Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

https://www.wabicc.org/en/resource-centers/documents/

SCOPING STUDY ON ADDRESSING ILLEGAL HARVESTING OF AQUATIC ENDANGERED, THREATENED OR PROTECTED (ETP) SPECIES FOR CONSUMPTION AND TRADE

As part of the West Africa biodiversity and Climate Change (WABiCC) program

DELIVERABLE N°6: FINAL SCOPING REPORT ON “ADDRESSING ILLEGAL HARVESTING OF AQUATIC ENDANGERED, THREATENED OR PROTECTED (ETP) SPECIES FOR CONSUMPTION, AND TRADE”

Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Table of content

1. Categorization of the issue ...... 3 1.1. Chondrichthyans ...... 3 1.1.1. sharks, rays excluded ...... 3 a) Status ...... 3 1.1.2. Rays ...... 5 a) Status ...... 5 1.1.3. Conservation actions for shark and ray species...... 6 1.2. Actinopterygii ...... 8 1.2.1. Syngnathidae ...... 8 a) Status ...... 8 b) Conservation actions ...... 9 1.3. Aquatic Mammalia ...... 9 1.3.1. Cetaceans ...... 9 c) Status ...... 9 d) Conservation actions ...... 11 1.3.2. Hippopotamus ...... 12 e) Status ...... 12 f) Conservation actions ...... 13 1.3.3. Manatees ...... 15 a) Status ...... 15 b) Conservation actions ...... 16 1.4. Reptilia ...... 17 1.4.1. Crocodiles ...... 17 a) Status ...... 17 b) Conservation actions ...... 19 1.4.2. Marine turtles ...... 19 a) Status ...... 19 b) Conservation actions ...... 22 1.5. Aquatic Aves ...... 26 a) Status ...... 26 b) Conservation actions ...... 29 2. Annexes ...... 31 2.1. Status information of the identified Chondrichthyan species ...... 31 2.2. Status information of the identified Actinopterygii species ...... 33 2.3. Status information of the identified aquatic Mammalia species...... 33 2.4. Status information of the identified aquatic Reptilia species ...... 35 2.5. Status information of the identified aquatic Aves species ...... 36 3. Bibliography ...... 40

2 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

1. CATEGORIZATION OF THE ISSUE

1.1. CHONDRICHTHYANS

Chondrichthyan fishes included sharks, rays and chimaeras. In the present work, only sharks and rays are discussed. The term shark was used for the hammerhead, sawfish and shark species while the term ray was used for the ray and guitarfish species.

Experts stated that chondrichthyan extinction risk is considered as higher than most other vertebrates: five of the seven most threatened families are rays and only one-third of species are considered as safe (Dulvy et al., 2014). In addition, one-quarter of the chondrichthyan population are threatened, according to IUCN Red List criteria, due to targeted and incidental overfishing. Fishery pressure is indeed increasing due to (i) lesser access of targeted population species as they are declining and (ii) high and/or rising value of their derived products (e.g. meat, fins, livers and gill rakers) (Lack and Sant, 2009). In West Africa, the global status of chondrichthyan species is worsening and some are already locally extinct (e.g. the sawfish and the guitarfish) while others (e.g. the great hammerhead shark) are threatened. A decreasing trend is observed in the region which is most likely due to the fewer availability of the species (e.g. the almost complete disappearance of the sawfish species, and a scarcity of guitarfish and large hammerhead sharks (Diop and Dossa, 2011)).

Among the shark and ray related products, fins are reported as one of the most valuable seafood products. Twenty- six to seventy-three millions of specimens are caught and traded yearly for a value ranging from US$400 to US$ 550 millions (Clarke and Bjorndal, 2007). The main driver of shark fishing is the globalized trade to meet the Asian demand for shark fin soup1. In the past 20 years, the Asian chondrichthyan fin market was indeed the driving force behind the fishing business. Hong Kong, Taiwan and, to a lesser extent, Singapore and Japan were the final destinations of almost all the worldwide production of chondrichthyan fins. In West Africa, two main networks are operating in the shark and ray trade context. The first one is linked to the local market and targeted the meat (i.e. salted-dried or smoked) while the second one is linked to South East Asia export market and mainly targeted the fins. The environment of the west African coast is considered as fully exploited and amongst the most intensively fished areas worldwide (Zeeberg, Corten and de Graaf, 2006). The high market value, especially of fins, led to the development of targeted small scale and semi-industrial fishery activities among which artisanal fishery seems to account for the higher number of chondrichthyan catch (Diop and Dossa, 2011). Fishermen from several countries have been involved in the chondrichthyan fishing business, most of them come from Ghana or Senegal. Since they have depleted the chondrichthyan resources from their country, they started to make longer outings, move to other countries (e.g. Mauritania, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia) exploring their fishing zone (Diop and Dossa, 2011). Captures of chondrichthyans heavily increased from 1950 to 1997, switching from 3 000 tons to 31 700 tons within the period. In 1997, in the top of the six main west African countries catching chondrichthyans, Senegal was the main one catching up to 9 000 tons of specimens, Nigeria the second one with 6 600 tons, Gambia the third one with 3 200 tons and Sierra Leone the fifth one with 1 400 tons (Vannuccini, 1999). Chondrichthyan catch continue to sharply increase from 1999 to 2005, switching from 5,000 tons to more than 26,000 tons. For the 2002 – 2011 period, Nigeria is the only West Africa country reported in the top 20 chondrichthyan worldwide catchers. For the 2000 – 2009 period, Senegal and Guinea are respectively positioned in the fifteenth and nineteenth position in the top 20 chondrichthyan fin worldwide exporters while the Nigeria is in nineteenth position in the top 20 chondrichthyan worldwide importers (Mundy-Taylor and Crook, 2013). Since 2005, trend is decreasing amounting to 12,000 tons in 2008 (i.e. a drop of more than 50% in three years) (Diop and Dossa, 2011).

1.1.1. SHARKS, RAYS EXCLUDED a) Status Amongst the shark species inhabiting the West Africa coast, seven were identified as probably concerned by illegal use and trade, and with particular IUCN status. These species are the following: 1) largetooth sawfish (critically endangered – CITES Appendix I), 2) smalltooth sawfish (critically endangered – CITES Appendix I), 3) silky shark (near threatened – CITES Appendix II), 4) scalloped hammerhead (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 5) great hammerhead (endangered – CITES Appendix II), 6) basking shark (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 7) common thresher shark (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II).

1 The “shark fin soup” can be also made by using shark-like rays such as wedgefishes and sawfishes. 3 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Both sawfish species are listed as “critically endangered” by the IUCN. They are both listed on the CITES Appendix I and the CMS Appendix I and II. The five-other species are listed on the CITES Appendix II and on the CMS Appendix II, excepted for the basking shark which is listed on the CMS Appendix I (see Annex 2.1, p. 31). In the past, both sawfish species were commonly encountered in Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau and Guinea. Unfortunately, sawfish populations are facing to ongoing threats that have resulted in their decline over these past 30 years (Carlson and Smith, 2013; Carlson, Wiley and Smith, 2013). The decline of both species is suggested as being mostly associated to direct and incidental fisheries activities, principally industrial and artisanal trawling and longline fisheries. Sawfish seems to be commonly targeted for their meat which is salted and dried, or even smoked. Most of the consumption is local but sawfish related products can also be exported to other African countries, or even to the Asian network. The growing demand of shark fin for Asian markets in the 1980s increased the sawfish fine value on international market. The sawfish skin can be also used to produce a very high quality leather; liver can be used as oil and the whole animals as display animals in public aquarium. Specimens are further reported as having magical and religious virtues (Robillard and Seret, 2006; Diop and Dossa, 2011; Carlson and Smith, 2013; Carlson, Wiley and Smith, 2013; Fernandez- Carvalho et al., 2013). The human uses of sawfish and their related products are presented in the Table 1 below.

Table 1. Specific uses of the sawfish species and their related products in West Africa countries. COUNTRY DESCRIPTION Rostrums are hung up on hut roofs to protect family against catastrophe and fire; or set in cattle pens as livestock Gambia protection. Guinea Rostrums were displayed in the living places of houses as proving the courage of their owners to visitors The sawfish, and even the hammerhead shark, is using as totemic animal by the Bijagos ethnic group for Guinea-Bissau symbolizing the nature forces. In the past, the rostrum of a young sawfish was worn during ceremonial dances. Today, that rostrum is replaced by a wooden model in response to the rarity of the species. In Southern Senegal, sawfish are used as totemic animals symbolizing strength for the Diola peoples. The Senegal rostrum was used as a powerful weapon to protect homes or cattle, and for medical treatments Information were issued from (Robillard and Seret, 2006).

Increased targeting of all shark species started in the 1970s, when Ghanaian fishermen settled in the Gambia and developed trade network throughout the region. By the 1980s, fishermen got specialized in catching sharks and resulted in the global decline of shark populations (Walker et al., 2005). Commonly, fishermen discarded the meat. They only used the fins especially because of their high price value in trade networks which resulted in a rapid increase on the shark fin market in the region. In 1997, seven countries were identified as the major exporters of shark products, especially the meat: Guinea- Bissau at the second place, Guinea at third and Sierra Leone at the fourth place (Vannuccini, 1999). For example, yearly production of dried fins exported from Guinea-Bissau was estimated at 250 tons (dry weight) (Walker et al., 2005). Senegal and Gambia were also indicated to directly export fins to China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Singapore as well as to the US. Europe was considered as the main market for exportation of shark meat from Africa. However, export to Japan also occurred and especially concerned Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Guinea and Gambia (Vannuccini, 1999).

No data were available for the silky shark population inhabiting the West Africa coast. However, recent report indicated that the species is the second most caught species of shark globally, after the blue shark (Prionace glauca) (Oliver et al., 2015). The silky shark meat is reported as being consumed in other countries. In addition, their fins are prized for the shark fin trade, their skin is processed for leather and their liver is used for liver oil (for its high vitamin A content in this species) (Vannuccini, 1999).

Recent reports indicated that both hammerhead shark species are still caught in the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC) countries2 (Diop and Dossa, 2011). The hammerhead species, and specifically the scalloped hammerhead, are subjected to fin collection and international trade of their related products, their fins especially (Mundy- Taylor and Crook, 2013)3. The scalloped hammerhead is indeed highly prized for their fins, and even more than the other species considering their high fin ray counts. The resulting growing demand increased the fishery pressure on the species in some areas (Baum et al., 2007). Available data indicated that scalloped hammerhead is still frequently caught along the West African coast, being heavily targeted by driftnets and fixed gillnets from Mauritania to Sierra Leone. The species is caught by inshore artisanal fisheries and offshore European fisheries operating along the coast of West Africa, and heavily targeted by driftnets and fixed gillnets from Mauritania to Sierra Leone (Baum et al., 2007). Report further indicated that Senegal and the Republic of Congo were responsible of 80% of the species catch in the Eastern Central Atlantic for the 2002 – 2011 period (Mundy-Taylor and Crook, 2013). Regarding the great hammerhead, the species is considered as highly valuable on the shark

2 The SRFC include the seven following countries: Cape Verde, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone 3 The great hammerhead is less targeted since the species is scarcely observed in West Africa (Diop and Dossa, 2011). 4 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization fin trade. However, data about the species in West Africa is lacking what is most probably due to the scarcity of the species in the region (Diop and Dossa, 2011).

No data were available for the human use of basking sharks in West Africa. Records from other countries indicated that the species was exploited for centuries to supply liver oil for lighting and industrial use, and their skin was used for leather and their flesh for food or fishmeal. Modern fisheries yield liver oil, fins, meat and cartilage (Fowler, 2005). Likewise, data are scarce for the common thresher sharks inhabiting the West Africa region. Nevertheless, considering the high value of the species related products, by-caught animals are most likely retained if occurs (ICES 2005). In other countries, the species meat is highly prized by human and can be eaten fresh, smoked and dried salted. Their fins are also valuable for the shark-fin soup, their skin for leather and their liver oil can be processed for vitamins (Goldman et al., 2009). Incidentally, the species is one of the most important and prized species in recreational fisheries (Denham et al., 2007).

1.1.2. RAYS a) Status Amongst the Ray4 species inhabiting the West Africa, seven species were identified as concerning regarding the IUCN criteria and likely subjected to human use and/or trade. These are the following: 1) reef manta ray (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 2) lesser Guinean devil ray (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 3) sicklefin devil ray (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 4) bentfin devil ray (near threatened – CITES Appendix II), 5) blackchin guitarfish (endangered), 6) common guitarfish (endangered), 7) Lubbert’s guitarfish (endangered).

All the ray species are listed in the CITES Appendix II and the CMS Appendix I and II while the guitarfish species are not listed neither on CITES neither on CMS Appendix (see Annex 2.1, p. 31).

No data were available regarding the human use of the reef manta in West Africa. In other countries, meat is reported to be sold as food or used as shark bait or attractant. Likewise, the liver is used for local medicine and oil, and branchial filter plates (gill rakers) are prized in Asia where they are used for Chinese medicinal products. The epidermis can also be used for leather products (i.e. shoes, wallets, knife handles). The caught specimens can be intended to aquaria as display animals (Marshall et al., 2011).

Globally speaking, little is known about the extent of fisheries targeting devil rays in West Africa. Likewise, little is known about the trade and use of devil ray related products that may especially include meat rather than other products such as skin and cartilage (see Table 2 below). Specialized artisanal fishery activities may occur in some countries and be mainly dedicated to local human consumption and, in a lesser extent, to international trade (Couturier et al., 2012; Walls et al., 2016). Indeed, meat of devil rays has relatively low-value and may therefore most often be consumed locally and/or use as shark baits, fishmeal or animal feed (Couturier et al., 2012; Croll et al., 2015). The available records indicated that up to 620 devil ray specimens, the sicklefin devil ray being the most dominant species, were caught annually by industrial trawlers in West Africa (Zeeberg, Corten and de Graaf, 2006; Couturier et al., 2012). During the 1980s, dried specimens of the lesser Guinean devil ray were observed in Guinean Bissau markets (F. Litvinov pers. comm. In IUCN 2017).

Table 2. Specific uses of the sicklefin and bentfin devil rays and their related products in West Africa countries. COUNTRY DESCRIPTION The devil ray meat is reported to be exported as smoke-dried meat to Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone and Liberia. Meat is further exported as salt-dried meat to Nigeria, Ghana and Togo (Walls et al., 2016). Specimens are also Guinea used for cartilage exported as filler for shark fin soup and for skin exported for leather production (Croll et al., 2015). Devil ray cartilage is further used to make chondroitin sulfate supplements for export to Japan and Britain (Heinrichs et al., 2011). Fishermen are reported to export dried sicklefin and bentfin devil ray meat for human consumption to Senegal neighbouring African countries such as Ghana, Togo and Mali (Walls et al., 2016).

In West Africa, data are scarce for the guitarfish species. Species have almost completely disappeared except in the Banc d’Arguin National Park (Mauritania). The current decline of the population is mostly associated to both artisanal and industrial fishery activities such as shrimp trawl fisheries and artisanal bottom setnet fisheries. Specimens are mainly caught

4 Rays with a capital letter is referring to both true ray and guitarfish species. The rays with a low letter is referring to true rays. 5 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization for their meat which is salted, dried and exported within the region especially in Ghana (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007, 2016; Diop and Dossa, 2011). Specifically, the blackchin guitarfish fins were highly prized and customers disbursed up to 118 US$ for one kilogram. As a result, the species was and is most likely still targeted by artisanal fisheries. The old subsistence fisheries have indeed switched to more directed and trade fisheries for the international fin trade network explaining the species population decline in the region (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2016). The identified specific use of the guitarfish species is reported in the Table 3 below

Table 3. Specific uses and captures of the guitarfish species and their related products in West Africa countries. COUNTRY DESCRIPTION Gambia The common guitarfish was reported as commonly caught (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007). In the past, the blackchin guitarfish was caught by specialized fishermen coming from Ghana and Senegal Guinea (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 2016). The blackchin and common guitarfish are two of the main targets of specialized shark fishermen. During the Guinea-Bissau early 1990s, fishermen from Senegal, Guinea and Gambia moved to Guinea-Bissau specifically to fish the blackchin guitarfish (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007, 2016). Between 1998 – 2003, the blackchin species was heavily targeted within the Banc d'Arguin National Park (BANP). Catches of approximately 400 tons per year were caught with specialized nets. Currently, a complete ban on elasmobranch fisheries within the area came into force in the BANP. Since then, the species is still caught Mauritania as incidental bycatch (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 2016). The common guitarfish is more abundant within the BANP. The species is still caught incidentally by artisanal and industrial fishermen. Their meat can be collected and fins dried to be exported to Ghana. In the past, the species was prized for their fins (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007). The blackchin guitarfish is reported as the most dominant guitarfish caught through artisanal fishery activities Sierra Leone (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 2016). The common guitarfish is reported as commonly captured by fishermen (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007).

1.1.3. CONSERVATION ACTIONS FOR SHARK AND RAY SPECIES The shark and ray species are benefiting from protection measures through their listing in CITES and/or CMS Appendix. The CITES Appendix I says that the trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances while Appendix II says that trade must be controlled in order to avoid unsustainable use compromising their survival (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). Likewise, species listed in CMS Appendix I benefit from strict protections prohibiting (or exceptionally restricting) their taking and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Species listed in Appendix II require international, global and/or regional agreement for their effective preservation and management (CMS, 1979). Countries hosting shark and ray populations have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention5. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources with the exception of Cape Verde (AU, 2017).

CITES6 is implementing specific activities on shark and manta aiming to (i) improve the implementation of the CITES regulations, particularly among developing countries; (ii) ensure that trade in CITES-listed species is sustainable, legal and traceable as well as conducted in full compliance with the provisions of the Convention. The second phase of this program in ongoing and will extend from 2017 to 2020. The objective is to further scale up targeted activities to assist with the implementation of CITES provisions for commercially-exploited marine species through strong existing and new partnerships in order to maximizing synergies, avoiding duplication of work and delivering outcomes in a coordinated and effective manner.

In West Africa, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks entered into effect in 2010. The MoU covers 37 African countries among which 14 signatories including six West Africa countries (i.e. Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal and Togo). The other countries from West Africa are indicated as Range State countries. Currently, 29 shark species are listed in the MoU Annex I among which the shark, ray and sawfish species identified as part of the present work. This MoU includes a Conservation Plan aiming at improving the understanding of migratory shark populations, ensuring that directed and non-directed fisheries for sharks are sustainable, ensuring to the extent practicable the protection of critical habitats and migratory corridors and critical life stages of sharks, increasing public awareness of threats to sharks and their habitats, enhancing public participation in conservation activities and national, regional and international cooperation.

5 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 6 Website: https://cites.org/eng/prog/shark/projects.php 6 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

That Conservation Plan was adopted during the First Meeting of the Signatories to the MoU on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks in 2012 and was updated in 2016 (CMS, 2016).

In 1991, a Shark Specialist Group7 was created within the IUCN’s Species Survival Commission (SSC) to secure the conservation, management and, where necessary, the recovery of the world's sharks, rays and chimaeras by mobilizing global technical and scientific expertise to provide the knowledge that enables action. That specialist group further includes regional group among which the West Africa Group co-charing by Mika DIOP and Justine DOSSA both from Senegal.

The Partenariat Régional pour la Conservation de la zone côtière et Marine en Afrique de l’Ouest (PRCM)8 is an initiative of four international non-governmental organizations active in West Africa: the IUCN, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Wetlands International and the Fondation Internationale du Banc d’Arguin (FIBA), in partnership with the SRFC9. The program is covering seven countries: Cape Verde, the Gambia, Guinea and Guinea Bissau, Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone. The PRCM aims at coordinating efforts made by institutions and private individuals to preserve the littoral of coastal countries in the sub-region. In 1995, the Committee on Fisheries from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) including officials from the seven above-cited countries created a working group for the preservation and management of sharks in the sub-region. They further adopted an International Action Plan for the Preservation and Management of Sharks (IPOA-Sharks). In 2002, a Sub-Regional Action Plan for the Preservation and Management of Sharks (SRPOA-Sharks) was launched by the SRFC members aware of the risks of the fast disappearance of shark and ray stocks in the sub-region. That action plan proposes that all their marine protected areas (MPA) should become a Non-Fishing Zones for elasmobranchs in future years. Currently, the small-regional MPAs that prohibit shark fishing are: - Guinea-Bissau: João-Vieira Poilão Marine Turtles National Park (NP), Orango NP, Cacheu Mangal NP and Urok Islands Community Management Area; - Senegal: Sine Saloum NP, Bamboung Bolon Marine Reserve and Madeleine Islands NP.

In 2014, the US Fishery Ministry developed the Dakar Action Plan outlining the main objectives that the West African region agreed to achieve for effective implementation of the CITES shark and ray listings adopted at the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to CITES. The plan further addresses Customs, CITES and Fisheries authorities towards actions to strengthen CITES implementation (US Fishery Ministry, 2014). In December 2016, a workshop was hold in Dakar and co-hosted by the Governments of Senegal and Togo, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The aim was to facilitate the implementation of the shark and ray listing in Appendix II of the CITES. NOOA Fisheries, together with representative of nine West Africa countries further developed recommendations to address priority needs and to strengthen shark and ray preservation in the region. During the workshop, officials discussed the (i) identification of shark and ray products in trade, (ii) improvements to data collection and monitoring and (iii) how to make legal acquisition findings and non-detriment findings for CITES-listed shark and ray species10.

Additional international institutions are working for the preservation of sharks and rays in West Africa. Born Free USA is a national animal advocacy non-profit organization fighting against illegal use and trade of aquatic wildlife in West Africa. They mainly focus on shark and ray preservation and the strengthening of CITES implementation in the region. They work in partnership with the NOAA and CITES organizations, as well as the US Fishery Ministry. They act through the enforcement of laws in the commercial international trade of sharks and rays as well as the setting up of workshops aiming at training targeted people (e.g. customs officials) in the identification of protected sharks and rays.

The NOAA works on the preservation and management of sharks and rays in West Africa11, in collaboration with the SRFC, to strengthen capacities of the seven member countries. The objectives are to update, harmonize and enforce the implementation of the National Plans of Action for sharks in these countries and to promote a regional policy regarding the fin removal from sharks. NOAA further works at improving governance through legal and enforcement capacity building, and at building capacities to implement CITES. They provided legal enforcement trainings and workshops aiming at assisting African countries in prosecuting fisheries violations and helping to strengthen and promote interagency and regional collaboration. They conducted actions in Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone.

7 Website: https://iucn-mtsg.org 8 Website: http://en.prcmarine.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=frontpage&Itemid=1 9 Website: http://www.spcsrp.org/fr 10 Website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ia/slider_stories/2016/12/westafrica_citesmtg.html 11 Website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ia/international_development/west_africa/africa_dev.html 7 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Table 4. Conservation actions implemented for the shark and ray species in West Africa countries. COUNTRY DESCRIPTION Surveys conducted as part of the IUCN Guinea-Bissau program in collaboration with Centre of Applied Fisheries Gambia Research indicated that common and blackchin guitarfish populations have considerably diminished from the past (Fowler et al., 2005). Guinea Sawfish benefits from protection measures within the Exclusive Economic Zone (Carlson and Smith, 2013). Marine protected areas (MAP) were created within the Bijagos archipelago as well as the PNMJVO marine reserve (Joao Vieira and Poilao Islands). Trawling and use of nets is prohibited and fishing is only allowed for subsistence purposes (Bucal, 2006; Carlson and Smith, 2013). Guinea-Bissau The Noé Conservation NGO is further working within the Bijagos archipelago and implemented a program in the Orango National Park. The main objective is to make this park a model for other marine protected areas as well as to effectively manage the park for the preservation of marine biodiversity, including especially sharks and rays. In the Band d’Arguin National Park (BANP), elasmobranch fishing is banned since 2003 but incidental captures are still occurring. Thanks to measure enforcement in the BANP, the blackchin population declines has reversed Mauritania and it’s most likely the case for other populations. Sawfish are further protected in MAP (Carlson and Smith, 2013). Senegal Sawfish benefits from protection measures within the Exclusive Economic Zone (Carlson and Smith, 2013). No species-specific regulations for the management of ray fisheries are present in the country. As a preservation action, artisanal fishermen have to pay a license to the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources and the Local Sierra Leone Government Administration (Seisay, 2005). Reports indicated that fishing pressure on the scalloped hammerhead in the country is still present (Baum et al., 2007).

1.2. ACTINOPTERYGII 1.2.1. SYNGNATHIDAE a) Status

Amongst the Syngnathidae species inhabiting the West Africa coast, two were identified as probably concerned by illegal use and trade, and with particular IUCN status. These species are the following: 1) West African seahorse (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 2) short-snouted seahorse (data deficient – CITES Appendix II),

Both species are listed in the CITES Appendix II (see Annex 2.2, p.33) and traded for traditional medicines, aquarium display and/or curiosities. Species are by-caught by trawling and artisanal fishery activities along the West Africa coast (Baum, Meeuwig and Vincent, 2003; McPherson and Vincent, 2004; Ky, Vincent and Huu, 2006; Storelli et al., 2008).

While no monitoring data are currently available for the West African seahorse population, evidences suggested that populations has declined from last records and will continue in the future. Indeed, the obvious increase in the species trade, the increasing economies of Asian countries importing this species together with the increasing trawling pressure of West African fisheries (FAO 2001) will most likely contribute to increase the exploitation pressure on the species (Baum, Meeuwig and Vincent, 2003; McPherson and Vincent, 2004; Ky, Vincent and Huu, 2006; Storelli et al., 2008; Czembor, 2012). Important trading occurred in the nineties (Vincent, Foster and Koldewey, 2011) and is still occurring nowadays, even at a higher rate (Evanson et al., 2011). Since the species listing in the CITES Appendix II, around 700,000 specimens were annually traded between 2004 and 2008 which were especially dedicated to the Asian network for traditional medicines (Evanson et al., 2011; Vincent et al., 2011; Vincent, Foster and Koldewey, 2011; UNEP-WCMC, 2017). This high trade was besides suspected as being the reason of past and future population declines.

The short-snouted seahorse populations are known to be exploited in Africa. However, no data are currently available on the exploitation trend of the species (Woodall, 2012). In West Africa, current investigations are ongoing to elucidate this situation. Since the species listing on the CITES Appendix II, international trade should be recorded but the short-snouted seahorse was often misidentified and recorded as other seahorse species (Woodall, 2012).

Both species taken together, hundreds of kilograms of seahorses were annually traded from West African countries such as Guinea, Gambia, Senegal and Togo (Vincent, Foster and Koldewey, 2011). Since it is the only species recorded in some of these areas, the West African seahorses most likely accounted for the highest part of the trading seahorses. A recent study conducted in Gambia and Senegal indicated that the species accounts for 94% of the by-caught specimens (Cisneros- Montemayor et al., 2016).

8 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

In summer 2012 and 2013, the People's Trust for Endangered Species institution12 undertook field investigations in some countries from West Africa (i.e. Guinea, Gambia and Senegal) in order to study the local catch and export of seahorses. In Senegal, they reported around 371,000 caught specimens among which 184,000 kept as catch. The West African seahorse was the dominant species following by the short-snouted seahorse. In Senegal, seahorses (mainly the West Africa species) caught through artisanal fishery activities were generally dried before being sold. Some fishermen used seahorses without any commercial trade purposes, as a necklace or key ring, or even gave them to small children to play with. In a commercial use context, seahorses are given or sold to tour operators for tourists or directly sold to tourists (West et al., 2012). In Dakar, traders often sold directly to the Chinese or exported seahorses to Hong Kong. Seahorse price increased over the years ranging between 216 to 235 US $ for one kilogram in 2012 (i.e. around 180 specimens) (West et al., 2012).

The CITES Trade Database gave no records of traded specimens from both species exported from or imported to West Africa countries (UNEP-WCMC, 2017).

b) Conservation actions The West African seahorse is listed by the IUCN as “vulnerable” while the short-snouted seahorse “data deficient”. Both species are listed in the CITES Appendix II. The trade of specimens and their related products must therefore be controlled in order to avoid unsustainable use compromising their survival (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). Countries are thus required to provide permits for all exports of seahorses and evidences that these exports are not detrimental to wild populations. Unfortunately, the CITES authorities are not able to control sustainability of the exploitation and apply the Convention since basic information on distribution, habitat and abundance are lacking.

Countries hosting these seahorse populations have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention13. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone), ratified/acceded (i.e. Ivory Coast, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (AU, 2017).

The West Africa seahorse benefits from protection through marine protected areas where the species is occurring (e.g. Bijagos Archipelago Biosphere Reserve in Guinea-Bissau) (Agardy, 1999).

1.3. AQUATIC MAMMALIA 1.3.1. CETACEANS c) Status Amongst the cetacean species inhabiting the West Africa coast, nine were identified as probably concerned by illegal use and trade, and with particular IUCN status. These species are the following: 3) Atlantic humpback dolphin (vulnerable – CITES Appendix I), 4) long-beaked common dolphin (data deficient – CITES Appendix II), 5) Clymene dolphin (data deficient – CITES Appendix II), 6) Atlantic spotted dolphin (data deficient – CITES Appendix II), 7) long-beaked or spinner dolphin (data deficient – CITES Appendix II), 8) common bottlenose dolphin (least concern – CITES Appendix II), 9) false killer whale (data deficient – CITES Appendix II), 10) short-finned pilot whale (data deficient – CITES Appendix II), 11) pygmy killer whale (data deficient – CITES Appendix II).

The Atlantic humpback dolphin is listed in the CITES Appendix I while the other species are listed in the CITES Appendix II. The Atlantic humpback dolphin is further listed in the CMS Appendix I and II while the clymene, long-beaked and common bottlenose dolphin are listed in the CMS Appendix II. The five-other species are not listed in the CMS Appendix (see Annex 2.3, p.33).

Globally speaking, few data reported illegal use of cetaceans in West Africa, and even less trade. Direct take may however regularly occur especially since the depletion of fish stocks may be a growing forthcoming issue (UNEP/CMS, 2008a;

12 Website: https://ptes.org/new-research-leads-conservation-win-west-african-seahorses 13 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 9 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Cosentino and Fisher, 2016). Indeed, small cetaceans are involved in cultures, legends, traditions and heritage of communities. Cetaceans are viewed both as venerated aquatic mammals or as a mean of subsistence. Most of cetaceans may be mostly killed as incidental by-catches and then locally consumed as marine bushmeat. However, with an increasing trading, direct captures of specimens may become a more common issue in the future (Segniagbeto et al., 2014; van Waerebeek, Uwagbae and Segniagbeto, 2017). In West Africa, hunting of dolphins, especially the Atlantic humpback species, mainly occurs in Ghana, Guinea and Nigeria while landings are known to occur in Gambia, Guinea, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal and Togo (van Waerebeek, Uwagbae and Segniagbeto, 2017). In Gambia, Guinea-Bissau and Senegal, a recent report indicated that by-caught specimens14 were usually used within the community, as food, while trade of dolphin meat was quite insignificant. Meat and oil were also indicated as useful for threating aliments (Leeney, Dia and Dia, 2015).

Across the available records, human uses of cetaceans and related products were identified. These are presented in the tables hereinbelow according to the country (Table 5, below) and the species (Table 6, below).

Table 5. Specific uses and captures of cetaceans identified according to the country in West Africa. COUNTRY DESCRIPTION Small cetaceans were caught for their meat and handicraft production. To date, the use of dolphin still occurs Cape Verde but there is no evidence of direct hunted (Brito and Carvalho, 2012). Small cetaceans may be harvested but in a lesser extent, most exclusively for consumption and medicinal Gambia purposes (Alfaro and Waerebeek, 2001; Leeney, Dia and Dia, 2015). Whale was previously associated to some level of divinity and people sometimes hold ceremonies to beach whales. While the dolphin meat was not consumed in the past, recent reports indicated that the number of caught Ghana cetaceans in the country is among the highest in West Africa (Robards and Reeves, 2011; Cosentino and Fisher, 2016). Dolphin meat reached similar price levels as billfishes, albacore or yellow tuna (Ofori-Danson, van Waerebeek and Debrah, 2003). Dolphins are caught, consumed locally and used for traditional ceremonies and medicinal purposes (Alfaro and Guinea-Bissau Waerebeek, 2001; Leeney, Dia and Dia, 2015). Mauritania Little evidences suggested that small cetaceans are used as bushmeat (Waerebeek et al., 2004). The country was reported as being amongst the largest consumers of small cetaceans as bushmeat. Number of annual catches, both direct and indirect, can reach 10,000 dolphins. The most caught species were the bottlenose, spinner and Atlantic spotted dolphin (Uwagbae and Van Waerebeek, 2010; Ajulo, 2013). A recent report indicated that dolphin hunting, and thus cetacean bushmeat, was more prevalent and traditional that thought; and that the use of dolphin by-products as shark baits is a recent development most likely Nigeria associated with the increasing export of shark fines on Asia markets. However, the use of dolphin as bushmeat was not the main capture driver since most of the human population (92% of the study respondents) mainly used by-products as shark baits rather than as sale products for food (8% of the study respondents). In the country, small dolphins can be sold between 312 – 375 US$ while the larger one between 563 – 625 US$ (van Waerebeek, Uwagbae and Segniagbeto, 2017). The hunting of cetaceans is part of the traditional habits of the fishing communities of Joal and Fadiouth (Waerebeek et al., 2004). The Atlantic humpback dolphins was consumed opportunistically since the 1990s Senegal (Waerebeek et al., 2004; Cosentino and Fisher, 2016). Dolphin meat is still being illegally traded as food and bait, in the cephalopod fishery (Leeney, Dia and Dia, 2015; Cosentino and Fisher, 2016). Cetaceans are obtained from direct and indirect captures and sent to other localities (Alfaro and Waerebeek, Togo 2001; Segniagbeto et al., 2014)

Table 6. Specific uses and captures of cetaceans in West Africa presented according to the species. SPECIES DESCRIPTION Incidental captures of the species most likely occur in most countries of its distribution range (e.g. Mauritania, Senegal and Guinea Bissau). These captures are the most serious and immediate threat for Atlantic humpback the species. In some places, the species can be targeted by local people for direct consumption or use in dolphin traditional ceremonies. Unfortunately, the past and present levels of these captures remain globally unknown (Waerebeek et al., 2004). The species is suffering from direct and indirect captures of unknown, but likely escalating scale (Weir et Clymene dolphin al., 2014). The species is most likely one of the several dolphin species taken in large numbers in tuna purse seines in the Gulf of Guinea (Van Waerebeek et al., 2000). Both species are directly caught in some places for human consumption and can be used as bait in Long-beaked common fisheries. Specimens of common bottlenose dolphin can be also caught for zoo and aquaria (Bearzi et al., dolphin and the common 2012; Hammond et al., 2012c). In West Africa, data weren’t available for reporting such events targeting bottlenose dolphin both species. The species is not a target species for fishermen and may be occasionally by-caught in tuna purse seines Atlantic spotted dolphin off the West African coast (Van Waerebeek et al., 2000).

14 The Atlantic humpback and bottlenose dolphin most probably made up the highest proportion of the by-caught dolphin species. 10 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Long-beaked or spinner The species is harvested in some places and used as human food and bait in fisheries. In West Africa, dolphin few reports indicated the direct take of the species by fishermen (Waerebeek and Ofori-Danson, 1999). Short-finned pilot, false These whales are caught and used as food and/or cooking oil. Their skulls can be further sold as curios killer and pygmy killer in some places. These events mainly occurred in Asia for especially supplying the Asian market. In West whale Africa, data reporting such events are lacking (Taylor et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2011)?

From these tables, it appears that Nigeria and Ghana are amongst the countries having a bigger implication in cetacean use which mostly includes consumption of the cetacean meat. Specimens are most commonly incidentally captured than directly collected from the sea. Then, data were not available for the whale species in West Africa what can make sense since they were listed as "data deficient" on the IUCN Red List.

d) Conservation actions Species listed on CITES Appendix I (i.e. Atlantic humpback dolphin) are protected against any trade which is only permitted in exceptional circumstances (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). The species listed in Appendix II and their related products can be traded if, and only if, controls are implemented to avoid unsustainable use compromising their survival (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). The species listed on CMS Appendix I (i.e. Atlantic humpback dolphin) benefit from strict protections prohibiting, or exceptionally restricting, its taking and further controlling other factors that might endanger them. The species listed on CMS Appendix II require international, global and/or regional agreement for effective preservation and management. The species solely listed in CMS Appendix II are the clymen, spinner and common bottlenose dolphin (CMS, 1979). Countries hosting these cetacean populations have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention15. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources with the exception of Cape Verde (AU, 2017).

In 2008, a MoU concerning Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia, developed under the CMS and UNEP, entered into effect. The MoU covers 27 African countries among which 16 signatories including Benin, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Togo. The MoU aims at achieving and maintaining a favorable preservation status for manatees and small cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia and their habitats, and to safeguard the associated values of these species for the people of the region. Together with the signing of the MoU, an Action Plan for small cetaceans from West Africa and Macronesia was adopted (UNEP/CMS, 2008a). One objective of the action plan is to reduce the bycatch of species by, among other things, limiting any direct take to sustainable levels as part of legal capture (objective 4.2). That sub-objective is considered as being of very high priority and is requested to be implemented by states, CITES and local NGOs.

A Cetacean Specialist Group was created within the IUCN’s SSC16 and works at enhancing the preservation of worldwide cetaceans. Its most recent action plan entitled Dolphins, Whales and Porpoises: 2002-2010 Conservation Action Plan for the World’s Cetaceans reviewed available scientific information for cetaceans worldwide, identifying the threats to their survival and recommending specific preservation actions (Reeves et al., 2003). The action plan recommended research and education initiatives for projects implemented in West Africa. These are presented in the Table 7, below. Amongst the preservation action recommended by authors, none concerned the West Africa.

Table 7. Recommended research and education initiatives in West Africa. COUNTRY DESCRIPTION Investigate bycatches and direct captures of small cetaceans Reeves and contributors (2003) considered that bycatches and direct takes occurred in the country. By comparing the species listed as part of the present study (see above) and the list established by Reeves and contributors (2003), the most commonly caught species are: the clymen, bottlenose and long-beaked common Ghana dolphin, and the short-finned pilot whale. The humpbacked dolphin is reported as absent and could mean that population has declined following the high pressure of bycatch and hunting. It further is indicated that, at that time, senior officers in Ghanaian fishery and wildlife departments shown an encouraging interest in, and awareness of, the potential for over-exploitation. Investigate bycatches and direct captures of small cetaceans in Senegal and The Gambia Bycatch and direct takes are reported as being still present. The main target species are the bottlenose, Atlantic Senegal and The humpback, long- and short-beaked common dolphins which are caught for their meat. Hunting is spreading Gambia among the dominant Muslim fishing communities. A concern was raised about the trend of the humpback dolphin population. Authors reported that a Dakar-based non-governmental organization, Conservation and Research

15 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 16 Website: http://www.iucncsg.org 11 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

of West African Aquatic Mammals (COREWAM) and an inter-departmental Gambian Aquatic Mammal Working Group are in place. Investigate the status of Atlantic humpbacked dolphins in north-western Africa Following the statement that humpback dolphin population are declining and targeted by fishermen, authors expressed the need to obtain baseline abundance data of the species. Investigate cetacean mortality in the eastern tropical Atlantic tuna purse seine fishery West Africa Investigate the potential effects of oil and gas development on humpback whales and other cetaceans in coastal waters of West Africa

Local scientist, NGOs and international institutions are working on the field of cetacean preservation in West Africa. These are presented in Table 8, below.

Table 8. Local NGOs and international institutions working on the field of cetacean preservation in West Africa. INSTITUTIONS DESCRIPTION In West Africa, NOAA is advancing relevant fisheries management measures adopted by international and regional fisheries management organizations and supporting scientific based activities, such as fisheries observer programs and preservation of key marine species including cetaceans. The specific projects conducted in West Africa and in the cetacean field are the following: NOAA (1) improved Governance through Legal and Enforcement Capacity Building implemented in Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cape Verde and Ghana. (2) Capacity Building to Implement CITES (3) Cetacean Conservation and Management Wildlife WCS is working to reduce the human use of dolphin but not specifically in West Africa. Tim Collins has worked Conservation with the WCS since 2002 and leads WCS marine mammal work in Central West Africa. Furthermore, he is the Society (WCS) Africa Coordinator of the IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group Koen Van Waerebeek, from the department of marine and fishery sciences in Ghana, is undertaking several COREWAM studies about cetaceans in West Africa aiming at improving biological knowledge of species. Melania Cosentino, PhD in bioacoustics from the department of electronic and electrical engineering, is working University of for cetacean preservation. She is developing an online database for reporting worldwide cetacean poaching Strathclyde, UK event (available at https://aquaticbushmeat.shinyapps.io/bushmeat/ ).

In addition to researches and conservation programs conducted by institutions or universities, the beliefs of local communities also account as protection and/or preservation measures. Therefore, they may contribute to prevent depletion of dolphin populations. For example, Ewe people from Benin, Ghana and Togo believe that live comes from the ocean and that the human being is coming out of the dolphin. It is therefore a taboo for these communities to consume dolphin meat. Likewise, in Mauritania, Imragen people are relying on wild (and alive) dolphins for their traditional fishing habits (Segniagbeto et al., 2014). In The Gambia, and in a lesser extend in Senegal, dolphins are widespread believed as protectors (and even saviors) of fishermen in troubles at sea. Therefore, to eat dolphins means to have no chances to be rescued by dolphins if need be (Leeney, Dia and Dia, 2015).

1.3.2. HIPPOPOTAMUS e) Status Two hippopotamus species are encountered in West Africa countries. They are concerned by illegal use and trade, and are of particular status according the IUCN criteria. These species are the following: 1) pygmy hippopotamus (endangered – CITES Appendix II), 2) common hippopotamus (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II).

All these species are listed in the CITES Appendix II (see Annex 2.3, p.33).

Current data suggested that the hippopotamus populations from West Africa are at the highest level of risk due to the fragmented nature of their distribution and the high frequency of interactions between hippo and humans.

Accurate evaluation of the pygmy hippopotamus status is currently lacking (IUCN/SSC HSC, 2017). The largest population (i.e. 3,000 specimens) is expected to inhabit Liberia, in the Sapo National Forest. Other isolated populations may exist in Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone but their numbers in no more than the dozens. In the past, the pygmy hippo inhabited Nigeria. For decades, no confirmed sightings of the species were made and unofficial reports provided some encouragement that they may still exist in the country (IUCN/SSC HSC, 2017). The species doesn’t appear as a major target for subsistence hunting and, when occurred, species is mostly poached for its meat. The trade of hippo related products is more common than captures initiated by local communities. Trade is therefore of higher concern (Mallon et al., 2011a; FFI and FDA, 2013; Ransom, Robinson and Collen, 2015). The pygmy hippo 12 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization is especially caught for its meat. Unlike the common hippo, the pygmy’s teeth have little trade value while some of its body parts (e.g. skulls) can be used for rituals or traditional medicine (Mallon et al., 2011b).

Globally speaking, illegal and unregulated hunting is one of the main threat faced by common hippopotamus. Specimens were caught for their meat and canine teeth’s ivory (Lewison and Oliver, 2008). The current ban of international trade on elephant ivory was moreover suggested to have increased the interest of hunters for the hippos’ teeth. Currently, the IUCN/SSC Hippo Specialist SubGroup estimated that for one hippo currently encountered in the wild, three to four African elephants are encountered (IUCN/SSC HSC, 2017). From 1989 to 1994, the number of African common hippo killed for ivory strongly increased and overlapped the international elephant ivory ban from 1989 (Weiler, Meulenaer and Bloock, 1994). Within two years, 27,000 kg of hippo canine teeth were recorded corresponding to an 15,000 kg-augmentation for the 1989 – 1990 period. The presence of hippos’ teeth market was therefore obvious. More recent reports also indicated a catch of 100 kg-hippo teeth (meaning around 2,000 individuals) from unknown origins and exported from Uganda (IUCN/SSC HSC, 2017).

Both species are known to be part of trade network in West Africa. However, the extent of the trade, including the bushmeat one, is unknown and is further complicated to evaluate since the meat is sold as smoked on market and do not allow any species identification. The trade facts identified for both species are presented in the Table 9 below.

Table 9. Capture and trade of the pygmy and common hippopotamus in West Africa. COUNTRY FACTS Guinea The pygmy hippo related products were reported on the bushmeat market (Mallon et al., 2011c). In 2013, most of the interviewed villagers (i.e. 80-92%) set up around the Sapo National Park indicated to hadn’t Liberia consume pygmy hippo the previous year (FFI and FDA, 2013). Nevertheless, two commercial poaching camps were identified with a total of six specimens of pygmy hippo indicating that hunting activities most likely occurred. A recent report indicated that around thirty common hippos were illegally killed from March to July. The reason driven the killing was not the trade or use of the species but rather the fact that hippos were accused to damage rice crops Niger and livestock of local communities (Le Figaro, 2017). According to the institution working on the field (Conservation & Ecotourism) no poaching acts were reported since the beginning of their project in 2008. The EAGLE Network arrested two traffickers in illegal possession of 12 hippo’s teeth dedicated to trade. Traffickers were condemned to one to three months of imprisonment and to pay a 5 million fine CFA (8,972 US$) to the Direction Senegal des Eaux et Forêts. One of the trafficker appeared being an international trader belonging to an important ivory network and supplying from other African countries among which Burkina Faso (SALF, 2017b). Recent data reported evidences of hippo poaching despite that local communities rather considered the hippo meat as Sierra Leone less desirable. Nevertheless, most of the interviewed respondents (55%) acknowledge the hippo meat as sweet (Conway, 2013). In some countries, the species is traded along with other big mammals such as chimpanzees and elephants (IUCN/SSC Global range HSC, 2017).

f) Conservation actions Pygmy hippo is listed by the IUCN as “endangered” while the common hippo “vulnerable”. Both species are listed in the CITES Appendix II. The trade of specimens and their related products must therefore be controlled in order to avoid unsustainable use compromising their survival (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). Countries hosting hippopotamus populations have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention17. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Niger and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (AU, 2017).

Globally speaking, hippopotamus benefit from legal protection within their distribution range. Unfortunately, the enforcement level of these regulations is poor in many countries.

Hippopotamus are encountered in both protected and unprotected areas (e.g. national park, biosphere, game or forest reserve, sanctuary, conservation area) (Lewison and Oliver, 2008; Mallon et al., 2011a). Therefore, laws regulated these protected areas, especially their enforcement, are the key to the survival of populations. The identified protected areas hosting the pygmy species are: - Ivory Coast: the Taï National Park and its Zone of Protection which is the largest protected area for the species; - Liberia: Sapo National Park, Grebo National Forest, Gola National Forest and Wonegizi proposed protected area;

17 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 13 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

- Sierra Leone: the Gola Rainforest National Park, Tiwai Wildlife Sanctuary and Loma Mountains Forest Reserve; - Guinea: Ziama Biosphere Reserve, Diécké and Mont Béro Reserves.

An IUCN/SSC Hippo Specialist SubGroup was created for promoting the scientifically-based actions for the preservation of common and pygmy hippos. For each species, an action plan was developed aiming at prioritizing preservation actions (Oliver, 1993). In 2010, a Regional Pygmy Hippo Conservation Strategy was developed by the Pygmy Hippo sub-group of the IUCN/SSC Hippo Specialist Group18 and the Zoological Society of London. The strategy, published in 2011, aims at guiding preservation and research activities focusing on the species and at identifying objectives and priority actions for addressing the species’ threats and halting its decline (Mallon et al., 2011a). One of the strategy’s goals was to reduce poaching pressure on the species. In Liberia, an Action Plan for the Conservation of the pygmy hippo was produced in December 2012 following a national action planning meeting hosting by the Liberia’s Forestry Development Authority and Fauna & Flora International. This action plan adopts the same vision and goals as the Regional Pygmy Hippo Conservation Strategy (FFI and FDA, 2013). Action plan indicates that pygmy hippos are protected under the National Wildlife Laws of Liberia (1981) and under Section 9.12 of the Act Adopting the National Forestry Reform Law.

At a country level, preservation and/or research initiatives directly or indirectly targeting the pygmy hippos have been developed in Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea (Mallon et al., 2011a). These are presented in the Table 10 below.

Table 10. NGOs working in the field of pygmy hippo preservation in West Africa. COUNTRY PROJECT AND DESCRIPTION The Africa Mobile Nature (AMN) NGO focused on the preservation of the biodiversity in the Transboundary Mono Biosphere Reserve in the south-west of Benin and Togo, and in the Niger Delta. They work in partnership with IUCN Benin – Togo Netherlands, GIZ, UNDP (through the GSP), the National Centre for Management of Wildlife in Benin, the municipalities and with the French committee of the IUCN. They are dealing with the killing of hippopotamus (as well as turtles and manatees) and work especially with local communities. A project entitled “promotion of alternative activities for sustainable agriculture and the conservation of the Burkina Faso Hippopotamus Biosphere Reserve in Burkina Faso” were conducted N’Zérékoré Forestry Centre manages most protected areas in the forest zone and is actively involved in pygmy hippo preservation in Guinea. The NGO Sylvatrop has developed a long-term pygmy hippo project in collaboration with the N’Zérékoré Forestry Centre in 2011. The project aims at (1) determining the preservation status of the Guinea species, (2) collecting data for its long-term conservation, (3) contributing to the development of local preservation capacities by training personnel from relevant government agencies and civil society and (4) initiating a long-term preservation and sustainable management program for the species in Guinea. In 2009, the Taï Hippo project began. It was supported by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS), the Swiss Center for Scientific Research (CSRS) and Institute for Breeding Rare and Endangered African Mammals Ivory Coast (IBREAM), and works in collaboration with the University of Cocody-Abidjan. The project aims at (1) collecting information, (2) monitoring population and (3) defining a preservation management plan. The project also created an awareness raising campaign, education program for primary schools around the park. A bio-monitoring program at the Sapo National Park was initiated in 2001 by Fauna and Flora International (FFI) and the Forestry Development Authority (FDA). The program was then re-established in 2007 along 16 transects. FFI initiated a complementary project in 2010 to use the species preservation as a mechanism to build preservation Liberia capacity in Liberia. In early 2008, Zoological Society of London (ZSL) initiated collaboration with the FFI and FDA to develop a standardized monitoring program for the pygmy hippo, initially in the Sapo National Park19. The “Across the River – Transboundary Peace Park for Sierra Leone and Liberia” project (ARTP) conducts pygmy hippo surveys in Gola National Forest. In 2017, the government created a sanctuary for common hippopotamus inhabiting the Niger River through a decree Niger taken in council of ministers on 20 July. The main aim was to protect hippos from poaching as well as to facilitate scientific research and to facilitate the cohabitation between human and hippos (Le Figaro, 2017). The Gola Forest Program is a collaborative project between the Sierra Leone Conservation Society, the National Commission on the Environment and Forestry and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)20. Since 2008, detailed surveys focusing on the species were carried out in the reserve and adjacent communities. The “Across the River – Transboundary Peace Park for Sierra Leone and Liberia” project (ARTP), under the Sierra Leone RSPB responsibility, includes the species as a key landscape species in the program. RSPB is also conducting predictive range mapping studies on pygmy hippos to identify priorities areas for future research and conservation. The University of Georgia Pygmy Hippo Project began in 2008 on Tiwai Island, in the Moa River. Two of the main objectives are to expand environmental education and awareness in local communities and to create a long-term

18 Website: http://www.ml.duke.edu 19 Website: https://www.zsl.org/conservation/regions/africa/pygmy-hippo-conservation 20 Website:http://www.rspb.org.uk/community/ourwork/b/biodiversity/archive/2016/08/25/pygmy-hippo-and-the-people-of-the-gola- forests-in-sierra-leone.aspx 14 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

partnership among all stakeholders involved in pygmy hippo conservation. In 2010, ZSL and Njala University initiated a research and preservation project around Loma Mountain21.

1.3.3. MANATEES a) Status The West African manatee is encountered in most countries from West Africa. The species is listed as “vulnerable” by the IUCN and listed on the CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix I and II (see Annex 2.3, p.33). Almost a decade ago, the CMS negotiated an agreement to protect manatees (together with costal dolphins). Unfortunately, manatees are still being illegally hunted for their meat in every country of its distribution range by specialist and opportunistic hunters. Incidentally, the species is also suffering from incidental bycatch in fishing gear in all African countries from which they are most of the time killed than released (Dodman, Diop and Khady, 2008; UNEP/CMS, 2008b; Keith Diagne, 2015).

Data on manatees is scarcely available making the identification of the current trend of illegal use and trade of the species uneasy.

The species is reported to be commonly used for its meat and sometimes for its oil and leather. Some parts of the manatee meat are further reported as having particular properties in some countries such as Mali and Sierra Leone (Reeves, Tuboku-Metzger and Kapindi, 1988; Siaffa and Jalloh, 2008). The carcass is usually discarded but the manatee’s skin, bones and oil can be used for traditional medicines and rituals in some countries such as Nigeria, Togo and Ivory Coast (Perrin, 2001; Kouadio, 2008; Keith Diagne, 2015). Manatee related products can be found in local markets and in international networks. Meat and oil were reported in trade from Chad to Nigeria. Occasionally, live animals can be also caught and exported to aquaria as display animals (Keith Diagne, 2015) as it’s the case in Nigeria and Mali. From 2000 to 2010, CITES reported 28 live specimens exported from four African countries, including Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Côte d’Ivoire to aquaria in Japan, Korea, China, and Taiwan. Wild caught manatees from Guinea-Bissau are further offered for sale on the internet (Keith Diagne, 2015). The Table 11 below is presenting specific use or/and trade of manatee related products according to the country in West Africa.

The listing of the species on the CITES Appendix I in March 2013 makes any international trade illegal. Since 2013, the CITES trade database recorded two events as confiscated or seized specimens. One of them concerned 1kg of manatee meat coming from Senegal and dedicating to US. In 2015, the Africa Aquatic Conservation Fund (see section below for additional information on the fund) reported the rescue of manatee calf caught in a fishing net by Nigerian hunters and the arrest of hunter in Togo.

Table 11. Specific uses of manatee related products were identified according the country in West Africa. COUNTRY TRADE AND/OR HUMAN USE FACTS Hunting activities targeting manatees is reported as being an important event for fishermen. Manatee meat and body Benin parts are used for food, therapeutic purposes and traditional ceremonies (Rihanath Olga and Tchibozo, 2008; Cosentino and Fisher, 2016). Gambia Manatee are widely and illegally hunted by fishermen for food and medicinal purposes (Jallow, 2008) Manatees are hunted and used as food resources and baits (Ofori-Danson et al., 2008). In the country, manatee Ghana hunting is sometimes part of the local tradition. Their meat is either consumed within the hunter’s family or either shared within the village. The bones and oil are used for medicinal purposes (Richard et al., 2008). Manatee hunting is most likely decreasing despite that incidental captures of specimens are currently reported as the Guinea- main threat (Sa et al., 2008). A report indicated that 209 specimens were dead from 1990 to 1998 among which 13% Bissau were directly hunted and 11% were from an undetermined death (Silva and Araújo, 2001). In the past, manatees were caught around the rivers and lagoons from the Ghana border to Fresco (Silva and Araújo, Ivory Coast 2001). Sustained hunt was reported to currently occur in the country in the few areas where the species is encountered (Dr M. Ahizi N'Dédé, com.pers.). Mali and Meat is consumed but the oil is more prized and dedicated to traditional medicine (Reeves, Tuboku-Metzger and Nigeria Kapindi, 1988; Perrin, 2001; Fa et al., 2006; Awobamise, 2008) In Niger, manatees are illegally hunted along the Niger River and used for traditional ceremonies or trade in local Niger markets (Abbagana, 2013). Incidental captures are the main threat for the species. Their meat and oil are used as food resources or medicinal Senegal purposes (Diop, 2006). Manatees are illegally hunted for their meat which is sold and consumed locally or even used for traditional purposes Togo (Cosentino and Fisher, 2016)

21 Website: https://www.zsl.org/conservation/regions/africa/pygmy-hippo-conservation 15 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

b) Conservation actions The species is listed in CITES Appendix I as well as in CMS Appendix I and II. Therefore, the trade of specimens is prohibited and only permitted in exceptional circumstances (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). The species benefits from strict protections prohibiting, or exceptionally restricting, their taking and controlling other factors that might endanger them. They further require international, global and/or regional agreement for their effective preservation and management (CMS, 1979). The West African Manatee is protected by the national laws within its distribution range. These countries have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention22. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (AU, 2017).

Considering the threat faced by the West African manatee, Wetland International developed a preservation strategy aiming at implementing an action plan in partnership with the Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention, 1984), the United Nations Environment Program and CMS. In 2008, a MoU concerning Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia, developed under the CMS and UNEP, entered into effect. The MoU covers 27 African countries among which 16 signatories including Benin, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Togo. The MoU aims at achieving and maintaining a favourable preservation status for manatees and small cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia and their habitats and to safeguard the associated values of these species for the people of the region. Together with the signing of the MoU, an Action plan for the conservation of the West African manatee was adopted (UNEP/CMS, 2008b). One objective of the action plan is to fight against hunting which is reported as a main threat for all the countries. A Sirenia Specialist Group (SiSG) was created within the IUCN’s SSC23. In 2013, an African Manatee Subgroup was then created by the IUCN Sirenian Specialist Group for focusing on the protection of the West African manatee. Lucy Keith Diagne is the co-chair of the subgroup and works at determining the status of the species and leading and advising others in the growing field of manatee research and management in Africa.

Despite a growing interest for the species, the West Africa manatee is still being one of the least understood marine mammals in the world and the least studied large mammal in Africa (Trimble and van Aarde, 2010). Nevertheless, the species has benefited from NGOs and international institutions having undertaken monitoring surveys or even addressed hunting activities of the species.

From 1989 to 2009, one of the most important manatee preservation programs was implemented in Ivory Coast. Unfortunately, the program ended with the death of its leader, K. Akoi (Dodman, Diop and Khady, 2008). From 2007 to 2009, the Earthwatch Institute (UK) funded annual training workshops in Ghana. They were dedicated to African biologists interested to get involved in manatee research and preservation activities. Since 2009, L. K. Diagne pursued in other countries. In 2010, Wetlands International Africa also conducted a training workshop in Senegal which was dedicated to 17 local experts and wildlife managers from six African countries.

L.K. Diagne built an African Manatee Researcher Network for (i) increasing and sustaining communication between researchers from different countries, (ii) increasing data collection, preservation activities and educational awareness programs. In 2014, she created the African Aquatic Conservation Fund aiming at addressing the severe declines of African manatee24 across the African continent. One of the components of the manatee project is to identify, quantify and work to reduce illegal hunting.

OceanCare is further working in the West Africa manatee field. Their objectives are to build public awareness campaign for informing the local community that manatee hunting is illegal and that the species need protection. They are working with government officials to develop long-term solutions. In 2012, they presented the manatee protection project in Guinea-Bissau at the World Conservation Congress (Korea) calling on the United Nations to intensify their efforts to protect the species. Currently, OceanCare is engaged within the Aquatic Mammal Working Group, of the CMS Scientific Council, to prepare a report on aquatic bushmeat addressing the use of manatee and other aquatic mammals as such (OceanCare, 2017). That report will be presented during the CMS COP 12 holds in Manila, the Philippines, next October.

22 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 23 Website: http://www.iucncsg.org 24 Website: https://africanaquaticconservation.org 16 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Wetland International is working in the field of manatee preservation in West Africa. They started with the conservation strategy (see above). Since then, they work with six governments (i.e. Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone) to develop national policies and regulations preserving the manatee. These include setting up monitoring schemes, penalties for hunting and killing and adjusting infrastructure to allow manatees save passage.

Some projects have been reported in West Africa and are presented in the Table 12 below.

Table 12. Summary of projects conducting in the field of West African manatee preservation in West Africa. COUNTRY PROJECT AND DESCRIPTION The Nature Tropical NGO, through their Lamantin d’Afrique program works for the preservation of globally endangered Benin species, including the West Africa manatee. The program includes the fight against hunting activities. The Africa Mobile Nature (AMN) NGO focused on the preservation of the biodiversity in the Transboundary Mono Biosphere Reserve in the south-west of Benin and Togo, and in the Niger Delta. They work in partnership with IUCN Benin & Netherlands, GIZ, UNDP (through the GSP), the National Centre for Management of Wildlife in Benin, the municipalities Togo and with the French committee of the IUCN. They are dealing with the killing turtles, hippopotamus and manatees, and work predominantly with local communities. Long-term study of manatees in Lake Volta have been initiated by Dr. P. Ofori-Dansen (Institute for Aquatic Biology, Ghana Achimota). In the Forécariah estuaries, cultural practices and manatee preservation studies were undertaken as part of the master Guinea thesis of O. Camara (Centre National des Sciences Halieutiques de Boussoura CNSHB). Since 2010, in the Bani River and inland Niger delta, a local manatee monitoring network was put in place by Soumaila Mali Berthe for determining manatee important use areas through habitat assessments and sightings. This project is also conducting extensive educational outreach programs in the region. 1) conservation of the African manatee through training of former manatee hunters in aquaculture as an alternative livelihood; 2) bio-ecology of West African manatees in the Badagry and Yewa Lagoons of southwestern Nigeria (U. Ejimadu unpublished data); 3) threats, occurrence and distribution of the West African manatee in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria: what Nigeria anthropogenic factors affect their population and what prospects exist for their conservation? (E. Eniang L. Luiselli, F. Petrozi, E. Egwali and A. Nchor unpublished data); 4) habitat quality and hydrobiological factors influencing the occurrence of Manatees in the Lower Qua Iboe and Eniong Rivers (E. Egwali doctoral research); 5) ecology and conservation of West African Manatee in Eniong Creek, implications for sustainable conservation (O. Nkameyin Masters research); The Africa Aquatic Foundation Fund has initiated a manatee preservation program at Tocc Tocc Community Natural Senegal Reserve, a protected area at Lake Guiers Réserve de Biosphère Transfrontalière du Mono – Benin – Togo from which managers put in place a monitoring Togo program in 2017 The Africa Aquatic Foundation Fund initiated phylogenetic, feeding ecology and age determination studies of the Range wide African manatee as well as educational program. They recently started a project to begin documenting coastal hunting and bycatch for the African manatee in five countries. Information was mostly collected from K. Diagne (2015) and description of the targeted NGO.

1.4. REPTILIA As part of this investigation, three species of crocodiles and five species of marine turtles were identified. The crocodile species include the African dwarf, African slender-snouted and Nil crocodile. The marine turtle species include the hawksbill, green, loggerhead, leatherback and Olive Ridley marine turtles. These species are presented in Annex 2.4, p.35.

1.4.1. CROCODILES a) Status Amongst the crocodile species inhabiting the West Africa coast, three were identified as probably concerned by illegal use and trade, and/or with particular status according to the IUCN criteria. These species are the following: 1) African slender-snouted crocodile (critically endangered – CITES Appendix I), 2) African dwarf crocodile (vulnerable – CITES Appendix I), 3) Nile crocodile (least concern – CITES Appendix I).

All these species are listed on the CITES Appendix I (see Annex 2.4, p.35).

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Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Globally speaking, crocodile species are caught by fishermen for their skin and meat as well as, in a lesser extent, for their skulls which can be found on “fetish” market. Crocodile related products are mainly used locally, directly used by poachers or sold on the bushmeat markets (Shirley, 2014).

In the past, hunting of crocodiles was common in West Africa. To date, the practice seems to be reduced due to four main and interrelated factors: (i) crocodile population decline, (ii) collapse of the local market for these related products, (iii) traditional beliefs and (iv) restricted international trade regulations such as CITES (Thorbjarnarson, 1999; Shirley and Beibro, 2009; Shirley, 2014). To date, the skin trade of both African dwarf and African slender-snouted seem to be strongly reduced (Caldwell, 2015).

The slender-snouted crocodiles were extensively caught for their skin in the past. Such high historical trade pressure could explain, at least partially, the current decline of populations and the reduced ability of the existing populations to recover. The current disinterest of traders for slender-snouted related products was most probably initiated by the fact that wild young specimens (e.g. hatchling and juveniles) are dominant in the wild while the adult population is depleting, and thus scarcely observed. Since young individuals are too small, they are worthless for being targeted by hunters. Therefore, depletion of adults together with the higher occurrence of worthless individuals most probably decreased the supply in crocodile products on market and, consequently, the disinterest of crocodile hunting (Shirley and Beibro, 2009; Shirley, 2010).

The most serious threat for the African dwarf crocodile survival is the species harvesting for subsistence consumption and the bushmeat trade. Events were reported in most West Africa countries such as Benin, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo (Thorbjarnarson and Eaton, 2004; Kofron, 2009; Shirley and Beibro, 2009; Ahizi et al., 2016; AALF-Benin, 2017a; SALF, 2017a). Such threat is all the more important since the use of crocodiles, as other bushmeat, has shifted from local to regional, or even global bushmeat market, in response to increasing human population, urbanization and transportation infrastructures. On the African wildlife trade network, the dwarf species is of high interest as it is one of the few that can be transported alive over long distances. The species were reported to be sold in illegal European and American markets probably driven by the growing demand of expatriated African populations. However, high magnitude of harvest rates may be limited to populations from Central Africa as the West Africa ones are most likely below the economically viable level (Thorbjarnarson and Eaton, 2004; Milius, 2005; Shirley and Beibro, 2009; Eaton, 2010).

Facts associated with illegal catch and trade of crocodile related products in West Africa are presented in Table 13 below.

Table 13. Illegal captures and trade of crocodile related products identified according to the country in West Africa. COUNTRY TRADE AND/OR HUMAN USE FACTS In July 2015, three traffickers were arrested for detaining illegal wildlife products including crocodile skins and heads Benin (AALF-Benin, 2015). In December 2017, 16 crocodile skins from the African dwarf and slender-snouted species were seized in a trafficker’s home, in Parakou. The trafficker was however acquitted (AALF-Benin, 2017b). In May 2017, in Abidjan, EAGLE Network, through the WARA Conservation Project director, the GALF coordinator (Guinea), the Ministry in charge of Wildlife and the UTC arrested three traffickers in three operations. The third one Guinea was captured with 235 carved pieces of ivory, a crocodile skin and several python skins. All three traffickers were involved in an international network, especially ivory trafficking across the borders of the sub-region, mainly between Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Mali and Guinea (EAGLE Network, 2017). A small trade network is existing at the local level (Dr M. Ahizi N'Dédé, com.pers.) or from neighboring villages to the main city, Abidjan. Meat is consumed and other body parts are used for traditional medicine or ceremonies (e.g. teeth, Ivory Coast claws, feces). African dwarf specimens are mostly and extensively caught during the dry season (Dr M. Ahizi N'Dédé, com.pers.). In March 2017, two Senegalese and Malian traffickers were arrested by the Urbain Safety, together with the Water and Forest Ministry and the WARA Conservation Project. This catch is the most important ever had on the crocodile trafficking. They were sentenced for possessing and trading 558 skins of protected species. The species included in Senegal particular 91 Nile crocodile skins. The skins supplied the Dakar leather market for at least two decades. Skins were then transformed into bags, shoes, belts and sent to Europe and Asia to be sold as luxury items at prohibitive prices. The sentence incurred by the trafficker can reach six months in jail, payment of a fine of 500,000 F CFA francs (905 US$) and damages of 1,000,000 CFA francs (1,811 US$) (SALF, 2017a).

Regulated and legal hunting of African slender-snouted crocodiles are reported in some West Africa countries such Sierra Leone and Togo while no countries seem to hold CITES export quota for the species. Unfortunately, the species was reported as extinct in Togo and most probably extinct in Sierra Leone (see Annex 2.4, p.35) raising concerns about the sustainability of such legal hunting. Heavy illegal harvesting may occur in other west African countries despite legal protection mandates (Shirley, 2014). Likewise, the African dwarf crocodiles appear to didn’t benefit from legalized harvest dedicated to local consumption or from legalized international trade of live specimens dedicated to zoo (Eaton, 2010).

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Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

b) Conservation actions The three species are listed in the CITES Appendix I stipulating that trade in specimens of these species is prohibited and only permitted in exceptional circumstances (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). The countries hosting crocodile populations have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention25. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Niger and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (AU, 2017).

A Crocodile Specialist Group was created within the IUCN’s SSC26 in 1971. The group closely works with the CITES and other international intergovernmental institutions to promote crocodilian preservation and legal trade that does not threaten the survival of the species. The Crocodile Specialist Group published action plans for the African slender-snouted and African dwarf crocodiles and identified high, moderate and low priority investigations to implement for protecting these species (Thorbjarnarson et al., 1992; Eaton, 2010). The group overviewed the preservation state of both species as presented in Table 14 below.

Table 14. Preservation state of the slender-snouted and African dwarf crocodiles. African slender-snouted crocodile African dwarf crocodile Availability of survey data: Extremely poor Very poor in most regions Need for wild population recovery: High Moderate Potential for sustainable management: Moderate to low Unknown Habitat loss, illegal hunting and Widespread and intensive subsistence Principal threats: conflict with small-scale subsistence hunting and commercial bushmeat trade, fisheries habitat loss

In most countries from their distribution range, crocodiles are legally protected. Unfortunately, protection efforts do not succeed due to lack of law enforcement and of sustainable use programs (Shirley, 2010, 2014).

Projects conducted in the crocodile field do exist as indicated by proceedings of the working meeting of the IUCN- SSC Crocodile Specialist Group27. However, to the best of our knowledge, few of them directly addressed the protection of species through fighting illegal trade and use. Furthermore, preservation actions are often not specifically targeting the species but rather the communities and landscapes (e.g. national parks and national legislation).

International trade of CITES Appendix I species is prohibited. However, captive breeding established without affecting the wild population are authorized if, and only if, these farms are registered as CITES – registered captive breeding operations. In 2009, a collaborative partnership around the management of the slender-snouted crocodiles was initiated between the San Diego Zoo (USA), the AZA Crocodile Advisory Group’s Species Survival Plan, the Abidjan National Zoo (Ivory Coast) and Matthew Shirley (regional chair of the Crocodile Specialist Group for the IUCN/SSC) in Ivory Coast. This partnership has evolved in implementing captive husbandry recommendations and training, facilitating captive breeding and wild reintroductions (Lovich et al., 2014), In that context, the Micistops Project was initiated in 2013 and aimed at facilitating the recovery of the slender-snouted crocodile through captive-breeding and reintroduction program (Ahizi et al., 2016). Captive- bred specimens should be released in 2018 (M. Shirley com.pers.). Likewise, in Sierra Leone, the Save the Crocs Sanctuary seems to rescue fished individuals from the SL River Estuary (Tim Dodman, com.pers.; Shirley 2010). However, additional information was not found on the sanctuary.

1.4.2. MARINE TURTLES a) Status

Amongst the marine turtle species inhabiting the West Africa coast, five were encountered and identified as concerned by illegal use and trade, and with particular status according to the IUCN criteria. These species are the following: 1) green marine turtle (endangered– CITES Appendix I), 2) hawksbill marine turtle (critically endangered – CITES Appendix I),

25 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 26 Website: http://www.iucncsg.org 27 Website: http://www.iucncsg.org/pages/Publications.html 19 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

3) leatherback marine turtle (data deficient – CITES Appendix I), 4) loggerhead marine turtle (endangered – CITES Appendix I), 5) Olive Ridley marine turtle (vulnerable – CITES Appendix I).

All these species are listed in the CITES Appendix I and the CMS Appendix I and II (see Annex 2.4, p.35).

The west African coasts are globally important for two of the five encountered marine turtle species: the loggerhead and green marine turtle. Indeed, the region includes some of the most important nesting beaches for these species in the world. Cape Verde Archipelago is boasting to host the third-largest loggerhead rookery in the world while the Bijagós Archipelago (Guinea-Bissau), the most important breeding and nesting rookeries of the West African coast, and probably of the world, for the green marine turtles (Agyekumhene et al., 2017). The main species inhabiting the west African coasts as well as their related activities (e.g. foraging, nesting) and the encountered life-stage are presented in the Table 15 below.

Table 15. The main encountered marine turtle species, their related activities and the encountered development-stage, according to the country in West Africa. DEVELOPMENT COUNTRY SPECIES ACTIVITY STAGES Leatherbacks – Olive Ridleys Adults Nesting BENIN Greens – Hawksbills Juveniles / subadults Foraging – Migrating Loggerheads Adults Nesting – Foraging CAPE VERDE Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging Foraging – Developmental – Rocky Greens – hawksbills Juveniles IVORY COAST shelter Greens – Leatherbacks – Olive Ridleys Adults Mating – Inter-nesting – Nesting Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging THE GAMBIA Greens Adults Nesting Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging GHANA Greens – Leatherbacks Adults Nesting Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging GUINEA Hawksbills – Greens Adults Nesting Greens – Loggerheads – Hawksbills Adults Nesting GUINEA-BISSAUA Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging LIBERIA Greens – Hawksbills – Leatherbacks Adults Nesting Olive Ridleys Nesting – Migrating – Foraging MAURITANIA Adults / juveniles Greens Nesting – Foraging Greens – Hawksbills – Leatherbacks – NIGERIA Adults Nesting Olive Ridleys Olive Ridleys Nesting – Migrating – Foraging SENEGAL Adults / juveniles Greens – Loggerheads – Leatherbacks Migrating Olive Ridleys Adults / juveniles Nesting – Migrating – Foraging SIERRA LEONEB Greens – Leatherbacks Adults Nesting Leatherbacks – Olive Ridleys Adults Nesting TOGO Greens – Hawksbills Juveniles / subadults Foraging – Migrating Consulted bibliography: (Seminoff, 2004; Abreu-Grobois and Plotkin, 2008; Peñate, 2016; USFWS, 2016; Agyekumhene et al., 2017). A: the main location is the Bijagós Archipelago; B: the main locations are Turtle Islands, Sherbro Island, and Turner’s Peninsula.

All the marine turtle species are threatened by illegal and unsustainable harvesting and bycatch. Harvesting activities occur on nesting beaches targeting eggs and nesting females coming ashore for egg-laying as well as on foraging ground targeting juveniles and adults of both sexes.

Globally speaking, harvesting practices have been reported in every coastal country from West Africa. Marine turtles and related products are used for human consumption, trade and for use in traditional medicine and voodoo practices. The use mainly includes their skin, shell or skull, meat, eggs and stuffed specimens (Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989; Fretey, 2001; Formia et al., 2003; Wallace et al., 2011; AALF-Benin, 2016a; EAGLE Togo, 2017). For example, marine turtle carapaces are sometimes incorporated in traditional religious ceremonies in Ghana, Benin and Ivory Coast (Formia et al., 2003). In Liberia, 95% of the nest from the leatherbacks, greens, Olive Ridleys and hawksbills is believed to be poached. In Cape Verde, poachers are reported to kill up until 90% of nesting females and to harvest their egg on some beaches. In Togo and Benin, marine turtles were seized for their shell, meat and fat which are commonly consumed and even imported from other countries. Recent arrests indicated that they may be threatened by a well-organized wildlife trafficking network (AALF-

20 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Benin, 2016a; Agyekumhene et al., 2017; EAGLE Togo, 2017). Unfortunately, impacts of human use are difficult to estimate since other simultaneous factors are present.

Eggs and adult specimens of the Olive Ridley marine turtles is reported to be poached for local use and trade along the entire coast of West Africa (Fretey, 2001). In Ghana, the species is the main one nesting within the Muni-Pomadze Marine Protected Reserve beaches (also listed as RAMSAR site) and nesting females, together with their eggs, are harvested (Antwi and Agyekumhene, 2013). In Senegal, the species was indicated as representing 10% of the fishermen’ catch (Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989).

The hawksbill marine turtles were, in the past and for decades, prized by humans for their shell (called bekko) used as jewelry material and described as one of the romantic articles of commerce, not only because of where it comes from, but because of the creatures from which it is obtained and the people engaged in the trade. The bekko mainly decimated most of the hawksbill populations worldwide, including most probably the West Africa region despite scarcely documented (Mortimer and Donnelly, 2008). The trade was most exclusively dedicated to Japan network (Miliken and Tokunaga, 1987; Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989). For the 1950 – 1992 period, 70,560 turtles (74,793 kg of shell) collected from the Europe and West Africa regions were exploited for the Japanese trade (Miliken and Tokunaga, 1987)28 and represent 5.4% of the entire shell trade. In West Africa, reports indicated that only Cape Verde exported bekko, however in a small-scale (432 turtles or 458 kg- shell from the 1976 – 1983 period, with no reported trade during the 1978 – 1979 period).

The Japanese trade further included the green marine turtle, especially their shell. In 1970, Nigeria provided 87 kg of green turtle shell (Miliken and Tokunaga, 1987). To date, the most harmful threat for the species is supposed to be the intentional harvests of their eggs and adults from nesting beaches, and juveniles and adults from foraging ground. Unfortunately, practice remains legal in some countries while subpopulation is declining (Fretey, 2001).

In Cape Verde, loggerhead marine turtles are harvested for their meat and eggs, especially on the Boa Vista’ and Maio Islands’ beaches (USFWS, 2016).

In Ghana, Togo and Benin, the leatherback marine turtle crushed skulls are believed to have medicinal properties (Formia et al., 2003). In these countries, specimens are also caught for their oil which is isolated from their fat. Such oil extraction occurs in other countries such as Mauritania (C. Dyc, com.pers.)29. Furthermore, while occurring in a few number, leatherback females nesting on the Muni-Pomadze Marine Protected Reserve beaches are also suffering from harvesting targeting both the nesting females and their eggs (Antwi and Agyekumhene, 2013).

Facts associated with illegal use and trade of marine turtle related products in West Africa are presented in the Table 16 below.

Table 16. Illegal captures and trade of marine turtle related products identified according to the country in West Africa. COUNTRY TRADE AND/OR HUMAN USE FACTS June 2016, AALF-B reported the arrest of a trafficker in Porto-Nuevo holding eight marine turtle carapaces (AALF- Benin, 2016b). In February 2017, a trafficker was arrested for possessing marine turtle carapaces. He was sentenced Benin of a three-months detention and to pay a 200,000 F CFA (362 US$) fine and damages of 1,000,000 F CFA (1,809 US$) (AALF-Benin, 2017b). A recent report indicated that marine turtles from the two main islands of Cape Verde (i.e. Boa Vista and Santiago) are still harvested for their meat and eggs. Meat are consumed locally by fishermen as well as sold on national market. Harvesting activities occurs despite protection program, and even on beach having benefited from high level of protection in the past (Hancock et al., 2016). Cape Verde The Cape Verde Natura 2000 NGO have achieved very good results since the NGO creation in 1998 and even observed a reducing trend of female poaching on nesting beaches. Unfortunately, the current situation is changing and related to the tourism rush. Changes on turtle trade and consumptions are therefore observed. During the 2017 nesting season (from June to October), the NGO reported around 200 females poached along the 15km nesting beach. They consider that number as a very important backwards step (CV Natura 2000, com.pers.). In the Ada Foah area, the communities have a taboo protecting marine turtles. However, significant poaching activities were recorded and primarily dedicated to the adults rather to the eggs. Marine turtles, among which especially the Olive Ridleys, were most exclusively poached for their meat (Agyekumhene, Akwoviah and Allman, 2014; Allman and Ghana Agyekumhene, 2017). Poachers are from the fishing communities along the beach and also from villages along the Volta River. They use canoes to reach the beach and take a few turtles, mostly the Olive Ridleys, back to their community by carrying them on the canoe (P. Allman, com.pers). In Winneba, on the Mankoadze beach, poaching

28 The report also took into account the other marine turtle species 29 During a field mission conducted in Nouadhibou (Mauritania) in 2015 as part of the Digmile project (Chelonee), a fisherman indicated that he used marine turtle oil for protecting his fishes from flies etc. Fisherman couldn’t confirm the marine turtle species. However, a leatherback carcass lying near his house made us suppose that oil came from that dead individual. 21 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

events were reported on previous years which mainly targeted adult specimens (P. Allman, com.pers). To date, poaching activities seem to be reduced or even eliminated due to the implementation of preservation program (see section below – P. Allman, com.pers.). The poaching activities are strictly dedicated to local consumption and food. Interest in commercial trade for turtle products or in anything from the turtle, except for the meat, is currently recorded (P. Allman, com.pers). In 2016, two traffickers of marine turtles were seized in Kassa, an island located seven km far from Conakry. The seizure included nine sea turtle shells. The Court agreed on two-month imprisonment and a penalty of 90,000 GNF Guinea each. The judge of the civil action sentenced on paying 10,000,000 GNF (1,114 US$) of damages to the Ministry of the Environment (GALF, 2016). Guinea- The ATM NGO reported that the capture of spawning females as a protein source is a traditional activity in the region, Bissau although in smaller numbers if compared with other countries, and is a threat to the marine turtle preservation. About 1,000 marine turtles were killed each year and more than 50,000 nests were destroyed before 2014. Since then, a preservation project was implemented by the Conservation des Espèces Marines and poaching events tended to decrease along the west coast of the country (Peñate, 2017). In the country, every villager is a poacher (J.G. Peñate, com.pers.). When a marine turtle is encountered, on the beach or trapped in nets, the specimen is killed for its meat and/or eggs are collected. On the beach, the green, leatherback and Olive Ridley species are the most targeted Ivory Coast species. Usually, marine turtle carapaces are left and aren’t involved in trading. Meat and eggs are mostly consumed within the family although some of them can be sold by women on the markets from San Pedro, Grand Béréby etc. Marine turtle derived products seem to no longer be sold on the markets of Grand Béréby (Peñate com.pers.). In 2016, four Olive Ridley marine turtles were killed by poachers; 20 Olive Ridley nests and two green marine turtles were poached. While still occurring, that numbers are decreasing from those observed in 2010 (Peñate, 2016). Most of the time, local communities harvest marine turtles to sell the meat and eggs for making money. They explained that they need to generate money for repairing their torn-up fishing nets and/or to buy some needed household supplies (Sea Turtle Watch NGO com.pers.). Liberia Fortunately, preservation projects undertaken in the country have reduced the extend of the marine turtle poaching. However, specimens are still being poached and traded in other high nesting area. Harvesting activities are especially high in areas being without protection (Sea Turtle Watch NGO com.pers.). Marine turtles are mostly harvested for their meat and eggs (Abayomi, 2017). Nesting females are caught on their nesting beach, at the same time their eggs are collected. Juveniles and adult individuals, males and females, are caught on their foraging areas along the coast. Meat and eggs are consumed and can be sold on fish market next to Nigeria the beach where they were collected or even in the street. Due to the high price value of these products, customers are most of the time users of 5-star hotel and staffs of multinational companies (Abayomi, 2017). Marine turtles are poached for meat and sustainable livelihoods, from all over the southern part of Nigeria that bothers the Atlantic. The threat is considering as high (Wildlife Africa NGO, com.pers.). Marine turtles are not a direct target for local communities. Rather, they are incidentally caught mostly by artisanal and commercial fishery activities. Nevertheless, their eggs are still collected within areas not covered by preservation Sierra Leone projects. In the Turners’ Peninsula, local communities collect leatherback eggs, kill nesting leatherbacks and caught specimens because they feel as being left out of the marine turtle conservation project. Marine turtles are further facing threats relating to ornamental use of carapaces (Reptile and Amphibian Program in Sierra Leone NGO, com.pers.) In 2014, ANCE Togo, through its TALFF project, identified 22 traffickers among which seven traffickers of skins and head of turtle shells. The 2014 statistics revealed that, in terms of number of seized items, the turtle shell (n=14) was not the most trafficked products but however occurred before heads of lion (n=4), skins of lion cub (n=3), panther (n=2), red ape (n=1), elephant (n=2) and leopard (n=13) (Ance-Togo, 2014). More recently, in December 2015, the ANCE Togo team arrested a trafficker in possession of 12 carapaces of marine Togo turtles. In January 2016, they once again arrested a trafficker in possession of three marine turtle carapaces. In March 2017, EAGLE Togo arrested two traffickers in possession of 66 marine turtle newborns and five carapaces. The traffickers were fishermen living along the coast from traditional fishery. They were going to deliver that order to a sole client, within the country. The accused persons incurred two years of detention and 5,000,000 F CFA (9,042 US$), without taking into account other charges sentenced by the trial court (Ance-Togo, 2016; EAGLE Togo, 2017).

b) Conservation actions Most of the national and international actions for the preservation of marine turtles were based on the species’ listing in the IUCN Red List together with their inclusion in the CITES Appendix I and CMS Appendix I and II. The trade in specimens of these species is prohibited and only permitted in exceptional circumstances (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). Likewise, all species are listed in CMS Appendix I and II. Therefore, they benefit from strict protections prohibiting, or exceptionally restricting, their taking and controlling other factors that might endanger them; and require international, global and/or regional agreement for their effective preservation and management (CMS, 1979). The countries hosting marine turtle populations have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention30. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, Niger and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources with the exception of Cape Verde (AU, 2017).

30 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 22 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Worldwide, marine turtles are not benefiting from agreements, meaning legally binding treaties, but rather from MoU which are less formal instruments (CMS, 1979). In West Africa, a MoU concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa entered into effect on 1999. The MoU covers 26 African countries among which 23 signatories including Benin, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, Togo, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia and Cape Verde. The MoU aims at improving the preservation status of marine turtle species, and their related habitats, by implementing preservation action plans (UNEP/CMS, 1999). In 2002, signatory countries gathered in Nairobi and concluded a Conservation Plan focusing on the establishment of a database on marine turtle ecology and their threats (i.e. nature and extent of direct exploitation and bycatch rate). The objectives are to create a monitoring and protection network for nesting and feeding sites in close collaboration with local communities, fishermen, travel operators and coastal developers. That action plan were updated in 2007 with focus being put on harvest and use of marine turtles (UNEP/CMS, 2007).

In 1996, a Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG)31 was created within the IUCN’s SSC in response to a growing recognition of the endangered status of marine turtles worlwide. The aims of the MTSG is to develop and support strategies, set priorities and provide tools that promote and guide the conservation of marine turtles and their ecological roles and habitats. Experts worked on and published prioritized actions including a global strategy for the preservation of marine turtles worldwide, including the east Atlantic coast (Bjorndal, Balazs and Donnelly, 1995; Wallace et al., 2010, 2011).

International networks were created and somewhat dedicated to the West Africa population. For example, the Réseau des Acteurs de la Sauvegarde des Tortues Marines en Afrique Centrale (RASTOMA) was created in 2012 in the Republic of the Congo32. The network is gathering actors and experts working at the marine turtle preservation in Central Africa. The objectives are to enhance synergy between the network’ members, build local capacity and strengthen their actions to ensure the long-term preservation of marine turtles and their related habitats in Central Africa. The RASTOMA’s actions are to (1) share of available information, (2) enhance of synergies between stakeholders and actors, (3) support of the actors’ actions on the financial, mean and scientific levels and (4) work on the establishment of preservation regional strategy. To the best of our knowledge, the sole country from West Africa represented within the RASTOMA network is the Conservation des Espèces Marines (Ivory Coast, J.G. Peñate). Two sub-regional networks are further reported: (1) Tortues Marines de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (TOMOA), from Morocco to Sierra Leone, and (2) Gold Coast Sea Turtle Conservation Network (GoSTCON), from Liberia to Nigeria. The first one seems to be currently inactive (UNEP/IUCN, 2013). The second one seems to be in charge of the implementation of the MoU concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa under the dome of the Environment Component of NEPAD and in collaboration with the Regional Coordination Unit. Unfortunately, further information on the latter was not available on the internet. The Réseau des Aires Marines Protégées en Afrique de l’Ouest (RAMPAO)33 is a network managing marine protected areas (MPA) and defining strategic work areas based on the MPA Regional Strategy in West Africa. The signatory countries are Cape Verde, Guinea and Guinea Bissau, The Gambia, Mauritania, Senegal and Sierra Leone. The countries established or planned at establishing MPA including strategic area for some marine turtle species and as part of which marine turtles are listed as heritage value species. In these countries, the preservation of marine turtles is further included in Fishery Code and environmental laws.

At the country level, the increasing interest of tourists to see live marine turtles in the wild, the increasing number of biologists and experts focusing on these species, the establishment of marine protected areas as well as legislation and enforcement are numerous actions to preserve populations and reduce their decline. Fortunately, the number of NGOs and other organizations working in the region are providing significant success in reducing poaching and harvesting marine turtles, especially nesting females. Marine turtles benefit from these institutions that undertake monitoring surveys, mostly on nesting beaches. Unfortunately, experiences from NGOs working on the field suggested that preservation actions remain delicate and need a long-term presence on the field to ensure their successful implementation.

Locally, marine turtle are sometimes belonging to local beliefs and myths that may contribute to their protection (e.g. Ghana, Benin and Côte d'Ivoire) (Formia et al., 2003; Allman and Agyekumhene, 2017).

31 Website: https://iucn-mtsg.org 32 Website: http://www.rastoma.org 33 Website: http://www.rampao.org/?lang=fr 23 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

The USFWS, through its Marine Turtle Conservation Fund (MTCF)34, is ensuring long-term survival of marine turtle population in West Africa. Each year, funds are attributed to projects aiming at reducing the threats faced by marine turtles. For the 2016 year, the MTCF funded preservation projects focusing on marine turtle harvesting (USFWS, 2016).

Likewise, the MAVA Foundation is working for reducing, or even eradicating illegal harvest of marine turtles, as well as the impact of bycatch, in seven West Africa countries (i.e. Cabo Verde, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone) among which the Cabo Verde and Guinea-Bissau are the more important locations (MAVA, 2016). For example, the MAVA Foundation is currently funding projects aiming at the preservation of marine turtle populations from Cape Verde and conducted by the Turtle Foundation institution35. Since the beginning of their program in 2008, a 95%- reduction of the poaching of nesting females and their eggs was observed as well as of specimens caught at sea36.

The NOAA is further working on preservation and management of marine turtle populations in West Africa37. They mostly focus on the impact of artisanal and industrial fisheries on populations which is suspected to be high. They collaborate with the NOAA Fisheries SEFSC Harvesting Systems Unit to improve regional collaboration and build African expertise. In West Africa, NOAA is currently working in Nigeria.

The African Aquatic Conservation Fund (see in the manatee section) is further working at the preservation of marine turtle as the WCS but not specifically in West Africa.

NGOs and institutions working in West Africa and aiming at the preservation of marine turtles are presented in the Table 17, below. All these NGOs are indicated to work on the field to fight against marine turtle poaching, especially on nesting beaches.

Table 17. NGOs and institutions working in the field of marine turtle protection in West Africa ASSOCIATION PROJECT DESCRIPTION Benin In terms of marine turtle preservation, the NGO work at raising awareness among local communities Nature Tropical about the importance of the preservation and the sustainable use of the biodiversity, including marine turtles. They develop programs on the field of marine turtle preservation and environmental crime.38 The NGO focused on the preservation of the biodiversity in the Transboundary Mono Biosphere Reserve in the south-west of Benin and Togo, and in the Niger Delta. They work in partnership with Africa Mobile Nature (AMN) IUCN Netherlands, GIZ, UNDP (through the GSP), the National Centre for Management of Wildlife in (Benin and Togo) Benin, the municipalities and with the French committee of the IUCN. They are dealing with the killing of turtles (together with hippopotamus and manatees) and mainly work with local communities. Cape Verde (Boa Vista Island and Maio Islands, beach of Cape Verde) Their actions are undertaken around marine turtle preservation through protection and awareness- raising actions, development of cooperation and scientific research. Historically, the five marine turtles were present. To date, only the loggerhead species is observed. The islands are one of the most important spawn places for this species in the world. However, and ATM Associação Tartarugas despite the NGO efforts in the field, the species is still under threat and may be soon extinct if Marinhas measures are not to be taken in this regard. Recently, a national network of institutions was created to unit efforts in the conservation of Cape Verde marine turtles: Capeverdian Sea Turtle Network (TAOLA). Network includes government, research centers, local and international NGO’s, armed forces, police and universities. They work at protecting loggerhead turtles in Cape Verde. Their project aims at implementing nesting beach preservation programs on the most important loggerhead nesting beaches on the island of Sal. Associacao Projectos The objective is to prevent poaching of nesting females for meat and poaching of nests. Their Biodiversidade activities include (i) night patrols on key nesting beaches and relocation of vulnerable nests to hatcheries and (ii) education and outreach activities with local communities. Their preservation, protection and management program is implemented on the most important Cabo Verde Natura 2000 nesting beaches of Cape Verde for the loggerheads, Boa Vista. They aim at protecting nesting BIOS.CV loggerheads and their nests from poaching. Their activities include (i) daily patrols on beaches Turtle Foundation throughout the nesting season and (ii) the involvement of population in the preservation program.

They use local training, environmental education through educational programs and collaborations

34 Website: https://www.fws.gov/international/wildlife-without-borders/marine-turtle-conservation-fund.html 35 Website: http://en.mava-foundation.org/what-we-fund/list-of-projects/coastal-west-africa/ 36 Website: https://www.turtle-foundation.org/en/project-cape-verde/ 37 Website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ia/international_development/west_africa/africa_dev.html 38 There was no further info on the internet and the NGO manager didn’t reply to the emails. 24 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

with foreign researchers and local teachers, and further promote preservation of ecosystems and species based communities. The NGO is working for improving the preservation of marine turtles, mostly the loggerheads since it’s the second-largest loggerhead nesting population in Cape Verde and one of the least developed islands. Through their community-based preservation program, they aim at reducing, and even eliminating the slaughter of nesting loggerheads for meat and poaching of nests, as well as to reduce Maio Biodiversity the accidental and direct capture of marine turtles in local fisheries. Their activities include (i) Foundation community-based nighttime patrols throughout the nesting season on the six most important nesting beaches; (ii) an outreach program targeting local fishermen to assist with developing alternative livelihoods and integrating them into the preservation program; (iii) an extensive community education outreach program and (iv) coordination and hosting of the annual TAOLA partnership to review, coordinate and synergize loggerhead preservation efforts within Cape Verde. The Gambia The NGO aims at establishing a sustainable turtle preservation and related community based eco- Turtle SOS The Gambia tourism program. No further information was to date acquired. Ghana In 2006, the first marine turtle tagging and preservation programs were established in collaboration with the University of Ghana. Since 2007, they supported international and local interns that assist with marine turtle nesting surveys, education programs and other community activities. The project aims enhancing the role of Ghanaians in marine turtle preservation activities. The activities include community-based patrols on nesting beaches to protect nests and nesting females from poaching and to continue a marine turtle bycatch reduction program. The actions are implemented through (i) night patrols throughout the nesting season; (ii) relocation of nests to safe beach sites or hatcheries; (iii) training community members as observers on artisanal boats to collect bycatch data; (iv) working with fishermen for safe release of marine turtles and (v) marine turtle education and outreach programs in local schools and communities. Florida Gulf Coast University Since their beginning, they observed good results in two main areas (see below). Starting in 2017, Wildlife Division of the they have decided to spread the education component of their program to areas where poaching is Forestry Commission believed as being very common. They are currently working to create more volunteer task forces to serve as voices for turtles and to contact wildlife enforcement in cases of poaching activity. In Ada Foah, since poachers did not want to get captured, their nightly nesting surveys led poachers to run away in the dark. They sometimes found poaching evidences but observed a significant slowdown trend in the number of poaching events. They worked in this area for a few years and reported zero poaching activities the last few seasons (P. Allman, com.pers.). In Winneba, on the Mankoadze beach, a small fishing community settled. Likewise, poaching events rapidly decreased and even stopped at the same time the community volunteer program was implemented. They once made an arrest which is since used as an educational tool for other communities. Guinea (Tristão Archepilago: Katrack island) The NGO undertakes preservation actions specifically on the Tristao and Alcatraz islands. The project aims at improving (i) the knowledge on marine turtle nesting habits and (ii) the survival of marine turtles from every life-stage by putting in place strategic preservation plans. The project further aims at (iii) reducing specimen and nest poaching, especially the greens; (iv) improving the egg hatching rate by developing hatcheries; (v) reducing the threat of industrial and artisanal fisheries on population Chelonée in the border area with Guinea-Bissau and (vi) find alternative to marine turtle meat and eggs consumed by inhabitants. The project also focused on the law enforcement and the management of both marine protected areas (i.e. Tristao and Alcatraz islands) as well as the conditions of the human populations inhabiting the Katrack island. NGO is working on the field in partnership with the National Center for Fisheries Science in Boussoura CNSHB and the Guinean association Kaloe Kuré. Guinea-Bissau (Bijagos Archipelago) Their actions are undertaken around marine turtle preservation through protection and awareness- Associação Tartarugas raising actions, development of cooperation and scientific research. They implement projects in Marinhas (ATM) Guinea-Bissau through the Instituto de Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas (IBAP). Ivory Coast (West coast) The program was launched in 2014 and aims at protecting marine turtles along the west coast of the country. The project focuses on the eradication of marine turtle poaching by protecting nesting individuals and their nests, and the support to local communities. The activities conducted on the field includes (i) nighttime patrols on the nesting beaches; (ii) creation of hatcheries; (iii) monitoring of Conservation des Espèces activities at the fishing port for releasing by-caught specimens; (iv) eco-tourism activities in Marines (Sea Turtle Project) collaboration with hotels and (v) local capacity building. These activities are implemented on the field with local communities directly involved in the project. Every year, the program protects more than a thousand of nesting marine turtles, especially Olive Ridleys, leatherbacks and greens; and more than 50,000 marine turtle newborns (2016, 2017). 25 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

Liberia Their STW is currently working with local people from five communities. These people are fishermen, poachers and former hunters. Their marine turtle preservation program aims at protecting marine Sea Turtle Watch (STW) turtles and involving local communities in the program implementation. They ambition that the communities take ownership of the preservation program, thus they ensure that they manage their own resources by helping them in that way. Their Endangered Marine Species Conservation Program aims at (i) increasing capacity of coastal community's inhabitants to protect marine turtles; (ii) increasing public awareness and community participation in marine turtle preservation (educational programs); (iii) involving local communities in Save My Future Foundation beach monitoring and marine turtle preservation projects under the direct supervision of SAMFU and (SAMFU) (iv) identifying priority marine turtle nesting sites along the coast of Liberia in collaboration with coastal communities. SAMFU is working in partnership with the Sea Turtle Watch (Liberia), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Office of Fishery. Mauritania The NGO is conducting a project entitled Community-based efforts to evaluate sea turtle nesting and intentional and unintentional captures in local fisheries along the Mauritania coasts (West Africa) in partnership with the Mauritanian Institute for Oceanographic Research and Fisheries (IMROP), the Naforé NGO, Office National d'Inspection Sanitaire des Produits de la Pêche et de l' Aquaculture (ONISPA), GIZ through its Biodiversité Gaz Pétrole program and ADID. Chelonée Their objectives are to (i) reduce voluntary and involuntary marine turtle bycatch by fishermen and

local communities and (ii) improve knowledge about marine turtles in the region. Some of the undertaken activities are the (i) monitoring of the Mauritanian coast for stranded marine turtles; (ii) identification of likely nesting beaches for loggerheads and greens; (iii) support to communities; (iv) awareness-rising on marine turtle preservation and (v) identification of the feeding and growth areas for greens in and around the Banc d’Arguin National Park. Nigeria Wildlife of Africa is dealing with marine turtle monitoring and protection. Its main objective is to mitigate the decline of marine turtle populations in Nigeria and to reduce the threats they are facing. For that purpose, the project includes different activities, such as the beach monitoring and the establishment Wildlife Africa of a marine turtle rehabilitation center as well as the development of hatcheries for increasing the nesting survival of new-born marine turtles. The project is not implemented on the field yet and is planned to start in early 2018. Senegal (Senegal’s north coast, Senegal’s southern Atlantic coast and the Gambian coast) In 2014, the Senegal Marine Stranding Network was launched. ACI regularly conduct beach surveys on the Atlantic coastline in the northern part of Senegal from Dakar to St. Louis. African Chelonian Institute The main objective of these surveys is the marine turtle assessment along this remote and little (ACI) developed coastline to identify the impact of fishery activities on marine turtles. ACI is working with partners to document stranded animals and find ways to reduce unsustainable bycatch mortality for West African marine turtle populations. Sierra Leone (Turtle, Bonthe/Sherbro Islands and the Southern Shoreline) The NGO considers the involvement of local communities as the key factor for a successful marine turtle preservation program which aims at reducing specimen harvesting and improving the collection of related data. They undertake nesting beach monitoring survey as part of which they hire locals from coastal communities. They conduct community-based activities including the provision of water supply facility, annual hiring of locals for beach and bycatch monitoring, construction of schools and Reptile and Amphibian community centers, supplying of school materials and assisting students in and from the Turtle Program Islands. Marine turtle poaching is illegal in Sierra Leone according to the Fisheries Bill of the Ministry Fisheries and Marine Resources and the wildlife act of Sierra Leone by the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Food Security. Therefore, they carried out education and sensitization campaigns to raise awareness about the Fisheries Bill and the revised wildlife laws as well as the status of marine turtles and other threatened and endangered marine species.

1.5. AQUATIC AVES a) Status

Amongst the aquatic bird species inhabiting the West Africa coast, seven were identified as probably concerned by illegal use and trade, and with particular IUCN and/or CITES status. These species were identified according to the systems they rely on and which included the freshwater and/or the marine ones.

26 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

These species are the following: 1) peregrine falcon (least concern – CITES Appendix I), 2) saker falcon (endangered – CITES Appendix II), 3) black crowned-crane (vulnerable – CITES Appendix II), 4) grey parrot (endangered – CITES Appendix I), 5) Timneh parrot (endangered – CITES Appendix I), 6) Egyptian eagle (endangered – CITES Appendix II), 7) African skimmer (near threatened – not listed in CITES Appendix).

The Table 21 below reported the link between the above-cite bird species and the aquatic environment.

Table 18. Use of the aquatic environment by the identified aquatic birds. SEPCIES USE OF THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT The species is reported to rely on freshwater and/or marine ecosystems during their lifespan (BirdLife International, Peregrin falcon 2016c). The peregrine falcon is known as resident in West Africa where the species inhabits high cliffs and mountains on the coasts and/or island interiors (Mendelsohn, 1988). The species is reported to rely on freshwater and/or marine ecosystems during their lifespan, and freshwater areas for hunting. The saker falcon uses West Africa countries as core wintering or dispersal and passage areas. The Saker falcon species uses general open-space area, and specifically shrubs and bushes in Mali, pastoral areas and agricultural lands in Niger (Kovács, Williams and Galbraith, 2014; BirdLife International, 2017a). In West Africa, the species prefers freshwater marshes, wet grasslands and the peripheries of water-bodies. In Black crowned Nigeria, local movements can even be observed with seasonal changes in water levels (BirdLife International, crane 2016b). Grey and Both species are typically inhabiting dense forest but are commonly observed in different habitats including Timneh parrots mangroves, cultivated areas and even gardens (BirdLife International, 2017c, 2017d) The species is reported as being a species relying on freshwater ecosystem during their life-cycle. Trade of adults, Egyptian eagle as stuffed individuals, and of hatchlings and eggs are existing (See Annex 2.5, p. 36). In West Africa, trade seems to mostly concern traditional medicine (BirdLife International, 2016a). The African skimmer uses water ecosystems such as broad rivers (i.e. dry sandbars for breeding), lakes and African skimmer sometimes coasts in West Africa countries such as Gambia (BirdLife International, 2016d).

Amongst these, three species are listed on the CITES Appendix I while four species are listed on the CITES Appendix II and one is not listed on any CITES Appendix (i.e. the African skimmer). Three species are listed on the CMS Appendix: peregrine falcon (Appendix II), saker falcon (Appendix I and II) and Egyptian eagle (Appendix I and II) (See Annex 2.5 , p. 36).

Globally speaking, the illegal use and trade of birds mostly includes the terrestrial species. However, the catch of aquatic birds for meat consumption can represent a big issue in some countries, especially where large populations of birds aggregated. As an example, in the Inner Niger Delta in Mali, large numbers of birds are caught and traded. Birds are mainly sold for their meat in local network and, in a lesser extent, traded (e.g. to Bamako) (T. Dodman, com.pers.39).

Globally speaking, few data are available for the peregrine and saker falcons in West Africa countries. In other countries, the peregrine falcon is extensively used for falconry but the related impact for the population is undetermined (White, Christie and de Juana, 2013). The saker falcon is unsustainably trapped, illegally captured and/or traded in Africa. Specimens, females, chicks and/or eggs, are dedicated to the falconry trade and collectors (BirdLife International, 2017a).

In West Africa, the black crowned crane is exploited at local and national level and the most serious threat to the species comes from the illegal capture and trade for the pet industry. Parts of dead black crowned-cranes, especially the head and wings, can be used in traditional healing. The customers of these related products are mostly coming from Morocco, Tunisia, France, Belgium and Saudi Arabia (Williams, Beilfuss and Dodman, 2003; Beilfuss, Dodman and Urban, 2007; Kone et al., 2007) From 1998 to 2000, a study reported that 165 birds were bought in the inland delta of the Niger and sold in Bamako and locally. Most of the time, buyers purchased cranes for making money. Only few of them purchased specimens for domestication since a live specimen can reach 65US$ in the delta and 188 US$ in town. However, in Senegal (Casamance) capture for private use by local individuals is a bigger issue than the trade. Likewise, there is an ancient tradition in Mali to keep domesticated specimens at household compounds. The trade is an important issue and population were depleted in some countries, including the Nigeria and Mali. The traded specimens are mostly chicks and sometimes adults. In Mali, the poverty seems to drive the crane trade and is used as a pretext to bypass the law. In Guinea and elsewhere, bird-sellers

39 Expert referenced in the Annex 27 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization sometimes propose a range of aquatic birds for sale, including the black crowned crane (Kone and Fofana, 2001; Williams, Beilfuss and Dodman, 2003; Beilfuss, Dodman and Urban, 2007; Kone et al., 2007; Boyi, 2017).

The grey and Timneh parrots are part of the most famous avian pets in Europe, the United States and the Middle East. Since the importation ban of wild-caught birds into Europe in 2007, exports were re-oriented to the Middle East. Interest for wild birds is increasing in China and the growing presence of Chinese businesses in Africa may increase illegal export of both species. Both local and international trade exist but the last one may have the most impacts. Recent reports indicated a reducing trend in the parrot trade which may be most likely due to trade restrictions and, most of all, the population decline. Trade of both species is supposed to be legal. However, the lack of measures for monitoring and regulating the quotas may have resulted in the species overtrading making that trade illegal (Clemmons, 2002; Martin et al., 2014; BirdLife International, 2017c, 2017d; Martin, 2017). Locally, live parrots are caught for pets and exhibitions. Specimens can be used for the bushmeat trade and for medicinal and ceremonial purposes. For example, heads, legs and tail feathers are reported to be used as medicine or in black magic. Internationally, over 1,300,000 individuals were traded from range countries since 1975. The trend of trade of both species for the 1982 – 2014 period is presented in the Table 19 below (Clemmons, 2002; Martin et al., 2014; BirdLife International, 2017c, 2017d).

Table 19. Trend of the parrot trade, including both Timneh and grey species. PERIOD TREND More than 2 millions of parrots40 entered in the international trade, including individuals caught in Nigeria, Ivory Coast 1982 – 2003: and Ghana (Martin et al., 2014) 1984 – 1992: More than 50,000 wild birds were traded annually 1994 – 2003: More than 359,000 wild-caught specimens were exported from range countries 2005 – 2014: An estimation of 199,070 specimens were exported

Facts reported for the parrot exportation within West Africa countries are presented in the Table 20 below. Some of these may raise concerns about the legal value of the trade.

Table 20. Capture and trade of both Timneh and grey species in West Africa. COUNTRY FACTS For years, the country exported a lot of captive-bred specimens despite the absence of commercial-scale breeding facilities (CITES, 2012). Since the exportation ban established in Ghana, Guinea (and Ivory Coast) took over. Between 2007 and 2014, Guinea exported 2,500 and 220 specimens respectively reported as in excess of published annual quota and in absence of published annual quota. Furthermore, the country exported 4,325 captive-bred parrots despite the absence of commercial breeding facilities. According to the WARA Conservation Project, which is implemented through the GALF, the bird trafficking is Guinea widespread in Guinea. The dealers operate thanks to impressive international networks and export large quantities of birds. Reports indicates that species of parrots and birds not originating from Africa are the most targeted species. The poachers are paid around 3 US$ for an individual that can be sold for 1,500 to 2,000 US$ in Europe. Cargo of birds can be sent by air and welcomes 500 to 1,000 individuals, bringing illegal royalties to 1,000,000 US$. The destination countries are Thailand, the Czech Republic, countries of Central Europe and the Arab countries. Until now, the GALF team seized several major birds and confiscated about 200 birds that were rehabilitated and released in nature (GALF, 2017). Since the exportation ban established in Ghana, Ivory Coast (and Guinea) took over exporting 1,400 captive-bred parrots during the 2007 – 2014 period despite the absence of commercial breeding facilities. Ivory Coast In June 2017, three specimens were observed in sale along the street in Abidjan. Seller indicated that specimens came from Ghana (J.G. Peñate, com.pers.)41. The country was indicated to export 300 captive-bred specimens during the 2007 – 2014 period while no such Nigeria facilities exist. Shipments were further observed while the species is not naturally occurring in the country. In 2015, 89 specimens coming from the country were confiscated in Dakar, Senegal. For the 2007 – 2014 period, 4,090 wild-caught parrots Mali were recorded while no or insignificant wild populations occur in the country. Besides, the commercial export of wild-sourced birds is not legal in Mali but some traders keep going in advertising exports of wild-caught birds. Export permits were not issued since 2000. However, exports of wild-sourced birds continued and are reported as Guinea-Bissau legal trade Information was collected from (Clemmons, 2002; Martin et al., 2014; BirdLife International, 2017c, 2017d; Martin, 2017).

Trade of adults of the Egyptian eagle, as stuffed individuals, and of the hatchlings and eggs’ species are existing. In West Africa, trade seems to mostly concern traditional medicine (BirdLife International, 2016a).

40 Both species were taken in the estimation, the grey and Timneh parrots, but the grey species was the most encountered species. 41 J. G. Peñate is the founder of the Conservation des Espèces Marines NGO in Ivory Coast. 28 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

Christelle Dyc – PhD in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

The African skimmer is concerned by egg-collection and adult trapping but data within its West Africa range are poorly available (BirdLife International, 2016d).

b) Conservation actions Globally speaking, bird species are benefiting from protection measures through their listing in CITES and/or CMS Appendix. The CITES Appendix I says that the trade in specimens of these species is prohibited and only permitted in exceptional circumstances while Appendix II says that trade must be controlled in order to avoid unsustainable use compromising their survival (UNEP-WCMC, 2017). Likewise, species listed in CMS Appendix I benefit from strict protections prohibiting (or exceptionally restricting) their taking and controlling other factors that might endanger them; while those listed in Appendix II require international, global and/or regional agreement for their effective preservation and management (CMS, 1979). Countries hosting these bird species have further ratified or accepted the Convention on Biological Conservation and developed National Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity as recommended by the convention42. Likewise, these countries signed (i.e. Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Sierra Leone and Togo), ratified/acceded (i.e. Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Niger and Senegal) the African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources with the exception of Cape Verde (AU, 2017).

A MoU on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (Raptors MoU) entered into effect in 2008 and aims to promote internationally coordinated actions to achieve and maintain the favorable conservation status of migratory birds of prey throughout their range in the African-Eurasian region, and to reverse their decline when and where appropriate. The MoU covers 93 species of birds of prey and owls including the Accipitridae and Falconidae of the present investigation. In West Africa, six countries signed the MoU (e.g. Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo) while eight are reported as Range States (e.g. Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria and Sierra Leone). This MoU also includes an Action Plan aiming at (i) halting and reversing the population declines of globally threatened birds of prey, (ii) alleviating threats to them such that they are no longer globally threatened; (iii) halting and reversing the population declines of other birds of prey with an Unfavourable Conservation Status within Africa and Eurasia, (iv) alleviating threats in order to return their populations to Favourable Conservation Status and (v) anticipating, reducing and avoiding potential and new threats to all bird of prey species, especially to prevent the populations of any species undergoing long- term decline (CMS, 2008).

Currently, the Coordinating Unit of the Raptors MoU is managing four important work streams among which: (i) Multi-species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures (Vulture MsAP) that covers the whole geographic ranges (127 countries) of 15 species to promote concerted, collaborative and coordinated international conservation actions (Oppel et al., 2016); (ii) Technical Advisory Group (TAG) of the Raptors MOU that support signatories in the effective implementation of the Raptors MOU, including the Action Plan; (iii) Saker Falcon Task Force (STF) that brings together range states and stakeholders to develop a coordinated Saker Falcon Global Action Plan, including a management and monitoring system. The STF established a Saker Falco Falco cherug Global Action Plan under the auspices of the CMS Raptors MoU in 2014 (Kovács, Williams and Galbraith, 2014).

Then, some specialist groups were created. The first one is the IUCN Crane Specialist Group (CSG) that promotes the study and preservation of the crane species and their related habitats in 56 countries, including West Africa (i.e. the African Cranes Group). The CSG is supported by the International Crane Foundation (ICF). In 1996, IFC together with the IUCN/SSC prepared a Crane Action Plan (Meine and Archibald, 1996). Then a Waterbird Harvest Specialist Group aiming at supporting science-based decision-making concerning the harvest of waterbird populations to ensure that their use is ecologically, socially and economically sustainable (WHSG, 2013).

BirdLife International – Africa is also working in the field of global bird preservation in West Africa. For example, the Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) Program43 aims at identifying, documenting, monitoring and protecting a network of sites for the preservation of birds, among other things. BirdLife Partners implement the program at national level while the BirdLife Africa Secretariat managing regional aspects. Over 1,250 sites were identified as IBAs in 59 countries and territories among which Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau. National IBA Conservation Strategies (NIBACS) are then established to provide a clear focus at a national level for plans and tools, and to build consensus for conserving IBAs through collaborative action by stakeholders. In addition, for migratory birds, BirdLife is implementing a Global Migratory Birds and Flyways

42 Available at: https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml, consulted on 16, September 2017 43 Website : http://www.birdlife.org/africa/programmes/important-bird-areas-IBA 29 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

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Program44 in partnership with local NGOs from West Africa countries (i.e. Burkina Faso, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone) which aims at working in the area agriculture, energy, hunting, tourism and waste management.

The tables below are more specifically presenting identified and implemented preservation actions according to the species (Table 21) and according to the country (Table 22) within West Africa.

Table 21. Identified preservation actions dedicated to the targeted bird species in West Africa according to the species. COUNTRY PRESERVATION ACTIONS In 1999, a collaborative project was launched to determine the black crowned-crane population size and trend, distribution and threats, and to draft an action plan for the species (Williams, Beilfuss and Dodman, 2003). Subsequent small-scale conservation projects were conducted from Senegal to Guinea-Bissau as well as assessment surveys in Senegal and Nigeria. Monitoring survey are further conducted at various sites across Black crowned- the species distribution range as well as investigations into trade and other threats in Mali and Guinea. There crane are plans to produce an updated conservation action plan through an international stakeholder workshop, whilst a few West African countries are preparing national action plans for this species (Dodman et al., 2014; BirdLife International, 2016b). These investigations were conducted by the ICF45 in partnership with Wetlands International. The crane is legally protected in Mali. In 2013, an EU-CITES capacity building project Strengthening Capacity for Monitoring and Regulation of International Trade of African Grey Parrots was undertaken. The project was implemented by BirdLife International – Africa and members from West Africa countries such as Liberia (Conservation of Nature SCNL), Grey Parrot Sierra Leone (Conservation Society CSSL) and Ivory Coast (SOS Forêts). The objective was to monitor the parrot populations and trade, and to develop a framework for the establishment of national management plans of this species (CITES, 2013). In addition, the species is occurring in a number of protected areas and benefits from related regulations. Egyptian eagle In addition, the species is occurring in a number of protected areas and benefits from related regulations.

Table 22. Identified preservation actions dedicated to the targeted bird species in West Africa according to the country. COUNTRY TRADE AND USE FACTS Since 1990, the country ceased legal exports of the Timneh parrot. As a result, trappers and traders from Ghana Ghana moved into other countries such as Ivory Coast and Guinea (Martin et al., 2014; BirdLife International, 2017d). The Timneh parrot inhabit protected areas which are actively managed in collaboration with local communities since 2013. Since then, former trappers have been employed as nest guards and in other preservation roles. Guinea-Bissau Breeding biology and diet studies, and ecological surveys and community outreach were carried out by several scientists. In 2011, a PhD study assessing among other things the impacts of trade for Timneh population began (Anon 2011). Survey were conducted by Freeman B. in 2004 and project entitled Bird-habitat relationships and anthropogenic Liberia threats in and around Sapo national park, Liberia (MSc Thesis; University of Jos). Mali The saker falcon is fully protected from taking and killing (Kovács, Williams and Galbraith, 2014). Niger The saker falcon is fully protected from taking and killing (Kovács, Williams and Galbraith, 2014). Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra The Animals Committee of CITES advices on a two-year ban from January 2007 on exports of the Leone and Timneh species. Since then, countries continue to have zero export quotas as recommended by CITES. Guinea Guinea, Guinea- The World Parrot Trust46, aware that the species is suffering from massive population declines as a result of Bissau and trade in West Africa, developed a project entitled Timneh parrot: wild bird trade in 2014. One of their objectives Senegal is to support law enforcement in the region to decrease the threat of illegal trade. The importation of wild-caught birds into Europe was prohibited in 2007 and taken by the European Global Commission’s Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health (SCOFCAH)47. Information was collected from (Clemmons, 2002; Martin et al., 2014; BirdLife International, 2017c, 2017d).

44 Website : http://www.birdlife.org/africa/programmes/migratory-birds-and-flyways-africa 45 Website : https://www.savingcranes.org/species-field-guide/black-crowned-crane 46 Available: https://www.parrots.org/?/projects/timneh-parrot/ 47 Available: https://cites.org/eng/news/pr/2007/070111_EU_bird_ban.shtml 30 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

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2. ANNEXES

2.1. STATUS INFORMATION OF THE IDENTIFIED CHONDRICHTHYAN SPECIES

RHINOPRISTIFORME ORDER PRISTIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: largetooth sawfish Latin name: Pristis pristis Distribution range: Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone Possibly extinct: Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo IUCN Red List status: critically endangered CITES status: Appendix I (2007) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Carlson and Smith, 2013) Scientific name: smalltooth sawfish Latin name: Pristis pectina Distribution range: Sierra Leone Possibly extinct: Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo IUCN Red List status: critically endangered CITES status: Appendix I (2007) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Carlson, Wiley and Smith, 2013) GLAUCOSTEGIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: blackchin guitarfish Latin name: Glaucostegus cemiculus Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Distribution range: Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: endangered Population trend: decreasing (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2016) RHINOBATIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: common guitarfish Latin name: Rhinobatos rhinobatos Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Distribution range: Senegal and Sierra Leone IUCN Red List status: endangered Population trend: decreasing (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007) RHINIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: african wedgefish or Lubbert’s guitarfish Latin name: Rhynchobatus luebberti Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Distribution range: Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: endangered Population trend: decreasing (Compagno and Marshall, 2006) CARCHARINIFORME ORDER CARCHARHINIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: silky shark Latin name: Carcharhinus falciformis Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Leone Distribution range: and Togo IUCN Red List status: near threatened CITES status: Appendix II (2017) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: decreasing (Rigby et al., 2016) SPHYRNIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: scalloped hammerhead, Eastern Central Atlantic subpopulation Latin name: Sphyrna lewini Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Distribution range: Leone and Togo 31 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

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IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2013) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: decreasing (Baum et al., 2007) Scientific name: great hammerhead Latin name: Sphyrna mokarran Distribution range: Cape Verde and Senegal IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix II (2013) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: unknown (Denham et al., 2007) LAMNIFORME ORDER CETORHINIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: basking shark Latin name: Cetorhinus maximus Distribution range: Mauritania and Senegal IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2003) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Fowler, 2005) ALOPIIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: common thresher shark Latin name: Alopias vulpinus Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal Distribution range: and Sierra Leone IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2017) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: decreasing (Goldman et al., 2009) RAJIFORME ORDER MOBULIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: reef manta ray or coastal manta ray Latin name: Manta alfredi Distribution range: Cape Verde and Senegal IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2013) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Marshall et al., 2011) Scientific name: lesser Guinean devil ray Latin name: Mobula rochebrunei Distribution range: Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania and Senegal IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2017) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: unknown (Valenti and Kyne, 2009) Scientific name: sicklefin devil ray Latin name: Mobula tarapacana Distribution range: Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia and Senegal IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2017) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Pardo, Walls and Bigman, 2016) Scientific name: bentfin devil ray Latin name: Mobula thurstoni Distribution range: Côte d'Ivoire IUCN Red List status: near threatened CITES status: Appendix II (2017) CMS status: Appendix I and II 32 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

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Population trend: decreasing (Walls et al., 2016)

2.2. STATUS INFORMATION OF THE IDENTIFIED ACTINOPTERYGII SPECIES

SYNGNATHIFORME ORDER SYNGNATHIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: West African seahorse Latin name: Hippocampus algiricus Distribution range: Benin, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone IUCN Red List status: Vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (2002) Population trend: unknown (Czembor, 2012) Scientific name: short-snouted seahorse Latin name: Hippocampus hippocampus Distribution range: Gambia, Guinea and Senegal IUCN Red List status: Data Deficient CITES status: Appendix II (2002) Population trend: unknown (Woodall, 2012; Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2016)

2.3. STATUS INFORMATION OF THE IDENTIFIED AQUATIC MAMMALIA SPECIES

CETARTIODACTYLA ORDER DELPHINIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: atlantic humpback dolphin Latin name: Sousa teuszii Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Distribution range: Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: Vulnerable CITES status: Appendix I (1979) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Reeves et al., 2012) Scientific name: long-beaked common dolphin Latin name: Delphinus capensis capensis Distribution range: Côte d'Ivoire, Mauritania and Senegal IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix II (1979) Population trend: unknown (Hammond et al., 2008) Scientific name: clymene dolphin Latin name: Stenella clymene Benin, Cabo Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Distribution range: Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix II (1979) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: unknown (Hammond et al., 2012a) Scientific name: atlantic spotted dolphin Latin name: Stenella frontalis Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Distribution range: Togo IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix II (1979) Population trend: unknown (Hammond et al., 2012b) Scientific name: long-beaked or spinner dolphin Latin name: Stenella longirostris Distribution range: Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea and Senegal IUCN Red List status: data deficient 33 Email: [email protected] Tel.: +225 44 02 19 17 (Côte d’Ivoire) / +32 495 496 007 (Belgium)

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CITES status: Appendix II (1979) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: unknown (Bearzi et al., 2012) Scientific name: common bottlenose dolphin Latin name: Tursiops truncatus Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Distribution range: Nigeria, Senegal and Togo IUCN Red List status: least concern CITES status: Appendix II (1979) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: unknown (Hammond et al., 2012c) Scientific name: false killer whale Latin name: Pseudorca crassidens Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania, Nigeria, Distribution range: Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix II (1979) Population trend: unknown (Taylor et al., 2008b) Scientific name: short-finned pilot whale Latin name: Globicephala macrorhynchus Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Distribution range: Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix II (1979) Population trend: unknown (Taylor et al., 2011) Scientific name: pygmy killer whale Latin name: Feresa attenuata Benin, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Distribution range: Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix II (1979) Population trend: unknown (Taylor et al., 2008a) HIPPOPOTAMIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: pygmy hippopotamus Latin name: Choeropsis liberiensis Distribution range: Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone Regionally extinct: Nigeria IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix II (1975) Population trend: decreasing (Ransom, Robinson and Collen, 2015) Scientific name: common hippopotamus Latin name: Hippopotamus amphibius Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Distribution range: Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo Regionally extinct: Mauritania IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (1995) Population trend: decreasing (Lewison and Oliver, 2008) SIRENIA ORDER TRICHECHIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: West African manatee Latin name: Trichechus senegalensis Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Distribution range: Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix I (2013) CMS status: Appendix I and II

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Population trend: unknown (Keith Diagne, 2015)

2.4. STATUS INFORMATION OF THE IDENTIFIED AQUATIC REPTILIA SPECIES

CROCODYLIA ORDER CROCODYLIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: African slender-snouted crocodile Latin name: Mecistops cataphractus, Crocodylus cataphractus Distribution range: Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Liberia and Sierra Leone Possibly extinct: Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Senegal and Togo IUCN Red List status: critically endangered CITES status: Appendix I (1975) Population trend: decreasing (Shirley, 2014) Scientific name: African dwarf crocodile or West African dwarf crocodile Latin name: Osteolaemus tetraspis Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, Distribution range: Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix I (1975) Population trend: unknown (CSG, 1996b) Scientific name: Nile crocodile Latin name: Crocodylus niloticus Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Distribution range: Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: least concern CITES status: Appendix I (1975) Population trend: not reported (CSG, 1996a) 1.3.2. TESTUDINES ORDER CHELONIIDEA FAMILY Scientific name: hawksbill marine turtle Latin name: Eretmochelys imbricata the species is encountered in two main foraging and nesting areas: the first one stretches from Distribution range: Mauritania to west of the Ivory Coast, including Cape Verde; and the second one is located in the Gulf of Guinea IUCN Red List status: critically endangered CITES status: Appendix I (1977) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Mortimer and Donnelly, 2008) Scientific name: Olive Ridley marine turtle Latin name: Lepidochelys olivacea Distribution range: the species is reported to nest, migrate and forage in all West Africa countries IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix I (1977) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Abreu-Grobois and Plotkin, 2008) Scientific name: green marine turtle Latin name: Chelonia mydas the species is reported to nest, migrate and forage in all West Africa countries. The most important Distribution range: breeding and nesting rookeries of the West African coast is located in the Bijagos Archipelago, Guinea- Bissau IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix I (1977) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing (Seminoff, 2004) Scientific name: loggerhead marine turtle, North-East Atlantic subpopulation Latin name: Caretta caretta

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the species is encountered throughout a large marine area off the coast of north-west Africa as far as coastal areas of Sierra Leone, especially in Cape Verde, Guinea, Mauritania and Sierra Leone. Distribution range: Breeding events were reported along the north-west Africa coast, especially in the Cabo Verde archipelago IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix I (1977) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: unknown (Casale and Marco, 2015) DERMOCHELYIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: leatherback marine turtle, Southeast Atlantic Ocean subpopulation Latin name: Dermochelys coriacea the species is encountered in Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Distribution range: Nigeria, Sao Tomé and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Small breeding activity was reported north to Senegal and south to Angola IUCN Red List status: data deficient CITES status: Appendix I (1977) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: unknown (Tiwari, Wallace and Girondot, 2013)

2.5. STATUS INFORMATION OF THE IDENTIFIED AQUATIC AVES SPECIES

FALCONIFORME ORDER FALCONIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: peregrine falcon Latin name: Falco peregrinus Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Distribution range: Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo IUCN Red List status: least concern CITES status: Appendix I (1977) CMS status: Appendix II Population trend: stable

(BirdLife International, 2016c) Scientific name: saker falcon Latin name: Falco cherrug Distribution range: Mali and Mauritania Present uncertain: Niger Vagrant: Senegal IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix II (1975) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing

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(BirdLife International, 2017a) PSITTACIFORME ORDER PSITTACIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: grey parrot Latin name: Psittacus erithacus Distribution range: Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix I (2017) Population trend: decreasing

(BirdLife International, 2017c) Scientific name: Timneh parrot Latin name: Psittacus timneh Distribution range: Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Sierra Leone IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix I (2017) Population trend: decreasing

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(BirdLife International, 2017d) ACCIPITRIFORME ORDER ACCIPITRIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: Egyptian eagle Latin name: Neophron percnopterus Distribution range: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo Present uncertain: Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea-Bissau IUCN Red List status: endangered CITES status: Appendix II (1979) CMS status: Appendix I and II Population trend: decreasing

(BirdLife International, 2017b) GRUIFORME ORDER GRUIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: black crowned-crane Latin name: Balearica pavonina Distribution range: Gambia, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal Probably extinct: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone and Togo Vagrant: Nigeria IUCN Red List status: vulnerable CITES status: Appendix II (1985) Population trend: decreasing

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(BirdLife International, 2016b) CHARADRIIFORME ORDER LARIDAE FAMILY Scientific name: African skimmer Latin name: Rynchops flavirostris Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Distribution range: Nigeria Vagrant: Togo IUCN Red List status: near threatened Population trend: decreasing

(BirdLife International, 2016d)

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Christelle Dyc – Ph in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

3. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Christelle Dyc – Ph in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

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Christelle Dyc – Ph in biology an ecology, environmental Abidjan, 20th October 2017 pollution specialization

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