Object of Devotion  Medieval English Alabaster Sculpture from the Victoria and Albert Museum

This exhibition is organized and circulated by Art Services International, Alexandria, Virginia

This exhibition is supported by a grant from The Samuel H. Kress Foundation

His Excellency Sir Nigel Sheinwald, Ambassador of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern to the United States of America is Honorary Patron of the exhibition Contents & Organization of the Exhibition 

 Sixty prime examples including a complete set of panels from an

 Organized into six main sections:  The Art of the “Alabastermen”  and Miracles: The Lives and Deaths of the  Word Made Flesh: The Life of Christ  The Altarpiece: Worshipping at Church  Business and Religion: Making and Selling Holy Images  End of an Era: The Reformation

 Hands-on section with three samples of stone that can be examined by patrons: limestone, marble, and alabaster

Thesis Statement 

Alabaster production during the (between about 1370 and 1530) centered on the making and selling of finely decorated, gilded, and colored sculptures to churches, nobles, and owners of private chapels. More common examples, however, were intended to brighten the homes and spiritual lives of people of modest means and were the folk art of the ordinary medieval English man and woman.

Because of this range in intended audience, this assemblage of English alabaster sculptures offers an unrivalled glimpse into the spiritual lives, hopes, fears, and religious aspirations of both aristocratic and non-aristocratic society during the Middle Ages. Since alabasters were sold across the Continent in large quantities, the exhibition sheds light on spirituality and culture beyond the English Channel, with the English examples having been found in countries from Iceland to , and Poland to Portugal. Background Information   Established in 1852, the Victoria and Albert collection has 4.5 million objects documenting 3000 years of the world’s richest cultures. Its collection of English alabaster sculptures is the largest and most complete in the world and traces all major developments of style and subject matter in the alabaster workshops between 1370 and 1530.

 These sacred sculptures provided devotional centers in many churches, royal chapels, and homes across medieval England. The exhibition explores their artistic, cultural, and religious background.

 In the early fourteenth century, alabaster workshops concentrated on making tombs for the wealthy and nobility. Later in the century, some began making cheap devotional images based on stock Christian themes. Parish churches and the modestly affluent then became a major market for the alabastermen. The fifteenth century was the peak of productivity, which lasted until the Reformation. Among the most common themes were the Passion of Christ, the , and the lives of Saints. The stories from the Old Testament were almost completely ignored as a potential corpus of artistic inspiration.

 These intimate pieces served to illustrate the fundamental precepts of faith in an era when most worshippers could not read. Pope Gregory the Great said: “What sculpture is to the educated, images are to the ignorant.”

 The master of a workshop took charge of all of the creative and conceptual work. Apprentices (most often wives and children) did the sawing, sanding, grinding, polishing, preliminary sculpting, and mixing of paint and gesso. Many designs were based on already existing prototypes; originality was not of paramount importance to the alabaster sculptors. Stylistic Characteristics 

The following stylistic characteristics apply to many of the 60 English alabaster sculptures in this exhibition:

 Crowded compositions  Simplified, elongated forms  Flat representations with little attempt at conveying a sense of foreground, middle ground, or background  Depictions of multiple narratives simultaneously within a single sculpture  Figures that hold calligraphic banners; often the writing has been lost over time  Use of hierarchical scale, where the most important figures are represented as larger than those of lesser importance  Figures shown wearing the style of dress common in the late Middle Ages, no matter what historical event is being represented  Use of a stylized daisy pattern to indicate the ground and surrounding foliage  Polka-dot-like gesso nodules adorning the gilded backgrounds  Battlements used across the tops of early alabaster

The English Midlands The Art of the “Alabastermen”  The Art of the “Alabastermen” 

Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, the vast majority of religious congregations were unable to read or write. Their religious instruction came from the priest and painted or sculpted images found in or on the church. From about 1350 to 1530, English craftsmen used alabaster—a fine-grained form of gypsum—to create religious artworks that instructed, reminded, and created emotional connections with the illiterate members of a congregation.

Expensive commissions for alabaster sculptures were placed in churches by wealthy clergy and nobles. Less expensive creations were used in the homes of faithful men and women of more modest means. These medieval alabasters offer a unique glimpse into the hopes, fears, and religious beliefs of a bygone society. Panel of The Fifth Sign of the Last Judgment c. 1440 - 1470

Three figures stand amidst the fulfillment of the fifth sign of the Last Judgment, where the earth will ooze with a dew of blood and all species of birds will gather together in fear. In this panel, rich reds stand out against a complementary forest green background. The figure on the right bows his head in prayer, seeming to plead for deliverance.

The preservation of this panel’s rich colors and vibrant gilding is exceptionally rare.

• Looking at the blood-flecked trees and the three men witnessing one of the fifteen terrifying omens of the Last Judgment, what impact do you think this scene had upon the medieval viewer?

• How has the sculptor paid particular attention to a balanced, symmetrical composition despite the complexity of the scene?

Figure of Christopher c. 1450 - 1480

Saint Christopher, the bearded giant, converted to , then moved to the banks of a river to carry weary travelers across. One evening a child appeared to Christopher asking for safe passage. He is shown gazing upon the child, steadying himself with a staff as he undertakes an unusually arduous crossing of the fast-flowing river. After reaching the far banks, the boy revealed himself as Christ. Christopher’s journey had been so difficult because he was carrying the weight of the world and its Maker. Hereafter, Christopher was deemed the of travelers.

• How can we tell that Saint Christopher is, indeed, holding in his arms the very Christ child, himself? (The child is holding an orb, representing His stewardship over the world.)

• How does the sculpture convey the impression that the fast- flowing river is difficult to navigate?

• According to legend, the staff held by Saint Christopher later bore fruit and leaves. Discuss how this further bears witness to the miraculous nature of this depiction. Panel of the c. 1460 - 1500

Three wise men bestow precious gifts in of the new-born Christ child. In The (a Medieval compilation of tales about the lives of the Saints) the wise men are named Caspar, Balthasar, and Melchior. Caspar presents Christ with a gift of gold, symbolizing royalty. This earthly ruler has removed his crown and kneels before the true King of kings.

Joseph is asleep, referencing his coming dream in which the angel will command him to “take the young child and his mother, and flee into ,” in order to save Christ from Herod’s murderous intentions (Matthew 2: 13).

• Note that in addition to Caspar’s gift of gold, the beardless Balthasar offers frankincense, signifying Christ’s divinity; and Melchior presents myrrh, a symbol of death. The latter two are pointing to a now empty circle, where the star that guided the Magi to Christ would have originally been painted.

• Discuss the fact that in the Middle Ages, the three wise men were considered as three kings symbolizing the three known parts of the world: Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Martyrs and Miracles  The Lives and Deaths of the Saints Martyrs and Miracles: The Lives and Deaths of the Saints  English alabaster carvings were dedicated to the depiction of certain key stories from the four , the , the , and a popular medieval compilation of saints’ lives known as The Golden Legend. Consequently, many of the surviving panels depict saints, ranging from images of the apostles to those of medieval religious heroes, such as Thomas Becket and the Anglo-Saxon -King Edmund.

Saints from all eras were represented with their identifying attributes. Regardless of when they lived, the Saints were portrayed in contemporary clothing and as inhabiting a late medieval world. It thus made no difference whether the craftsman was carving a figure of the saintly King Henry VI or an image of Saint Peter; both formed part of the timeless Christian message. Saints served numerous roles in everyday medieval society including protecting the souls, well-being, health, and even wealth of believers. Panel of Saint Catherine in Prison c. 1450 - 1470

One of the most popular saints depicted in English alabasters was Saint . About seventy panels or figures of her survive—more than any other saint. Persecuted for her Christianity by Emperor Maxentius of Rome, Catherine refused to denounce her faith. Imprisoned, she raises her hands in supplication to . Christ appears in a vision on the right, and the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove brings her the Host (the sacrament) in its beak. Panel of Saint Catherine Saved from the Wheels c. 1430 - 1450

After Saint Catherine’s imprisonment, Emperor Maxentius commanded that she be tortured and killed by spiked wheels. She was miraculously saved and remains an example of dedication to faith, even unto death. For this reason, she is seen as a protector of the dying.

This panel shows the moment when Catherine, crowned and haloed, was saved from the wheels. Two angels, now broken off, break the wheels with their swords and attack the torturers surrounding Catherine. Standing above her is holding an orb, symbolizing His sovereignty over the world. The Beheading of St. Catherine c. 1450-1470

Having failed in his attempt to torture and kill Saint Catherine with the wheel, Emperor Maxentius ordered her execution by decapitation. The executioner stands with his foot on Catherine’s back as she kneels blind-folded. Two angels (badly damaged) float above the scene, holding a cloth that will be used to carry Catherine’s soul to after her death.

• Patron saint of the dying, St. Catherine, having survived both prison and destruction by spiked wheels, finally succumbs to death by beheading—all the while refusing to denounce her faith. Why do you think her story is especially popular among people of the late Middle Ages? A Group of Prophets c. 1430 - 1470

Barefoot and clothed in camel skins, John the Baptist holds the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God). Above him stands a figure carrying a staff, presumed to be Moses. All seven prophets (five of which are unidentified) gaze toward an unseen panel of the Crucifixion. This Group of Prophets panel was once part of a larger Te Deum altarpiece, the Latin Te Deum Laudamus meaning “we praise thee, Lord”. The Capture of St. Edmund c. 1470 - 1500 Edmund was a ninth-century king of the East Angles and devout Christian. According to tradition, the Danes invaded the East Angles as retaliation for the death of their king at the hand of one of Edmund’s servants. Having fought their way to Edmund’s castle, the Danish soldiers captured the king, tied him to a tree, and riddled him with arrows. Upon tiring of this sport, they untied and beheaded him. Because he refused to denounce either his claim to the throne or his Christianity, even in the face of death, Edmund became a patron saint for Christian kings.

In this panel, black-faced soldiers surround and capture Saint Edmund. The black paint is most likely meant to indicate the blackness of the soldiers’ souls. The popular “daisy” pattern is painted onto the cloth that serves as a dividing line between the peasants harvesting wheat and the dramatic capture of Saint Edmund above. Saint Edmund Shot with Arrows c. 1470 - 1500 Bows and arrows in hand, Danish soldiers surround and shoot the bound Saint Edmund. The halo surrounding his head suggests his purity and devotion. Eyes downcast, Edmund meekly accepts his death rather than renounce his Christianity or claim to the throne. The holes covering his body would have been filled with wooden arrows, but these have decayed and been lost over time. The contemporary dress of the Danish soldiers was meant to convey to the medieval audience the applicability and relevance of the story to their own lives.

St. Edmund (d. 869) was especially popular among worshipers in the Middle Ages because of his royal credentials and his fearless self-sacrifice, willing to neither deny his faith nor his crown. Like St. Catherine, he was martyred for his beliefs.

• Notice that St. Edmund’s captors are shown in contemporary late medieval dress and styles rather than the garb that would have been worn several centuries earlier. Why do you think the artists made this choice?

• Notice the lilies above St. Edmund’s haloed head; they are associated with the purity of the Virgin Mary and indicate his pure intentions. Considering the expression on his face, how does St. Edmund seem to feel about his fate?

Panel of The Quenching of the Ashes of Saint John the Baptist c. 1470 - 1500

Three saints extinguish the funeral pyre of John the Baptist, as a fourth looks on in mourning. A man smothers the fire with a shovel (which has since broken off), while two women pour water over the dying embers.

This is one part of a three-paneled altarpiece Relating to the life of John the Baptist. Tradition holds that it was once located in Cathedral, the resting place of John’s .

• Discuss the way in which the artist has depicted the natural elements such as earth, sky, fire, and water. Notice how these patterns enliven and animate the entire composition. Figure of Saint Fiacre c. 1430 - 1450

Saint Fiacre was a seventh-century Irish who immigrated to . According to legend, the French bishop Saint Faro promised him that he could possess all of the land that he could plow in a single day. Using only the tip of his staff, he felled trees and uprooted briars. Because a woman accused him of using to perform this miraculous feat, all women were banned from his hut and chapel with threats of being struck down by God.

Although tradition holds that he cleared the field with the tip of his staff, Saint Fiacre is shown here with a spade and closed book, his iconic symbols. Figure of Mary Magdalene c. 1460 - 1490

Cascading locks of hair and a jar of ointment identify this figure as Mary Magdalene, who—according to Catholic tradition—anointed and washed the Savior’s feet with her hair. Traditionally viewed as a sinner, Mary is referred to in the as “The Penitent.” Her seeming spiritual depravity and subsequent redemption would have inspired hope in members of the congregation.

• Artists always had ways of identifying the various saints so that the illiterate worshipers could recognize them. What symbols has the artist used to identify this as Mary Magdalene?

• How would Mary Magdalene serve as a symbol of hope to the members of the congregation? Panel of Saint James the Great and Saint John the Evangelist c. 1430-1450

James (left) and John (right), the sons of Zebedee and two of Christ’s twelve apostles, stand side by side, clutching scrolls engraved with statements from the Apostles’ Creed. The Creed is a set of twelve statements, one made by each apostle, laying out the beliefs of the early church. James’ scroll states, “Qui conceptus est” (“Who was conceived”), part of the longer statement “Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary.” John’s scroll is now unintelligible. On James’ forehead rests a scallop shell, his saintly . John holds a chalice containing a green dragon, referencing a miracle whereby, according to Catholic tradition, he drew poison out of a cup and it turned into a green serpent. Saint Thomas Becket Consecrated as Archbishop c. 1460 - 1500 Thomas Becket, once a close friend of King Henry II, is ordained as the Archbishop of Canterbury. The bishop on the left places a miter on Thomas’ head, as the bishop on the right hands him a cross staff. Behind him stands a bishop holding a crosier and another figure who stands as a witness to the proceedings.

After his consecration as archbishop, Becket refused to compromise with Henry II over the role of the government in punishing criminal clergy. Mistakenly believing that they were acting according to the king’s wishes, three of Henry’s knights killed Becket. Three years after his death, Becket was canonized. Because of the number of miracles credited to him, Becket was often featured in medieval alabaster sculptures. The Translation of Saint Etheldreda’s Body c. 1460 - 1500

After spending her life in , prayer, and meditation, Saint Etheldreda, princess of East Anglia, died of a neck tumor. Because her body failed to decompose during the sixteen years following her death, she was considered to be of saintly status and her remains were moved to a prestigious marble tomb. With an archbishop above her reading from the , Etheldreda is placed in her tomb as the surrounding assembly honors her sainthood. with the Virgin and Child c. 1430 - 1470 Saint Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, points to an open book, attempting to teach the Christ-child how to read. Mary holds a scepter, symbolizing her role as the . His back to Anne, Christ clutches an orb, representing His birthright as King of kings and Lord of lords. In spite of the elevated status of these figures, the ever-present pattern of daisies on the bottom half of the panel underscores the common-place nature of the event—a grandmother teaching her grandchild to read.

• Extreme veneration of the Virgin Mary began in the twelfth century, which led to an interest in her parents, Saint Anne and Saint . The doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church considers Anne’s conception of Mary miraculous, because Mary was preserved from the stain of the original sin so that she would be pure to bear the Son of God. The miracle of Mary’s purity from the moment of her conception is known as the .

• Among medieval worshippers, why do you think mothers were especially fond of this sculpture?

Martyrs and Miracles  Devotion at Home Devotion at Home  For devout medieval Christians, religion was more than just regular attendance at church. Their faith was the defining framework for their lives and was manifested in private prayer and contemplation at home. Attesting to the fact that imagery played an important role in personal devotion, alabastermen created reliefs and statuettes that served as miniature in private homes.

The most common subjects were figures of the Virgin and Child or popular saints. These images provided means whereby worshippers could strengthen their faith without the formal ceremony of the church. The line between the object as a visual reminder of a higher power and the object as an actual transmitter of that higher power was often blurred in the minds of believers. Tabernacle with Panel of the and , c. 1420 - 1450

In the bottom half of this home devotional piece, the angel Gabriel announces to Mary that she will bear the Son of God. Above them is a depiction of the Holy Trinity. The top fourth of the panel, now missing, once displayed the Father’s head and the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove. The two halves of the piece are connected by the metamorphosis of Mary’s lily into Christ’s cross, symbolizing the Catholic belief that the Annunciation and the Crucifixion took place on the same day (albeit years apart).

The panels on the altar doors represent (clockwise from top left) the Virgin and Child; Saint John the Evangelist; Saint Ursula, a virgin-martyr from the fourth century; and Saint , a pope recorded only in the story of Saint Ursula.

• How has the artist distinguished between the heavenly realm and the earthly sphere of this devotional piece?

• Here the lily of Mary’s Annunciation morphs into a crucifix. Discuss the connections between the lily, which often represents Mary, and the resurrection.

• Notice that the doors of this box are hinged, allowing for the panel to be closed for safe keeping when not in use. Head of Saint John the Baptist c. 1470 - 1500

The head of John the Baptist on a tray was a popular motif during the Middle Ages. Above John’s head, two angels carry the haloed figure of his soul into heaven. The corners of the panel depict (clockwise from top left) Saint Peter holding the keys of the kingdom, Saint Thomas Becket donned with a miter and staff, Saint Catherine with the tools of her martyrdom, and the crowned Virgin and Child.

Herod Agrippa promised Salome, daughter of Herodias, anything she desired up to half his kingdom. Her mother directed her to demand the head of John the Baptist on a platter. Afraid to renege on his oath, Herod slayed John to fulfill Salome’s request. Depictions of John the Baptist’s’ head on a platter are among the most prolific in English alabaster art. The Word Made Flesh  The Life of Christ and the Virgin The Life of Christ and the Virgin 

English alabaster panels are medieval visualizations of significant episodes in the Christian story. Some panels were sold as individual devotional aids, but most were made to be shown in consecutive narrative groupings in altarpieces. By far the most popular scenes were the Passion of Christ and the Life of the Virgin. Momentous events of the Passion—such as the Betrayal, Flagellation, Crucifixion, Entombment, and Resurrection—were most common. Some important scenes such as the Last Supper, however, are found only in small numbers, suggesting that alabaster sculptors rarely extended their range beyond a few tried and tested iconographical patterns.

The Life and the Joys of the Virgin were the other major themes depicted by English alabaster carvers. The standard subjects associated with the Joys of the Virgin were the Annunciation, Adoration of the Magi, Trinity, Ascension, and the Assumption/ of the Virgin. Saint John the Baptist Preaching c. 1460 - 1480

Clothed in a camel skin cloak, John the Baptist holds a lamb, symbolizing his role as the prophet commissioned to prepare the way of the Lord. He is surrounded by foliage and animals, one of which is a lion. John preaches the of the Lamb to those around him, possibly Levites and priests asking “who art thou?” This references the prophecies in Isaiah 40 concerning John the Baptist preaching in the wilderness. Panel of the Flagellation c. 1380 - 1400

Christ stands tied to a pillar as two men carry out Pilate’s order to flog Him. The panel is badly worn, and crisscrossing marks have been made on the chests of Christ and the two torturers, possibly a result of either iconoclasm (destruction of religious art deemed heretical) or normal weathering. There are no traces of paint on this early alabaster panel, indicating that the art of the alabastermen was relatively simple at its inception in the fourteenth century, and grew in complexity over time. Panel of Christ Carrying the Cross c. 1480 - 1510

Crowned with a fabric wreath (torse) symbolic of the Crown of Thorns, Christ bends under the heavy burden of the cross. He is pulled by a man with a rope, goaded on by a small man with a bill (a hooked medieval weapon), and supported by a woman believed to be the Virgin Mary. Dominating the other figures in size and majesty, Christ looks down mournfully in the iconographic Man of Sorrows pose. The Harrowing of Hell c. 1440 - 1470

The towering figure of Christ grasps Adam’s wrist and leads him and other patriarchs and prophets out of hell, depicted as the jaws of an awful sea monster. Standing above the gaping mouth is a monkey-like devil blowing a horn and holding the keys to the gates of hell. Behind Adam are Eve and John the Baptist, the latter identifiable by his camel-skin coat. The residual paint on this panel is most likely a modern adornment. Panel of The Annunciation / Incarnation and the Parliament of Heaven c. 1460 - 1480

Mary, haloed and kneeling at her prie dieu (a small prayer desk), turns and raises her hands in awe as Christ’s spirit descends upon her. The four angels, Mercy, Truth, Peace, and Justice, argue for or against the damnation of humankind. They are identified by the writing upon their scrolls: “Truth grows up out of the earth”; “Thy mercy fills the earth, Lord”; “Justice and peace are united”; and “Justice looks down from heaven.” God the Father presides over the scene, holding an orb to represent His power over the world. Surprisingly, the angel Gabriel is not present.

• Discuss the meaning of the word “incarnation,” which literally means becoming flesh—in this instance a God coming from heaven and taking on a human body.

• Notice the dynamic nature of the Savior’s descent from heaven, emphasized by a strong diagonal orientation and rays of light emanating from his presence. Panel of the Agony in the Garden c. 1440 - 1460

Haloed, bearded, and wearing a long robe, the kneeling Christ dominates this scene. On the ground in front of Him are the sleeping apostles Peter, James, and John. Before Christ are both wafer and chalice, representing the body and blood of the Eucharist, respectively.

The Agony in the Garden was rarely depicted in English alabaster sculpture; only seven panels are known to exist.

• The next several panels deal with the final hours of the Savior’s life, His Crucifixion, and His subsequent Resurrection.

• Notice the rich green paint and typical “daisy” pattern that is still evident on the work.

• Discuss the reason that the sculptor chose to show the wafer and chalice of the Eucharist in this scene.

• Why do you think the Savior’s hands are rendered dis- proportionally large? Furthermore, the figure of Christ is larger than His apostles. This is called “hierarchical scale,” where the most important figure is rendered larger than all others. Panel of the Flagellation c. 1460 - 1500

An emaciated Christ, bound and tethered to a column, is scourged by three soldiers and held in place by a fourth. This depiction of the Flagellation is quite dramatic. One soldier raises his hands above his head, preparing to crack his whip over Christ’s back. Another twists his body to build up the momentum of the strike. The detail in this panel, such as the expression on Christ’s face and the dynamic postures of the henchmen, shows the skill and virtuosity developed by the alabastermen over time.

• What does the expression on the Savior’s face suggest to you?

• What details make this scene especially dramatic?

• Notice the “IHS” at the bottom of the column, which is the Greek abbreviation for the Greek name for .

• Once again, the clothing is that of the fifteenth century— medieval caps, tunics, pointed shoes, and hose—rather than the raiment worn at the time of Christ. The Crucifixion c. 1420 – 1450 Christ hangs on the cross, surrounded by His followers and Roman soldiers. The Virgin Mary swoons and is caught by Mary Magdalene, while John the Beloved sits at Jesus’ feet staring at the ground in sorrow. The Roman centurion to the right of Christ is clothed in armor and holds a battle ax. A scroll unfurls from his hand (the bottom half has broken off), which would have read: “Vere Filius Dei erat iste” (“Indeed this man was the Son of God”). Three chalice-bearing angels project slightly from the background, and a fourth stands at the foot of the cross, collecting Christ’s atoning blood for administration to faithful followers.

• The various characters of this extremely crowded composition are, again, dressed in the attire of the late Middle Ages.

• Note that the bearded figure with the spear behind the three women is probably a reference to the Roman soldier who will pierce Christ’s side after his demise. The Deposition c. 1460 - 1480

A beardless man on a ladder lowers Christ’s lifeless body into Joseph of Arimathaea’s waiting arms. The praying Virgin kneels before the cross and is comforted by John the Beloved, who is shown as a beardless young man. This panel, once part of a Passion altarpiece, is unusually large for an English alabaster sculpture. Our Lady of Pity: The Lamentation c. 1400 - 1430

A shrouded Mary looks sorrowfully upon her deceased Son, His body hanging limp and heavy across her lap. Adam’s skull lies at Mary’s feet, reminding the viewer that “as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive” (1 Corinthians 15:22).

The Pietà, the tender image of a mourning Mary cradling her lifeless Son, became a popular motif around 1380. Mary seems to be presenting Christ to the viewer, reminding them of the importance of personally accepting His atoning sacrifice.

• Why do you think this was such a popular subject for artists throughout the ages?

• To the right and left of Mary are Mary Cleophas, the Virgin’s sister, and Mary Magdalene, respectively.

• Discuss the dual symbolism of skull, crossed bones, and jawbone at the bottom of the scene – a reference to Golgotha, the place called the skull, where the Crucifixion took place, and pointing to Christ’s imminent triumph over death. The Resurrection c. 1400- 1420

Christ bursts forth from the tomb haloed in glory, carrying the banner of victory, and waking the Roman soldiers from their sleep. He steps forth, treading on one of the soldiers. This gesture, originating in medieval mystery plays, became iconographic throughout the Middle Ages. The actor playing the part of Christ would step on the slumbering soldier to dramatically convey the Savior’s glorious triumph over death.

• Note some of the interesting details in this dramatic scene: • Christ’s burial shroud hanging about his shoulders • The twisted crown of thorns still on His head • His right hand raised in blessing and his left holding a banner of victory • The Roman soldiers dressed like medieval knights • Some of the green and red paint that still survives • The dramatic sparkling gold backdrop • The theatrical nature of the scene • The diagonal thrust of the casket – no longer a place of rest but the dynamic vehicle from which Christ springs forth unto life Christ Appearing to Mary Magdalene c. 1460 - 1480

Christ, guised in gardener attire, appears to Mary Magdalene after His Resurrection. He raises His smock, perhaps to show Mary the nail prints in His feet. Next to Christ’s head is a scroll, which once bore the inscription “Noli me tangere” (“Touch me not”). After the moment in which Mary Magdalene recognizes her Savior, she kneels at His feet, her symbol of an ointment box before her. The Ascension c. 1380 - 1400

The apostles and the Virgin gaze upward as Christ rises into heaven. Facing Mary, John is represented with his iconic palm leaf. The other ten apostles are unidentifiable.

This panel depicts Christ’s Ascension into heaven forty days after His Resurrection. Gathered together with His disciples on the Mount of Olives, the place where He de- scended below all things, the Savior returns to His Father, ascending above all things. The c. 1390 - 1410

Both adorned with gilded crowns, Christ coronates the Virgin Mary as Queen of Heaven. Paint still adorns this intimate panel depicting the meeting of Mother and Son—of Queen and Savior. This panel was most likely the last in an altarpiece representing the life of the Virgin spanning the Annunciation to the Coronation. The Coronation of the Virgin c. 1450 - 1500

God the Father, Christ, and Mary wear three-layered crowns, symbolic of the Holy Trinity. In addition to His crown, Christ wears a green torse—a twisted fabric cord symbolic of the Crown of Thorns. All three members of the Godhead participate in the coronation while Mary sits in reverence.

Coronation scenes were frequently the final altarpiece panels in the Life of the Virgin. As a result of the image’s popularity, three iconic conventions evolved over time. One portrayed Christ and Mary alone, while another depicted all three members of the crowned Godhead behind the Virgin. This panel shows the final type of composition, where the Father and Christ appear as men and the Holy Ghost as a dove. The Holy Trinity c. 1450 - 1470

The gaunt form of Christ hangs on the cross as God the Father looks on, His presence and raised hand blessing the sacrifice of His Son. The Holy Ghost in the form of a dove was once attached to the panel by means of a wooden peg inserted into the hole above Christ’s head, but has since been lost. The Assumption of the Virgin c. 1460 - 1490

The Assumption of the Virgin refers to a story told in The Golden Legend. After Mary’s death, Christ rewarded her faithfulness by raising her directly to heaven, thus saving her body from the ravages of death. Mirroring the Savior’s appearance to the apostles after His Resurrection, all were present save Thomas. He declared that unless he could see proof of Mary’s Assumption, he would not believe; Mary’s girdle was let down from heaven to convince him.

The Virgin Mary holds her hands in the typical prayer gesture as she ascends into a heavenly bridal chamber. God the Father stands behind her, holding an orb in one hand and blessing her with the other. In the bottom left corner, a kneeling Thomas reverently holds Mary’s girdle.

• Discuss the beautiful and poetic connection between Mary’s purity in life and her reward of being spared bodily decay upon death.

• What characteristics does Mary display here that might inspire women throughout the centuries?

• How might the story’s connection to the “Doubting Thomas” help worshippers whose faith sometimes wavered? The Coronation of the Virgin c. 1450 - 1500

In this traditional depiction of the Coronation of the Virgin, Mary sits in her bridal chamber as God the Father (right), the (center), and God the Son (left) crown her Queen of Heaven. Angels sit at Mary’s feet, revering her with the harp and lute. The physical manifestation of the Holy Ghost as a man is noteworthy, occurring rarely in artistic represen- tations and only once in this exhibition.

• This is the greatest and culminating moment in the Life of the Virgin. In this work, what denotes the grand celebratory nature of this event?

• In art through the ages, have you ever seen the Holy Ghost represented as a man? How can you tell which member of the Godhead each of the three figures represents?

• What symbolism and gestures do you recognize here that you have seen in previous alabaster sculptures in this exhibition?

• Try to imagine how beautiful these sculptures once were with all of their coloring and gilding. You can still see that the haloes of the Godhead were once decorated with black, red, and white paint. The Altarpiece  Worshiping at Church

The Altarpiece  Taking place at the high altar of a church, the Sacrament of the Eucharist lay at the heart of medieval Christianity. The clergy considered the installation of a lavishly adorned altarpiece—one that was carefully sculpted, painted, and gilded—to be of great importance. Filling this high demand for elaborate altarpieces became the chief priority of the English alabastermen’s workshops.

English alabaster altarpieces were always based on Christian themes, and most commonly illustrated a series of dramatic episodes from Christ’s Passion or the Life of the Virgin. In the 1380s, workshops began manufacturing altarpieces in large numbers for churches across Europe, where considerable numbers still exist. The destruction of religious images wrought by the Reformation in England in the mid- sixteenth century was so great that the only complete medieval English altarpieces to survive are those that had been exported abroad. The Holy Trinity with the Virgin, Saint John, and Symbols of the Four Evangelists c. 1450 – 1470

This traditional depiction of Christ’s Crucifixion includes all three members of the Godhead, with the Holy Ghost perching atop the cross. The hole above Christ’s head was most likely used to attach a titulus—the plaque reading “Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews”. Three angels with chalices surround the cross to collect Christ’s atoning blood, and the four evangelists are identified by their symbols—Matthew, the angel with the scroll; John, the eagle; Mark, the lion; and Luke, the ox.

• See how many details you can point out now that you have come to recognize many of the Christian symbols and stylized representations. Canopy from an Altarpiece c. 1400s – early 1500s

Four sections of delicate tracery crowned with arches compose this canopy, which once adorned the top of an alabaster altarpiece. The number VIII is engraved on the reverse of the canopy, indicating its placement on the altarpiece. Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ: The Betrayal c. 1400 - 1420

This altarpiece chronologically depicts the Passion of Christ, beginning with the Betrayal and ending with the Resurrection. The Crucifixion is placed in the center of five panels, which is standard for such altarpieces. Creating a sense of continuity and unity among the separate panels of the altarpiece, the tops were bedecked with battlements and the background was originally covered in glittering gilded gesso nodules. Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ: Christ Carrying the Cross c. 1400 - 1420

Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ: The Crucifixion c. 1400 - 1420

Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ: The Deposition c. 1400 - 1420 Altarpiece of the Passion of Christ: The Resurrection 1400 - 1420 Saint Sebastian c. 1470 - 1500

According to Catholic tradition, Saint Sebastian, a Roman Christian, secured a position in the illustrious Praetorian Guard—the Emperor’s elite group of soldiers. He used his position to convert elite members of the military to Christianity while alleviating the sufferings of Christian captives. Caught by Roman authorities and sentenced to death, Saint Sebastian was taken to the middle of a field, tied naked to a post, and riddled with arrows. Miraculously, he survived but was subsequently clubbed to death. The seven holes in this panel were once filled with wooden arrows which have since rotted away. Business and Religion  Making and Selling Holy Images

Business and Religion  The most advanced alabaster art industry in Europe belonged to the English. At its inception in the mid-fourteenth century, alabaster sculptures were commissioned only by the nobility; however, during the late fourteenth century, less elaborate sculptures became available to a wider audience, including individuals of more modest means.

The alabastermen provided stiff competition to artists of other mediums. Alabaster “tayblles” (sculpted panels), for example, could be purchased for as little as two shillings. Such affordable prices and the popularity of the alabaster images led to a high degree of success in the 1440s that was maintained until the eve of the Reformation a century later. The Annunciation c. 1470 - 1500

The ornately haloed Mary, kneeling at her prie dieu, turns in surprise as the angel Gabriel declares that she will bear the Son of God. The Holy Ghost issues forth from God’s mouth to descend upon Mary, whereby “she was found with child of the Holy Ghost” (Matthew 1:18). Gabriel’s right arm (since broken off) once held the vase of lilies, symbolic of Mary’s purity.

Compared with panels from the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, the ornate coloring, detail, and composition of this panel show the development of the alabastermen’s technique over time.

• What is it about this sculpture that shows a more highly developed technique than in earlier works?

• Compare this work with The Annunciation on the next slide. The Annunciation c. 1380 - 1400

Gabriel descends from heaven to proclaim that Mary will be the Mother of Christ. His scroll almost certainly bore the inscription “Ave Maria gratia plena” (“Hail Mary, full of grace”). Instead of kneeling at the traditional prie dieu, Mary sits on a bench, reading the words of Isaiah: “Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son” (Isaiah 7: 14).

The simplicity of this Annunciation identifies it as one of the earlier pieces produced by the alabastermen.

• Briefly compare the elegant simplicity of this earlier Annunciation to the one you viewed previously. Which of the two do you prefer? Why? The Assumption of the Virgin c. 1480 - 1500

Angels surround the Virgin as she ascends into heaven, where God the Father awaits her arrival. Thomas the apostle kneels below her, receiving her intricately detailed belt as it falls from heaven. The almond-shaped mandorla surrounding Mary is carved with ridged chevrons, and two angels in the upper corners celebrate the occasion with melodic strains from their harp and lute. The kneeling monastic figures in the bottom corners of this panel represent either the patrons or the clerical audience for which this panel was intended. The Crucifixion c. 1370 - 1390

Christ hangs from the cross, wearing only a loincloth and a Crown of Thorns, symbolized by the twisted torse. Christ’s followers gather on the left, where the collapsing Virgin Mary is supported by John the Evangelist. The other individual is either Mary Magdalene or Mary Cleophas, and on the right are Roman soldiers. A Roman centurion points up to Christ, holding a scroll that reads: “Ihs nazarenus rex iudeorum filius dei vere” (“Jesus of Nazareth, the king of the Jews, truly the son of God”). Three angels with chalices collect Christ’s atoning blood. Head of Saint John the Baptist c. 1470 - 1500

Set on a platter, the head of Saint John the Baptist is surrounded (clockwise from bottom right) by Thomas Becket, Christ rising triumphantly from the tomb, Saint Peter holding the keys of the kingdom, and Saint James the Great. The bearded figure in the top right is perhaps Saint Anthony. Three angels (now broken) carry John’s shrouded soul to heaven. The Resurrection c. 1370 - 1380

Christ steps from the open tomb. Holding a banner of victory, He places His foot on the soldier, an act suggestive of His triumph over the flesh. The minimalist approach used in this panel is typical of fourteenth-century alabaster pieces. This plain and simple style, however, did not persist, giving way instead to more ornate and crowded compositions in the fifteenth century. The Holy Trinity c.1480 - 1500

In this typical depiction of the Holy Trinity, a bishop or kneels to the side of the cross. Most likely the patron, he symbolically presents his heart to Christ. The scroll extending from his mouth was probably inscribed with a Latin prayer. Angels in the top corners were once holding censers (containers for burning incense), which have since been lost. Other angels collect Christ’s blood in their chalices. Wealthy patrons frequently commissioned the production of religious artwork to show their personal piety or to improve their spiritual standing.

• If you were to commission a religious artwork, would you want your own figure placed prominently in the artwork? Why or why not?

• What do you think the scroll coming out of the patron’s mouth might have said? Head of Saint John the Baptist c. 1470 - 1500

The head of John the Baptist in the center of this panel is somewhat overshadowed by the surrounding figures. Beneath him, Christ, the Man of Sorrows, holds a hand below the wound in His side. To the left is Saint Peter, holding the keys of the kingdom. The archbishop to the right is most likely Saint Thomas Becket. Above John the Baptist’s head, two angels raise an infant, symbolic of John’s soul, toward heaven.

Frequently used for personal images of devotion, the alabastermen sold large numbers of panels depicting this image.

• Why do you think this was such a popular subject for medieval patrons?

• Why do you think John is represented as an infant as he ascends to heaven? The Holy Trinity c. 1400

This sculpture of the Trinity was intended to be displayed in a parish church, as evidenced by its larger size. The dove (now missing), representing the Holy Ghost, would have been attached to a dowel above Christ’s head. From successful chapels to the relatively poorer individuals, alabastermen catered to a broad customer base. In varying the complexity and the quality of their work, they were able to fill the demand from both those with large sums of money to those with more limited resources. Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem c. 1450 - 1470 Sitting astride a donkey and dressed in a long robe, Christ triumphantly enters Jerusalem. His gaze is directed heaven- ward, drawing the viewer’s attention to the divinity of His last week. Christ’s hand, now missing, was once raised in blessing. One of Jesus’ disciples places a robe on the ground before Him where a stylized palm branch has been laid, referencing Matthew: “And a very great multitude spread their garments in the way; others cut down branches from the trees, and strewed them in the way” (Matthew 21:8).

Alabastermen tended to produce tried and true subjects that were guaranteed to sell well. Although a well-known event in Christ’s life, the Triumphal Entry is rarely depicted in medieval English alabasters; only five such panels exist.

• Although Christ’s hand is missing, what do you think He might have been doing with His hand as he passed through the multitude (based on the symbolic gestures you’ve seen in previous works)?

• Why do you think this subject is rarely depicted among medieval English alabaster sculptures?

• Although the sculptors often carved an abundance of detail, some of their renderings are stylized and simplistic. See, for example, the palm branch on the lower portion of this sculpture. The Disemboweling of Saint Erasmus c. 1460 - 1500

Saint Erasmus was, according to tradition, a Christian martyr who died around the year 300 AD. For his impertinence in preaching of Christ, Emperor ordered his death. After several failed attempts to end Erasmus’ life, Diocletian decreed that he would be put to death by disembowelment. His abdomen was slit open, and his entrails were extracted and wrapped around a rod. When this failed to kill him, he was thrown into a pit, where an angel came and carried his soul to heaven.

Erasmus lies on a slab, the torturer beneath him pulling taut the rope which binds his feet. The top half of the panel has broken off, but the legs of the torturer turning the rod remain in the top right corner.

• According to legend, Saint Erasmus preached during a thunderstorm, unafraid of the thunder and lightening. Sailors, who had a particular fear of storms, adopted Saint Erasmus as their protector.

• Why do you think people of the Middle Ages would be fascinated by this grisly disemboweling? The Coronation of the Virgin c. 1400 - 1420

Christ raises His hand (now broken off) in blessing above His Mother, the crowned Virgin. The glittering background of gilded gesso nodules creates the atmosphere of a heavenly domain. Christ is barefoot, perhaps referencing the practice of removing one’s shoes in sacred places.

During the Middle Ages, the Cult of the Virgin was a thriving society based upon the notion of Mary as a divine figure. Referred to as the Queen of Heaven, the Bride of Christ, and Intercessor for humankind, Mary was and is a central figure in traditional Catholic worship. As a result of this level of devotion, alabastermen frequently depicted scenes from the Virgin’s life. End of an Era  The Reformation

Reformation  The Reformation sounded the death knell for the production of English alabaster panels. In 1534, Henry VIII was declared the head of the Church in England, removing the Pope’s power over the English Church. The Reformation had a significant effect on the culture and artwork of Northern European Christians; churches that had once been rich repositories of relics, sculpture, metalwork, glass, textiles, and wall paintings became austere Protestant spaces.

While most Catholics believed that religious images enhanced piety, the Anglican leader- ship during the reign of Edward VI feared that congregants were worshipping the images, rather than the divine beings they portrayed. In 1547, Edward VI ordered the destruction of these Catholic “idols,” placing any objects preserved from the purging during Henry VIII’s reign in danger once again. What followed was a determined spree of image- breaking and defacement. As a result of this widespread destruction, the only surviving alabaster altarpieces were those that had been shipped outside of England. The traditional craft of the English alabastermen had, except for the manufacture of tombs, reached its end. The Ascension c. 1440 - 1460 Ten of Christ’s apostles are present in this Ascension panel, and several are identified by their associated traits. To the left of the Virgin Mary stands James the Great, dressed as a pilgrim with a stylized scallop shell on his satchel. In the foreground, John the Evangelist is recognized by the palm frond in his hand. Behind him kneels Andrew, clutching his symbol of the saltire (a diagonal cross). The remaining apostles are unidentifiable.

The top of the panel is missing, but this is the only Ascension panel in the Victoria and Albert collection that contains Christ’s entire body; other panels show only His feet or lower body. The Holy Trinity c. 1500 - 1520

Compared to the other Trinity panels in this exhibition, the bulkier figures of this panel show the emergence of a new style of alabaster sculpting—one that would be cut short by the Reformation initiated by Henry VIII. Concern that individuals were worshipping the objects themselves instead of the figures they represented led to widespread iconoclasm (the destruction of religious images).

• How might this blocky style have influenced twentieth-century sculptors such as Henry Moore?

• What other twentieth-century artistic styles might a sculpture such as this have influenced? The Crucifixion c. 1370 - 1390

A defaced Christ hangs lifelessly from the cross, as Mary (left) and John the Beloved look on. While Christ’s face seems to have been hastily mutilated by iconoclastic fanatics (leaving behind enough remnants that we can make out some facial features), Mary’s and John’s faces have been meticulously disfigured, possibly through use of a chisel. Many alabaster panels suffered this same fate during the Reformation in England. The thickness of this alabaster slab suggests that it was used as a tombstone rather than an altarpiece.

• Discuss the Reformation and its disastrous impact on the religious of the Middle Ages.

• Can you think of any other historical movements where certain art forms were destroyed? The Annunciation c. 1380 - 1400

This panel was broken into several pieces, perhaps by the hand of a Protestant reformer like Thomas Forby, who was paid eight pence in 1550 “for havyge downe the awlters” in the parish church of Boxford, Suffolk. Throughout England, alabaster images were destroyed, hidden, or sold abroad to Catholic worshippers in Europe. As iconoclasm ravaged England, the production of alabaster sculptures died out.

• How does it make you feel to think that works of art were purposely defaced and destroyed?

• Identify examples of the new visual and symbolic language that you’ve now learned: • The angel Gabriel with a scroll that may have read “Hail Mary, full of grace” • The lilies, symbolic of Mary’s purity • The surprised look on Mary’s face as she turns away from the Old Testament of her Bible • The simplicity of the sculpture, marking it as an earlier work

• Despite the generation that attempted to destroy these sculptures, and several centuries in which these works were ignored, we feel fortunate that their legacy was not lost so we could share them with our patrons in this exhibition.

The Legacy 

 English alabaster art was forgotten or dismissed as ‘folk art’ up until the late nineteenth century, when the Arts and Crafts movement in both Britain and the United States inspired a renewed appreciation of this neglected sculpture.

 Artists such as Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, and Auguste Rodin were inspired by English alabaster sculptures. They seemed to be particularly influenced by their abstractions, often dream-like realities, distortions, and stylized renderings. The works of later artists, such as Henry Moore and Jacob Epstein, also reflect the powerful legacy of the medieval English alabaster craftsmen.

Alabaster, Marble, and Limestone 

 English Alabaster is a fine-grained form of stone gypsum, superficially resembling marble but with a softer, deeper translucent glow and a creamy, yellow-ochre finish. It is soft and easy to carve, but the fact that water can dissolve it over time makes it unsuitable for outdoor sculptures. Alabaster was found in large quantities beneath the soil of the English Midlands and used extensively from the late fourteenth century until the Reformation in the 1530s.

 Marble was excavated at many sites during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, but the quarries at Carrara in Tuscany were—and are still—renowned for their high quality white marble. Marble does not occur naturally in England. A hard and very durable crystalline limestone, produced under high pressure over time, marble can be worked to produce a fine, smooth, and highly polished finish.

 Limestone was one of the most common stones used for carving sculpture in Europe. It is a calcium carbonate, which is sedimentary, and fossils can often be discerned in the surface. Hard and durable, it is frequently used as a building material, and many medieval cathedrals and churches are built in this stone. Much of the limestone used in England during the Middle Ages was imported from Caen in Normandy, France.

List of Related Films   A Man For All Seasons  Henry V 1966 1989 Director: Fred Zinnemann Director: Kenneth Branagh  Becket  The Lion in Winter 1964 1968 Director: Peter Glenville Director: Anthony Harvey  Henry V  The Lion in Winter 1944 2003 Director: Laurence Olivier Director: Andrei Konchalovsky

Christian Symbols in “Object of Devotion”

  Blessing Gesture: A sign of blessing where the thumb, index, and middle fingers are held up, palm outward, with the fourth and fifth fingers bent down; most often employed by members of the Godhead (slides 25, 38, 44, 47, 48, 50, 51, 60, 69, 70, 71, 79)  Cross: Reference to the Christ and His atonement (slides 25, 26, 31, 36, 41, 49, 51, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 67, 68, 70, 72, 78, 79, 80)  Dove: Signifies the presence of the Holy Ghost (slides 15, 48, 54, 64)  Four Evangelists and Their Symbols: The authors of the four Gospels, or the first four books of the New Testament, are symbolized accordingly: Mathew, an angel; Mark, a lion; Luke, an ox; and John, an eagle (slide 54)

Christian Symbols, continued 

 John the Evangelist Holding a Chalice: Containing a green dragon, the chalice references a miracle whereby, according to Catholic tradition, John drew poison out of a cup and it turned into a green serpent. (slide 24)  Keys of the Kingdom: Keys usually held by Saint Peter, to whom the keys to build up the kingdom of God were conferred by Christ (slides 31, 71)  Lamb: Often a reference to Christ, the Lamb of God who taketh away the sins of the world; as Christ’s forerunner, John the Baptist is sometimes shown as holding the Lamb (slides 18, 31, 34)  Lily: Reference to the purity of the Virgin Mary; also a flower of spring, it denotes rebirth and the Resurrection of Christ (slides 20, 30, 64, 65, 81)  Mary’s Scepter: Signifies the Virgin Mary’s role as the Queen of Heaven (slide 27)  Orb: When held by God the Father, it symbolizes sovereignty over the world; when held by Christ, it represents His birthright as King of Kings and Lord of Lords (slides 11, 16, 27, 38, 50, 51)  Removal of shoes: Indicative of a sacred place (slides 47, 48, 75)  Three-Tiered Crown: Usually worn by members of the Godhead, symbolizing the Holy Trinity – The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost (slides 31, 48, 51, 70)  Wafer and Chalice: The Blessed Sacrament of the Altar, or Eucharist, which represents the body and blood of Christ, respectively (slide 39)

Glossary   Alabaster: Found in the English Midlands, it is a fine-grained form of stone gypsum with a soft, deep translucent glow and a creamy, yellow-ochre finish; the fact that water can dissolve it over time makes it unsuitable for outdoor sculpture  Annunciation: The moment when the angel Gabriel announced to the Virgin Mary that she would conceive and become the mother of Jesus, the Son of God (slides 30, 38, 64, 65, 81)  Apocrypha: Esoteric books of the Bible that are not part of the accepted canons of the Old and New Testaments  Apostles’ Creed: A set of twelve statements, one by each of the twelve apostles, laying out the beliefs of the early Catholic Church (slide 28)  Ascension: The act of Christ rising into heaven after His earthly mission had been fulfilled; is generally celebrated 39 days after Easter Sunday (slides 46, 78)  Assumption of the Virgin: A story from The Golden Legend wherein the Virgin Mary, at the time of her death, was rewarded by Christ for her faithfulness by raising her directly to heaven, thus saving her body from the ravages of death (slides 50, 66)  Atonement: In Catholic theology, Christ’s sacrifice for our sins, which enables God and the world to be reconciled, or be made one Glossary, continued   Bill: A medieval hooked weapon (slide 36)  : Official act of the church declaring a deceased person to be a saint; the individual must have led an exemplary life, often surrounded by miracles and ending in martyrdom  Censer: A vessel suspended by chains and used for burning incense at solemn , Vespers, Benediction, processions, and other important offices of the Catholic Church  Coronation of the Virgin: The greatest and culminating moment in the Life of the Virgin as she is crowned Queen of Heaven (slides 47, 48, 51, 75)  Cult of the Virgin Mary: A thriving society based on the notion of Mary as a divine figure—the Queen of Heaven, Bride of Christ, and Intercessor for humankind  Daisy Pattern: A stylized pattern often found in English alabaster sculptures that indicates the ground or surrounding foliage (slides 19, 20, 27, 37, 48, 50, 64, 66, 67, 68, 75)  Deposition: The act of taking Christ’s lifeless body down from the cross (slides 42, 59)  Emperor Diocletian: A Roman emperor who ordered Saint Erasmus’ death by disembowelment  Emperor Mazentius: Emperor of Rome who persecuted Saint Catherine for her Christianity and commanded that she be tortured and decapitated

Glossary, continued 

 Genoa Cathedral: The traditional resting place of the relics of John the Baptist  Gilding: A decorative technique for applying gold leaf or powder to solid surfaces  Godhead: God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; also called the Holy Trinity  Golden Legend: A medieval compilation of tales about the lives of the saints  Halo: A disk of light surrounding a person’s head in religious , usually indicating holiness  Hierarchical Scale: Artistic device where the most important figure is rendered larger in size than the other figures in the composition (slide 39)  Holy Trinity: Christian doctrine defining God the Father, His Son, and the Holy Ghost as three persons in one being  Iconoclasm: A deliberate destruction of religious art, icons, symbols, and monuments  IHS: Greek abbreviation for the Greek name of Jesus (slide 40)  Immaculate Conception: The doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church that considers Anne’s conception of Mary miraculous; Mary was preserved from the stain of the original sin so that she would be pure to bear the Son of God (slide 27)

Glossary, continued   Incarnation: Taking on or becoming flesh; refers to Christ’s descent from heaven to take on a body of flesh and blood (slide 38)  Lamentation: The mourning of Christ’s followers over His deceased body; when the Virgin Mary alone cradles His body, the artistic representation is called a Pietà (slide 43)  Last Judgment: The final judgment by God of every nation, to commence after the Resurrection of the Dead and the Second Coming of Christ (slide 10)  Man of Sorrows: Iconic image of Christ based on Isaiah 53 that prominently displays His Passion wounds and crown of thorns (slide 71)  Mandorla: An almond-shaped halo that surrounds the bodies of holy figures (slides 38, 50, 66, 78)  Mary Cleophas: The Virgin Mary’s sister (slide 43)  Passion of Christ: The agonizing sequence of events leading up to, and including, the Crucifixion of the Savior: the Betrayal of Judas, the Flagellation, Carrying the Cross, and the Crucifixion; following this is the Deposition, Lamentation, Entombment, and subsequent Resurrection  Prie dieu: A small prayer desk from which the Virgin Mary was studying the Old Testament, immediately before the angel Gabriel announced himself (slides 38, 64, 65) Glossary, continued 

 Reformation: A sixteenth-century schism within Christianity that questioned the doctrines of Catholicism and resulted in the rise of Protestant religions; in England, Henry VIII defied the authority of the Pope  Resurrection: Christ’s triumph over death, celebrated by most of Christianity on Easter Sunday (slides 44, 60)  Salome: Daughter of Herodias who demanded, at the behest of her mother, the head of John the Baptist on a platter  Scepter: A symbolic ornamental rod often held by the Virgin Mary designating her role as Queen of Heaven (slide 27)  Stylized: In art, the repetition of certain forms and conventions, usually contrived and unrealistic  Titulus: The plaque above Christ’s head when He was nailed to the cross that reads: “Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews”  Torse: A wreath made of a twisted roll of fabric; in this context, it is constructed to resemble the crown of thorns worn by the Savior during his Passion  Virgin Mary: A central divine figure of Catholicism, the intercessor for humans, Queen of Heaven, and the bride of Christ  Wise Men: Also called the Three Kings—Caspar, Balthazar, and Melchior—who brought the Christ child gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh; in medieval iconography they represent the three known parts of the world at that time: Europe, Asia, and Africa (slide 12)

Saints Represented in “Object of Devotion”   Saint Anne: Mother of the Virgin Mary; her name and that of her husband, Joachim, come from the ; patron saint of mothers, grandmothers, and women in labor (slide 27)  Saint Andrew: Brother of Simon Peter and apostle of Jesus, he is considered the founder and the first bishop of the Church of Byzantium; patron saint of fishermen (slide 78)  Saint Catherine: Fourth-century martyr from Alexandria with superior intelligence who was well-versed in the arts and sciences; martyred by spiked wheels and beheading; patron saint of philosophers and students, also protector of the dying; one of the most popular saints depicted in English alabaster sculptures (slides 15, 16, 17)  Saint Christopher: Third-century martyr and bearded giant of who converted to Christianity; patron saint of travelers, who served God through his strength and might by carrying travelers across a treacherous river (slide 11)  Saint Cyriacus: Fourth-century pope who accompanied Saint Ursula to her martyrdom in Cologne, Germany (slide 30)  Saint Edmund:. Ninth-century martyr and Anglo-Saxon king of East Anglia who died at the hands of Vikings; patron saint of pandemics and Christian kings (slides 19, 20)  Saint Erasmus: Christian martyr who died in 300 AD of disembowelment as decreed by the Emperor Diocletian; patron saint of sailors and abdominal pain (slide 74)

Saints, continued   Saint Etheldreda: Seventh-century princess of East Anglia who died of a neck tumor and was given saintly status after her body failed to decompose during the sixteen years following her death; remained a virgin throughout her life and is patron saint of those with neck ailments (slide 26)  Saint Fiacre: Seventh-century Irish hermit who immigrated to France; patron saint of gardeners; his iconic symbols are a spade and closed book (slide 22)  Saint James the Greater: Son of Zebedee, brother of John the Evangelist, and one of Christ’s twelve apostles, considered the first to be martyred; patron saint of laborers and pilgrims; his saintly icon is a scallop shell (slides 24, 39, 68, 78)  Saint John the Baptist: Cousin and forerunner of the Savior whose mission was to baptize and “prepare the way of the Lord;” patron saint of baptism and conversion, he was beheaded by Herod at the request of Herodias and her daughter Salome; the resting place of his relics is Genoa, Italy; depictions of his head on a platter are among the most prolific in English alabaster art (slides 21, 31, 34, 37, 68, 71)  Saint John the Evangelist (John the Beloved): Son of Zebedee, brother of James the Greater, and one of Christ’s twelve apostles; traditionally considered the author of the Fourth Gospel, three New Testament letters, and the Book of Revelation; is often depicted with a palm leaf or holding a chalice containing a green dragon, referencing a miracle whereby he drew poison out of a cup that turned into a green serpent (slides 24, 39, 41, 42, 46, 58, 67, 78, 80) Saints, continued 

 Saint Mary Magdalene: According to Catholic tradition, she anointed and washed the Savior’s feet with her hair; was traditionally viewed as a sinner whose repentance and subsequent redemption inspired hope among the faithful; referred to in the Catholic Church as “The Penitent,” she is the patron saint of the repentant, her symbol being an ointment box (slides 23, 41, 43, 45, 58, 67)  Saint Peter: Chief apostle of Jesus who is often shown holding the keys of the kingdom; considered the first pope of the Roman Catholic Church, he is patron saint of fishermen and Rome (slides 39, 68, 71)  Saint Sebastian: Third-century Roman Christian of the Praetorian guard who used his position to convert members of the military to Christianity and alleviate the sufferings of Christian captives; patron saint of soldiers and arrows (slide 61)  Saint Thomas: Apostle of Jesus and branded as “Doubting Thomas,” he questioned both Christ’s Resurrection and Mary’s Assumption; patron saint of architects and builders (slides 50, 66)  Saint Thomas Becket: Once a close friend of King Henry II and ordained as the Archbishop of Canterbury, he was murdered in his cathedral Dec. 29, 1170; often featured in English alabaster sculptures (slides 25, 68, 71)  Saint Ursula: Fourth-century virgin-martyr who embarked upon a pan-European pilgrimage with Pope Cyriacus; upon reaching Cologne, which was besieged by Huns, she and her entourage were killed; patron saint of orphans and students (slide 30)