Xerxes' Deliberate Expedition

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Xerxes’ Deliberate Expedition by B.C. Knowlton

ook Seven of Herodotus’ Histories telling. It tells the standard narrative of conquer Greece.2 It would seem obvious Bcontains his account of the Persian the conflict between East and West, and it that Xerxes would take up and carry on expedition against Greece led by King tells of many ways in which the conflict his father’s campaign. Rise of an Empire Xerxes in 480 BCE. This campaign was more complicated than that. It tells treats all of this in an inaccurate and followed from the one undertaken ten not just how the Greeks and Persians fantastical way.3 According to Herodotus, years earlier on the orders of his father, came to fight each other, but who the however, initially it is not even obvious King Darius. That Persian force had Greeks and Persians were that they might that Xerxes would be the one to succeed landed at Marathon and been defeated by have fought, or not, but did. his father. Darius had an older son by an the Athenians in a famous battle that has Wherever it is possible to make use earlier wife, and he also had a claim to the ever since been considered a victory of of a movie to introduce students to a bit throne. Xerxes was the eldest son of European freedom over Oriental of history, the risk, or even the Darius’ last wife, Atossa; and Herodotus despotism. Xerxes, determined to avenge temptation, will be to let the movie take thinks that in the end it was her influence his father’s defeat, raised a force reported the place of the text.1 Students these days that secured the throne for her son.4 But by Herodotus to be of as many as two would rather see than read their history, he also tells us that it was at this moment and a half million fighting men, only to and often they would rather their history that the deposed Spartan king Demaratus come up against the 300 Spartans at the was belligerent than deliberate. But for arrived at the Persian court, and furnished Battle of Thermopylae. This narrative of teachers who would stick to the text if not Xerxes with a Spartan argument for the these and the subsequent battles of to the textbook, and who might prefer a superiority of his claim. Salamis and Plataea has been well known less warlike focus, I propose to essay a The question of succession had from its Herodotean source ever since; close reading and detailed explication of arisen because in the midst of the and the muscle-bound and blood- the Persian deliberations as recounted in preparations for the invasion of Greece, drenched deeds of the 300 have recently Herodotus’ Histories. I will follow the there was a revolt in Egypt. Another been made famous again by the movie of narrative thread of the episode and punitive expedition was ordered up, and that name. The more recent sequel to 300 pursue the thematic matters which, in a while Darius had apparently not planned begins with a less accurate account of the history class, could either lead to other to go to Greece himself, he does now plan Battle of Marathon; and, where the first readings or stand as characteristically to go to Egypt. Herodotus tells us that movie ended with Plataea under way, Rise Herodotean. Herodotus is, of course, a ‘according to Persian law the king may not of an Empire ends with victory at Salamis primary source for this history. This is not march with his army until he has named all but won. Courses in Western or World to say that his inquiries or researches (the his successor’ (7.2). This point of Persian History are likely to come upon the standard translations of the Greek title) law is of pertinent interest to us in that it Persian Wars, and the recent popular are strictly and straightforwardly wie es raises the question of whether and to movies might serve as an accessible and eigentlich gewesen. But the Histories is the best what extent a Persian king is bound to engaging introduction to these historical and often the only source we have for the abide by Persian law or custom (the Greek events and developments. But Herodotus’ Persian Wars, and it is historiographically word nomos translates both ways). The account of how Xerxes came to his significant even where it may not be Persian monarchy is typically depicted as decision to invade Greece, with its historically accurate. absolute, in contrast to the constitutional consideration of politics, rhetoric, and Darius had died while preparations regimes of Greece (whether the religion, is, if not as thrilling, at least as were under way for his second attempt to constitution be democratic, as in Athens,

The Journal of Classics Teaching 17 (34) p.49-54 © The Classical Association 2016. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits Downloaded non-commercialfrom https://www.cambridge.org/core re-use, distribution,. IP andaddress: reproduction 170.106.40.139 in any, on medium, 29 Sep 2021 provided at 17:57:52 the original, subject workto the isCambridge unaltered Core and terms is properly of use, availablecited. The at written 49 https://www.cambridge.org/core/termspermission of Cambridge. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631016000246 University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work. or aristocratic, as in Sparta). A Persian figure in this history, and to point to other heroic Greeks and villainous Persians king, it is usually assumed, can do episodes in the Histories.10 that popular versions of this history give whatever he wants, and is not bound by Xerxes was not at first as determined us. Demaratus is an oligarchical exile, but any law.5 As we will see, Persian kings do as his father had been to invade Greece; Sparta is determined to resist the Persian have to take into account Persian nomoi. and not only because he had an Egyptian invasion – as Demaratus tells Xerxes, The question of succession having rebellion to contend with. That he was as very frankly (7.101-104). The Aleuadae come up, Herodotus gives us a detailed determined as Darius had been to punish of Thessaly, however, are in Persia to account of its resolution. Darius’ elder the Egyptians suggests that Xerxes wasn’t negotiate the ‘medising’ of that region son, Artabazanes, argued that it was ‘by simply disinclined to undertake a of Greece, which means their universal custom’ that he was ‘entitled to campaign. But he evidently needed to be submission to Xerxes. The Greeks inherit his father’s position’ (7.2). This convinced to undertake the campaign referred to the Persians as ‘Medes’, and anticipates the significance of the against the Greeks; and here his advisor many Greek cities did in fact side with deliberation where it specifies Persian Mardonius is like that servant of Darius the Persians in their invasion. The custom. And then of course his father’s who had been ordered to say to him each Pisistratidae were the successors of the position is that of Persian King. Atossa, time he sat down to eat, ‘Master, Athenian tyrants Peisistratus and his son the mother of Xerxes, was ‘the daughter remember the Athenians’ who several Hippias, who had ruled Athens prior to of Cyrus, who won the Persians their years earlier had supported a revolt of the establishment of democracy by freedom’ (7.2). Darius had not been a son Ionian Greeks who were subject to the Cleisthenes in 509 BCE.12 Hippias was of Cyrus, but rather the leader of a group Persian King (5.105). ‘“Master,” exiled from Athens and taken in by the of Persian aristocrats who had Mardonius would say to Xerxes, “the Persians. He had accompanied the overthrown a usurping successor.6 He Athenians have done us a great injury, Persian force that landed at Marathon; thereupon married the daughter of Cyrus, and it is only right that they should be had it defeated the Athenians, Hippias which had enhanced his legitimacy; and punished for their crimes”’ (7.5). On the would have been installed as satrap in now for her son to succeed him is more in other hand, Mardonius is not like that Attica. The presence of these Greek line with the dynasty. The significance of servant of Darius, for Darius had ordered exiles at the Persian court reminds us Cyrus having not simply been Persian him to do as he did, having already that, on the one hand, there were Greek King but having given the Persians their decided to attack Athens. Xerxes is at first cities who stood up to the Persians, and freedom complicates both the opposition actually ‘not at all interested in invading others that gave in; and that on the other between Persia and Greece and the Greece’ (7.4), and Mardonius takes it on there were even within cities factions definition of freedom usually assumed by himself to nag him about it. There is a that were either for or against resistance readers. Cyrus had given the Persians kind of politic logic to this part of to Xerxes. freedom from the Medes, by whom they Mardonius’ argument, but another part That oracular character also warrants had been subjected.7 From then on, the strikes a decidedly false note: for ‘to the a close reading. He is ‘an Athenian named Medes were subject to the Persians. For argument for revenge he would add that Onomacritus, a collector of oracles, who the Greeks as well, freedom meant Europe was a very beautiful place…too had arranged and edited the oracles of freedom from domination by anyone else. good for any mortal except the Persian Musaeus’ (7.6). He had been banished There was nothing contradictory about king’ (7.5). One of the most persistent from Athens for including in his being free and having slaves. That themes of the Histories has to do with the collection oracles that he had forged, and Herodotus tells us what he thinks of ‘the contrast between European poverty and he ended up in the entourage of the immense power of Atossa’ (7.3) is a good Oriental opulence.11 Herodotus goes on exiled oligarchs. Now he helps them example of the interest he takes in to say here that ‘Mardonius’ motive for persuade Xerxes to invade Greece. interesting women throughout the urging the campaign was love of mischief Evidently he collected oracles pertaining Histories.8 Finally, the arrival and advice of and adventure and the hope of becoming to the invasion; and whereas earlier he Demaratus are noteworthy for at least a governor of Greece himself ’ (7.6). He had added forged oracles to a collection couple of reasons. His Spartan argument urges Xerxes ‘with much persistence’ of legitimate ones, now he subtracts in favour of Xerxes’ succession is that (7.6) to undertake the campaign, and his those that predict defeat for the invasion. ‘Darius was already on the throne of urgings are given an additional push by Oracles play a very important role in the Persia when he was born, whereas oligarchical exiles from Thessaly and Histories. Herodotus himself, in general, Artabazanes was born before his father Athens, as well as by a crooked utterer of reflects the conventional piety of held any public office at all’ (7.3). The oracles. Herodotus tells us that the antiquity concerning the ways in which Spartan custom was that ‘if sons were born arguments of Mardonius ‘persuaded the gods determine the course of events, before the father came to the throne, and Xerxes to make the attempt’ (7.6); but he and communicate those determinations another was born afterwards when he was adds that because of the oracular and to humans. That the persuasion of king, the latter should succeed him’ (7.3). oligarchical pressure, ‘Xerxes gave in and Xerxes involves a corruption of the When this is put to Darius, he sees not the allowed himself to be persuaded to oracular order of things is significant.13 universality of the custom but ‘the justice undertake the invasion of Greece’ (7.7). On the other hand, Herodotus does not of the argument’ (7.3).9 That Demaratus The ambivalence of the persuasiveness let piety get in the way of inquiry. Here was in attendance at the Persian court also calls the rhetoric into question. he acknowledges that there are oracles serves to complicate the opposition Those oligarchical exiles further out there that predict both success and between East and West which tends to complicate the simplistic picture of failure for Xerxes’ expedition.

Downloaded50 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 29Xerxes’ Sep 2021 Deliberate at 17:57:52 Expedition, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631016000246 So Xerxes would seem to have been Darius performed less than famous deeds extend the empire of Persia that its persuaded, by argument or otherwise, to in their attempts to conquer the boundaries will be God’s own sky’ (7.8c), undertake the invasion of Greece, the Massagetae and the Scythians.16 The which is even more egregious hubris; and preparations for which would have gone Persian version of history considers the he says that when Greece is conquered ahead while Xerxes tended to the deeds equally famous, because the doers ‘the guilty and the innocent alike shall bear rebellion among the Egyptians. That of them were all kings. The conquests of the yoke of servitude’ (7.8c), which is the rebellion was quickly crushed, and the his predecessors, Xerxes says, have made very definition of arbitrary despotism. Egyptians subjected more harshly than Persia powerful and prosperous; and now Xerxes has made a case for the ever, so that there was nothing to distract he is determined to carry on as they did, invasion; but he doesn’t really have to or discourage Xerxes from going to so as not to fall short of what they did. persuade anyone but himself. Having made Greece. But then Herodotus tells us that There is a kind of politic logic about this, his decision, he gives the men of Persia ‘when he was on the point of taking in too; but again the argument is their marching orders. ‘But’ he then says, hand the expedition against Athens, undermined by misinformation. Xerxes ‘so that I shall not appear to consult only Xerxes called a conference of the leading has apparently been convinced by my own whim’ – though why he should be men in the country, to find out their Mardonius that Greece is ‘a country as concerned about this, or why he would attitude towards the war and to explain to large and rich as our own – indeed richer consider a deliberate decision a whim, is them his own wishes’ (7. 8). than our own’ (7.8a). In other words, the not explained – ‘I will throw the whole Xerxes opens the deliberations with a nomos of conquest is clear enough; the matter into open debate’ (7.8d). This is the speech that lays out his view of the history of Greece is wrong. However that cue for Mardonius, whose motives have matter. ‘Do not suppose, men of Persia, may be, Xerxes is convinced; and so he already been exposed, to open the debate that I am departing from precedent in the now tells the leading men of Persia that by speaking in favour of invasion. He course of action I intend to undertake,’ he the real purpose of the conference is not begins with fulsome praise of Xerxes, and says (7.8a); and here one may wonder for them to deliberate about the invasion then proceeds to reiterate his reasons for whether the course of action he refers to but for him to announce his decision. undertaking it. As Herodotus glosses it, is the deliberation itself, which is a bit of a ‘I will bridge the Hellespont and ‘Xerxes’ proposals were made to seem departure from precedent, or must have march an army through Europe into plausible by these words of Mardonius’ seemed so to men who are after all slaves Greece, and punish the Athenians for the (7.10). He argues that Persia has conquered of the Persian king and must do whatever outrage they committed upon my father countries that had done it no harm, and so he orders. But then Xerxes makes clear and upon us’ Xerxes announces (7.8b). It must conquer Greece, which has. And that the course of action he intends to is telling that the first thing he will do is whereas previously he had argued that the undertake is the conquest of Greece, bridge the Hellespont, a body of water wealth of Greece was a reason to attempt which would be entirely in line with the not meant to be bridged. It tells the the conquest, now the poverty of Greece way the Persians have carried on. And Herodotean audience that Xerxes exhibits is a reason why the conquest will succeed indeed, in ordering the invasion of hubris; and they will know what follows (7.9a). He then disparages the nomoi of the Greece, Xerxes invokes the nomoi of the from that.17 And indeed the first bridge he Greeks – the laws and customs by which Persians.14 ‘We Persians have a way of has built will soon be destroyed in a they govern themselves and the relations living’ is the way he puts it; ‘which I have storm. Xerxes will have the bridge among themselves. What he sees as Greek inherited from my predecessors and builders executed, and the Hellespont weakness, the Greeks see as one of their propose to follow’ (7.8a). Here one might flogged; then he will order the bridge strengths. Mardonius thinks it ridiculous wonder whether Xerxes is acknowledging rebuilt (7.34-6). And then even as he that the Greeks are always fighting among that he is as subject to the nomoi of the announces that he will bridge the themselves; but they fight to defend their Persians as any of his subjects; but then it Hellespont, he has already begun to dig a freedom, whether that freedom is becomes clear that ‘we Persians’ means canal across Athos. To turn land into threatened by an oriental despot or the ‘we Persian kings’. The Persian king’s water, as to turn water into land, is to alter neighboring polis. word is law; and perhaps for that reason the natural order of things, and humans When Mardonius finishes speaking, he has to abide by the laws the previous shouldn’t do it.18 But the Athos canal no one is at first willing to take the kings have laid down. Having invoked the works, as does the second bridge across opposing view. But finally, Artabanus rises nomoi, Xerxes appeals to history. Here the the Hellespont. In this way Xerxes can to speak. Herodotus explains that he, focus is not on his implication in it but his both exhibit hubris and get to his nemesis. being an uncle to Xerxes, felt that this subjects’ knowledge of it. ‘Of our past Xerxes reminds his audience that the would protect him from the consequences history you need no reminder’ he tells his Athenians had done harm to the Persians of contradicting the king. And Artabanus leading men (7.8a). If his own wishes can by aiding the Ionian Revolt, and by begins his speech by explaining to Xerxes be associated with the nomoi, then his defeating the force that landed at that ‘Without a debate in which both sides audience’s attitude toward the war can be Marathon. And so they had; and yet to of a question are expressed, it is not associated with the history. To anyone imply that Athens is equally guilty for possible to choose the better course’ with a knowledge of Herodotus, it will be having responded to the Ionian appeal for (7.10a). It is worth noting, however, that obvious that while Cyrus and Darius can aid and for having defended its own though Artabanus is here expressing a be said to have performed ‘famous deeds’ territory against an invader seems Greek idea, he is expressing it in the (7.8a), the deeds of Cambyses can only be rhetorically incommensurate. Xerxes says Persian interest. He speaks from his called infamous.15 And even Cyrus and that ‘in conquering Greece we shall so experience serving Persian kings, and he

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, onXerxes’ 29 Sep 2021Deliberate at 17:57:52 Expedition, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 51 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631016000246 says what he thinks it is his duty to say. He God smites with his thunder, out of envy and lack of spirit’ (7.11). The king will not is one of a number of wise advisors who of his pride’ (7.10e). This is an execute his uncle for his speech, but will are featured in the Histories of Herodotus, unambiguous warning against hubris. That punish him for his cowardice. ‘I forbid whose wise advice is disregarded by kings is a religious rather than a logistical you to accompany me on my march to who then come to grief.19 Artabanus had matter. Greece’ Xerxes announces; ‘you shall stay wisely advised Darius not to invade Having given this wise and pious home with the women, and everything I Scythia, from which he had barely escaped advice to Xerxes, Artabanus addresses spoke of I shall accomplish without help with his life after losing many men. That some barbaric remarks to Mardonius. He from you’ (7.11). What he means to expedition had involved the bridging of proposes that if the invasion does go accomplish is what all Persian kings must the Bosphorus, and the expeditionary ahead, Xerxes should remain at home, accomplish, because all the others have force was nearly destroyed when the and the two of them should leave their done so. And so, says Xerxes, ‘if I fail to bridge was nearly destroyed. He reminds children as hostages. If the invasion punish the Athenians, let me be no child Xerxes of this, and of the Persian defeat succeeds, Artabanus and his children of Darius’ – which means no King of at the Battle of Marathon. That would be killed; if it fails, Mardonius and Persia (7.11).21 expedition had sailed across the Aegean, his family would suffer the same fate. But having given that nod to the which was not considered an overweening Artabanus evidently thinks that the nomoi of the Persians, Xerxes makes some undertaking. In other words, Xerxes invasion will go ahead, and fail; but that questionable claims about the Athenians. needs to consider both whether it is wise Mardonius will not accept his wager (he He argues that ‘if we make no move, the to try to invade Greece, and whether the does not). ‘In that case’ Artabanus says, ‘I Athenians will – they will be sure to invasion, as undertaken, is likely to venture a prophecy: the day will come invade our country’ (7.11). The Athenians succeed. In addressing himself to this when many a man left at home will hear were certainly not contemplating such an proposed expedition, Artabanus refers to the news that Mardonius has brought invasion. They had indeed, as Xerxes says, the bridging of the Hellespont. Again disaster upon Persia, and that his body lies ‘marched into Asia and burnt Sardis’ in both the symbolic and the strategic a prey to dogs and birds somewhere in the support of the Ionian Revolt; but only as significance of the bridge are evident. The country of the Athenians or the Spartans.’ many men marched as had come on the hubris is still implicit; Artabanus now That prophecy will come to pass.20 And 20 ships Athens had sent, and the burning raises the prospect of the destruction of what it will mean is that Mardonius had of Sardis was unintentional (5.99-103). this bridge by an Athenian fleet. He urges been wrong to urge Persia to attack these The Athenians then left, and Persia put Xerxes not to undertake the invasion of Greeks (7.10h). down the revolt. What the Athenians did Greece, which will not be as easy to When Artabanus finished his speech was certainly an impertinence; but to conquer as Mardonius thinks. All that ‘Xerxes was exceedingly angry’ (7.11). make it the basis of a claim that Athens fighting they do among themselves makes Indeed, we might wonder how Artabanus posed an existential threat to the Persian them formidable fighters. had been permitted to finish. It must be Empire is an example of asymmetrical Artabanus asserts, though he has not that this phase of the deliberation has less rhetoric. Nevertheless, Xerxes is caught argued, that ‘there is no necessity’ to to do with Xerxes’ temper than with up in the logic of that rhetoric. ‘One has conquer Greece. Though he has Herodotus’ purpose. As Artabanus had but to make the inference from what they persuasively responded to Mardonius, the prophesied to himself when first did before’ he tells his leading men. question really hinges on whether the venturing to speak, it is only his ‘Retreat is no longer possible for either of nomoi of the Persians make the conquest relationship with Xerxes that now us: if we do not inflict the wound, we of the Greeks a necessity. Artabanus prevents his being put to death. It is very shall assuredly receive it. All we possess advises Xerxes to ‘turn the matter over like an arbitrary despot to want to hear will pass to the Greeks, or all they possess quietly’ by himself, and make his decision only what he wants to hear. But Xerxes will pass to the Persians’ (7.11). All this is when he feels ready to (7.10d). But first he refers first to Artabanus’ ‘empty and supposed to follow from the necessity for has some further advice about the ridiculous speech’, which does call revenge; and yet we have seen that the implications of such decisions. Any action attention to the merits of the speech necessity of conquest doesn’t necessarily decided upon should be well planned. If rather than to the temerity of the speaker. follow the same logic. it then fails in its intended purpose, it will What did the speech lack or mistake? It One last observation Xerxes makes have failed by chance; and there will still avoided the nomoi. It may be that despite seems enigmatic as it stands, but be some satisfaction to be had in its the motives of Mardonius, the pitfalls of anticipates an important consideration in having been well-planned. On the other hubris and the risk of military defeat, the the next phase of the deliberations. He hand, he says, an ill-planned campaign nomoi of the Persians (or of Persian kings) ends this second speech, as he had begun might succeed by luck; but in that case the might make it necessary to undertake the the first, determined to invade Greece. success would be tempered by shame at invasion of Greece. In advising Xerxes to Here he says that in conquering Greece he having undertaken such a campaign. deliberate by himself, Artabanus (who will ‘learn the nature of this terrible thing Artabanus would seem to be trying to after all is a wise advisor) acknowledges which is to happen to [him]’ (7.11). What strike a deliberate balance between the that the decision is for the king to make, terrible thing is he thinking of? Surely the ways in which gods and men determine and that he is free to decide either for or conquest of Greece would be a good events. But ultimately, Artabanus would against invasion. But in his response to thing for him. He has decided to have Xerxes keep in mind that ‘amongst Artabanus’ speech, Xerxes next says that undertake the conquest rather than not, living creatures it is the great ones that it demonstrated the speaker’s ‘cowardice but will change his mind twice more; he is

Downloaded52 from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, on 29Xerxes’ Sep 2021 Deliberate at 17:57:52 Expedition, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631016000246 certain the conquest will be a success, but inexperience, and regrets having been dream is divine, but also wants to test it. of course we know that it will not be. Just disrespectful to the aged Artabanus. It is The test he contrives is curious, but serves what does follow from what is done, or not the sort of speech one expects from a the purpose. Xerxes tells Artabanus that if not? If it is up to him to decide what to Persian king, and it could be taken as the dream is divine it will appear to him do, is it up to someone else to determine evidence of Xerxes’ weakness. This may too, if he is sleeping in Xerxes’ bed, what will happen? be what the dream had in mind. But none having worn his clothes and sat on his ‘So ended the speeches at the of the leading Persians seem inclined not throne. Artabanus doesn’t think it right for conference’ Herodotus tells us. ‘Later on to forgive him; for when Xerxes him to pose as the king, but agrees to do that evening’ he continues ‘Xerxes began announced to them that ‘there will be no so when he is told to. At this point, Xerxes to be worried about what Artabanus had war against Greece. Peace is to continue’ believes more in the divinity of the dream, said, and during the night, as he turned it (7.13), ‘the Persians were delighted…and and Artabanus is more dubious that the over in his mind, he came to the bowed low before their master’ (7.14). dream could be fooled by their ruse; but conclusion that the invasion of Greece The next night the dream returns and perhaps to emphasise that he doesn’t want would not, after all, be a good thing’ rebukes Xerxes for having disregarded his to be king, but only to advise him, (7.12). In other words, having rejected previous admonition. Then he goes on to Artabanus comes out with more advice. Artabanus’ advice, he now accepts it. On speak more explicitly about the expedition He assures Xerxes that he had not taken the one hand, this evinces wisdom; on the against Greece, and threatens that if personally the previous unpleasantness, other hand, it demonstrates irresolution. Xerxes does not undertake it, then ‘just as but was grieved to see him take the bad But it would be a good thing for him to in a moment you rose to greatness and advice of Mardonius. He now praises change his mind, unless it turned out to be power, so in a moment will you be brought Xerxes for being willing and able to a bad thing. Herodotus tells us that having low again’ (7.14). Now, on the one hand, change his mind on further reflection. Of decided not to undertake the expedition to this threat is rather generic; on the other course, this is just what the dream thought Greece, Xerxes went to sleep; then he says hand, the genre involved is very wrong of him. Artabanus speaks of ‘how that ‘the Persians say that before the night compelling. Kingdoms, and kings, rise and wrong it is to teach the heart always to was over he dreamed that the figure of a fall; men want to think that they control seek for more than it possesses’ (7.16a), man, tall, and of noble aspect, stood by their fates, but the gods are always ready to though the dream thinks that to seek for his bed’ (7.12). The staged debate had let them know who is really in charge. The more is precisely what Xerxes must do. But seemed Greek; this phase of the threat this dream delivers to Xerxes what does Artabanus think of the dream? deliberation is explicitly attributed to the reflects the perspective adopted by This is a very interesting twist in the Persians. The figure in the dream tells Herodotus at the outset of his Histories. ‘I deliberation. ‘You imagine’ Artabanus tells Xerxes that it was wrong of him to change will proceed with my history’ he says,’ Xerxes, ‘that your dream was sent by some his mind. The emphasis, indeed, in this telling the story as I go along of small cities god or other; but dreams do not come first of three dreams recounted, is not on of men no less than of great. For most of from God. I, who am older than you by the expedition, but on the decision to those which were once great are small many years, will tell you what these visions undertake it. ‘“Persian” the phantom said, today; and those which used to be small are that float before our eyes in sleep: “have you changed your mind and decided were great in my own time. Knowing, nearly always these drifting phantoms are not to lead an army against Greece, in therefore, that human prosperity never the shadows of what we have been spite of your proclamation to your abides long in the same place, I shall pay thinking about during the day; and during subjects that troops should be raised? You attention to both alike’ (1.5). the days before your dream we were, you are wrong to change”’ (7.12). Evidently Though the message of the second know, very much occupied with this the dream thinks that it is bad policy for a dream was generally threatening, it was campaign’ (7.16c). king to come to a decision and then not particularly terrifying; and yet Xerxes This is, in a nutshell, the modern reconsider it. But apparently the dream is is terrified by it, and sends for Artabanus. psychoanalytic view of where dreams the only one who thinks so, for it adds, He is now inclined to do as the dream tells come from. It is not Herodotus’ view; no rather enigmatically, that ‘there is one here him (though that would entail yet another one else in the Histories says anything like who will not forgive you’ for deciding not change of mind); but he is still of a mind this about any of the many other dreams to invade Greece (7.12). to be advised by his uncle. He admits to he recounts; and Artabanus will soon be Throughout the Histories, dreams are Artabanus personally what he had proved wrong. But this dream could still understood to be messages from the acknowledged in his speech to the be read that way. And Artabanus, though gods; they are supposed to be as gentlemen generally – that he had acted he is wrong, is not being set up for a fall, authoritative as oracles.22 For some badly in response to his earlier advice. He as those usually are who express reason, though, Xerxes disregards this adds in his own defence that he changed sentiments contrary to common piety. He dream, and announces to the leading men his mind when he decided that that advice gives this advice on the basis of his age of Persia that he will not, after all, lead an had been right (Artabanus had advised and experience, which is what grounds all expedition to Greece. His speech is a him precisely to consider the matter his wise advice. And then, having said model of modesty, reflection, and further). He still thinks that Artabanus is a what he thinks is right, he acknowledges consideration. He addresses as wise advisor, but tells him that ‘since I that he could be wrong, and expresses a ‘Gentlemen’ those who are his slaves; he changed my mind I have been haunted by willingness to change his mind if he is. asks for their ‘forbearance’ for the change a dream which will not allow me to act as Artabanus wears Xerxes’ clothes, sits of plan. He acknowledges his youth and you advised’ (7.15). He assumes that the on his throne, and retires to his bed. The

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.40.139, onXerxes’ 29 Sep 2021Deliberate at 17:57:52 Expedition, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at 53 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631016000246 dream indeed reappears, but recognises this point in the narrative, the of government Persia should now have. Two Artabanus. The figure dismisses preparations for the expedition against of the group argue for democratic and Artabanus’ wise advice as ‘would-be Greece shift into high gear, and go on for aristocratic governments; Darius argues for concern for the king’ (7.17), and warns four years. Then the expedition begins. monarchy, and wins the debate. He is then chosen king (3. 80-88). that he will ‘not escape punishment either Herodotus skates over these preparations now or hereafter’ for giving that advice, just as readily as a Herodotean reading of 7This very interesting episode, which is also just as Xerxes will be punished for taking the expedition can skip the deliberations. recounted in Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, can be it. The dream’s take on the deliberation But this alternative and no less found in 1.107-129. raises again the question of fate. The Herodotean reading of what went on 8For other interesting women in Herodotus, dream had threatened Xerxes with what between Marathon and Thermopylae see, inter alia, 1.8-14, 1.205-14, 3.68-70, 5.51 would happen if he did not do as he was might better serve the purposes of told. The implication is that Xerxes can Herodotean teaching and learning. 9Xerxes, in a sense, owes his throne to still choose to undertake the expedition or Demaratus. In 300: Rise of an Empire, Xerxes owes his throne to Artemisia. She is, to be sure, not. Now the dream threatens Artabanus B.C. Knowlton, Lecturer in one of Herodotus’ most interesting women; ‘for seeking to turn aside that which must History, English and Classics, but the recent movie makes her a bloody, lusty happen’ (emphasis mine), which more Assumption College. monster. By contrast, the 1961 movie The 300 explicitly indicates that Xerxes has no bc.knowlton@assumption.edu Spartans gives Demaratus his due. choice (7.17). The dream then goes to 10The ousted Athenian tyrant Hippias had fled punish Artabanus, but Artabanus escapes to Persia, and accompanied the expedition to (he had also escaped the punishment Marathon (see below). Themistocles himself Xerxes said he would not escape). He is Reference ended up in the service of Persia. convinced, however, that the dream is 11 divine. He now advises Xerxes to Herodotus (1996). The Histories. John For discussions of poverty and opulence, undertake the expedition, though not Marincola (ed.). (Aubrey Selincourt and John see, inter alia, 1.71, 89, 126, 207; 5.49; 7.102; Marincola, Trans.) New York, N.Y: Penguin. 9.82, 122. without first reiterating the reasoning behind his previously wise advice. He 12Herodotus had narrated the establishment seems now to know what’s what; but he 1The 2-DVD edition of 300 has some of the Peisistratid tyranny in Book 1(1.59-64), doesn’t: he knows ‘that God is at work in teachable features. emphasising the difficulty Peisistratus had in this matter’ but assumes this means that establishing it. 2 ‘heaven itself is about to send ruin on Darius did not die as a result of a wound 13For other episodes involving the corruption Greece’ (7.18). That God might want received at Marathon from an arrow fired at him of oracles, see 5.63 and 6.66. Episodes in Xerxes to invade Greece, so as to send by Themistocles, as shown in 300: Rise of an which oracles work as advertised are too Empire. Neither man was present at the battle. ruin on him, does not occur to Artabanus. numerous to cite. 3 That sort of dream, though, would be Here, when Xerxes is advised not to go to war 14The classic treatment of this theme is J. A. S. familiar to the Herodotean audience against Greece, Artemisia sends him into the Evans, “The Dream of Xerxes and the because they would have read (or heard) desert, to a cavern inhabited by evil hermits, ‘nomoi’ of the Persians,” The Classical Journal their Homer. In Book 2 of the Iliad, Zeus where he bathes in the golden pool that turns Vol. 57, No. 3. (Dec. 1961), pp. 109-111. sends a dream to Agamemnon, telling him into the giant, shiny, bejeweled god featured in the first 300 movie. Meanwhile, Artemisia 15For examples of Cambyses’ infamies, see him to attack Troy; but not telling him murders all his advisers. In The Histories, 3.27-38. that the attack will fail. Artemisia advises Xerxes not to engage in a naval Xerxes is now determined to battle with the Greek fleet at Salamis (8.68). 16Cyrus was killed in his campaign (1.201-214); undertake the invasion of Greece that his Darius nearly was in his (4.1-142). 4 father had ordered, and announces to the Atossa is the most prominent character in Aeschylus’ tragedy The Persians. 17The earliest and best-known episode in leading Persians that the expedition that which hubris is exhibited and punished is the was first on, and then off, is now back on. 5The most striking instance of this legal rise and fall of Croesus (1.25-92). He then has a third dream, though the tall question involves King Cambyses, who fell in 18 noble figure doesn’t figure in it. Instead, love with his sister and consulted Persian legal For an example of what happens when Xerxes ‘imagined himself crowned with experts to see whether the law permitted him people try to turn a peninsula into an island, see 1. 174. olive, of which the branches spread all over to marry her. The legal experts reported back that ‘though they could discover no law which the earth; then the crown had suddenly 19The classic treatment of this theme is allowed brother to marry sister, there was Richmond Lattimore, ‘The Wise Advisor in vanished from his head’ (7.19). This time undoubtedly a law which permitted the king Herodotus’ Classical Philology, Vol. 34, No. 1. he consults the Magi, a priestly caste in the of Persia to do what he pleased’ (3.31). (Jan. 1939) pp. 24-35. Artemisia is also a ‘Wise service of the Persian crown, who are Cambyses married two of his sisters, and later Advisor’. supposed to know how to interpret murdered one of them – according to one dreams. According to the Magi, the dream account, while she was pregnant; and 208.114; 9.63-4, 84. ‘portended the conquest of the world and according to another, because she was sorry he 21 its total subjection to Persia’ (7.19). had killed their brother. Xerxes was, years later, killed in a palace coup; and was succeeded by his son. How the disappearance of Xerxes’ 6This episode is best known for its crown portended his rule over the whole constitutional debate. Once the usurper is 22For examples of Herodotean dreams, see, world is not explained, or questioned; at dispatched, there is a debate about what sort inter alia, 1.107-8, 1.209-10, 3.30, 6.107.

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