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Crafting Together the Political Economy of Iron Age Communities in Southern Africa, AD 900-1900

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Crafting Together the Political Economy of Iron Age Communities in Southern Africa, AD 900-1900 ‘Phalaborwa where the hammer is heard’: crafting together the political economy of Iron Age communities in southern Africa, AD 900-1900 University of Cape Town ABIGAIL JOY MOFFETT Thesis presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Archaeology UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN DECEMBER 2016 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town Abstract In Africa and elsewhere, producers form a critical dimension to archaeological reconstructions of the political economy. However, few studies address the relationship between producers and the political economy from the vantage point of production sites. This study addresses the position of metal producers in the regional political economy of Iron Age (AD 200 – 1900) communities in southern Africa through an in-depth analysis of one production locale, Shankare. Shankare is a production and habitation site located in close proximity to the Lolwe mineral body in Phalaborwa. Studying the organisation of production, identity of producers, mechanisms of exchange and evidence of consumption at Shankare provided an important platform to assess producers in the context of the domestic and regional economy. Research at Shankare and surrounding sites revealed that production was characterised by a community of homestead based producers located in proximity to the ore source. Metal production took place in domestic contexts in conjunction with other activities, and with clear evidence of scheduling and cross-crafting overlaps. Producers acted independently and were well connected within a regional exchange system that facilitated the flow of local products and imported items such as glass beads and cowrie shells (Cypraea annulus). The study of producers at Shankare indicates the presence of a decentralised political economy resulting in a high degree of autonomy of producers and consumers in the region. Comparisons between the organisation of metal production at Shankare through time indicate that in both occupational periods, AD 900- 1300 and AD 1700-1900, production strategies were contextually negotiated, with no clear correlation between political centralisation and specialised production. This research challenges existing models of control and the enactment of power in the political economy of the Iron Age. It has further potential implications for reconsidering the parameters for identifying power relations utilised in global archaeological theory. i Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge a number of individuals and institutions that have made this research possible. Funding for my studies was provided through a grant-holder linked National Research Foundation (NRF) bursary facilitated by Associate Professor Shadreck Chirikure. Additional funding from the Erasmus-Mundus Association allowed me to spend five months at K.U. Leuven in Belgium from which I greatly benefited. Access to Shankare for fieldwork was granted by the Palabora Mining Company. Special thanks to Tim Paxton and the heritage officers Johannes Malatji, Adam Mhlongo, Thembani and Mandla who facilitated our research at Shankare and also contributed towards our understanding of the site. Guy Thomas, Ndeshihala De Almeida, Michelle House, Liesl Ward, John Noble, Thokozani Zulu, Foreman Bandama and Louisa Hutten kindly participated in field work at Shankare. From rogue elephant visitors on site to experimental mopani worm dinners, there was never a dull moment! To my colleagues and friends in the archaeology department, Delores Jacobs, Lynn Cable, Louisa Hutten, Michelle House, Robert Nyamushosho, Tawanda Mukwende, Pauline Tapfuma and Ashley Coutu, thank you for your support and help with this research. I drew a lot of comfort and strength from having caring friends with whom to share the daily challenges (and triumphs) of research with. Delores Jacobs assisted with the cleaning and labelling of ceramics from Shankare. Michelle House analysed all the fauna from Shankare. A special thanks go to Dr. Foreman Bandama for your guidance and friendship throughout my post-graduate studies. From learning the basics of Adobe Illustrator to the mechanics of polishing metallurgical samples, you have always been willing and helpful. Thank you to Mrs. Miranda Waldron of the Electron Microscope Unit for providing assistance with SEM analysis. Thomas Slingsby and Nicholas Lindenberg from the Geospatial Unit and Guy Thomas provided helpful assistance with mapping. I am deeply grateful to the teachers and mentors that have inspired and supported my journey in African history and archaeology. In particular I would like to acknowledge Shamil Jeppie, Maanda Mulaudzi, Antonia Malan, Per Ditlef Fredriksen, Tim Maggs and Judith Sealy. Saarah Jappie, Susana Molins-Literas and Ashley Coutu have also been both kind and supportive friends and mentors. I have benefitted greatly from the dedicated supervision of Associate Professor Shadreck Chirikure. Your willingness to engage with new ideas, encouragement to think critically and incredible energy and enthusiasm for the disciple has been invaluable and inspirational. I am similarly deeply indebted to the guidance and supervision of Associate Professor Simon Hall. From an initial introduction into Iron Age archaeology in your third year class through to the many lengthy discussions we have had over the years, you have greatly enriched my understanding of archaeology. Growing up as an often liminal newcomer in different countries has no doubt influenced my academic trajectory. To the many people that have taught and shaped me along the way, thank you. To my loving friends and family, thank you all for supporting me (and my absence ii of late!) throughout this journey. Bee, Steph and Rach, you have not only been the greatest of sisters but very supportive friends. Ian, thank you for your constant support and for sharing so much of this journey with me. Finally to my parents, Marianne and Mark Moffett, who nurtured in me a curiosity for the past, provided unfailing support and encouragement throughout my education and who continue to inspire me with their own lives. My deepest thanks cannot express my gratitude mom and dad, this certainly would not have been possible without you both! iii Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................. iv List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... xii Chapter One: .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction to metal production in the political economy of southern African Iron Age communities ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Metals and the Iron Age political economy of southern Africa ............................................ 4 1.3 Phalaborwa as a locus of metal production .......................................................................... 7 1.4 Research aims ......................................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Outline of thesis chapters ................................................................................................... 11 Chapter Two: ........................................................................................................................................ 13 From global to local: theoretical approaches to political economy ................................................... 13 2.1 Introduction to chapter ........................................................................................................ 13 2.2 Introduction to the political economy of southern Africa .................................................. 14 2.3 A review of influential theory in archaeological approaches to political economy .......... 18 2.4 A critique of current approaches to the study of the political economy of complex societies ............................................................................................................................................ 21 2.5 Dominant approaches to complexity and the political economy of the southern African Iron Age ............................................................................................................................................ 26 2.6 Limitation of current understandings of the political economy of
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