A review through time

Prologue The importance of being aware

Nicosia is the city I grew up, the capital of , the core of the division of the island and the location of my graduation project. The graduation project aims to intervene in the city of Nicosia and to propose - through the quali- ties architecture can provide - a solution to the major current problem of the division of the island. The purpose of this research is to analyse the location of the intervention - the city of Nicosia - and to create awareness about the developments and the current situation of the city today. The content of the research presents how the city of Nicosia changed through the centuries until today, focussing on the urban developments as well as the socio political developments that influ- ence and have influenced the transformations of the city until today. Therefore the research is divided in two parts, the first part is providing a basic geographical information about the location of Nicosia and the important characteristics for the inhabitation of the area. The second and most important part of the research is presenting in chronological order the transformations of the city, from ancient to recent times, focussing on the urban developments and the socio political changes that relate to these developments. Newborn swallows in their nests and a building’s roof. Nicosia A review through time

Content

The geography of Nicosia

Chronological analysis of the urban and the socio political developments of Nicosia

Alexis Ierides Faculty of Architecture Explore lab graduation studio TU Delft Nicosia A review through time

The geography of Nicosia Plan of the island

Cartography of the island The district and the city of Nicosia now

Occupied Cyprus /(Turkish Republic of ) Kyrenia Famagusta

Border line (UN territory) Nicosia

British military base

Paphos Limassol

British military base

Map of Cyprus with the districts. In color is the district of Nicosia. The district and the city of Nicosia [now] The important geographical characteristics of Nicosia

West East

The cartography of Cyprus with highlated the part of Pediaios river that runs through Nicosia. The Pedieos river starts from the mountain range of Troodos, pass through Nicosia and ends to the east coast, to the gulf of Famagusta. The riverbed of Pedieos becomes the core of the inhabitation of Nicosia since the first settlements. The river is named after the combination of the ancient Greek words “ιδείν” (idin) and “Εος” (eos) which mean looking at the dawn. The important geographical characteristics of Nicosia

A view from towards the mountain range of Pentadaktylos. Another important characteristic of the geography of Nicosiai s the flatness of the area (mesao- ria), that is encircled in the far ends by the two main mountain ranges of Cyprus (Pentadaktylos and Troodos). Mesaoria is a fertile ground that offers security and overview to the neighbouring areas and mountains Nicosia A review through time

Chronological analysis of the urban and the socio political developments of Nicosia

This chronological analysis focus on the city of Nicosia and more specifically how the “walled city” developed through time. The experience of the walled city today exists of traces from the past. In order to understand the urban and social development of the city today it is necessary to have knowledge of the socio political developments of the city from the past, that “formed” the current situation of the city today. This chapter provides a chronological analysis of the city from the ancient times until now, focussing on the socio political developments and their relation with how the city is being developed. Coat of arms of the rulers of Cyprus until its indipendance: , Lusignan Kingdom, Venetian Rule, Ottoman Empire, British Rule, Republic of Cyprus. 1050 B.C. - 330 A.C City kingdoms

Based on Hellenistic scripts the area that is now called Nicosia was in the ancient times the terrain of the city kingdom of Ledra, one of the twelve city kingdoms of Cyprus. Due to its inland location Ledra was not as important as the coastal city kingdoms in the ancient history and this is one of the reasons that historians know so little about the developments of Ledra. What is assumed is that the first growth of the city kingdom of Ledra was on the southern part of Pediaios river. The capital of the island was until the 4th century A.C.. During the 4th century the capital changed from Paphos to Salamina that became the centre of the Apostolic Church during the first years of the Byzantine Empire.

Hitroi Soloi Ledra Salamina

Marion Tamasos Idalion

Paphos

Map with the ancient city kingdoms of Cyprus 395 B.C. - 1191 A.C Byzantine Empire

During the Byzantine Empire the island is being raid by the Arabs. The coastal settlements become war zones and the safer inner area of Cyprus gets new attention. Around the 7th century the area of Ledra changes name to Lefkosia. The origin of this name probably comes from the word Lefko- theon - in Greek this is the combination of lefko (white) and theos (God) - or from the word Lefkon - in Greek this word is used for the lefka (populus) tree - which are both words that were used to describe the kingdom of Ledra. Around the 10th century Lefkosia becomes the capital of the island - until today - and the centre of the government and archbishopric. It is not clear where the Byzantine buildings and developments have been settled exactly but it is known that Lefkosia becomes a city of monasteries and churches, among others the church of Ayia Sophia which became later the important cathedral of the city. Stamp of the archbischop Efstorgiou (1217) with the drawing of a church, probably Ayia Sophia 1192-1489 The Frankish Rule

During the 12th and 15th century Nicosia becomes the capital of the medieval Kingdom of Cyprus, the seat of Lusignan kings, the Latin Church and the Frankish administration of the island. The first Frankish king Guy de Lusignan arrives in Nicosia in 1192 to find a city without any diffen- sive structure nor any significant fortification. It was during this period that the city develops to a new fortification of the Lusignan Kingdom through which the river was diverted in order to flow through the town and provide the necessary water supply. Map of Cyprus from 1562 by Bertelli Ferrando

13th century

Illustration of the probable position of the fortification of the city from the Lusignan kings. The illustration is made based on the later fortification of the city from the Venetians (dotted line). Historians and arhcaiologists are not sure about the exact location and shape of the fortifications of the Lusignan Kingdom that was finished in 13th century. The plan of a probable position and size of the fortification is made in comparison to the later Venetian walled city. According to testi- monials of that period the city is characterised by the wealthy gardens and springs and palaces. The Frankish king settled in the area of the former center of the Byzantine Empire at the western part of the city that is now enriched with gothic architecture. 13th century

Third Lusignan Palace

Western district

Cathedral of Agia Sophia

Main course of the river

Eastern district

Second Lusignan Palace First Lusignan Palace

Divertion of the river through the city

Gardens and springs

From the descriptions of the city it is clear that it has been divided in two districts: the western district characterised by the inhabitation of the upper class of the Frankish rule and the eastern district that is inhabited by the natives. The church of Agia Sophia is during this period trans- formed into the cathedral of the city. 1489-1570 The Republic of Venice

At the end of the 15th century the Republic of Venice took over Cyprus. During this period Nicosia develops into “citta ideale”, the “ideal city” with an efficient defensive structure. This ideal was the catalyst of the new development of the city, the “optimisation” of the city’s plan and fortifica- tion. The defensive necessities against the Ottoman raids were the reason for the demolition of many existing buildings and heritage from previous settlements, including buildings and fortifica- tions of the Byzantine Empire and the Frankish rule. The construction of the new fortifications were finished in 1567, three years before the raid from the Ottoman empire. Map of Cyprus from 1629 by Raigniauld. H

Ayia Sofia church as centre of the fortification

Drawing of the architect of the new Venetian fortification of Nicosia, Giulio Savorgnan, 1573 The new fortification has a circular plan - combined with arrow shaped bastions - and in its centre the Cathedral of Ayia Sofia. On the perimeter three gates are placed allowing the entrance to and departure from the city. Defensive optimisation

SymbolComparison of Venetian of the fortifications coat of arms, of Famagusta Nicosia (left half) with the fortification of Palma (right half) made by Giulio Savorgnan, the architect of both cities. The previous fortification of the Frankish rule was demolished to give place to the Venetian fortifi- cation which was much more compact and efficient in terms of defence. The inner buildings of the new wall were supposed to be built in a strict geometrical radial setting but due to the high prices of the plots for the scenario of the radial setting this plan failed. The design principles of the fortification

2M

700 venetian feets (243,11m)

1M

1M’

560 venetian feets (194,48m)

1 Gate Giouliana (Famagusta gate) 2M’ 2 Gate San Domenico (Paphos Gate) 3 Gate Del Provetitore (Kyrenia Gate) 0 1000 2000 Venetian feet (0.34 m)

0 500m Meters DiagramSymbol of for Venetian analysing coat the of structure arms, Famagusta of the Venetian fortification. Source: Kevork Kesisian, p.84 All 11 bastions are build in the same way but have different dimensions. The city has two diameters - both having Agia Sophia in the centre-, the diameter of the inner city and the diameter of the outer city. Both are divided in seven equal units (M & M’). The center-to-center distance of the bastions of the northern semicircle is equal to 2M and for the southern semicircle is equal to 2M’. The inner unit (M’) is equal to 560 venetian feets (194,48m), the outer unit (M) is equal to 700 venetian feets (243,11m). level of neighboring fields

outside dry dike Section ofthe Venetian fortification.Source: KevorkKesisian,p.80 4. Theenemy shouldbekeptintheshooting distancefrom thebastions 3. Theenemy shouldbeuncovered whentheycross thedikeand thewater 2. Theenemyshouldbeprevent toattackfrom thelevelofneighbouringfields 1. Theenemyshouldbekept asfarpossiblefrom thecity. The maingoalsofthefortification ofthecitywere:

outside dike for water The defensivepurposeofthefortification outside fortification Shooting distancefromthebastions

main dike

lower diffensive wall patrol route

upper wall

guardians route

the inner city 1570-1878 The Ottoman Empire

During the Ottomans Nicosia undergoes great socio political changes. During the previous rulers of the island there was a great barrier between the foreign nobles and rulers and native people. This situation changes during the Ottoman times where the native people allowed to access the walled city which becomes accessible to all social classes. For this reason the spacious city with the royal gardens transformed into a dense built environment. This “urban densification” of the city had no influence on the structure of the walls which remained the same, both in shape as in the access points. Another important socio political change was the new administrative system that is intro- duced by the Ottomans which encouraged a dual system of administration - the so called “millet system” developed to legally protect the non-Islamic groups - allowing the native (Christian) population to have their own autonomy. For the autonomy of the non-Islamic groups there was a representative who was allowed to apply his own rules and in exchange had to be loyal to the Otto- man Empire and taxation. In Cyprus the responsible person for the autonomy of the native popula- tion was the archbishop who became from a religious leader to also the political figure of the Christians. These socio political characteristics of this period are visible in the tectonics of the walled city which is now enriched from both religions, the Christians and the Muslims. fortification from the Ottomans Venetian Illustration of the fall In terms of demographics it is also important to mention that another ethnic group is introduced to the island with the arrival of the Ottomans, the Turks. The Turks are since the Ottoman times part of the native population of the island that was previously in majority Greek since the ancient times. The reason of the growth of the Turks in Cyprus was the policy of the Ottoman Empire to give land grands (the so called “timars”) to Ottoman soldiers under the condition that they and their families would stay there permanently. The Ottoman soldiers became the first Turkish inhabitants of the island.

The division

Muslim district

Selimiye Mosque (Former Agia Sophia)

Christian Armenian district

Christian district

Illustration of the ethnic division of the walled city during the Ottoman Empire. The city becomes accessible to all social classes with a clear distinction between the districts of the Christians and the Muslims. The northern part of the city was characterised by the Muslim districts and architecture with the most important one the transformation of the cathedral of Ayia Sofia into the Selimiye mosque. This is also the district that hosted the Ottoman governor and administration centres. The southern part of the city which was the part that suffered the most dem- olitions from the Ottoman raid against the Venetians is inhabited by the Christians. The connection

City’s main as Government offices (Serai/ Sarayönü Square)

bazars & markets Selimiye Mosque (Agia Sophia)

Major street (Trikoupi street)

Illustration of the important buildings of the walled city and the major streets during the Ottoman Empire. The creation of two seperated districts did not exclude interaction between the Muslims and the Christians. The markets and commercial streets became the common ground of the two groups. Trikoupi street becomes the widest and more important of the walled city, extending to the Selimiye Moesque and the government buildings. Another important change is that the physical border within the city, the Pediaios river, becomes dry. 1878-1959 The British Rule

During the British rule the walled city transforms from a fortification to a centre of trade and com- merce with some major changes on the infrastructure and accessibility of the city due to the new expansions outside the walls. The fortification of the walled city has lost its diffensive value and is being fragmented to give space to roads that connect the walled city with the outer urban expan- sions. The developments on the outside influenced the structure of the walled city creating two main axes. The first is the axis of Ledras street (south) that is followed by Kyrenia street (north) which become important due to their connection with outer expansions. Ledras street connect the walled city with the new buildings of the government which are now placed outside the walls to the south. Kyrenia street connects the walled city with the new railway station on the north. The second axis is perpendicular to the first and follows the riverbed which is now completely dry and transformed into streets and buildings. The Hermes street and Paphos street become the major

roads of the second main axis and connect the wealthy western suburbs with the walled city. Both Map of Nicosia from 1914 by Karl Baedeker axes are functioning as main commercial and trade roads. Indications of the distribution of the ethnic groups within the walled city is being recorded by the administrations of the British rule. From the records it is clear that walled city has two major ethnic groups, the Greeks and the Turks and some minorities of Latins, Maronites and Armenians . Plan of Nicosia,1914 from Karl Baedeker Main axes of the walled city

New openings (roads)

Kyrenia Gate

Kyrenia street

New expansions of wealthy neighbourhoods Hermes (Larnaca) street Paphos street Famagusta Gate Paphos Gate

Ledra street

Trikoupi street

Government offices

Illustration of the main axes of the city during the British rule. Main axes of trade and commerce: Ledra & Kerynia street (South-North) and Hermes (Larnaca) & Paphos street (East-West) Majority Greek Majority Turkish Illustration oftheethnicneighborhoods ofthewalledcityduringBritishrule. population ofLatinsMaronites and Armenians. Apart from themajorethnicgroups ofGreek andTurkish populationNicosiahas someminor Records oftheadministrativedivision walledcityintoethnicneighborhoods (date1946). Distribution ofethnicneighbourhoods

Important buildings

Map of the walled city indicating the important buildings in 1935. The majority of the important buildings of the walled city are the mosques, the churches and the markets that are spread through the whole inner city. Ethnic neighborhoods ofAbu the Kavouk walled city of Nicosia 9% / 91%

Ayios Loukas 33% / 67%

Mahmut Pasha Ibrahim Pasha Yemi Jami Abdi Chavuz 7% / 82% 28% / 66% 28% / 72% 8% / 89%

Majority Turkish Majority Ayios Kasianos 90% / 10% Arab Ahmet Haydar Pasha 22% / 32% 12% / 87% Iplik bazar& Korkut Effendi Ayia Sophia (Selimiye Mosque) Chrysaliniotissa 21% / 42% 33% / 64% 96% / 3%

Taht-el-kale Karamanzade 63% / 36% 21% / 10% Majority Greek Nebathane 84% / 4% Omerie 77% / 21% Ayios Andreas Phaneromeni Ayios Ioannis 74% / 5% 98% / 1% 96% / 4%

Tebakhane 93% / 3%

Ayios Antonios Tripiotis 98% / 0% Diagram of the ethnic neighborhoods of the walled92% city / 1% in 1946. Ayios Savvas 96% / 3%

Administrative division of the walled city into neighbourhoods (date 1946) neighbourhood Greek-Cypriot % / Turkish Cypriot % Historic map of the neighbourhoods of Nicosia within the walls, 1930

First division

District for the Turks

Hermes street British military guards

District for the Greeks

Diagram of the division of the walled city in the Greek and the Turkish district in 1956. In 1956 appear the first intercommunal conflicts betwen Greek and Turkish population. The walled city is then divided in north and south, seperating the two ethnic groups. The reference point of the division was the Hermes street, one of the widest and most commercial streets. The division was guarded by the British military. 1960 - until today The Republic of Cyprus

Cyprus became independent in 1960 and all the ethnic groups of the island united under the identi- ty of the Cypriot. This union didn’t last long, already in 1963 the conflicts between the two major groups of Greek Cypriots and - mostly due to politicians and extremists from both sides- escalate with the result the first hard division - the so called “green-line” - of the walled city in 1964. This line isolated for the first time - since Cyprus became an independent nation - the Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots of the walled city in two parts, the north and the south. The situation between the two groups improved and as result the green line was punctured in two parts (Ledras street and Hermes street) to allow the Turkish Cypriots to access the Greek Cypriot districts of Nicosia. This improvement however didn’t last long. The conflicts between the two groups escalate more and led to the tragic events of 1974 with the aftermath 250.00 Cypriots migrating in their own country and a division line, a buffer zone, of 180 kilometres, dividing the walled city and the whole island in two. Cyprus as nation and Cypriots as people divided since 1974 and until today the division is still unchanged. In 2003 (Ledra Palace port) and 2008 (Ledras street) the buffer zone of the walled city is once more punctured to provide accessibility to Cypri- ots and other citizens that are willing to pass to “the other side”. This passage is however allowed by showing the ID card and therefore by accepting the occupation and the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Since 1974 until today there have been several political attempts to unit the island, of which all have failed. An important building that acts as a centre for cultural events, meetings and political dialogues aiming at bringing the two communities - Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots - closer together as well as for meetings of general interest is the building of the former Ledra Palace Hotel, situated in the buffer zone just outside the walled city. Map of the walled city of Nicosia. 1960Abu Kavouk 9% / 91%

Ayios Loukas 33% / 67%

Mahmut Pasha Ibrahim Pasha Yemi Jami Abdi Chavuz 7% / 82% 28% / 66% 28% / 72% 8% / 89%

Majority Turkish Majority Ayios Kasianos 90% / 10% Arab Ahmet Haydar Pasha 22% / 32% 12% / 87% Iplik bazar& Korkut Effendi Ayia Sophia (Selimiye Mosque) Chrysaliniotissa 21% / 42% 33% / 64% 96% / 3%

Taht-el-kale Karamanzade 63% / 36% 21% / 10% Majority Greek Nebathane 84% / 4% Omerie 77% / 21% Ayios Andreas Phaneromeni Ayios Ioannis 74% / 5% 98% / 1% 96% / 4%

Tebakhane 93% / 3%

Ayios Antonios Tripiotis 98% / 0% 92% / 1% Ayios Savvas 96% / 3%

Neighborhoods of the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots in 1960. 1964 “Green line” Majority Turkish Majority Majority Greek

In 1964 due to the first major intercommunal conflicts - since Cyprus became independend - the United Nations mark the 1.5km long division line - the “Green line” - to divide the Greek Cypri- ots and Turkish Cypriots of the walled city.

1974 “Buffer zone”

The ”green line” expands and transforms into the buffer-zone dividing the Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots since 1974 after the occupation of 37% of the island by Turkey and what is to become the unrecognised and self-declared “Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus”. The buffer zone extends and divides the whole island and has a length of 180 kilometres. Border line [Green line]

Ledra Palace Hotel [Port] Ledra Palace

View towards the entrance of Ledra Palace. Ledra Palace - the former luxurious hotel of the capital during the British rule, built in 1949 - becomes an important common ground after the events of 1974. A place of meeting between the Greek - and Turkish Cypriots aiming at bringing the two communities closer, by political dialogues and interactive workshops and events. Ledra Palace is located to the west just outside the walled city and it became part of the buffer zone, controlled by United Nations. Nicosia Masterplan Plan

Diagram from the Nicosia Master Plan presentation. Source: http://www.thepep.org/en/workplan/urban/documents/petridouNycosiamasterplan.pdf The “Nicosia Master Plan” started in 1979 from the meetings between the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities of Nicosia with the aim to develop an urban planning project for the city of Nicosia. The whole project was sheltered by the United Nations Development Programme. The masterplan paid particular attention to the definition of preservation and rehabilitation policy for the walled city which is considered the most precious part of Nicosia. Nicosia Masterplan Plan

Diagram from the Nicosia Master Plan presentation. Source: http://www.thepep.org/en/workplan/urban/documents/petridouNycosiamasterplan.pdf The masterplan brought many positive changes for the economy and the experience of the walled city after the degradation of the area since 1974. The major street of Ledras has been pedestri- alised and a number of buildings in bad condition have been renovated. The walled city has in the last years and as aftermath of the town planning a renewed profile with small pedestrialised streets with cafés and other commercial functions. Hermes street which is partly inaccessible is also reno- vated by its accessible area and is characterised by the craftmans and carpenters. Immigrants

Distribution of the minority non-Cypriot groups, 2011. Source: Journal of space syntax, Volume 6, Issue 1, p.92 The events of 1974 influenced the demographics of the walled city since the walled city became from the core to the edge of the city. The majority of the people who are now living in the old city center are non-Cypriots, most from east-Asia. The experience of the city has become a collage of different fragments of history, the buffer zone and the abandoned buildings, the renovated and commercial areas and the areas of the immigrants. City of fragments

View from Trikoupis street. City of fragments

View from Ledras street. City of fragments

Border with the “green line”. Border line [Green line] Ledras street Eleftheria Square [former Metaxas Square] Eleftheria Square

Postal card with the view of the former Meaxas square, Nicosia. Eleftheria square is the main square in central Nicosia, situated on the edge of Ledras street inter- secting the fortification wall with the outer expansion of the city. Previously the square was named after the Greek statesman Metaxas and has been renamed to Eleftheria square in 1974 after the tragic events. Eleftheria in Greek means freedom and so the square is named after the word that the island strives for. Eleftheria Square

View towards the Eleftheria square. Source: Archive of the Cultural Centre of the former Laiki Bank.

1980’s Eleftheria Square

View from towards the Eleftheria square. Source: Official website of Zaha Hadid architects. In 2005 an architectural competition was announced to redesign the square. Zaha Hadid’it and won. The proposed plan had been heavily criticised by local inhabitants and architects but the project is still ongoing and is partly realised. Epilogue Continuity

The analysis of the major developments of Nicosia from the ancient times until today has been a source of knowledge to understand how the city within the walls has been developed to what it is today. The graduation project will use the knowledge gained from this research to formulate a more “aware” framework of the issues of the location before the design intervention. Swallows on a wired cable