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CONNECTING A CONTINENT: A revised view of AT&T and the radio business Copyright 2014 by Mark Durenberger This is an updated version of the original work dated October, 2013. The most important changes include: 1) The strengthening and expanding of a good deal of factual information, including further research and follow-up on comments and suggestions offered by readers of the original work. Thank you for your input! 2) The rebuilding of drawings and the addition of illustrations and URLs to offer deeper understanding. 3) The transfer of deep technical detail to the last chapter where it becomes a technical addendum. (This should make the story easier to follow and should make it easier for those not interested in such detail.) Arguably the most interesting textual addition is information in chapter one from the Seth Shulman book: ”The Telephone Gambit: Chasing Alexander Graham Bell’s Secret.” A “redlined” version also appears on the web-site; it flags the changes made to the original work. To supplement the excellent material referenced throughout we’re fortunate to have turned up fresh information online. New web sites appear almost daily containing scans of the trade magazines, literature and correspondence involving the subject under scrutiny. It falls to folks like us to assume the role of “Personal Agent” in collating that information and providing context and perspective---in my case from 55 years of dealing with the telephone company and with broadcasters of all persuasions. From comments received following the original publication, we’ve learned that the toughest issue for some readers was understanding to whom we addressed this work. This was an unintended consequence of trying to attend to all aspects of the subject while hewing to a strict timeline. Hopefully the revised format will help! "Everything that once was wireless is now wired. Everything that once was wired is now wireless." - Rodney E. Nilk AN ELECTRONIC “FLYLEAF” About four years ago, inspired by a piece by James O’Neal in Radio World newsmagazine I came to realize that, while many of us grew up in a broadcast industry created in part by AT&T, there’s been no easy access to the full detail of AT&T’s contributions. Furthermore, those with first-hand experience in an earlier analog world were retiring and the heritage of experience with AT&T methodology was being lost. This is unfortunate, since AT&T’s pioneering helped form the practical electrical world in which we operate today. It’s also true that there’s a body of curious folks who wish to know more about these bedrock principles and learn about a company that was such a force in early commercial broadcasting. This work is the first step in satisfying that curiosity. We’ll drill down into early telecomm history (before there was an AT&T) and we’ll learn how “The Telephone Company” was born, matured and made its bones in radio and radio-network transmission. In its first half-century of service, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company developed connectivity-by-wire to every home and business in the country…and then used that wiring to expand the reach of the radio networks that rode the copper to national coverage. These achievements helped lead to the homogenization of America, when regional boundaries fell and the nation began to experience common community. That common community was created because citizens could now talk to one another beyond the back fence. This e-book is a multi-media presentation of honest business effort and anti-competitive practice, vision and pragmatism, technical innovation and practical reality. We fight the temptation to view this history in the light of today’s knowledge, and we attempt to portray developments as they were seen at the time. This was not always an easy job. e-Outline In Chapter One we follow communications from the “state of the art” of 3000 BC to the patent pool of 1919, reviewing early technical and business developments that moved us to the world of speech-over-wire. Next: “Wired Radio” pre-dated broadcasting by almost a half-century; we’ll look at those early efforts and learn how the telephone became the nexus for early telemarketing and political messaging. And we’ll learn how a new “AT&T” was founded out of the explosive expansion of the telephone industry…launched with the goal of connecting the continent. In Chapter Two the story turns to “Wireless” and to how AT&T developed the wired/wireless interface that led to radiotelephony and “Broadcasting.” We’ll examine the milestones that were stepping-stones to today’s mass-media architecture. And we’ll peer inside AT&T to understand the company’s culture, as the telco tentatively approached the new medium of “R adio.” Chapter Three concerns AT&T’s “broadcasting experiment.” Here are outlined the advances in long-distance radio-program transmission (each considered a ‘giant leap’ forward by the public). Chapter three ends with AT&T’s move out of radio broadcasting and back to its core business. In Chapter Four we track the evolution of the broadcasting networks, including little-known detail on the networks’ activity on the Pacific Coast. New, upstart networks and regional networks took advantage of inherent deficiencies in the distribution requirements of the big chains. What was their value proposition? Chapter Five discusses the alternatives to AT&T. Long Lines transmission was expensive and broadcasters sought other ways to get programming from station to station. We’ll learn how Short-Wave was used for simulcasting and for vital inter-continental audio links. Chapter Six takes an operational look at how AT&T and the radio networks handled multi- channel radio traffic on the national system. We also look at network-performance improvements and learn how AT&T developed transmission standards. On the way we explain the evolution of the famous “VU meter.” Chapter Seven is for the technically interested; its deep detail borrows heavily from telephone company information. This chapter takes us into the wire offices and development labs where the electrical aspects of long-distance transmission were refined and implemented. We witness AT&T’s ‘perfection’ of wire performance while Long Lines searched for an amplifying system that would make transcontinental telephony a practical service. And we rubberneck as AT&T developed “high-fidelity” multi-channel audio transmission through the use of “Carrier.” e-Foreword: AT&T went through several distinct development phases, after a business reformation in the early 1900s led to a re-commitment to core operating principles. That first decade was when it all began to come together. As the company grew its service obligations, the Regional Bell Operating Companies (“RBOCs”) would be established as the first- and last-mile service legs (aka: “network-to-customer nodes”). ‘End-to-End Service’ would become the watchword. Through it all, AT&T worked to establish and defend its monopoly status, to ensure deployment risks could be mitigated. After all, the company was leading a field in which the stakes were incredible and the fighting was best described as “distasteful.” It wasn’t until the acquisition opportunities of the Depression years that AT&T finally became “Too Big to Fail.” This history looks at two intertwined aspects of AT&T: I. AT&T as a telephone-technology company AT&T took a singular approach to technology: First, the research teams theorized, designed and tested improvements in the labs, and only then was field implementation authorized. This was a marked departure from the Edison-centric methodology of “try this; then try that, until we hit on something.” At AT&T, formal operating procedures would be published and fine-tuned after extensive experience in the wire offices, and then documented as Operating Practices. The first labs: AT&T’s early technology research was centered in Boston: Bell Laboratory: Boston, 1880s From the Bell Labs Record The wire-line development period from 1890 forward is when AT&T “wrote the book” on electrical practice for audio transmission. Much of that knowledge base is still applicable a century later. That’s another reason this history is relevant. II. AT&T as a “Broadcaster” The second element of our account involves AT&T and radio. AT&T introduced commercial broadcasting while building the long-distance network backbone. They weren’t first off the mark in radio but their agreements with other communications giants gave them, as we’ll see in chapter three, a presumed right to the exclusive use of airwaves for commercial broadcasting. Here’s where these two aspects merge: It was obvious from the onset of broadcasting in the United States that radio’s political and commercial success would be measured by audience reach. The ideal goal of course would be for each station to touch every listener in the country. But it was clear that, given the physics of the assigned Medium-Wave (or Long-Wave) radio bands, no single radio signal could do this; the country was too big. Multi-station collectivity would be needed. This “station-grouping” idea was driven by a clear business fact: costs were reduced when programming expenses could be shared with other stations. At the time, the only practical solution was station-to-station connectivity by wire. And the only wire system capable of doing the job was owned by AT&T. AT&T was at first the ‘dog in the manger’ regarding such inter-station connectivity. Then, when it suited its purposes, became a full-fledged player in building out the radio networks for others. The early attempts at program networking were ground-breaking, yet seem almost naive when viewed through today’s fiber-optic periscope.

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