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Home , Functional psychology, Outline of psychology

A History of Modern Eighth Edition

Duane P. Schultz University of South Florida

Sydney Ellen Schultz

THOMSON *J WADSWORTH Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain United Kingdom • United States Preface xvi People as Machines 32 The Calculating Engine 33 The Beginnings of Modern Science 36 Chapter 1 Rene Descartes (1596-1650) 37 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY The Contributions of Descartes: Mechanism OF PSYCHOLOGY 1 and the Mind-Body Problem 39 The Development of Modern Psychology 1 The Nature of the Body 40 The Relevance of the Past for the Present 2 The Mind-Body Interaction 42 The Data of History: Reconstructing The Doctrine of Ideas 42 Psychology's Past 5 Philosophical Foundations of the New Historiography: How We Study History 5 Psychology: Positivism, Materialism, Lost or Suppressed Data 7 and Empiricism 44 Data Distorted in Translation 8 Auguste Comte (1798 -1857) 44 Self-Serving Data 9 John Locke (1632-1704) 45 Contextual Forces in Psychology 10 In Their Own Words: Original Source Economic Opportunity 11 Material on Empiricism from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding War 12 (1690), by John Locke 47 Prejudice and Discrimination 12 George Berkeley (1685 -1753) 51 Conceptions of Scientific History 18 David Hume (1711-1776) 53 The Personalistic Theory 18 David Hartley (1705-1757) 55 The Naturalistic Theory 18 James Mill (1773-1836) 56 Schools of Thought in the Evolution of John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) 5 7 Modern Psychology 21 Contributions of Empiricism Plan of the Book 23 to Psychology 59 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 24 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 59 SUGGESTED READINGS 24 SUGGESTED READINGS 60

Chapter 2 Chapter 3 PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES PHYSIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON PSYCHOLOGY 26 ON PSYCHOLOGY 62 The Spirit of Mechanism 26 The Importance of the Human Observer 62 The Clockwork Universe 28 Developments in Early Physiology 64 Determinism and Reductionism 29 Research on Brain Functions: Mapping from Automata 29 the Inside 65 vjj viii CONTENTS

Research on Brain Functions: Mapping from Organizing the Elements of Conscious the Outside 66 Experience 98 Research on the Nervous System 69 In Their Own Words: Original Source The Mechanistic Spirit 70 Material on the Law of Psychic Resultants and the Principle of Creative Synthesis The Beginnings of Experimental from Outline of Psychology (1896), Psychology 70 by 98 Why Germany? 71 The Fate of Wundt's Psychology Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) 73 in Germany 100 Helmholtz's Life 73 Criticisms ofWundtian Psychology 100 Helmholtz's Contributions: The Neural Wundt's Legacy 101 , Vision, and Audition 74 Other Developments in German Ernst Weber (1795-1878) 76 Psychology 102 Two-Point Thresholds 76 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 103 Just Noticeable Differences 76 Ebbinghaus's Life 103 Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) 77 Research on Learning 104 Fechner's Life 78 Research with Nonsense Syllables 105 Mind and Body: A Quantitative Ebbinghaus's Other Contributions Relationship 79 to Psychology 107 Methods of 81 Franz Brentano (1838-1917) 108 In Their Own Words: Original Source The Study of Mental Acts 109 Material on Psychophysics from Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) 110 Elements of Psychophysics (1860), by Gustav Fechner 82 Phenomenology 111 The Formal Founding of Psychology 84 Oswald Kiilpe (1862-1915) 111 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 85 Ktilpe's Differences with Wundt 112 SUGGESTED READINGS 85 Systematic Experimental 112 Imageless Thought 113 Research Topics of the Wurzburg Chapter 4 Laboratory 114 THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY 87 Comment 114 The Founding Father of Modern DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 115 Psychology 87 SUGGESTED READINGS 116 Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 88 Wundt's Life 88 Chapter 5 The Leipzig Years 90 STRUCTURALISM 117 91 The Shidy of Conscious Experience 93 Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927) 118 The Method of Introspection 95 Elements of Conscious Experience 96 Titchener's Life 118 CONTENTS ix

Titchener's Experimentalists: No Women In Their Own Words: Original Source Allowed! 120 Material from Hereditary Genius: An The Content of Conscious Experience 122 Inquiry Into Its Laws and Consequences (1869), by Francis Galton 156 In Their Own Words: Original Source Material on Structuralism from Statistical Methods 157 A Textbook of Psychology (1909), Mental Tests 158 by E. B. Titchener 123 The Association of Ideas 160 Introspection 125 Mental Imagery 161 The Elements of 127 Arithmetic by Smell and Other Topics 161 Criticisms of Structuralism 130 Comment 162 Criticisms of Introspection 130 Animal Psychology and the Development Additional Criticisms of Titchener's of Functionalism 163 System 133 George John Romanes (1848-1894) 164 Contributions of Structuralism 133 C. Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936) 166 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 134 Comment 168 SUGGESTED READINGS 135 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 168 SUGGESTED READINGS 169

Chapter 6 FUNCTIONALISM: Chapter 7 ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES 136 FUNCTIONALISM: DEVELOPMENT The Functionalist Protest 136 AND FOUNDING 171 Forerunners of Functionalism 137 Evolution Comes to America 171 The Evolution Revolution: Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 171 (1809-1882) 137 Social Darwinism 172 Darwin's Life 140 Synthetic Philosophy 17A On the Origin of Species by Means The Continuing Evolution of of Natural Selection 143 Machines 174 The Finches' Beaks: Evolution Henry Hollerith and the Punched Cards 175 at Work 147 (1842-1910): Anticipator The Evolution of Machines 148 of Functional Psychology 175 Darwin's Influence on Psychology 150 James's Life 176 In Their Own Words: Original Source The Principles of Psychology 182 Material from The Autobiography of The Subject Matter of Psychology: Charles Darwin (1876) 151 A New Look at Consciousness 182 Individual Differences: Francis Galton In Their Own Words: Original Source (1822-1911) 153 Material on Consciousness from Galton's life 153 Psychology (Briefer Course) (1892), Mental Inheritance 154 by William James 184 x CONTENTS

The Methods of Psychology 186 Granville Stanley Hall (1844 -1924) 211 186 Hall's Life 212 The Theory of 186 Evolution and the Recapitulation Theory of Habit 187 Development 216 The Functional Inequality of Women 188 Comment 218 (1863-1930) 188 James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) 218 Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (1874- Cattell's Life 218 1947) 190 Mental Testing 222 Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) 191 Comment 223 The Founding of Functionalism 192 The Movement 224 The Chicago School 193 Binet, Terman, and the IQ Test 224 (1859-1952) 194 World War I and Group Testing 226 The Reflex Arc 194 Ideas from Medicine and Engineering 229 Comment 195 Racial Differences in 229 (1869-1949) 196 Contributions of Women to the Testing Angell's Life 196 Movement 232 The Province of Functional Psychology 196 Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) 233 Comment 197 Witmer's Life 234 Harvey A. Carr (1873-1954) 198 Clinics for Child Evaluation 236 Functionalism: The Final Form 198 Comment 237 Functionalism at Columbia University 200 The Movement 237 Robert Sessions Woodworth Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955) 239 (1869-1962) 200 Scott's Life 239 Woodworth's Life 200 Advertising and Human Suggestibility 241 Dynamic Psychology 201 Employee Selection 241 Criticisms of Functionalism 202 Comment 242 Contributions of Functionalism 204 The Industrial-Organizational DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 204 Psychology Movement 243 SUGGESTED READINGS 205 The Impact of the World Wars 243 The Hawthorne Studies and Organizational Issues 243 Chapter 8 Contributions of Women to Industrial- : THE LEGACY Organizational Psychology 245 OF FUNCTIONALISM 207 Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916) 246 Toward a Practical Psychology 207 Milnsterberg's Life 247 The Grpwth of American Psychology 208 and Eyewitness Testimony 249 Economic Influences on Applied Psychology 210 250 CONTENTS xi

Industrial Psychology 251 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 287 Comment 252 SUGGESTED READINGS 287 Applied Psychology in the United States: A National Mania 252 Chapter 10 Comment 254 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 255 : THE BEGINNINGS 289 SUGGESTED READINGS 256 John B. Watson (1878-1958) 289 Watson's Life 289 Chapter 9 In Their Own Words: Original Source Material on Behaviorism from Psychology BEHAVIORISM: ANTECEDENT as the Behaviorist Views It (1913), by INFLUENCES 258 John B. Watson 297 Toward a Science of 258 The Reaction to Watson's Program 300 The Influence of Animal Psychology The Methods of Behaviorism 301 on Behaviorism 260 The Subject Matter of Behaviorism 303 Jacques Loeb (1859-1924) 260 Instincts 304 Rats, Ants, and the Animal Mind 261 Emotions 305 Clever Hans, the Clever Horse 264 Thought Processes 307 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 -1949) 267 Behaviorism's Popular Appeal 308 Thorndike's Life 268 An Outbreak of Psychology 311 Connectionism 269 Watson and the Animal Rights The Puzzle Box 270 Movement 312 Laws of Learning 271 Karl Lashley (1890-1958) 313 Comment 272 Criticisms of Watson's Behaviorism 314 Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849-1936) 273 William McDougall (1871-1938) 314 Pavlov's Life 273 Contributions of Watson's Behaviorism 316 Conditioned Reflexes 276 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 317 In Their Own Words: Original Source SUGGESTED READINGS 318 Material from Conditioned Reflexes (1927), by 279 Chapter 11 A Note on E. B. Twitmyer 280 Comment 281 BEHAVIORISM: AFTER THE FOUNDING 320 Vladimir M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) 282 Associated Reflexes 283 Three Stages of Behaviorism 320 Animal Psychology and the Animal Rights Operationism 321 Movement 284 Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959) 322 The Influence of Functional Psychology Purposive Behaviorism 323 on Behaviorism 285 Intervening Variables 323 xii CONTENTS

Learning Theory 324 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 354 Comment 325 SUGGESTED READINGS 355 Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) 326 Hull's Life 326 Chapter 12 The Spirit of Mechanism 327 357 Objective Methodology and Quantification 328 The Gestalt Revolt 357 Drives 328 More to than Meets the Eye 358 Learning 329 Antecedent Influences on Gestalt Comment 330 Psychology 360 B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) 330 The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics 361 Skinner's Life 331 The Phi Phenomenon: A Challenge Skinner's Behaviorism 333 to Wundtian Psychology 362 In Their Own Words: Original Source Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) 363 Material from Science and Human Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) 365 Behavior (1953), by B. F. Skinner 334 Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) 367 Operant Conditioning 336 The Nature of the Gestalt Revolt 369 Schedules of Reinforcement 337 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual 338 Organization 370 Aircribs, Teaching Machines, and Pigeon- Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and Guided Missiles 339 the Mentality of Apes 3 73 Walden Two—A Behaviorist Society 340 In Their Own Words: Original Source Behavior Modification 341 Material on Gestalt Psychology from The Mentality of Apes (1927), by Applied Animal Psychology: The IQ Zoo 342 Wolfgang Kohler 374 Criticisms of Skinner's Behaviorism 343 Comment 377 Contributions of Skinner's Behaviorism 344 Productive Thinking in Humans 378 Sociobehaviorism: The Cognitive Isomorphism 379 Challenge 345 The Spread of Gestalt Psychology 380 (1925 -) 345 The Battle with Behaviorism 381 345 Gestalt Psychology in Nazi Germany 382 Self-Efficacy 347 Field Theory: (1890-1947) 382 Behavior Modification 348 Lewin's Life 383 Comment 349 The Life Space 384 Julian Rotter (1916-) 349 and the Zeigarnik Effect 385 Cognitive Processes 350 386 Locus of Control 351 Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology 387 Comment 353 Contributions of Gestalt Psychology 388 The Fate of Behaviorism 354 CONTENTS xiii

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 388 Criticisms of 430 SUGGESTED READINGS 389 Contributions of Psychoanalysis 432 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 433 SUGGESTED READINGS 434 Chapter 13 PSYCHOANALYSIS: THE BEGINNINGS 391 Chapter 14 The Development of Psychoanalysis 391 Antecedent Influences on PSYCHOANALYSIS: Psychoanalysis 393 AFTER THE FOUNDING 436 Theories of the Unconscious Mind 393 Competing Factions 436 Early Ideas about 394 The Neo-Freudians and Ego The Influence of Charles Darwin 399 Psychology 437 Additional Influences 400 Anna Freud (1895-1982) 437 (1856-1939) and the Child Analysis 438 Development of Psychoanalysis 401 Comment 439 The Case of Anna O. 403 Object Relations Theories 440 The Sexual Basis of Neurosis 405 Melanie Klein (1882-1960) 440 Studies on Hysteria 406 Heinz Kohut (1913-1981) 441 The Childhood Seduction Controversy 407 (1875-1961) 441 Dream Analysis 410 Jung's Life 442 The Pinnacle of Success 410 444 In Their Own Words: Original Source The Collective Unconscious 445 Material on Hysteria from Sigmund Archetypes 445 Freud's First Lecture at Clark University, Introversion and Extroversion 447 September 9, 1909 414 Psychological Types: The Functions and Psychoanalysis as a Method of Attitudes 447 Treatment 417 Psychoanalysis as a System of Comment 447 Personality 420 Social Psychological Theories: The Zeitgeist Strikes Again 449 Instincts 420 Alfred Adler (1870-1937) 449 Levels of Personality 421 Adler's Life 449 Anxiety 423 451 Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development 423 Inferiority Feelings 451 Mechanism and Determinism Style of Life 452 in Freud's System 426 The Creative Power of the Self 452 Relations between Psychoanalysis Birth Order 452 and Psychology 426 Comment 453 The Scientific Validation of Psychoanalytic Concepts 428 xiv CONTENTS

Karen Horney (1885-1952) 455 Antecedent Influences on Cognitive Homey's Life 455 Psychology 481 Disagreements with Freud 456 The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics 482 Basic Anxiety 456 The Founding of 483 Neurotic Needs 457 George Miller (1920-) 484 The Idealized Self-Image 458 The Center for Cognitive Studies 485 Comment 458 UlricNeisser(1928-) 486 The Evolution of Personality Theory: The Computer Metaphor 488 459 The Development of the Modern Antecedent Influences on Humanistic Computer 489 Psychology 460 Artificial Intelligence 489 The Nature of Humanistic Psychology 461 The Nature of Cognitive Psychology 492 (1908^1970) 461 493 Maslow's Life 462 The Role of Introspection 493 Self-Actualization 463 Unconscious 494 In Their Own Words: Original Source Animal Cognition 495 Material on Humanistic Psychology from Current Status 497 Motivation and Personality (1970), 499 by Abraham Maslow 464 Antecedent Influences on Evolutionary Comment 466 Psychology 500 (1902-1987) 467 The Influence of 501 Rogers'sLife 468 Current Status of Evolutionary Self-Actualization 468 Psychology 502 Comment 469 Comment 503 The Fate of Humanistic Psychology 470 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 504 471 SUGGESTED READINGS 504 The Psychoanalytic Tradition in History 473 Glossary 506 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 474 ' SUGGESTED READINGS 475 References 510 Name Index 526 Subject Index 531 Chapter 15 CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS IN PSYCHOLOGY 477 Schools of Thought in Perspective 477 The Cognitive Movement in Psychology 480