UC Berkeley UC Berkeley Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Beyond Time: Temporal and Extra-temporal Functions of Tense and Aspect Marking in Totela, a Bantu Language of Zambia Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3r21g7bf Author Crane, Thera Marie Publication Date 2011 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Beyond Time: Temporal and Extra-temporal Functions of Tense and Aspect Marking in Totela, a Bantu Language of Zambia by Thera Marie Crane Adissertationsubmittedinpartialsatisfactionofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Larry Hyman, Co-Chair Professor Lynn Nichols, Co-Chair Professor Line Mikkelsen Professor Alan Timberlake Spring 2011 Beyond Time: Temporal and Extra-temporal Functions of Tense and Aspect Marking in Totela, a Bantu Language of Zambia c 2010 by Thera Marie Crane Abstract Beyond Time: Temporal and Extra-temporal Functions of Tense and Aspect Marking in Totela, a Bantu Language of Zambia by Thera Marie Crane Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics University of California, Berkeley Professor Larry Hyman, Co-Chair Professor Lynn Nichols, Co-Chair This dissertation aims to characterize the relationship between the temporal and information- structuring functions of tense and aspect marking in Totela, an endangered Bantu language of Zambia and Namibia. To that end, I investigate and describe in detail the semantics and pragmatics of selected tense and aspect markers, showing for each that a purely temporal description is inadequate to explain its range of interpretations and uses. Totela is a typical Bantu language in that it has a vast array of morphemes and construc- tions to express tense and aspect contrasts. A more explanatory and unified analysis of these forms emerges when not only their temporal semantics, but also their discourse-structuring functions are taken into account. Often, pragmatic functions appear to trump temporal specifications. Privileged distinctions in Totela include (non-)completion of a situation’s nucleus (i.e. the termination of an action or state, or point of transition to a result state for inchoative eventualities) (cf. Kershner 2002), cognitive and temporal dissociation (cf. Botne & Kershner 2008), and relevance (cf. Portner 2003). I argue that these categories, rather than traditional notions such as past vs. present tense, or imperfective vs. perfective aspect, are basic in Totela’s tense and aspect system. Investigations of the above-mentioned categories also reveal strong discourse-structuring functions for each. For example, markers of nuclear completion occur predictably at episode boundaries in narrative. Markers associated with non-completion, in contrast, occur when the narrative structure is interrupted (e.g. by a song) at a point that is not an episode boundary. Non-completive forms also serve to shift between narrative-internal and narrative- external perspectives. Findings regarding the use of tense and aspect markers to structure narrative are confirmed by quantitative analysis using logistic regression. Of particular theoretical interest is the -ite suffix, which shows evidence of being primar- ily a marker indicating relevance to answering the question under discussion in the current 1 discourse context (cf. Roberts 1998). Its temporal interpretations are determined pragmat- ically, based on which phase of a situation’s event structure is understood as most relevant to answering the question under discussion. Results are situated both synchronically and diachronically, in order to develop hypothe- ses about the historical pathways of the markers within Bantu (cf. Bybee et al. 1994). Cross- linguistic comparison of Totela and related languages suggests that while morphological ex- pression of tense and aspect categories may change rapidly, as may semantic and pragmatic particularities within categories, the basic categories of completion vs. non-completion of the situation’s nucleus, association vs. dissociation, and discourse relevance are prevalent. These categories are likely crucial in the analysis of many other Bantu languages, as well, but have been given relatively little attention in the literature. This dissertation offers both basic descriptive facts about the Totela language and a detailed investigation of facets of its tense/aspect system. It is intended to be of interest for semanticist and pragmaticists, as well as for use in studies in Bantu and general typological linguistics. 2 To Kelvin and Mboshela i Acknowledgements As I made a rough list of people who deserve thanks for helping me as I navigated the dissertation process, I felt amazed by the sheer length of the list, and overwhelmed with gratitude and a sense of the blessings I have experienced in the various communities I have been privileged to be a part of over the past several years. If I forget someone, it is not because I lack appreciation. First, I need to thank the many Totela speakers who graciously invited me into their homes and villages and shared their language with me. Many thanks in particular to Cecilia Namasiku Namuyumba, Gertrude Sibeso, Violet Buumba, Christopher Katungu Mwendo, Albert Kamuso Mwenda, Phineas Simwaga Sishau and his wife Mutumwa Chikome, Gift Mwakamwi Sishau and his wife Munda Sabwindo, and Kelvin Sishau and his wife Bwiko Nkalango, and to other residents of Nakwenda village in the Kweemba area, particularly to headman Sishau White Maketu, for their extremely generous contributions to all aspects of this research. Kelvin Sishau passed away shortly after my time in Nakwenda. He was possibly the most intuitively helpful consultant I have worked with, a natural linguist, a great musician, and a trusted friend. I dedicate this dissertation to his memory. Thanks also to the communities of Likemwa, Samisisi, and Malabwe in Zambia, and of Makusi and Kachansi in Namibia, and to consultants and research partners Michael Sililo, Veronika Kalimukwa, Clement Tubusenge, Tekulo Kachelo, Samitiba Agatha Nasamu, Kelly Mutale, and Namasaka Imuwana. All of these people sacrificed immense amounts of time and worked patiently with me to answer my seemingly bizarre questions about their languages. Of course, any errors are entirely my own. I was also helped by several Zambian teachers of Lozi, including my dear friend Mubita Masiliso, who sent letters to keep me company while I was offat my field site. He also answered many questions about the geography and population of the Sichili area. Many more research participants are listed in appendix E. Practical help in Zambia and Namibia was also provided by a great many people. Micky Lukazi, the Chief Clerk to Hon. Mukupi, the counselor for the Sibbinda constituency in the Caprivi, advised me and graciously shuttled me to research sites, helping with introductions. Friday Mufuzi of the Livingstone Museum allowed me to browse their immense archives. Felicitas Moyo and Professor VM Chanda of the University of Zambia (UNZA) were kind and welcoming, and their help allowed me to conduct my research as a visiting scholar with UNZA affiliation. Professor Wolfgang Haacke of the University of Namibia not only gave me linguistic and research advice but also helped with practical matters including the replacement of faulty equipment. The sisters at Sichili Mission Hospital, including Sister Clementia, Sister Nimmi, Sister Ludi, and Sister Pimela, were incredulous of my research plans but provided me with every possible assistance, and this research would not have been possible without their support. I am also grateful to Pilar and Cata, Chilean visitors to the hospital who gave me their friendship, moral support, and some Spanish novels to read at my field site. Initial research was also made possible through the help of fellow researchers Frank Seidel and Marc Seifert, who both gave me invaluable advice about the Caprivi before my first trip ii and have continued in their support ever since. Kate de Luna and her husband Sean, whom IhappenedtoputupatentnexttowhenIfirstarrivedintheCapriviin2006,gaveme excellent advice, shared data and wordlists, and helped me to make my first trip into Zambia to investigate the Totela variety there. (While on the subject of the campsite, I should also mention my gratitude to the innumerable travelers who, taking pity on a lone camper in a miniature tent, invited me over to share their meals and evening conversations.) IfirstbecameinterestedinBantulanguagesasaPeaceCorpsvolunteerinnorthern Namibia. I am so grateful to the hilarious and vibrant Meme Sylvia “Mboshela” Uahengo of Onanghulo who housed me, fed me, taught me – mostly through mockery, but with great patience nonetheless – to farm and cook, and spoke Oshikwanyama with me night and day. She shares the dedication of this dissertation as a small sign of my gratitude. I am also thankful for the rest of my family there, including Shaalu, Me’ Foibe, Johanna, Rebecca, and many others, and for my other Kwanyama language teachers, including my dear friend Esther. Thanks also go to the Hasheela family, who adopted me into their home during Peace Corps training and are perhaps the most remarkable family I have ever come across, full of unassuming, kind, delightful people who also happen to be brilliant scholars with far-flung interests. (My host sister Victoria (“Katuli”) for example, recently finished her MA degree in information technology, and at age 26 has already published a novel and a volume of poetry. Her screenplay has been accepted for production by a Namibian filmmaker.) Fellow Peace Corps volunteers Andy Wingo and Karl Lindgren-Streicher allowed me to be part of their language-manual writing team, an endeavor which ultimately led me to graduate school in linguistics. In Namibia, I also cannot fail to mention Jobst and Bettina Duwe, who have been like second parents to me since I first went to Namibia in 2002. Friends from Germany who happened to move to Namibia at the same time I did, they took care of me when I was sick, celebrated holidays with me, and always opened their house to me for as long as I needed to stay there.