................................................................... 23 Research to date.......................................................................................................................... 24 Marakwet .................................................................................................................................... 30 Willowvale................................................................................................................................... 37 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 3: Methodology.................................................................................................................. 43 Survey ......................................................................................................................................... 44 Mapping ...................................................................................................................................... 47 Shovel testing .............................................................................................................................. 48 Yield calculations ......................................................................................................................... 50 Comparative analysis, ethnographic and historical data ............................................................... 50 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 53 Chapter 4: Data ............................................................................................................................... 54 Site description............................................................................................................................ 54 Homestead 1 ............................................................................................................................... 56 Test pits: Homestead 1 ............................................................................................................ 58 v | P a g e Homestead 2 ............................................................................................................................... 60 Test Pits: Homestead 2 ............................................................................................................ 62 Homestead 3 ............................................................................................................................... 64 Test Pits: Homestead 3 ............................................................................................................ 66 Homestead 4 ............................................................................................................................... 68 Test Pits: Homestead 4 ............................................................................................................ 71 Homestead 5 ............................................................................................................................... 72 Test Pits: Homestead 5 ............................................................................................................ 75 Homestead 6 ............................................................................................................................... 77 Test Pits: Homestead 6 ............................................................................................................ 80 Homestead 7 ............................................................................................................................... 81 Test Pits: Homestead 7 ............................................................................................................ 85 Homestead 8 ............................................................................................................................... 86 Test Pits: Homestead 8 ............................................................................................................ 88 Homestead 9 ............................................................................................................................... 90 Test Pits: Homestead 9 ............................................................................................................ 91 Homestead 10 ............................................................................................................................. 93 Test Pits: Homestead 10 .......................................................................................................... 95 Finds............................................................................................................................................ 96 Summary of mapping and shovel testing outcomes ..................................................................... 98 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 98 Chapter 5: Yields ............................................................................................................................. 99 Surface
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