Issue Brief AN OVERVIEW OF THE ILLEGAL HARVEST OF AQUATIC ENDANGERED, THREATENED OR PROTECTED (ETP) SPECIES IN WEST AFRICA

AQUATIC WILDMEAT: THE PLIGHT OF THREATENENED AQUATIC SPECIES Throughout West Africa, declining fisheries resources and rising human populations have accelerated the displacement WHAT IS AQUATIC BUSHMEAT? of many communities from their traditional food sources. This Aquatic wild meat, sometimes referred to in turn is driving new forms of aquatic meat consumption, as as aquatic bushmeat, is defined as the meat well as the rise of illegal local and international trade aimed at of aquatic species harvested and used by revenue generation. As a consequence, this aquatic harvest is humans as food resources, medicines and/ now seriously impacting large aquatic mammal, reptile and avian or cultural/ traditional items (e.g. religious biodiversity in the region. This aquatic harvest is ‘falling through items). Aquatic wildmeat includes marine the cracks’ between environment and fisheries Ministries, mammals such as manatees, cetaceans and agencies and international processes. hippopotamus, reptiles such as crocodiles and marine turtles, fish (sharks and rays), and In West Africa, as worldwide, aquatic species have been aquatic birds (herons, pelicans and storks harvested for decades by local populations. Some of the most amongst others). famous human uses are (1) the trade of the hawksbill marine turtle’ shell (bekko) through Japanese networks, (2) the consumption of manatee’s or marine turtle’s meat by coastal populations and (3) the harvest of sharks for their fins for the Asian market (Miliken & Tokunaga 1987; Groombridge & Luxmoore 1989; Diop & Dossa 2011).

A WIDE VARIETY OF AQUATIC SPECIES ARE THREATENED Over time, aquatic bushmeat consumption, increasing human populations and poorly enforced measures punishing the use or trade of these aquatic species, could threaten the survival of many aquatic species. Already today, according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) some of the aquatic species targeted for consumption are of particular concern (e.g. critically endangered, endangered, near threatened or vulnerable) and some have been listed on the CITES and CMS Appendices.

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 1 In West Africa, a number of aquatic mammals, chondrichthyan (sharks and rays), reptile and bird species are considered endangered, threatened or protected (ETP) – see chart below – and a number of these species are likely affected and/or threatened by illegal use and trade. These aquatic ETP species include 12 aquatic mammals, 14 chondrichthyans, 8 aquatic reptiles and 7 aquatic birds. They are dependent on freshwater and/ or marine ecosystems for their existence and therefore depend almost exclusively on aquatic wildlife for food (e.g. herons and pelicans), and species that are much less directly linked to water but depend heavily on marine or freshwater and wetland ecosystems for survival (e.g. parrots, raptors and vultures).

DRIVERS OF HARVESTING ACTIVITIES

Harvesting of aquatic ETP species is driven by many factors, both at national and international levels, and is highly motivated by the current high profit – low risk context of the market which is under regulated, particularly in West Africa. Increases in both the ease of transport across international lines and the effectiveness of information and communication technologies, have without a doubt fueled the demand for illegal aquatic species and their by-products. One of the main drivers is the increasing demand for parts or by-products of these species on national and inter- national markets. Some species whose populations are in decline are increasingly valuable, particularly on the black market. At the regional level, the main drivers contributing to illegal and excessive harvesting activities appear to be linked to:

1. The increasing economic value and demand for these species on national and international markets; 2. The inadequate policies and institutional frameworks which favor a low risk-high profit context with unregulated and unreported fishing boats operating along the coasts; 3. The improvement of technology for communication, transportation and large-scale fishing fueling the demand for these by-products and 4. The increasing vulnerability of local communities to climatic and economic shocks that encourage them to explore alternative and sometimes illegal livelihood options.

At the local level, communities collect aquatic ETP species for private use and/or income generation. The main reasons accounting for the practice may include:

1. Lack of employment opportunities for local communities; 2. The reduction of their natural resources (e.g. fish stocks); 3. The reduced potential of their lands for sustainable agriculture and livestock populations.

Harvest trade and use of aquatic ETP species in West Africa are often a part of the cultural history of a population and may be associated with medicinal practices and/or traditional ceremonies. The cultural element of these practices is therefore non-negligible and needs to be taken into account.

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 2 IUCN Red List CITES Appendix CMS Appendix

Pygmy Hippopotamus (E) Atlantic Humpback Dolphin Atlantic humpback, Clymene, Aquatic Atlantic Humpback Dolphin (V) (Appendix 1) Longbeaked, Common Bottlenose Mammals West African Manatee (V) Thirteen of these species Dolphin, and the West African Common Hippopotamus (V) (Appendix II) Manatee

Largetooth and Smalltooth Sawfish (CE) NOTE: Blackchin Guitarfish, Lubebert’s Blackchin and Common Largetooth and Smalltooth Common Guitarfish and African Guitarfish, African Wedgefish, and Sawfish (Appendix 1) WedgeFish are not listed on Great Hamerhead (E) Nine species of sharks, CITIES and CMS Appendices but Chrondrichthyans Scalloped Hammerhead, Basking hammerheads and devil rays are partitular status according to and Common Thresher shark; Reef (Appendix II) the IUCN Red List since they are manta, Lesser Guinean Devil and listed as “endangered.” Sicklefin Devil Ray (V)

African Slendersnouted crocodile and Hawksbill Turtle (CE) The five marine turtle species Green and Loggerhead Marine All species are listed on the Aquatic are further listed on the CMS Reptiles Turtles (E) Cities Appendix I African Dwarf Crocodile and Olive Appendix I and/or II. Ridley Turtle (V) Nile Crocodile (LC)

Saker Falcon, Grey Parrot, Peregrine Falcon, Peregrine Falcon, Saker Falcon Timneh Parrot, and Egyptian Grey and Timneh Parrot Aquatic and Egyptian Eagle (Appendix I Eagle (E) (Appendix I) Birds and/or II) Black Crowned-Crane (V) Egyptian Eagle, Black Crowned NOTE: Africn Skimmer is not Affrican Skimmer (T) Crane and Saker Falcon listed on the CITIES or CMS Peregrine Falcon (LC) (Appendix II) Appendices CE: Critically Endangered; E: Endangered; V: Vulnerable; T: Threatened; LC: Least Concern

Consequently, many international fishing boats operate along the West African coastline without legal authorizations or consideration for international or national laws related to threatened aquatic species. Similarly, local fishers, often unaware of laws, collect and trade all species caught in their nets regardless of their protected status. Senegal, Mauritania, Liberia, Ghana and Sierra Leone are amongst the countries most hit by illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing.

These behaviors have consequences for the aquatic ETP species populations and contribute to their decline. Decline in these species affects ecosystems (e.g. regulation of prey and aquatic plants, seed dispersal) and the people who rely on them. Local communities from West Africa are especially sensitive to modifications in their environment. If these environments are threatened by outside stresses, they may look for other ways to make a living. Without proper legal frameworks and enforcement, this may reinforce their interest in the high profit – low risks context of aquatic harvesting a for private use or consumption.

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 3 THREATS TO SPECIFIC AQUATIC ETP SPECIES MAMMALS Cetaceans are directly and incidentally caught mostly for their meat which is consumed or used as bait (Waere- beek et al. 2004;Van Waerebeek et al. 2000;Weir et al. 2014); Hippopotamus are harvested for their meat and teeth (Ransom et al. 2015; IUCN/SSC HSC 2017); and Manatees are mainly harvested for their meat but also for their skin, bones and oil (Dodman et al. 2008; Keith Diagne 2015; Silva & Araújo 2001);

CHRONDRICHTYANS Sharks (i.e. real sharks and rays) are intentionally or incidentally caught for their meat, which is consumed, for their fins or body parts (e.g. skull) as part of traditional ceremonies or cultural beliefs (Robillard & Seret 2006; Fernandez-Carvalho et al. 2013; Diop & Dossa 2011; IUCN 2017);

REPTILES Marine turtles are harvested on their nesting beaches (i.e. adult females and eggs) and foraging grounds (i.e. adults and juveniles) mostly for their meat or/and eggs (Antwi & Agyekumhene 2013; Wallace et al. 2011; Fretey 2001; Formia et al. 2003); crocodiles are harvested for their meat and skin (Shirley 2014) and regulated and legal hunting of African slender-snouted crocodiles are reported in West Africa countries such Sierra Leone and Togo none of which seem to hold CITES export quotas for the species (Eaton 2010).);

BIRDS The trade in certain aquatic birds is legal but quotas are rarely monitored and thus probably not respected (Williams et al. 2003; Martin et al. 2014); the direct consumption of chicks or the use of adults in traditional medicine are reported several Africa countries, as well as the use of live specimens for falconry or as pets through interna- tional trade networks (BirdLife International 2016; Clemmons 2002; Martin et al. 2014;White et al. 2013).

EXISTING LEGAL PROTECTIONS AND GLOBAL PARTNERS

Aquatic ETP species should benefit from protection measures resulting from their status in the IUCN Red List and their listing in CITES and / or CMS Appendices. Furthermore, in every country within their distribution range, these species are protected through national and international laws, memoranda and/or convention including:

1. Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks (2010); Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (2008); Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa; Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (2008).

2. Action Plans on the Protection and Management of Sharks (1995); Sub-Regional Action Plan for the Protection and Management of Sharks (2002); Dakar Action Plan for the protection of sharks and rays along the West African coasts (2014), Liberia Conservation of the Pygmy hippo (2012); Protection of West African dwarf crocodile (2010) and African slender-snouted crocodile (1992); Protection of marine

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 4 turtles developed by the IUCN SSC / Marine Turtle Specialist Group (1996); Multi-Species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures; (Vulture MsAP).

3. Conventions such as The Abidjan Convention; Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Collaborative Partnership on Sustainable Wildlife (CPW); African Convention of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

Protection measures are further set up by international institutions and local NGOs working directly or indirectly to fight against the illegal use and trade of aquatic species. This includes international institutions such as OceanCare, NOAA, Born Free USA, EAGLE Network, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Wetlands International, the Turtle Foundation and the MAVA foundation. All are working to various extents on these issues or fund projects dealing with the topic.

Many local NGOs have also worked directly to reduce the harvesting of aquatic ETP species. These include, but are not limited to: the Nigerian Conservation Foundation, Nature Tropicale (Benin), ANCE Togo/TAFFL, CEM Côte d’Ivoire, Africa Chelonian Institute, Wildlife of Africa, BIOS.CV, Chelonee, Natura2000, Maio Biodiversity Foundation, Florida Gulf Coast University Board of Trustees, Sea Turtle Watch Foundation, Save My Future Foundation, African Aquatic Conservation Fund, Reptile and Amphibian Program – Sierra Leone, Biosfera, SOS Forêts (BirdLife Affiliate in Cote d’Ivoire),The Society for Conservation of Nature in Liberia (SCNL) (BirdLife Affiliate), Conservation Society of Sierra Leone (CSSL) (BirdLife Affiliate), and the Wildlife Conservation Society.

A COMPLEX MANAGEMENT CONTEXT Globally speaking, data is scarce about the illegal trade and use of aquatic ETP species in West Africa. The scope and extent of related activities and trade remains difficult to estimate due to many different variables This is especially the case for aquatic birds for instance, whereas marine turtles can be considered an exception given the number of available reports encountered. Despite existing laws prohibiting the illegal use and/or trade in aquatic ETP species, such practices occur regularly. However, these events are sparsely reported. This may be explained by several deficiencies including the lack of:

1. Law enforcement and strengthening; 2. Synergy and communication between conservation and enforcement personnel; 3. Adequate technical knowledge of conservation and enforcement personnel (e.g. identification of aquatic ETP species, recording of illegal activities, application of sanctions in case of illegal events etc.); 4. Available resources in the field dedicated to build local community capacities for developing alternatives to harvesting activities and; 5. Awareness and knowledge of local communities about various aspects of the protection of the targeted species.ge of local communities about various aspects of the protection of the targeted species.

CALL TO ACTION Reducing the consumption of aquatic bushmeat will require work on several levels simultaneously. Consequently, interventions to mitigate or eliminate illegal use and/or trade of aquatic ETP species should focus on:

Increasing the knowledge around the aquatic ETP species and improving the understanding of 1. The biology of the targeted species; 2. The cultural, traditional and/or economic drivers leading to harvest; 3. The trade dynamics; 4. The reasons leading to poor law enforcement; and 5. Report and disseminate the facts to increase awareness.

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 5 Increasing the capacity of law enforcement to: WA BiCC SUPPORT FOR THE 1. Enforce decisions made at the IUCN, CITES ABIDJAN CONVENTION and CMS level (e.g. precautionary approaches WA BiCC supported a side event at the for species being listed as data deficient and for twelfth Conference of the Parties of the Abidjan population with unknown trend; enhance the Convention in March 2017 that resulted in the CITES to consider domestic consumption and/or development of a partnership, led by the Abidjan local use of these species); Convention Secretariat, to develop an action 2. Enhance the authorities’ involvement in law plan to combat trade, direct consumption, illegal enforcement and their role in protection action; logging, and other uses of endangered, threatened 3. Homogenize, reinforce and strengthen the or protected coastal and marine species, and to legal frameworks for protection (e.g. ensure develop a program to assess the illegal harvest of that migratory species benefit from the same aquatic mammal, reptile and amphibian species, protection level within their distribution range, the origins of the meat, and which species are ensure that the sanctions are consistent with the traditionally caught and consumed. Progress made facts); to date in implementing these resolutions include: 4. Enhance training of protection and enforcement personnel; and • A scoping study, based on information from WA 5. Identify ways to render the by-products of the BiCC, the World Bank, OceanCare, Wetlands targeted species less attractive and harder to International, RAMPAO, FAO and the Abidjan obtain; Convention, was undertaken to establish a regional baseline on available knowledge about Increasing regional and national synergy: illegal exploitation, consumption and trade Actions should focus on enhancing communication of these aquatic ETP species, key issues and between authorities, enforcement officers and NGOs priorities and policy options to address issues in for effective CITES and law implementation; West Africa; Increasing relevant resources available in the • A Working Group comprising the Abidjan field: Actions should focus on Convention, OceanCare and the World Bank and others was created has drafted 1. Enhancing the capacity of local populations a regional action plan to address the illegal to adapt their habits and to move towards harvest of aquatic wildlife in West Africa; and alternatives to harvesting activities; 2. Supporting NGOs working in the field to combat • Workshops have been initiated in Sierra illegal activities by enhancing collaborations Leone, Guinea and Cote d’Ivoire that bringing between NGOs, universities and authorities. This together authorities, institutions and experts should also include enhanced access to funding. to communicate and create synergies in actions dedicated to the protection of wildlife, including Increasing public awareness: Actions should be aquatic ETP species. dedicated to make the populations (i.e. both urban and rural citizens) concerned by the protection and management of the targeted species as to ensure their understanding of the enforced laws.

CONCLUSION The context for the illegal use and/or trade of aquatic ETP species remains complex and data is limited. Illegal harvesting activities remain largely unreported due to the illegal and/or unregulated nature of the practice and laws, where they exist, are not being effectively enforced. In addition, limited resources and other factors such as poor awareness of rural and urban populations, absence of communication and synergy between relevant actors lead to the persistence of the practice.

Priority interventions need to focus on enforcing the law, strengthening penalties, implementing regulatory actions and identifying alternative livelihood options that can strengthen coastal resilience at the ecosystem and human community levels. The creation of a partnership around issues related to aquatic ETPs by the Abidjan Convention and its partners is a welcome opportunity that needs to be sustained. Linking the existing working

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 6 group to a larger network of institutions would provide a greater body of knowledge, expertise and financial resources for the implementation of a regional action plan for protecting aquatic ETPs. Furthermore, such an idea would find greater merit if it succeeds in creating synergies, not just across institutions, but also across conventions such as the CITES, CMS, CBD and RAMSAR. Taking the message to delegates at the upcoming CMS COP12 would be a first step in achieving such a goal.

ABOUT WA BiCC

The West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change (WA BiCC) program is a five-year program funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) that aims to improve conservation and climate-resilient, low-emissions growth across West Africa. Although regional in scope and design, WA BiCC focuses on targeted geographical areas to improve governance and policy over critical natural and human systems. By working with core regional partners, Economic Communication of West African States (ECOWAS), Mano River Union (MRU), Abidjan Convention, and other key national and sub-national institutions, WA BiCC increases the capacity of institutions at all levels to address the three core WA BiCC components: (1) combatting wildlife trafficking; (2) increasing coastal resilience to climate change; and (3) reducing deforestation, forest degradation, and biodiversity loss.

This document was developed in support of the Abidjan Aquatic Wildlife Partnership by the WA BiCC Program implemented by Tetra Tech. It was authored by Christelle Dyc, Marine Environmental Biologist, and Michael Balinga, Biodiversity Conservation Specialist. The contents of this brief do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID.

CONTACT Visit www.wabicc.org Email [email protected] Twitter @wabiccnews Facebook wabiccnews

Accra Office: Freetown Office: House No. F185/6, 2nd Labone Link 42C Freetown Road, Lumley North Labone, Accra. Freetown, Sierra Leone. Stephen Kelleher – Chief of Party Leonis Sesay – Administrative Point Phone #:+233 302 788 600 of Contact Phone #: +232 76 820 622

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 7 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Antwi, P.K. & Agyekumhene,A., 2013. Sea turtle conservation: a participatory approach in Muni- Pomadze Ramsar Site, Ghana,A Rocha Ghana,Wildlife Division, Knust-Kumasi, Ghana. BirdLife International, 2016. Bugeranus carunculatus.The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22692129A93337296. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS. T22692129A93337296.en [Accessed September 10, 2017]. Clemmons, J.R., 2002. Status survey of the African grey parrot [Psittacus erithacus timneh] and development of a management program in Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Secretariat IUCN, Regional Office for Western AfricaEuropean Communities, CommissionSwitzerland, [Government]. Diop, M. & Dossa, J., 2011.Trente années d’exploitation des requins en Afrique de l’Ouest. Dodman,T., Diop, N.M.D. & Khady, S., 2008. Stratégie de conservation du lamantin ouest africain (Trichechus senegalensis), Fernandez-Carvalho, J. et al., 2013. Status and the potential for extinction of the largetooth saw fish (Pristis pristis) in the Atlantic Ocean. Formia,A. et al., 2003. Sea turtle conservation along the Atlantic Coast of Africa. Marine Turtle Newsletter, (100), pp.33–37. Fretey, J., 2001. Biogeography and conservation of marine turtles of the Atlantic coast of Africa, Secretariat, Convention on Migratory Species; Smithsonian Libraries. Groombridge, B. & Luxmoore, R., 1989.The green turtle and hawksbill (Reptilia: Cheloniidae): world status, exploitation and trade, lUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. IUCN, 2017. Species Listed in the IUCN Red List.Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org [Accessed August 22, 2017]. IUCN/SSC HSC, 2017. Hippo Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union. Conservation reports.Available at: http://www. ml.duke.edu/projects/hippos/Conservation.html [Accessed September 7, 2017]. Keith Diagne, L., 2015.Trichechus senegalensis. (errata version published in 2016) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T22104A97168578.Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/ IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T22104A81904980.en [Accessed September 10, 2017]. Martin, R.O. et al., 2014. Research and conservation of the larger parrots of Africa and Madagascar: a review of knowledge gaps and opportunities. Ostrich, 85(3), pp.205–233.Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2989/00306525.2014.948943. Miliken,T. & Tokunaga, H., 1987.The Japanese sea turtle trade,A special report peraperd by TRAFFIC (Japan) and WWF. Ransom, C., Robinson, P.T. & Collen, B., 2015. Choeropsis liberiensis.The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T10032A18567171.Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN. UK.2015-2.RLTS.T10032A18567171.en [Accessed September 9, 2017]. Robillard, M. & Seret, B., 2006. Cultural importance and decline of sawfish (Pristidae) populations in West Africa. Cybium, 30(4), pp.23–30. Shirley, M.H., 2014. Mecistops cataphractus.The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T5660A3044332.Available at: http:// dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS. T5660A3044332.en [Accessed September 9, 2017]. Silva, M.A. & Araújo,A., 2001. Distribution and current status of the West African manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) in Guinea-Bissau. Marine Mammal Science, 17(2), pp.1–12. Waerebeek, K. van et al., 2004. Distribution, status and biology of the atlantic humpback dolphin, Sousa teuszii (Kükenthal, 1892). Aquatic Mammals, 30(1), pp.56–83. Van Waerebeek, K. et al., 2000.A survey of the conservation status of cetaceans in Senegal, the Gambia and Guinea-Bissau.WAFCET - I Report, Secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Wallace, B.P. et al., 2011. Global conservation priorities for marine turtles. PLoS ONE, 6(9). Weir, C.R. et al., 2014. Clymene dolphins (Stenella clymene) in the eastern tropical Atlantic: distribution, group size, and pigmentation pattern. Journal of Mammalogy, 95(6), pp.1289–1298. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-lookup/doi/10.1644/14-MAMM-A-115. White, C.M., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E., 2013. Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). In Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. del Hoyo, J., Elliott,A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds), Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Williams, E., Beilfuss, R. & Dodman,T., 2003. Status survey and conservation action plan for the black crowned crane (Balearica pavonina), International Crane Foundation, Baraboo,Wisconsin, USA and Wetlands International, Dakar, Senegal.

USAID.GOV West Africa Biodiversity and Climate Change 8