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Mercenaries, Poleis, and Empires in the Fourth Century Bce

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Mercenaries, Poleis, and Empires in the Fourth Century Bce The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts ALL THE KING’S GREEKS: MERCENARIES, POLEIS, AND EMPIRES IN THE FOURTH CENTURY BCE A Dissertation in History and Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies by Jeffrey Rop © 2013 Jeffrey Rop Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2013 ii The dissertation of Jeffrey Rop was reviewed and approved* by the following: Mark Munn Professor of Ancient Greek History and Greek Archaeology, Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Gary N. Knoppers Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Religious Studies, and Jewish Studies Garrett G. Fagan Professor of Ancient History and Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies Kenneth Hirth Professor of Anthropology Carol Reardon George Winfree Professor of American History David Atwill Associate Professor of History and Asian Studies Graduate Program Director for the Department of History *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines Greek mercenary service in the Near East from 401- 330 BCE. Traditionally, the employment of Greek soldiers by the Persian Achaemenid Empire and the Kingdom of Egypt during this period has been understood to indicate the military weakness of these polities and the superiority of Greek hoplites over their Near Eastern counterparts. I demonstrate that the purported superiority of Greek heavy infantry has been exaggerated by Greco-Roman authors. Furthermore, close examination of Greek mercenary service reveals that the recruitment of Greek soldiers was not the purpose of Achaemenid foreign policy in Greece and the Aegean, but was instead an indication of the political subordination of prominent Greek citizens and poleis, conducted through the social institution of xenia, to Persian satraps and kings. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Ancient Sources and Translations…………………………………………… vi Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………. vii INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………........ 1 An Overview: Greek Mercenary Service in the Fourth Century BCE………. 2 The Greek Thesis…………………………………………………………….. 6 An Alternative Thesis………………………………………………………... 14 A Note on Translations and Terminology…………………………………… 20 Chapter 1. THE TRADITIONAL PARADIGM……………….……………………. 22 From Sardis to Babylon……………………………………………………… 27 The Battle of Cunaxa………………………………………………………… 35 Alternatives to the Anabasis…………………………………………………. 48 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………… 52 Chapter 2. TRAGIC ADVISORS AND ENERGETIC SUBORDINATES………… 54 The Tragic Advisor………………………………………………………….. 58 The Energetic Subordinate…………………………………………………... 65 Conclusion……………………………………………………........................ 87 Chapter 3. ALEXANDER’S COUNTERPOISE…………………………………..... 93 Demythologizing Memnon of Rhodes………………………………………. 96 Greeks at the Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela……………………………… 113 Greek Garrisons and the Siege of Halicarnassus……………………………. 119 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 125 Chapter 4. A NEW PARADIGM………………………………………...…………. 128 Loyalty and Cyrus’ Greek Mercenaries……………………………………... 129 Greek Clients and Persian Rebels………………………………………….... 135 Cyrus’ Greek Mercenaries as Political Agents……………………………… 143 Patron of Greece…………………………………………………………….. 148 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 155 Chapter 5. MERCENARIES AND SATRAPS UNDER ARTAXERXES II………. 157 Pharnabazus and Tiribazus………………………………………………….. 159 The Rise of Ariobarzanes…………………………………………………… 172 The Fall of Ariobarzanes and the War of the Satraps………………………. 179 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 194 Chapter 6. GREEKS BETWEEN ARTAXERXES III AND EGYPT……………… 199 The Accession of Artaxerxes III and the Fall of Artabazus……………….... 200 Rebellion in Cyprus and the Levant………………………………………… 207 The Conqeuest of Egypt…………………………………………………….. 212 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 225 v Chapter 7. THE GRECO-PERSIAN RESISTANCE TO MACEDON…………….. 226 Artaxerxes III’s Western Policy after the Egyptian Conquest……………… 228 Arsites, Memnon, and Athens………………………………………………. 233 Darius III and the Other Greeks…………………………………………….. 240 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 242 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………... 244 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………… 247 vi LIST OF ANCIENT SOURCES AND TRANSLATIONS Arrian. Anabasis of Alexander: Books I-IV. Trans. P.A. Brunt. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976. Cornelius Nepos. The Book on the Great Generals of Foreign Nations. Trans. J.C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984. Demosthenes. Demosthenes. Vols. 1-7. Trans. J.H. Vince, C.A. Vince, A.T. Murray. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926-1949. Diodorus of Sicily. The Library of History. Vols. 6-8. Trans. C.H. Oldfather, C.L. Sherman, C.B. Welles. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1944-1963. Herodotus. The Histories. Trans. R. Waterfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Isocrates. Isocrates. Vols. 1-3. Trans. G. Norlin, L. Van Hook. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1928-1945. Llewellyn-Jones, L., J. Robson. Ctesias’ History of Persia: Tales of the Orient. New York: Routledge, 2010. McKechnie, P. R., and S. J. Kern. Hellenica Oxyrhynchia. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1988. Plutarch. Plutarch’s Lives. Vols. 5, 7, 11. Trans. B. Perrin. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1917, 1919, 1926. Polyaenus. Stratagems of War. Trans. R. Shepherd. London: G. Nicol, 1796. Quintus Curtius. History of Alexander: Books I-V. Trans. J.C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1946. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Trans. R. Warner. New York: Penguin Books, 1972. Xenophon. Anabasis. Trans. C. Brownson, J. Dillery. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998. Xenophon. Hellenica. Vols. 1-2. Trans. C. Brownson. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1918-1921. Xenophon. Scripta Minora. Trans. E.C. Marchant. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1925. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation was completed with the support of many others. I am grateful to have received generous funding from the Pennsylvania State University, including a dissertation release from the College of the Liberal Arts, a Hill Fellowship from the Department of History, and various financial awards from the Department of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies. I am indebted to the American School of Classical Studies at Athens for the intellectual stimulation provided by the Regular Program and for the use of its exceptional research facilities. The first chapters of this project were written in the American School’s Blegen Library. I have benefitted greatly from many professors at Penn State. Foremost among these is Mark Munn, who advised this dissertation with a deft balance of constructive criticism and encouragement. I have found his example as a scholar and teacher to be more than worthy of emulation. I am thankful to have worked with Gary Knoppers, in whose seminar and under whose guidance I wrote the paper which would eventually become this dissertation many years ago, and Garrett Fagan, who has been an enthusiastic and strong advocate on my behalf. I am fortunate to have Kenneth Hirth serve as my external field committee member. I am very grateful to Carol Reardon for her willingness to join the committee on short notice and for providing her expertise on matters of military history. Other faculty who made a positive impression on my time as a doctoral student include Baruch Halpern, Daniel Berman, Aaron Rubin, and Zoe Stamatopoulou. A special thanks goes to Paul Harvey, who has been an invaluable mentor in his role as head of CAMS. viii I am glad to have learned alongside and from the other two members of my CAMS cohort, Amanda Iacobelli and Andrea Gatzke. Likewise, I am glad to have shared my studies at Penn State with colleagues David Lunt, Lauren Kaplow, Jonathan Greer, Deirde Fulton, Ken Ristau, Matt Sjoberg, Margaret Cohen, Matthew Adams, Eric Welch, Thad Olson, Brandon Olson, Jeff Herrick, and Sara Hoffman. This project was improved as a result of countless conversations with Alex Knodell, Matt Buell, Andriy Fomin, Johanna Hobratschk, Tristan Barnes, Reema Habib, and Dallas DeForest during my time at the American School. Thanks also to Philip Hnatkovich, John Hoenig, and Spencer Delbridge, who patiently humored discussions about Greek mercenaries despite working in fields unrelated to ancient history. Many other friends, but in particular David Vriesman, Alex Talsma, and my brother, Kevin, proved to be a helpful and necessary source of wisdom and perspective from outside of academia. Finally, I thank my parents for their encouragement and support in this and every endeavor in my life. Words cannot express what your constant love has meant to me over the years. To my partner, Mary Faulkner, I am deeply grateful. I could not have completed this project without you or your Henry James, my reliable canine writing companion. 1 Introduction This dissertation reassesses the nature and purpose of Greek mercenary service in the ancient Near East during the fourth century BCE. From the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger in 401 until the death of Darius III in 330 BCE, large numbers of Greeks served in the armies of the Persian Achaemenid Empire and the Kingdom of Egypt. Classical sources – writing for Classical audiences
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