Evaluation of Cuba's Water and Wastewater

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EVALUATION OF CUBA’S WATER AND WASTEWATER INFRASTRUCTURE INCLUDING HIGH-PRIORITY IMPROVEMENTS AND ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE COSTS

Josenrique Cueto and Omar De Leon1

The nation of Cuba faces many challenges set of recommendations. The second half of as it moves into the future. Aside from eco- the paper involves the wastewater infrastruc- nomic hardships and political issues the ture and follows a similar pattern. The paper country must contend with ailing and often ends with overall conclusions. obsolete infrastructure. Among the infrastructure systems of greatest concern are the WATER SOURCES water and wastewater systems. These two Cuba’s water supply consists of two general systems are essential for the health and well categories, surface water and groundwater. being of citizens. The following is a study These sources are managed on a national on the state and outlook of Cuba’s water and level by the ―Instituto Nacional de Recursos wastewater infrastructure. The first half of Hidraulicos‖ (INRH). the paper deals with the water system por- tion, and begins with an overview of Cuba’s Surface Water water sources. This discussion includes an inventory of these systems along with an Cuba’s surface water originates from water- analysis of the current capacity and de- sheds containing a wide array of rivers and mands. Also included is an order-of- streams. These watersheds provide more magnitude cost estimate for the improve- than 65% of Cuba’s available water and ments necessary to provide an appropriate make up more than 80% of the potential wa- level of service. This section closes with a ter supply. In total the island consists of 632

______1. This document reflects the collective guidance and review comments from individuals both within and outside the University of Miami Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering. The authors would like to specifically thank the following individuals and organizations for their valuable time in providing ideas and review comments: University of Miami— Dr. Helena Solo-Gabriele; Camp, Dresser & McKee—Armando Perez, Victor Pujals; Hazen and Sawyer—Peter Robinson, Christopher Kish, Enrique Vadiveloo, and Orlando Castro. This work is based upon a literature review of available documents and information that is available through Google maps. The information presented herein should be ultimately ground-truthed against information gathered from field visits to the island and from those currently living in Cuba. watersheds containing an estimated 31.7 bil- Ground Water lion cubic meters of water. Cuba’s watersheds are generally found to the north and The nation of Cuba benefits from a sizable south of a dividing topographic ridge which amount of groundwater totaling an estimated runs through the center of the island (Garcia 6.4 billion cubic meters. Groundwater in Fernandez, 2000). Cuba is mostly found within carbonate rocks and is of the calcium-bicarbonate type. The governmental agency that manages and There are several regions of the country in has authority over Cuba’s watersheds is the which groundwater is predominantly used ―Consejo Nacional de Cuencas Hidrográfi- (Cereijo, 1992). These regions include La cas‖ (CNCH). This agency has identified the Habana, Matanzas, Ciego de Avila, and eight watersheds of highest national priority Camaguey. In total, groundwater accounts based on economic, social, and environmen- for approximately 35% of all available water tal significance. In total these watersheds usage in the country (Cubagua, 2007). A encompass slightly more than 15 % of Cu- breakdown of water accessibility by prov- ba’s territory, supplying water to approx- ince is provided in Table 1. Accessible water imately 40% of the population and contri- is defined as water that can be readily ob- buting to 60% of all economic activity. Cu- tained through the country’s existing infra- ba’s eight high priority watersheds are the structure. following: Cuyaguateje, Ariguanabo, Al- mendares-Vento, Hanabanilla, Zaza, Cauto, WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS Guantanamo-Guasa, and Toa. At least one Cuba’s water treatment systems can be di- priority watershed is located within 11 of the vided into two major categories: surface wa- 14 provinces in Cuba. (Garcia Fernandez, ter treatment plants and groundwater chlori- 2000). nation stations.

Figure 1. Cuba’s Major Watersheds (Perez et al. 2009)

Table 1. Accessibility of Water by Prov- Surface Water Treatment Systems ince (million m3/year) In total the country has 59 surface water Surface Ground Province Total treatment plants (see approximate location Water Water in Figure 2) of which 44 are reported to be Pinar Del Rio 1,305 226 1,531 in full working order (Cubagua, 2007). As La Habana 410 1,088 1,498 expected, plant density and plant size are Ciudad de La Habana 41 289 330 significantly greater in highly populated Matanzas 184 1,211 1,395 areas and near major watersheds. Villa Clara 851 188 1,040 Cienfuegos 431 136 567 Existing water treatment plants in Cuba are Sancti Spiritus 1,204 62 1,266 mostly of Cuban and American design, with Ciego De Avila 154 824 978 some being of Cuban and Soviet or Euro- Camaguey 1,248 218 1,466 pean design (Cardona, personal communica- Las Tunas 276 71 347 tion, 2009). The predominant form of filtra- Holguin 481 31 512 tion utilized is rapid sand filtration. Rapid sand filtration is a process in which sand and Granma 1,407 103 1,510 coarse granular media are used to remove Santiago de Cuba 716 9 725 particles that have previously undergone Guantanamo 313 16 329 flocculation. The water flows through the Isla de La Juventud 153 22 175 filter media by gravity and its solid constitu- Total 9,174 4,494 13,669 ents are captured by the sand. Source: (Cubagua, 2007)

Figure 2. Approximate Location of Surface Water Treatment Plants Superimposed on a map of Cuba showing the Municipal Districts within each Province

In Cuba several issues have plagued water The result of these shortcomings is that only treatment at surface water plants. At the up- 62% of Cubans have access to reasonably stream of the process, during flocculation disinfected water (CAFC, 2006). and clarification, the scarcity of chemicals and chemical dosing equipment severely Groundwater Treatment Systems hamper subsequent treatment and limit the Groundwater chlorination stations are the quality of the plant effluent. There is also primary means through which groundwater the issue of the quantity and appropriateness is treated on the island. These stations treat of the filter media. Rapid sand filters typi- groundwater through the addition of chlo- cally utilize silica sand or a composite mix rine and generally do not provide any addi- of both sand and anthracite. Often, many tional treatment. According to the Cuban plants do not have sufficient quantity of government as of 2006 there were a total of sand for their filters. The usual particle di- 1,999 chlorination stations in the country ameter necessary for the effective operation (density by province is shown in Figure 3). of the sand filters is from 0.95 mm to 0.55 Of these stations, 163 utilized chlorine gas mm. Unfortunately the sand that arrives at to disinfect groundwater; the remainder uti- the plants is often not of the proper diameter lized sodium hypochlorite. Although there for satisfactory operation. At the down- are a much greater number of stations utiliz- stream end of the plant, where disinfection ing sodium hypochlorite as a disinfectant, normally occurs, the problems are similar in the stations that utilize chlorine gas, being that chlorine is not readily available and larger, provide water to a much greater por- dosing equipment is practically nonexistent tion of the population. Similar to the situa- (Cardona, personal communication, 2009). tion with the surface water treatment plants,

Figure 3. Chlorination Station Density in Cuba by Province Superimposed on a Map Showing Approximate Locations of Surface Water Treatment Plants

4 the lack of chemicals and functioning The total demand for domestic water use is equipment hamper the performance of the 3.78 million m3/day or 1380 million groundwater chlorination stations (Cardona, m3/year. Comparing demand with treatment personal communication, 2009) capacity, as presented below, offers a pre- liminary sense of Cuba’s ability to meet the WATER TREATMENT DEMAND AND country’s potable water supply needs. Table CAPACITY 2 below lists the total capacity of surface water treatment plants by province. In the year 2007 Cuba’s total population was estimated to be 11.20 million (Population Thus the total capacity of Cuba’s 59 surface Reference Bureau, 2009). The INRH esti- water plants, when fully operational, is ap- mated that during the same year the total 3 3 proximately 1.15 million m /day, or 420 water demand in Cuba was 7260 million m . million m3/year. The amount of groundwater This 7260 million m3/year is equivalent to 3 3 treated at chlorination stations is reported to 19.9 million m /day, or 1.77 m /person/day. be roughly 2.5 times the amount of the pota- This daily per capita number accounts for all ble water produced by the surface water water use classifications, and includes 19% 3 3 plants, namely 1,050 million m /year (Cu- (0.34 m /day/capita) domestic water use, 12 bagua, 2007). This brings the total potable % (0.21 m3/day/capita) industrial, and 69 % 3 water production capacity, neglecting losses (1.22 m /day/capita) agricultural (U.S. CIA , in distribution, to 1470 million m3/year or 2009). Considering these distributions, dai- 0.36 m3/day/capita. Comparing this capacity ly per capita domestic water consumption is to the aforementioned domestic demand significantly lower than domestic usage in (0.34 m3/day/capita) indicates that Cuba has the United States which is estimated to be 3 enough nominal water treatment capacity 0.57 m /day/capita (U.S. CIA, 2009). (i.e., assuming that the plants are actually working properly) to satisfy domestic water Table 2. Water Plant Production by demand. Yet, due to a variety of issues pri- Province marily relating to the condition of the water Potable Water Ca- Province 3 pacity m /day distribution system, in particular the exces- sive amount of leaks, the demand is often Pinar del Rio 37,584 left unmet (Cardona, personal communica- La Ciudad de La Habana 51,840 tion, 2009) not because of lack of nominal Havana Campo 9,072 treatment capacity but because of inefficien- Villa Clara 83,808 cies of the distribution system. Cienfuegos 194,400 Sancti Spiritus 120,960 WATER DISTRIBUTION Ciego de Avila 3,888 Camaguey 222,048 The water distribution system of Cuba is Las Tunas 42,336 managed on a national level by the govern- Holguin 110,592 mental agency ―Grupo de Empresas de Acu- Granma 31,104 eductos y Alcantarillados‖ (GEAAL) under the direction of the INRH. GEEAL is subdi- Santiago de Cuba 187,920 vided further into local entities who manage Guantanamo 51,840 their respective provinces or townships. In Total 1,147,392 total the nation’s distribution system is com- Source: (Cubagua, 2007) prised of approximately 19,000 km of pipe network (Cubagua, 2007). Pump stations

5 throughout the island are utilized to trans- the lack of backup pumps (Perez et. al, port water from chlorination stations and 2009). The deficiencies in the water distri- water treatment plants to the general popula- bution system provide a different perspec- tion. As of 2006 there were a total of 2,375 tive on the topic of water availability in Cu- pump stations in operation in the country. ba. Although there appears to be a near match to potable water demand, the reality is The Cuban government utilizes three dis- that due to the state of the distribution sys- tinct classifications for the level of potable tem water demand is not met because it does water accessibility. The three categories are not reach the population. ―residential connection‖, ―public service‖, and ―easy access‖. These categories corres- HIGH PRIORITY IMPROVEMENTS pond respectively with, possessing a water connection within one’s residence, receiving There are a number of high priority meas- water from potable water trucks, and having ures that would be effective in providing the a water connection within 300 meters of population of Cuba with a higher level of one’s residence. The percentages of each service in the short term. The most pertinent level of service for the years 2000 and 2005 improvements involve water quality and the are shown in Table 3. water distribution system. In regards to water quality the most significant improvement Table 3. Potable Water Connections by would involve the increase of sodium hy- Type pochlorite production capacity. This would serve to ensure a consistent chlorine supply Popula- Residential Water Within Total for use at groundwater chlorination stations Year tion (Mil- Connection Truck 300 Served and surface water treatment plants. lion) (%) (%) Meters (%) (%) As presented earlier, it appears that the na- 2000 11.22 73.0 6.8 14.4 94.2 tion’s current nominal water treatment ca- 2005 11.24 75.3 5.2 15.1 95.6 pacity is enough to satisfy domestic demand. (Source: Cubagua, 2007) Therefore, the repair of pipe networks and Most of the existing water distribution net- pumping equipment would rank high on the works on the island of Cuba have an average list of priorities, and would potentially re- lifespan of more than 75 years (Cereijo, solve the issue of potable water availability. 1992). According to ―Granma‖, the official Methods for pipe replacement and rehabili- newspaper of the government in Cuba, more tation include pipe bursting and cured-in- than 50% of the water pumped through the place pipe lining (CIPP). Pipe bursting and distribution system is lost due to deteriorated CIPP are two types of trenchless technolo- piping (BBC, 2009). The most affected city, gies that involve the rehabilitation and re- according to the newspaper, is Santiago, newal of piping while minimizing disrup- where in some cases citizens do not receive tions to traffic and other activities by avoid- water for several days. GEEAL has made up ing the excavation of trenches (ISTT, 2010). to an average of 18,000 pipe repairs a Pipe bursting involves the fracturing and month, yet these efforts have not been effec- displacement of existing pipe using a burst- tive since once a repair has been made a leak ing tool while simultaneously pulling new appears elsewhere in the pipeline. In addi- pipe into the void left behind by the bursting tion to the challenges associated with the operation (Simicevic and Sterling 2004). pipe networks, pump stations have been un- CIPP is the repair of existing pipe via the reliable due to breakdowns in equipment and insertion of a liner, often polyethylene,

Figure 4. Schematic of Pipe Bursting Technology

Source: (Simicevic and Sterling, 2004) which seals the interior of the pipe and pro- pump efficiency was set at 75 percent. A tects against leakage. A schematic of pipe break horse power analysis was done to find bursting is provided is in Figure 4. the size of the average potable water pump station and applied to the total number of COST ESTIMATE FOR DRINKING pump stations in the system. Upper and low- WATER SERVICE er bound cost estimates were developed. The development of cost estimates is chal- Table 5. Approximate Cost of Potable lenging given the limited amount of detailed Water Pump Station Improvements (in information on Cuba’s existing water and millions of US Dollars) wastewater infrastructure. The cost estimates developed in this paper provide an Pump Station Improvements approximate upper bound for the previously Low Estimate $200 stated high priority improvements, and will High Estimate $1,200 reflect the estimated cost of such improvements if they were performed in the United States (and/or other developed countries in The cost of pipe rehabilitation through CIPP the case of wastewater), since specific cost or pipe bursting varies considerably depend- information is not available for Cuba. ing on location and the diameter of pipe to be replaced. Approximately 80 % of all wa- The costs of repairing or replacing existing ter mains are distribution pipes of small di- potable water pump stations, which provide ameter such as 6 to 12 inch. According to the pressure to transport water through pipes the U.S. EPA in the average price of CIPP from one location to another, were devel- rehabilitation of an 8 inch sewer main oped utilizing US. EPA Water Treatment ranges from $25-$65 per linear foot; it is Cost Estimating Handbook published in assumed here that the cost of CIPP water 1979 together with certain simplifying as- main rehabilitation is approximately within sumptions. To arrive at an average flow for the same range. The average cost to replace each pump station, the total potable water 12 inch pipe via pipe bursting ranges from demand for the country was divided by the $35-$75 per linear foot (Semicevic and Ster- number of potable water pump stations on ling 2004). Alonso Hernandez and Mon the island, namely 2375. The total head re- (1996) stated that 1,800 kilometers of Hava- quirement for each station was taken to be na’s 3,594 kilometers of water distribution 100 feet, enough to supply a 3 story building network are in bad condition; this indicates lacking dedicated pumps, and the average that approximately 50% of the network

7 would need to be improved. Assuming the dertaken in South Florida (Vadiveloo, per- same proportion applies to the entire island, sonal communication, 2010) to ensure accu- the total length of pipe to be rehabilitated or racy. The comparison indicated that the cost replaced comes to 9,500 kilometers. The estimate generated in this paper was compa- cost range for each method along with the rable to present day construction and opera- required length of pipe to be repaired pro- tion and maintenance costs. The investment vides a theoretical upper and lower bound of onsite hypochlorite generation proved to cost. The estimated costs of the rehabilita- be small in comparison to the cost of im- tion can be found inTable 6. provements needed for the distribution system. The approximate cost of the chlorina- Table 6. Approximate Cost of Water Dis- tion system can be found in Table 7. tribution Network Rehabilitation (in millions of US Dollars) Table 7. Approximate Cost of Onsite So- dium Hydroxide Generation System (in Pipe Bursting CIPP Lining millions of US Dollars) Low Estimate $1,100 $800 High Estimate $2,400 $2,000 Construction Costs (Million USD) $17 Operation and Maintenance (Million $3 USD/Year) An increase of sodium hypochlorite production would require moderate capital investments and continued operation and mainten- WASTEWATER TREATMENT ance costs. A benefit of utilizing sodium hy- SYSTEM pochlorite for disinfection is its safety rela- tive to chlorine gas. Chlorine gas, as op- Like the potable water distribution system, posed to sodium hypochlorite, can leak easi- most of the current wastewater infrastructure ly from compressed gas tanks. This gas is in Cuba was built over 50 years ago and has extremely toxic and thus represents a safety not been well maintained or rehabilitated hazard if not handled properly. This hazard throughout its service life. Furthermore, the can be avoided through the use of a liquid wastewater treatment system is not as exten- disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite. sive as the water distribution systems and Another advantage to sodium hypochlorite generally lacks complete integration of a is the ability to produce the chemical on site. wastewater collection network with a The disadvantages include the large weight wastewater treatment plant. and volume of chemical required for disin- The sanitary sewer coverage for the entire fection compared to other alternatives. The island is considered to be at 94% for the cur- cost estimate of the proposed sodium hy- rent population of 11.20 million. The 94% pochlorite system is based on a dosage of 4 coverage has two major components: 38% milligrams per liter to 100% of the potable consists of connections to wastewater col- water supply, and was obtained using the lection systems, and 56% consists of in-situ US. EPA Water Treatment Cost Estimating wastewater systems; 6% are without service Handbook. These values were then adjusted (PAHO, 2000). Rural areas have a relatively to reflect present day costs (ENR, 2009). lower percentage of sanitation coverage, The final values obtained utilizing the US. with 84% of the population with access to EPA cost estimating handbooks were cross wastewater collection facilities; in urban referenced with the cost of recent on site so- areas 97% of the population has access. dium hypochlorite generation projects un- However, 56.3 % of Cuba’s population un-

8 der coverage is being served with the use of (La Cuba) and Villa Clara (Ensenachos), septic tanks and latrines: 49.6% in the urban while the other known plants can be found areas and 76.9% in the rural areas (Cubagua, in Cayo Coco (EDAR Unidad Cojimar) and 2007). In the year 2000, an estimated 19% Varadero (Siguapa and Taino I) to serve the of the wastewater collected underwent some tourism industry. Garcia-Armisen et al. sort of treatment (PAHO, 2000) and this was (2008) highlight a constructed pilot solar reduced to 4% as of 2007. The rest of the aquatic system facility built in the City of wastewater is discharged into nearby water- Havana for alternative wastewater treatment. ways with minimal to no treatment (Belt and Through satellite imagery another wastewa- Velazquez, 2007). In 2006, INRH reported a ter treatment plant was located in Holguin total of 121 wastewater pump stations, 470 which was not referenced by INRH, but its septic tanks and 862,121 seepage pits capacity or other information about it is not throughout the entire island. readily available. The most common form of treatment is In 2005, only 5 of the aforementioned through the use of stabilization lagoons that wastewater treatment plants were considered range from anaerobic, to aerobic and facul- ―efficient‖ and only 4 were ―efficient‖ in tative. As of 2006, the INRH was directly 2007 (Belt and Velazquez, 2007). However, responsible for 302 lagoon systems. Of these a more recent issue of Opciones – an eco- lagoon systems, 241 (79.5%) have been re- nomics newspaper in Cuba – dated Septem- habilitated and only 53 (17.5%) are given ber 2008 includes an interview of Nobel the designation ―efficient‖ (Cubagua, 2007). Rovirosa of the National Center of Hydrolo- INRH also plays a role in the assessment of gy and Water Quality in Cuba (CENHICA) approximately 1200 oxidation lagoons that which reveals that in the entire country only belong to others. Facultative stabilization 2 treatment plants are operational: Quibu lagoons are the most common form of in- and Maria del Carmen (Bueno, 2008).There dustrial wastewater treatment on the island are also several wastewater treatment plants (Rodriguez, 2009). In addition to stabiliza- that are being planned and constructed tion lagoons, wetland systems or trickling throughout Cuba – mostly in the City of Ha- filters are also utilized in some areas. vana – with the use of international funding made available to the Cuban government for WASTEWATER COLLECTION AND specific sanitary infrastructure projects. TREATMENT FACILITIES Within the City of Havana Overview of Treatment Plants on the Island According to the National Institute of Hy- There are two conventional wastewater draulic Resources (INRH), there are 8 treatment plants (Maria del Carmen and Sis- wastewater treatment plants in Cuba. How- tema Central) in the City of Havana and one ever, through further investigation, a total of small unconventional plant (Solar Aquatic 11 existing plants have been identified, System). The conventional wastewater which can be seen in Figure 5. Two of the treatment plants serve two of the six existing plants are located in the City of Havana collection networks. These six networks (Maria del Carmen and Sistema Central) and consist of more than 1570 km of sewer two of them are located outside the city mains and laterals, 23 pump stations, and 15 within the province of La Habana (Quibu stabilization lagoons. Originally built for and Bejucal). Wastewater treatment plants almost 1.2 million inhabitants many years of low capacities can be found in Santiago ago, these six major collection networks

(Sistema Central, Maria Del Carmen, Al- secondary treatment and is currently pre- mendares Sur, Cotorro, Alamar and Puentes sumed to be non-operational. Grandes) serve approximately 55% of the city population of over 2.2 million people. The Maria del Carmen wastewater treatment The sanitation coverage for the rest of the plant is situated in the middle region of the population is managed by septic tank cover- Almendares watershed within the Maria del age (26%) and smaller wastewater collection Carmen network which serves population of networks (12%). The remaining 7% of the about 20,500, and consists of approximately population in the nation’s capital does not 89 km of sewer lines built in the 1960s receive any type of sanitation coverage (Alonso Hernandez and Mon, 1996). The (Alonso Hernandez and Mon, 1996). Maria del Carmen wastewater treatment plant consists of primary settling, a trickling The Sistema Central plant is located within filter process, secondary sedimentation and the largest of the six wastewater collection finally sludge digestion. Even though the networks within the City of Havana that plant was out of service for several years goes by the same name. With sections that and would discharge its effluent directly into are nearing 100 years old, the Sistema Cen- the Almendares River in Havana (Olivares- tral network was built for a population of Rieumont et al. 2005), now the treatment 600,000, but currently services approximate- plant seems to have been rehabilitated and is ly 945,000. This network is serviced by a currently in operation, although at very low primary treatment plant with the use of set- capacity and with treatment at sub-optimum tling tanks and the effluent is discharged levels (Garcia-Armisen et al. 2008; Bueno, though an ocean outfall pipe at Playa El 2008). Chivo on the east side of Havana Bay (Perez et al., 2009). This plant does not provide The last of the operational treatment plants

Table 8. Wastewater Treatment Plants within the City of Havana

Existing/ Under Capacity Operational/ Construction/ Future Investment Location Administration Plant Name (m3/day) Nonoperational Construction/ Future (Million USD) Expansion

City of Havana Sur (OPEC) Maria Del Carmen 51,840 O E

City of Havana City of Havana Sistema Central 1,500a N E

Solar Aquatic City of Havana Pilot Project 864e O E System El Pitirre City of Havana OPEC 31,230b UC $42.0b (Cotorro)

City of Havana OPEC Puentes Grandes 69,120c FC

City of Havana UNDP Lower Luyano 86,400 UC $4.8d

City of Havana UNDP Upper Luyano 51,840 UC/FE $35.3d

City of Havana UNDP Martin Perez 50,000a FC

City of Havana UNDP Luyano 3 50,000a FC

a Estimated by Author b(Perez et al., 2009) cRovirosa CV d(GEF-UNDP, 2002) e(Garcia-Armisen et al., 2008)

10 in the City of Havana is a small operational the Almendares River system (Artiles Egües pilot wastewater treatment facility which and Gutierrez Diaz, 1997). This situation is was built in the lower region of the Almen- of high concern as it may be very detrimen- dares watershed. The solar aquatic system tal to the primary drinking water supply for plant was built to treat the effluent of 5,000 the City of Havana: the Vento Aquifer. This inhabitants. The wastewater goes through a aquifer is hydraulically connected to the grit chamber, a blending tank, aeration Almendares River (Perez et al., 2009), espe- tanks, a settling tank and finally a sand filter. cially in upstream reaches of the river which The aerated tanks are each covered with var- is where the wastewater is discharged from ious species of aquatics plants (Garcia- the municipality of Cotorro. Armisen et al. 2008). This plant was found to be working efficiently in a study compar- The second proposed wastewater treatment ing three types of wastewater treatment fa- plant to be funded through OPEC was to be cilities in Cuba including a conventional located in the lower region of the Almen- wastewater treatment plant (Maria del Car- dares watershed in the Puentes Grandes men) and a constructed wetland. network designed to serve up to 200,000 people (Artiles Egües, and Gutiérrez Díaz, Along with the expansion of the Maria del 1997). Even though the system has 80% of Carmen wastewater treatment plant, there its population connected to lateral sewer are two other wastewater treatment plants lines, the system lacks a main trunk line or a that were to be funded by a $10 Million loan wastewater treatment plant, and most of the from the Organization of Petroleum Export- wastewater is discharged directly into the ing Companies (OPEC) in order to improve Almendares River (Alonso Hernandez and the sanitary infrastructure in City of Havana Mon, 1996; Artiles Egües, and Gutiérrez along the Almendares River. The first treat- Díaz, 1997). Due to its elevated cost, the ment plant, El Pitirre, lies in the upper reconstruction of the Puentes Grandes Waste- gion of the Almendares watershed within the water Treatment Plant has been postponed wastewater collection system of Cotorro and a more cost-efficient alternative using a which was built in the late 1960s and early subaqueous outfall to the ocean is being eva- 1970s. The municipality of Cotorro consists luated (Salas, 1997). of approximately 72,000 inhabitants of which almost one-third is connected to the Besides the two aforementioned plants that 23.5 km sewer network. The system design are waiting to be completed as part of the consists basically of a main collector which comprehensive plan to improve the sanitary draws the wastewater to a pump station in infrastructure along the Almendares River, San Pedro, which in turn pumps the waste- there is also a comprehensive sanitation plan water to El Pitirre wastewater treatment to improve the sanitary infrastructure sur- plant (Artiles Egües, and Gutiérrez Díaz, rounding the Havana Bay. The Cuban gov- 1997). Until the construction of the treat- ernment, with the support of the United Na- ment plant is complete, the wastewater was tions Development Program, has plans to intended to be discharged into El Pitirre re- construct four new treatment plants (referred servoir 1 km away, which was to act as a to here as Upper Luyano, Lower Luyano, stabilization lagoon. However, the San Pe- Luyano 3, and Martin Perez) to treat all the dro pump station has since become inopera- municipal wastewater from the tributary riv- tive and the wastewater from the municipali- ers flowing towards Havana Bay. These ty of Cotorro is currently being discharged plants will collectively treat wastewater into the San Francisco River – a tributary of generated by over 100,000 persons. Three of

11 the plants will be constructed along the Figure 7. Construction of Upper Luyano Luyano River, the main source of organic Wastewater Treatment Plant with aerial and industrial wastes to the bay, and the image from Google Earth dated 2008 (top fourth plant will be constructed on the Mar- panel “a”) and design drawings from tin Perez River (GEF-UNDP 2002). The UNDP (2006b) (bottom panel “b”) discussion below will focus solely on the plans for the Upper Luyano and Lower Luyano Wastewater Treatment Plants. More specific information for the remaining plants, planned for the tributary rivers of Havana Bay, Luyano 3 and the Martin Pe- rez, was not available at this time.

a. Figure 6. Construction of Lower Luyano Wastewater Treatment Plant with aerial image from Google Earth dated 2008 (top panel “a”) and design drawings from UNDP (2006b) (bottom panel “b”)

One of the first wastewater treatment plants to be constructed is a $1.3 million plant at the outlet of the Luyano River (see Figure 6). With an 86400 m3/day capacity, the Lower Luyano Wastewater Treatment Plant a. will consist of primary treatment of 4 rectangular clarifiers with a mechanical and chemical system to eliminate suspended solids, toxic matter and heavy metals. Part of the treatment process also includes the use of sludge drying beds which will allow use of sludge as fertilizer. As part of the comprehensive plan, a solid waste trap is also being built to stop the majority of industrial and residential waste solids flowing into Havana Bay (UNDP 2001). Approximately 1 km upstream of Lower b. Luyano Wastewater Treatment Plant is the site of a second treatment plant on the Luya- no River (referred to here as the Upper Luyano Wastewater Treatment Plant)(see

Figure 7). With a total cost of $24 million, plant. The treatment process involves the project includes the construction of an screening and then primary sedimentation advanced treatment plant that will include using settling tanks. Then the wastewater primary and secondary treatment including flows through a biological trickling filter clarifiers, and tertiary treatment with nu- and undergoes secondary sedimentation be- trient removal of nitrogen and phosphorus. fore it is discharged as effluent. The sludge The wastewater treatment plant will also in- is processed through an anaerobic digester clude a demonstration project focusing on (Bataller et al., 2007). The Quibu Wastewa- utilizing sludge for fertilizer and/or energy. ter Treatment Plant is expected to double its When completely finalized, the Upper capacity to 25920 m3/day in the near future Luyano Wastewater Treatment Plant will (Evelio Gutiérrez et al., 2007). serve a population of about 70,000 people in the Luyano River area with a total capacity Approximately 23 km south of the capital is of 51,840 m3/day divided into three equal Bejucal: one of the 26 municipalities within phases. Some of the funding will also go the province of Havana with a population of into constructing 7.5 km of new sewer lines about 25,000. Built in the 1960s, the Bejucal in the Luyano River area (GEF-UNDP Wastewater Treatment Plant consists of 2002). primary treatment in the form of rectangular clarifiers and secondary treatment with bio- In 2006, the Upper Luyano plant construc- logical treatment with a capacity of about tion was still in the earthwork stage and ex- 7,780 m3/day. Unfortunately, like many of periencing millions of dollars in overruns. A the other wastewater treatment plants on the major contributor to the delays in the project island, the Bejucal Wastewater Treatment were the hurricanes of 2004 and 2005 and it Plant is not operating properly and the is very likely that the three hurricanes and wastewater effluent is being discharged into two tropical storms that affected Cuba in the a nearby river (Crespo Dorado et al., 2005; summer of 2008 – tropical storms Fay and Bueno, 2008). Hanna and the hurricanes Gustav, Ike, and Paloma – also caused additional delays. In November 2009, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development signed an Outside of the City of Havana agreement with the Cuban government to lend the country $15.42 million for a project Outside of the City of Havana there are 8 to rehabilitate and modernize the water existing wastewater treatment plants, most supply system in the City of Holguín. The of which were created to serve touristic project will involve rehabilitating and mod- areas. However, as seen in Table 9, only one ernizing wastewater treatment plants, pota- of them, Quibu, is actually operational. Built ble water distribution networks, pumping several kilometers west of Havana on the stations and storage tanks in the province of Quibu River, the Quibu Wastewater Treat- Holguín. This proposed work is in the plan- ment Plant had an approximate construction ning stages and will most likely involve the cost of $2.0 million (GEF-UNDP 2002). It 3 expansion of the plant located in Holguin, has a design capacity of 12,960 m /day, but which can be seen in Figure 5. is running at approximately 6910 m3/day (Evelio Gutierrez et al. 2007; Bueno, 2008). Additional information about the remaining The general treatment configuration of the five wastewater treatment plants (La Cuba, Quibu wastewater treatment plants is rough- Ensenachos, EDAR Unidad Cojimar, Sigua- ly the same as for the Maria del Carmen pa, Taino I) was not available at this time.

Table 9. Wastewater Treatment Plants outside the City of Havana Existing/ Under Administra- Capacity Operational/ Construction/ Fu- Investment Location Plant Name tion (m3/day) Nonoperational ture Construction/ (Million USD) Future Expansion Aguas de La Havana Province Quibu 12,960 O E, FE Habana

Havana Province La Habana Bejucal 7,776 N E

Santiago de Santiago de Cuba La Cuba 3,456 N E Cuba

Villa Clara Villa Clara Ensenachos 3,500a N E

EDAR Unidad Cayo Coco Cayo Coco 1,500a N E Cojimar

Varadero Varadero Siquapa 3,888 N E

Varadero Varadero Taino I 1,469 N E

Holguin Kuwait Fund Holguin 20,000a N E, FE $15.4 a Estimated by Author b(Perez et al., 2009) cRovirosa CV d(GEF-UNDP, 2002) e(Garcia-Armisen et al., 2008)

WASTEWATER TREATMENT 3 DEMAND AND CAPACITY m /day to the nation’s wastewater treatment capacity. Assuming the domestic wastewater flow to be 80% of the potable water demand, the Using known and estimated capacities in domestic wastewater flow for the island of Tables 8 and 9, if all the wastewater treat- Cuba is estimated to be 1103 million ment plants were rehabilitated to full capaci- m3/year or approximately 3.02 million ty and new ones currently in construction m3/day. This gives us an approximate were finished, the wastewater treatment capacity for the island would only be enough wastewater demand per person to be 0.27 3 m3/day in Cuba. Taking into account that to treat approximately 400,000 m /day, less approximately 8.5 million of Cuba’s popula- than one fifth of the country’s urban daily tion lives in urban areas, the pro-rata urban wastewater flow. wastewater demand would be about 2.30 HIGH PRIORITY IMPROVEMENTS, million m3/day. COST ESTIMATES AND RECOM- If all of Cuba’s existing treatment plants MENDATIONS were fully operational, the country could Significant investments must be made to count on a wastewater treatment capacity of construct new wastewater collection and 107,900 m3/day. However, since we know wastewater treatment systems in areas where that probably only the Maria del Carmen this infrastructure does not exist. Another and Quibu treatment plants are functioning, important priority is the rehabilitation of the and at approximately a third of their full ca- existing wastewater infrastructure, including pacity, the current operational wastewater all wastewater treatment plants, pump sta- treatment capacity for Cuba can be esti- tions and stabilization lagoons. Priority mated to be 21,600 m3/day. Once com- should be given to the protection of source pleted, the two plants on the Luyano River water quality throughout the major water- in Havana are expected to add 138,240

sheds on the island (Solo-Gabriele and Pe- priority. Using per capita costs of secondary rez, 2008) with an emphasis on wastewater treatment plants (activated sludge) con- treatment in highly populated areas such as structed in the country of Chile (Artiles the City of Havana (especially in areas im- Egues, personal communication, 2009), the pacting the Vento Aquifer), Santiago de Cu- lower bound estimate of new construction of ba, Holgiun, Cienfuegos, Camaguey, Santa wastewater treatment plants for the 15 major Clara, Cienfuegos, Las Tunas, and Bayamo. cities in Cuba is estimated at $188 million The cost needed to rehabilitate the non- and the upper bound at $553 million (Table operational wastewater treatments plants 10). found in Tables 8 and 9, was determined using cost estimation tables established for Pump stations are an integral component of the country of Colombia (Peter Robinson, wastewater collection systems and must be Hazen and Sawyer P.C., personal communi- taken into account for prioritization and cost cation, 2009). Given their very small capaci- estimation of wastewater infrastructure ties ranging from 1469 m3/day to 20,000 needs. A cost estimate was developed for the m3/day, the total cost needed to rehabilitate construction of pump stations in the 15 ma- the eight plants (Sistema Central, Bejucal, jor cities in Cuba noted in Table 10. In order La Cuba, Ensenachos, EDAR Unidad Coji- to serve the 5,345,000 people in the 15 ma- mar, Siguapa, Taino I, Holguin) and expand jor cities, an estimated 500-750 pump sta- them to secondary treatment is estimated at tions would be needed each serving a popu- almost $45 million. lation between 7,000 – 10,000. A break horse power analysis was done to find the In order to estimate the cost of new waste- size of the average potable water pump sta- water treatment plants that need to be im- tion and applied to the total number of pump plemented in the major cities within Cuba, it stations in the system. The upper and lower seems reasonable to consider the major ci- bound cost estimates can be seen in the Ta- ties, that is, those with populations over ble 11. 100,000 (15 of them) as these warrant a high

Table 10. Cost Estimation for Wastewater Infrastructure in Cuba. Estimates based upon costs for secondary treatment plants (activated sludge) in the country of Chile (Artiles Egues, personal communication, 2009) Estimated Cost of Sewer Pipe Cost of WWTPa Population City Sewer Installation (Million Construction (Million (100,000s) Pipe (km) USD) USD) City of Havana 23.28 1,600 419-503 82.1-241 Santiago de Cuba 5.44 374 98.2-117 19.2-56.4 Camaguey 3.49 240 62.9-75.4 12.3-36.1 Holguin 3.12 215 56.3-67.5 11.0-32.3 Guantanamo 2.69 185 48.6-58.3 9.49-27.9 Santa Clara 2.48 170 44.7-53.6 8.73-25.7 Bayamo 1.86 128 33.6-40.3 6.57-19.3 Pinar del Rio 1.76 121 31.8-38.2 6.21-18.3 Cienguegos 1.69 116 30.4-36.5 5.94-17.5 Las Tunas 1.46 100 26.3-31.6 5.14-15.1 Matanzas 1.42 98 25.6-30.8 5.01-14.7 Sancti Spiritus 1.23 85 22.2-26.7 4.34-12.8 Manzanillo 1.21 83 21.8-26.2 4.26-12.5 Ciego de Avila 1.20 82 21.6-25.9 4.22-12.4 Palma Soriano 1.12 77 20.1-24.2 3.93-11.6 TOTAL 53.45 3,674 964-1,160 188-553

Table 11. Approximate Cost of Wastewa- butaries. The completion of the Pitirre ter Pump Station Improvements (in mil- wastewater treatment plant has an estimated lions of US Dollars) cost of $26 million for primary treatment, $44 million for secondary treatment and $47 Pump Station Improvements million for tertiary treatment (Perez et al., Low Estimate $200 2009). Even though it is important, the com- High Estimate $450 pletion of the Pitirre wastewater treatment plant has less priority since once the San Pe- In order to account for the cost of restoration dro pump station is in operation, the waste- or replacement of the sewer pipes through- water from Cotorro is discharged outside of out the island, an approach was used similar the Almendares watershed into the Pitirre to the one used for estimating the water reservoir acting as a stabilization lagoon. treatment needs. Knowing the amount of Perez et al. (2009) and Artiles Egües and sewer pipes and the population in the City of Gutierrez Diaz (1997) provide a more de- Havana, one can determine the amount of tailed priority investment list for the waste- linear pipe per capita for this major city and water infrastructure for the Almendares wa- use this per capita number for the rough es- tershed. timation of the amount of linear pipe of all the 15 major cities in Cuba. Using this me- Regarding the choice of type of treatment thod, the amount of sewer pipe needed to system, due consideration should be given to meet the demand of the major cities in Cuba natural systems such as constructed wet- is estimated to be 3674 km. The average lands and solar aquatic systems, as alterna- price of installation of an 8 inch sewer main tives to conventionally engineered wastewa- ranges from $80-$96 per linear foot (Hazen ter treatment plants. Studies have shown that and Sawyer, personal communication, these natural systems work well in tropical 2010). This results in a lower bound esti- and developing countries such as Cuba. mate of pipe rehabilitation of $964 million These environmentally friendly systems and an upper bound of $1,157 million. show good efficiency in urban and periurban areas, while having generally lower capital City of Havana and maintenance costs than a conventional wastewater treatment plants. A study per- In the City of Havana, priorities in wastewa- formed in the City of Havana comparing the ter infrastructure are aligned with the protec- performance of the Maria del Carmen tion of the water supply, with an emphasis wastewater treatment plant, a solar aquatic on the upper and middle regions of the Al- system and small-scale constructed wetlands mendares watershed which have a strong concluded that natural systems effluent qual- connection with the Vento Aquifer, the pri- ity was much better than that of convention- mary drinking water source for Havana’s al treatment (Garcia-Armisen et al., 2008). population. The rehabilitation of the San Pe- As part of the comprehensive sanitation plan dro pump station and transmission pipe is for the Havana Bay, the performance of the highest priority, with an estimated cost small-scale constructed wetlands in the City of $2.3 million (Perez et al., 2009). It is also of Havana should be further studied in order important to expand the wastewater collec- to determine the feasibility of larger-scale tion network in Cotorro to service the re- implementation throughout the island (GEF- maining domestic and industrial sources in UNDP 2002). However, given that these order to increase coverage and avoid dis- natural systems can be more land intensive charges directly into Almendares River tri-

Figure 5. Wastewater Treatment Plants in Cuba with Emphasis on City of Havana

17 than conventional treatment plants, special CONCLUSION consideration must be given to the opportu- nity cost of land use for these purposes (Pe- The present condition of Cuba’s water and rez et al., 2009) as part of a cost-benefit wastewater infrastructure warrants extensive analysis, since land could be valuable in Ha- improvements to both systems. The evalua- vana and other urban areas in an eventual tion conducted has highlighted the major market economy. challenges the country faces with respect to water sanitation. The existing surface water Even though possibly difficult to implement, treatment plants and ground water chlorina- a greater degree of privatization of the wa- tion stations appear to have adequate capaci- ter/wastewater sector should be evaluated. ty to meet the domestic water demand for The successful experience of Chile shows the entire island, yet due to the heavy deteri- that a well planned and executed privatiza- oration of the distribution piping; the system tion program can provide a more reliable is not capable of meeting the needs of the service to the public, diminishing or even population. Additionally, the quality of pot- eliminating any issues with contamination of able water could be improved significantly water sources and poor water quality. Pri- through the consistent addition of sodium vate participation has already occurred in the hypochlorite as a disinfectant to the potable city of Havana and Varadero through a 25- water supply. year water concession contract with Aguas de Barcelona in 1999 (Belt and Velazquez, For wastewater, the existing infrastructure 2007) providing water and wastewater ser- does not adequately meet the demands of the vices for 468,811 inhabitants in Cuba. An growing populations within urban centers. alternative to privatization could be to simp- There are not enough wastewater treatment ly make the government-run operation more plants on the island, and a large majority of business-like and efficient, as in the case of the existing plants are nonoperational or Puerto Rico (Rodriguez, 2009). Under either running at low capacities. Most cities do not a privatization or self-improvement scena- have extensive sewer networks and existing rio, significant capital improvements will lines are not complete and do not cover their require higher monthly fees to be charged to proposed population due to lack of integra- users, users whose ability to pay is very li- tion with a treatment plant. Even though mited at present. The experience with East- construction of new wastewater infrastruc- ern European transitions to market econo- ture is taking place, the rate at which these mies was that subsidies to the wa- projects are advancing have been unusually ter/wastewater sector were needed in the ini- slow and this can lead to cost overruns and tial years of the transition (Solo-Gabriele depletion of project financing. and Perez, 2008). Special consideration The recommended improvements with the must be given to the economics involved highest potential impact on the water infra- with private sector involvement and whether structure of the country include the restora- or not the population can afford such service tion and rehabilitation of the potable water without subsidy. distribution system (estimated at $2400 Mil- Since most of the available information is lion U.S. plus an allowance for mainten- limited to the City of Havana, further as- ance) , together with upgrades to the water sessments are needed for the wastewater in- distribution pump stations (estimated at frastructure outside of the capital and in the another $1100 Million) along with the con- other major cities in Cuba. struction and maintenance of sodium hy-

18 pochlorite generation facilities for the disin- Due to the uncertainty of the information fection of water (estimated at $17 Million available the cost estimates provided in this plus $3 Million per year in operation and report are considered to order-of-magnitude maintenance). The grand total cost of up- estimates. The numbers should be checked grades to the potable water infrastructure is again information gathered from field visits estimated at about $3.52 Billion plus an al- and from environmental engineering experts lowance for yearly operation and mainten- currently living in Cuba. ance. REFERENCES The wastewater treatment system is in need of integrated management and a much Alonso Hernández, J, and Mon, E. A., 1996. stronger emphasis needs to be placed in the Caracterización del Abastecimiento de rehabilitation of the existing wastewater in- Agua Potable y Saneamiento de la Ciu- frastructure as well the construction of new dad de La Habana. Document Number wastewater infrastructure in locations of 50443 - 1011/A81/036473. AIDIS (In- high importance such as densely populated teramerican Sanitary and Environmental urban centers and locations where the integr- Engineering Association) Sao Paulo, ity of the drinking water aquifer is a con- Brazil and CEPIS (Panamerican Health cern. Due to the nature of wastewater dis- Organization, Centro Panamericano de posal with regards to population density in Ingeniería Sanitaria y Ciencias del Am- urban centers as well as lack of rural cost- biente)Lima,Peru, effectiveness, prioritization led to only the http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaidis/cali top 15 cities with population of over agua/mexico/02574e08.pdf 100,000 being taken into account in the wastewater improvement cost estimates. Artiles Egües, R., and Gutiérrez Díaz, J., These improvements include restoration and 1997. Saneamiento de la Cuenca Al- construction of wastewater treatment plants mendares. Document Number 90469 - (estimated at about $550 Million), restora- CD/2300/A81/034796. AIDIS (Inter- tion and construction of wastewater collec- american Sanitary and Environmental tion pump stations (estimated at about Engineering Association) Sao Paulo, another $450 Million), as well as the con- Brazil and CEPIS (Panamerican Health struction of the needed wastewater collec- Organization, Centro Panamericano de tion pipe networks (estimated at an added Ingeniería Sanitaria y Ciencias del Am- $1200 Million). The grand total cost of im- biente)Lima,Peru, provements to the wastewater infrastructure http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaidis/pue is estimated to be $2.2 Billion plus an al- rtorico/xxxii.pdf lowance for yearly operation and maintenance. Bataller, M., Véliz, E., Fernández, L.A., Hernández, C., Fernández, I., Alvarez, The total cost of all proposed improvements C., Sánchez., E., 2007. Effect of Ozone ranges is estimated at roughly $5.72 Billion on Secondary Effluents Treatment for U.S. Dollars plus operation and mainten- Agriculture Reuse. Ozone Research ance. If implemented, these improvements Center. Havana, Cuba. will provide a much higher level of service to the people of Cuba. British Broadcasting System (BBC), 2009. "Cuba Sin Agua Por Grietas" . 10 Jan. 2010,

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