Description of document: The Evolution and Rationale of the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) Word-Spelling Alphabet, July 1959
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THIS DOCUMENT. IS a·E-ST QUALITY PRACTICABLE. THE C·OPY F-URNISHED TO OTIC CONTAINED A SI.GNIFICANT NUMBER ·oF PAGES W·HICH DO NOT REPRODUCE .LEGIBLY. RF P.-oiecf 882
The Evolution an.d Ratio~ale.·of ·the JCAO orrJ-Spelling j\lphabet
... ' ... ,. AS 'f I A
Technical Repcrt !'b. 52 _..,,. T.sss 4 Coniract No. Af 19(6(W),..CS75. - A1r force Cambridfe RfdCirch CentM Oparr.stional ApplicatioM Laboratory Bedford, Moss.
n. Ohio~ U.W..*'f lteteorelt fou~Jdatloft ~e,OhiG '"' ICAO ALPHABET ICAO ALPHABET ··tc,A.O AlPfiABtT ICAO ALPHABET
A ALFA A ALFA A ALFA A ALFA 8 BRAVO B BRAVO 8 ·BRAVO 8 BRAVO c CHARLIE c. . CHARLIE· .C CHARLIE c CHARLIE 0 DELTA 0 DELTA . D DELTA D DELTA E ECHO E ECHO E· · EC~O E ECHO F FOXTROT F FOXTROT F . FOXTROT F FOXTROT c:; GOLF G GOLF G GOLF G GOLF H HOTEL H HOTEL H ·HOTEL H HOTEL I INDIA I INDIA I INDIA I INDIA J JULIETT J JULIETT J JULIETT J JULIETT K KU.O K KILO K KILO l( lt"ILO L liMA L LIMA L .LIMA l UMA M MIKE M. MIKE· ·M MIKE M MIKE N NOVEMBER N NOVEMBER N "!OVEM6ER N NOVEMBER 0 OSCAR 0 osoo 0 . OSCAR 0 OSCAR p PAPA p PAPA p PAPA p PAPA Q QUEBEC Q QUEBEc· Q QUEBEC Q QUEBEC R ROMEO R ROMEO R -ROMEO R ROMEO s SIERRA s SIEftR,~ s StEllA s SIERRA T TANGO T TANGO T' TANGO T TANGO u UNIFORM u UNIFORM u UNIFORM u UNiFORM v VICTOR v VICTOR V. .VICTOR v VICTOR w WHISKEY w WHISKEY ·w WHISKEY w WHISKEY X X--RAY X X·RAY · X X•RAY X X-RAY y YANKEE y YANKEE y . YANKEE y YANKEE z ZULU z Z~LU .z iULU z ZULU THE EV 0 L U Tl 0 N AND. RAT I 0 t~·fA l E ·0 F. -1 HE I C A 0 WORD-SPElll NG ~LP_H·~·6tT
Henry M. Moser.
THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY RESeARCH FOUNDATI0N Cohmibus 10, Ohi'o
technical_ Report. 52· · RF Project 882
Contract No • AF 19 (60-4) 4575
July 1959
Prepared for
OPERAliONAL APPUCATIONS·LA80RATORY AIR FOICE CAMBRIDGE RESEARCH CENTER AIR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPME.Ni' COMMAND UNITED STATES AIR. FORCE. BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS ·SUMMARY
The development of-the word-spellin~ aiP.hc#et is traced, and re~orch methods and findings 'Nhich led to the r~cotMlendation of the
ICAO alphabet as on optimum list for inte.mational convnunicotioM ore summarized. Que~tion$ regardi.ns.t~ casirobility ond effiCiency of the new ::lphobet are discussed, wi~h the view to presen~ing ~hot the alpha bet intends to accomplish. S:-~ne 200 word alph~ts of' the.world are appended.
u TA~LE OF CONTENTS
Page
Summary ii List of Figures iv List of PI ates iv Foreword " I. INTRODUCTION
A. Word-Spelling Alphabet D!fined l 8. Origin of Word-:Spelling .Alphabet 1 C. Hi~tory of Alphabets .ih the U\ited States 2 D. History of fntemati~al Alphabets · 8
II. COMPARISON OF ICAO AND U.S-UK AI.PHABErs. 12
Ill. MODIFICATIONS TOWARD IMPROVEMENT OF ICAO ALPHABET 13
IV. PROBLEMS RELATED TO WORo-.SPELLING ALPHABETS 18
V. PROSLEMS OF SECLIRJ.NG ACCEPTANCE 21
VI. SUMMAR'/ AND CONCLUSION~ 29
~R~NaS ~
APPENDIX- ALPHA~ET~ Of THE WORLD
A. Alphabets of tM World 8. Compolite Listing of Equivalenf1
ill LIST OF FIGURES
p~
US-UK Alphabet 15
2 Originol ICAO .Alph~t 16
3 Modified ICAO Alph LIST OF PLATES Early UM of the word alphabet 3 2 An early VM of the Ak Force ulphcabet 23 3 Annex 10 recom.Mndotion of p-cia~iOn for ICAO alphabet 28 · FOREWO'RD This report, campl_etea under Cont:oct A_F .19 (604) 4575, inclu~s a summary of work occomplh~ed unde; previous contracts ori$inoted by Operational Applications Laboratory, AFCRC, AROC, with Dr~ Karl D. Kryter, Dr. Irwin Pcllock and Dr. Herbert Rubenstein. serving as project monitors during the period covered by this re~orch · During the ~riod of alp~abet evoluotii')O, Dr. John J Dr~her served as princ!pol invest~gat~r. ?'nd f;)r. Hons Sperber as foreign lunguoge consul tont· for the project Individuals ond organization\ too n•.•meroiJ\ to list individually hove assisted in supplying t~ ")l.o":'PI~' ~!)llected in. the Appendix, and to them we e)(press our gratitude. tn port_icular, we ocknowol~dge_the.oswstance of member! of The Foreign S.rvi ce of the United S~ates o.,d of fo~ign embouies in Wamington. 1M number of ofphobets cOmpiled to date-has p this publication wHf pr0fr4>t those w.ith knowledge- of addit~onal. alp~abets to di n!ct them to our attention v THE EVOLUTION AND RATIONALE OF THF. ICAO WORD-SPELLING ALPHASET INTRODUCT.ION .. · . . "fh~ comPilation of word-spe!"ling alphabets wos begur. d .. rirg World W-:1r II with •he ideo of~rodng the evol~tioo of the 1ystem! ~.~sed by civil orgol"izations and in the military· services. in the United States, and possibly discovering ·he original word alphabet. The coll .. rt'"" was extended durirg the ~riod of stud) and resea'"ch on on international alphabet to include those of other countries These alphabets proved of v~lue to indicate working pri,ciples, ;me! to provide a iorge vocabula!'f of likely words fre>m wbich. possibl~ alternatives migh~ be drown. Since th~n additional .alphabets havebeen discover~d and a iotal of 203 different Iitts are rejlroduced _i~ the Appendix." An intensive search has been mode of the published literature, old records ond files, and infervi_evn iaa-ve been he1'd with pe!1on5 having some knowletjge of oth,r. work i~. this field. lnqui ries havo been mode of foreign embassies in WCAhington, a$ well as. of member1 of the foreign diplom'J~ic services of the Lnited States. It is Sllrprising, c~siderif'g the number of olphabeh reForted and the research that must ha·;.oe been involved in their preparation, that so little is known. No mention of this communicatiOn d.tvic.o has b...-en found in ony of the nurnerO\#s histories thc;at have been wri.tten on radio, telephone, and other communi ... cation operations. Jt see:r~ strange, too, that no consideratiCK1 of this basic communicatioo tool·i$ eo~toined in any textbooli.on :;peech. A. Word-Spelli~ .Afphabet·O.fine'd A word-spelling alphabet "is a. convenHOf!~1 code of highly intelligible ond non-confusable words for ute in identifying letters of the alphabet. The fundamental idta is to employ letter-word auoc:iation such as M-MIKE, or V- VICTOR · It is a COinlMCl •~rience in oral spelling 6nd in the ever-increasing uw of letteB for iditnt"ifying products-and organizations that letters alone may sound very much allke, and that certatn groups,_pcrtiev~arly A., H, J, and K; 8, C, 0, E, G, P, ·r. V~ and Z; F, S; ond· X; -1, R, andY; L, M, or.d N; Q, U, and Ware 80\ily confused. The. pr9bl•m becoma e1p0c:ially acute in noiJC, or when comnu~icoton ate net in face":'to·face contact, or whdn the ~aker and the listener come from d~fNrent f'*gionof or longuoge backgro\Jnds. Today certain civil ond conr:neial.orgoniz.atbns have offlcial liP.ts of ~ words,. and many countries have Sf'veral of these codes in ute. TM:..!: ore variously designated 01 analogy, signal, iden~tfying, or guard words; word li5t1; phonetic: codes_, af~habe~, or equiva_lents. 8. Ori,gin of the WQrd·Spelling Alphabat Vrhere ond.he>W th..; word-~lling alphobc'lt wei originated oppears to be unknown. The further bock we go 'the· more caO~$Cd are the records and the scantier they become. Its .in-..ention is vari.ously .auociated with shipping, the telephone, ond the telegraph •. Clairt4 are~ for thOGe wh~ worlced with the deaf and the hard·Qf-hearing. There 01re thcr-A ·who credit its invention to lp{scific persons, or.d no doubt 101M of these men i.n all honetty claim tha distinction. Scme maintain it is a natural, spontoneous reaction of anyone experiencing difficulty i~ c04Wnunication. It may be apparent to some that there is a certain similarity and possibly on assodation with the type of childrens' book that hca been with us· for· many ~~rations to teach ehildr~n their letters. Hen1y Eclcford in a series cf 8 papers- under tM title Y.onders of ~he Alphabet, published tn ST. NICHOLAS MAG~ JNE, Volume XIII, in 1886 writes: ". . • notions like th~ Phoenicians, when adopting c; new series of letters, narr.e. these letters·ocC:ording to their own fancy, just as we K~ti,.$ teach chiidrer. their alphabets by saying, 'A was on Archer' (or we may pref.r to have A. stand for on Apple, 01 some other word beginning with ·A}; Qnd •s·wos a Butcher', or 'o Bear', or some oth.r word begi~ning with a; There is no doubt that both the Romans and the Greeks. hqd Hs~s of words uaeEul to remind children of ·their letters." C. History Qf"Word-~lling Alphabets ~n t~ U,ited S•trtes An interesting example of the early use of the word alphabet in the United States appeared as the frontispiece of the American Book Compc11y caltndor for 1958. It is t~en from the fint 'New England Primer published in 1690 ond is r.pr9Ciuc:e~·in.. Piote 1. . .2 A B c . Tht C•t 4oth play Arid afiu O&J· Jiliiijp51...... D E F Plate 1 Perhaps the most co~ leta account of any phonetic code is thot of The W•stem Union Telegraph .Con~pony. The first reference ·oppears in th'! Joumal of the Telegi'Cfh, iuue of .No~mber. -1910: - "SPEi.LING DOUBTFUL. WORDS:·~ "Words, n~s and places concerning which theA' may be doubt, should be' coreful·ly spelled, special· at~•ntion being ;i ·.-en to those letters of the alphabet. between which there is a similar;ty of sound. The Jette" 8-C-D·E-F·G-H-M-..N-P- S-T-V-X-Y and Z, ore the ones which qre mo~t likely to be mlsuodentood, and should be verified J·n accordance with one Of fM fOIJOWing. rn:it~S When. OCCUrrir.3 CJS (l"n initial 1 the flnt letter of o nome, or in otiy c.ombinatlon ~he,. a misun- dentonding is likely to occur: · · · "(1) By following flo.. ·nome of a .letter whh some hquently used proper nome beginn'ing with rh• letter in queirion. 3 "(2) By repeating the name pf the letter ·after the two preceding letters of the olphobe.t. 11 ln selecting the method of verification to follow, the dt-rk should be goverr.ed i~ port by the letter concerned, end in par• by her ~n prefetence, or the practice laid down by the locol o:>eroting Telephone Company. ·. 11 \Nhen o~ meth(>9 is used ·for p~rt of a word. it should bt~ used throughout for the~·porti culor word conc~rf'ed. "Exc.mple of t;.."\ethod 1: --The ~ord 'Drown' sho.,ld ~ spe:led '0' for Dora, R-0-Y..-N.' The. letter '0' immediately suggests a number of frequently used proper names and the two preceding letters .of the alphabet~ '8' ond 'C' sound more or less like it~ ther~Fo~e, the first ~thad is f~lloweci • .. Example of MethQd 2: -- The_na~ ·z. Flood' sl-lould be spelled 'Z, X-Y-Z, F; D-E-F,·L..;cloubl~ C-D.' The letter 'Z' does not i·mme&iatefy suggest frequently used proper no~~ 1 and C\ll"lse~\Jently in the case of ··z· .ond 'F', the wcond method is followed. 11 In 1912, Western Union-'s ·proctice with re\pect to issuance of operating instructions was changed, and separate instructiOns dealing with individual Ojlerating methods were established. k. one ph~ .of th.e instruction dealing with the handling of tele!Jro~ by tel•phone, a phonetic code was standardized. (See Appendix, p. 25) The employee w~o prepared that instruction in 1912 hod previOtJsly used a phonetic cQde while- working 0$ an employee of the American Tele:phor...! and Telegraph Company. The s~:.ndardized list isiued for official u~ by '¥\estern Union employee! was the result of combining an~ revising th. optional examples u~d by telephone= and telegraph employees up to that time. The telephone compc.ty employees hod ~n U$ing t~ principle for a number of yea!'l prior h~ 1909 in their long":"diston.ce .circuit hondUng operations. Shortly after the Western l:Jnion list V.·os iS5ued ·JS_a stondcrd instruction, o change was ~~ in the use of ti'wt .w~rd exomple for ·the .letter 11 1" -IRELAND. This wos changed to IDA, due prvsumobly to a)nfusion resulting from the distinctive manner of speech in AHRLAND. The general letter outhO..izir.g.the chong&, bwed late in 1912, called attention to the p From J for JERSEY - J for JOHN N for NEWARK . N for NEW YORK T for TEXAS T for THOMAS V fer VIOLET V for VICTOR Y for YAlE Y for'Y.OUNG t., January of 1'942, 'tv"· for VICTOR. was changed to VICTORY. The \\estern Union list has remained unchanged sinee that time· •. Mu~h information Oil ;~ early use of methOds t'o identify letters of the alphabet over the telephone opoearec:\ to hove been lost,· and has eniy recently come to light. A seurch made in the libraries of the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the American Telephone and Telegroph Company revealed no articles on the subject. An historian who spent several years going through old file1 and records did not recall seeing at.y mention of-letter teUing. One official of A T & T expressed the opinion thcct·rhe word$' and pronunciations used in "Operating Practi cei 11 represent~td a natura~ evolution based on the accumulated experience of 82 yean of trying to give the best -telephone servi~ pOssible. He assumed the u~ o~ names to identify letters was as old os t~ fi.rst .telephone conversation on which there was difficulty in hearing .. h would seem to have ~en on entir.:l( 1pontaneous reaction, if not sure of a letter to ~sk, "~as that •j• as in JOHN':" 11 or "J~ck 11 , or u.,;omes .. , or "Jerry", using his own ria~ or that of an acquaintance, or that of the individual in qu•stion if it -were known. This informant p~hted. out that all of the AT & .T words ore_fomiiior first nomes.of people excepting the letters Q, U, X, Y, ar:~d ~' for wl.;'"n familiar first names do not readily come to mind, Te:-1 Y"ilra vwu a veteran .e)l.ecu!ive in the troffi.c·department of A T & T reported that the system then in use ~ad romair.ed ~nchanged since 1913, and thi1 statement has been quoted in earlier repC\rts 1- from·our laboratory. He recalled a number of earlier informal discuuions with eXperienced O(:Mtrators in regord to the selection of words, and the practice of posting instruction charts with the wordf. accompanied by accent marks and symboll ttl indi cote inflectio~ and the degree of e,.,hasis to be placed on each syUOble. He could not recoil the existence of an earlier· list; One executive; apparently in hi: anthu:siasln for the personalized servi c:es of _telephone operat9rs. cha~act•rized by the slogan .. 'The Vofce with the Smile, 11 stated that the words shoWn in ·"Operati~ Prac:tica" are merely Ulustrati've and~~ not ir:t any ·Mn:1!·restrictl ..... Ano~her .5 executive, while stre~ing the i~i>rtance of noturol expression of the personality, 11 insisted that no deviations fro_m ••Operating Practices _ would be tolerated. Through the interVention of an ex~cutive.cf the Ohio Bell Telephone Company, experienced company pe~nel securt::d the cooperation of officials in the Operating and Engiri~~r:ng Oe·parru-=l')t _,...f the A T &· T. Their access to personal files made it possible TO construct 0 chronological history C\f the methods used by the telephone company to idantify letters of the alphabet. On Oecem~r 1, 1904, .'The Americo:1 Telephone and Telegraph Compa;;y issued a builetin call~d ···~rating Rules ... Among the generol rules was the following: · "Passing Names. ln_passing and tef,eating the names of all persons and. tfie nome$ of places concerning_ tl-.. ~I ling of which there may be doubt, the-se ~ords shall be spelled. In spelling names and in pcnsing initials, a letter concerning which. there may l» any doubt shall ~given at the end of the two next pre~dil'g.letters of the clphobet. Special attention S'hould be given. 'to. the pouing of those letters of the alphabet between which thero is a sirnil,arity of sou~d when posted by telephone. The letters, B, C, ·o,· F, H,· M, N, P, S, T. V, X, Y, o:1d Z·are the ones whiCh ~re.inost likely to be misunderstood, ond should when occurring --an initicil or the first letter of the name of t_he person always be rupeoted. 8- ab M- kim V- tuv C- abc N -1m" X- vwx 0 ~bed P- nop Y -wxy F- ·c~ef s- qn Z- xyz11 H ... fgh T- nt·. In 1908 a modificotior of the rule.was i$wed lo include the use of pn:~r names, but "o list w.a$ provided·. The operator used any name with which 1 Jhe was familior. An exampla, "0 as in 0orQ' , was furnished. She also used the alphabet method. BuHetln 10,.which wpelWded 11 0perating Rules" of 190~, was 11 issued in 1910. The e.t(o.mple was changed to '~0 as in Otlvid • No lis! of names was provided. . · · . . In 191.4 a modification wat bsued canceling t.he alphabet method and ~comme~ing only the ute of~r names.· No.llst wos provided. 6 Bulletin 10 was reissued in 1917, and a list .of proper names was provided for the first time .. rn 1922, the "Toll oPerating Practice" wos issued by the Operating ond Engineering Department. 'It Su~r.~ded Bulietin 10; b~1t. no ~hange was mode in e it~ r the method or the Iist of w~rds. The change of the example ·11 0 11 from DORA to· OAVlD suggests the possibility of on earlier unofficial list. One wc>nd,.rs why telephone engineers who pioneered th6 development ~f proceciures for the investigation of the intelligibilitt-of ~ech did not apply these techniq~et toward the development of an alphabet. Possibly the answer. is that it may be· the wiser course of oction to get along with a somewhat interi.or system that is thoroughly standardized and established thon to rhk all of the confusion and. antagonism .involved with the introd\lction of a new syst11m. 'At any n:ate, the AT & T Hst.is one of the best known and was adopted by the Amer.ican AssociotiC?f'H?'f Railroads as recently as 1957, replacing the Vtestem Union list; · Alphabets used by the military services ore not difficult to trace with the frequently publhhed ~omphlets, technical and field manuals, and handbooks. However, there is a noticeoble lock of consistency in the alphabet pre'8ntotions from year to year. Milrtary pro~dures were the conC:ern of the individual services before \\orld ·v..ar II cind thOr. became the responiibility of a Joint Boord. The Joint Arm>· and Navy Proced~re prepared by the Joint Board November 13, 1940 and effective MOrch 1, 19..-''l preserved certain alternatives to be u~d by the Army and Navy in their individual activiti~s •. A Cormined Communication Soard was ettabli.shed following the entrance of the Unite_d States into World \'var 11. TtKl first combined procedure :~IT, R/.T, Combined· Operating Signals, etc.) was worked out during 1942 by ~he CCB •iMethods and Procedures" committee. Old-time Navy men insist th11t the alphabet' o~iginated in the Navy as a mea~ of id.ntifyin; flog aign~ls .. rwo alphabets appear ,in tM iCme publtcat1on, Na!t Boat Book, for the year 1908 ·• (S.. Appendix, p • 22) The introduction of two alpha&ln suggests tM poulblltty ~at two di.ffe.rent ~ystems mtght haYa beon in use and ~ warranted reeogr.ltion. · ~rently tho Nav)- ri'au1t nave learned qufc*ly thot confusion Nrwlts 'from the ua of two ol~ts, cs shortly afttuwarda o new alphabet appsared fi~t ln a foOtnOte, ond ~ntly alone. ~rhaps an enthwly new single alphabet ~ lntrcduatd to .avoid anta;oni%tng the proponant's of etthtr of the orlglnclllat1. In the yean that foll'owed there were change~, and some dlffentncn en noted In lht printed Npretentctlont of tho !l)ftger words; i ·•., A"~!!'!E"" IN~-OGATOIY, NEGATIVE, C»Tl.ONAL ond PREPARAT61Y. For ~le, INTUIOGATCAY ~Ira full;, agoin Gl iH'i£R, and other tlmos aa INT. (S...... ,•• , pp. 2!-~ 23) · Solu pUbUcoticm stato that the ahr.wtened 7 words are to be pronoonced in full; in some. this ins~ruction may be implied, bs.Jt later oditions clearly state·the u~· ~f AFiRM (usual spe.lling), INTER, NEGAT, OPTION, and PREP. . Another source of intr 1ll\.o1ivc-1 on communication and alph~ts in porticular is The American Radio Relay league. Foonded in 1914 to keep pace ..-:Hh thl: technical progress. af.amateur radio, the O..g~ization hO$ a lorgto ir.ombe1'\hip including Outstanding authorities ;n the field, and a reccrd of distinguisht~d service to the:nati Th! League_publ~she.s The Radio Amateur'' Handbook and the monthly QST. ·F. t. h .. mdy, wh~ is credited with preparing \he first Oditico of the Harid"600K.; nas servec;l as.COmmunicotion Ma."\ager of ARRL both before and after- his 5.er~ice ir. rne Directora_te of Commvnications of the U • S . Army Air Forces during \\ orld Wa~ .II. The earlier Handbooks presented o word list of three- to five-letter words, with no phonetic in~lications, for the pl)P,)o:& of expanding initials or sending mess~s coritai ning rc;Jdio calls. Likewise. other lists were presented fiom time to time for inform:.ttion~ induding the lntemotior~al Roc!iotelephone list, the Mautory list, and ~hat of Western Un.ion. In the wventh edition (January 1930) Handbook, the league's choice among available listt wat that of Western UnicXi'ondfi"beccme known as ~e ARRL.list ... Ourine the years 1938-1939 the Official Phone Stat'iori Operator$, a grQUp of the League, made a study of (J Iorge number· of word lish which_led to a reconfirrnotion of the Y.astem Union list. · Early in 19·46 tM ARRL Liit wos invalidated by on FCC regulation which announced o cixnple~e l')ew· t~xt for Part 12 of Rules and Regulations governing the Amateur· Rodio:Ser.Vi<:e. Phonetic aids to identify might bo used, but to prevtnt conMiOC\ the_se were not to e~race the names of countries, staten, or cities. h~ a s.rvi ce to aU ama~u" the ARRL' List wai studied b;· o committee and ~~vhed to .,ltminate large city n~s. To insure that no amo.-.ur would be cited becousa of the pouibility thut ot seme ~:~mofo ip()t on earth a city with one of tho olphObot narh'itS exists, tl)e FCC was o.1ked to review the list. (See Appendix, p. 26) This wus declared to be in compliance with th5 new regulation. The new list,. by eliminating geogrophica1 nam11, actually overcome whot hod ~~n regorded by Jome as o fundamental weakness. When the FCC regulations withd~w the·t9~ bon on geographical narnas, the revi"d alphabet was continued and Gt tfie pre ..nt thNt enjoys w.de amaMur ac~tanct, D. History of fnt.tmetiOflai·Afpt~t' . SJnca 1927 thera ho." .~ 'lntematlonol agmnwnt _on the desirability of a ~ingie word-spelling ·alphabat for ute In _oeronautical and maritime rodi ore!ephone communications tliroughout the wr.~rld. While the first lrter notional Telecommunicat!on Union alph~t, AMSTEr.DAM, BALTIMORE, CANADA, etc., was selected in 1926, and as amended in 1932* has been available for intemotionol use (See Appendix, p.- 1.7), operating experience has indicated that ;he wo~ds.we're unsuitable because they were unusual in everyday language and b8ccuse they locked desirable phonetic qudities. A new era of oiphobet co.luruction w~·intrOduc:ed shortly after the entrance of the United States into 'v\'odd Vvar-U.- Major F. D. Handy, Directorate of Communi.catiom.. , ·MF, and member of tho ~orking committee of the CCB, svbmitted lists of alphabeticql eq" 'valents· to the Psycho-Acoustic laboratory of Harvard l..Jt\iveriity with the request that it determine the most successful we,rd fur each letter for u~ in communicating over military interphone in the intense noise. ~nc;oyntere~ in modem warfait:. JncJ~ded were the mil:tary lists known as USA (~e Appendix, p. 31), .RAF (o. 21), Royal Navy (p. 21), British Army (p. 21), Pr~~d· Londcn (p. '31), and Sugg!Htad US-British (p. 31); the commerc•ol lists e~ioyed by American· T9lep~one· ~d Telegl'aph (p. 2~), Be II TelephOt'd of New Je~y The results showe:'-- ~hat mony of ;the word$ in the military lists hod a low level of inteiHgibiiity '- but thor most of the defi.cienci:s c:ould bo remedied by the judicious.selec:tion of words from the eomltlGlc:ic! cades end thale tested by the laboratpry. · In a few in1ton~-s where none of th-8 250 words c:OCJid be regard-&~ as espeeially·satisfac:~cry, it was believ:ed pouibl~ to dtsco-~er suitable replacements. ·Other worcb were ~f.lst.d and the most intelligible onss were compared w!~h t~e more desirable lists. A final NDRC liJt (See Appendix, p. 30) was auembled and rec:on'IIOOndad to the CCS. All •fforts uo to th!s .. tiru to locate t!wt CC8 file have b.en uniUcceaful. Th• communications chiefs bf the respective services were of course the mpondbltl portios rep,.sented in thb .group. The NDRC .list w~ ·~ttlh:ed in the woridn~ level deliberations of the. commUnication bocm:J~ .tfowe~r, It wa1 "-cefiOry to contend with preJudi~ a_nd deilret of on..r AII'Vicea~ Thitre W4JN Yer')' t,.,ortant operotfomd words used by bo~ U~ S. and lrltlsh MlrviCGI. Some eonsldlarotiOM 'Thi 1932 Yer:lion OJ itQ ITO war: ccnfiriftld ot thi Atlantic City eon'.-.naa In 19•7. 9 'i were given toward making the wo~ ~ntemotional., Late in 1942 d;recti,-es 11 ircun the European theater put presiu1-e on :he c~itte;., to opproY' a COit\11'v.):'1 language" to facilitate combin.d ef?orts ~n fighting the wor. It is reported that after cora fully evC!Iuatod deci~io:'l'• h~~ bt-en ~· f?O most of the olphobot I there sti II renr-:fldd $6'1e~..... l worm on wni c'-1 neifMr the u. s. r.or the British side would yield. The"'tore, the. Geoorals ond t!-.. Admirals went down the list taking f:tst .J U. S. ond then o U. K. pr~'-·f~ren<:e ~:1 r-.ompl~te S'he !i:t and get on with the war • There seerm little doubt that the service' were impre»ed with the approach and aehictvernenb· of lab~)ra~ory re$earch <60d that only the urgency of time c~ideratiom terntinated th_e search for~ ideal p~tlc word list ln favor nf the arbitrary ~tion of 0 prQcticol ~remise designed to give General Ei~nhower an immadiate, co.I1V'IIon miBta·ry:re;quired language tool with which to fight the war. V.hen in 1944 the British imiated on o replacement for NAN .~cause of confusion with N!NE ar~d NiNER, the. NDRC ,.c;om.\~r.:io· tions were CCJnsjdered Qnd NJCKEL w Near t~ end of VdQ!'d ~or It, the reolizo~ion thclt lorge-sc:ale expansion of olr trcnsp~totion w01.:id follow ~he et:&d ofhostilities pointed to the need for C!n intemot;cnol cornr.en~on to deal with ctrtoin aspects of civil aviation as thsy ~re rt loted to international air .transport ~rca on. The United States G.~med 1M ini~iodve b~: calling an ·intemationol confftFWnc:e. Thm, the lntemati~l Civil Aviation Orgonizotian, lc;AO, wcs born in Chicago in 1944, one; pen'nOntnt ~-~otters were t~stc:lbUsn.ct in Montreal thJ foUowing yeor. When IC'O in 19~ ognted on the need for an intemo tiOf'!\Jl alphabet, th$ Combfned S.rvlcaf cdphr.be((S. ~ndix, p. 23), ABLE, BAKER, CHARLIE •.• , which hod becornet well known thra...;hout th* world boCOJM of in extonsiv• ust In milikrfy opt"rations 1 was adapted and bec:omo the first ICAO clphobet. ~ater ICAO be~ affiliated wit~ the United Notions as o speclaliz.ed inte·mc.-tionol body dealing with oviotk~ affoin. IC.AO now has a me~rship of 7J nath">nS wtaich ope_rote civil air trcmpcrt or provide ovi W'-lile this fint ICAO olphctbtt'(US-U.K) hod ot~~ IHmed scf!sfoc-Nry for speoken of lrUish and Ainaricun E.nglllh, comp~ointl were p~tly registered by vatn from othor notions. Withln rhe )"eQr the Spanish-specking ...,mtntmlves advlud the~ the Aa!.E, lAKER, CHARLIE •• •t we. UNUft•d for Spanish ~'' and a li,Jpp. '".. ment~WV. '· ....ish alphabet . WQI prapoeed. (1M ApptMI., p •. il)' Thb WOI adopted lty ICAO orad giY!IP, ~ua! It~ ror worl&-wldl Ult In: chi~ ovlotlon •. to In the next faw years attention wos again diracted to tha advisability of a singlu universal olpha~t, and several atte~ts ~are made to produce o li1t of word$ which sounded substantial ;y the same in the throe working 1anguag~s of ICAO; namt~ly, Engliih., French, -and Spani5h, ProfeQOr Jean Paul V'lnoy of ~he lktiW#rsity of Montreal wc~s c¢mmissioNd by ICAO to develop a phonatic alphabet according to logical linguistic prindples to be .a~ceptable to interna- tional users. To ba considered a word must: · . · (1) ~ o live word in -eoch of thct th1H workit~g !onguag~s. (2) Be easily pronounced and recognized by airmen of all languogas. (3) Have good radio transmission and readability charqcteris~i cs. (4) Have a $imilar 'spelling in at least Englb~., frs;;ch, .and Spanish, ·~d t.hG initial letter must bf' t~ letter the word identifie). (5) Be free rr()rr. On)'. OS$0cioti~· with obiectionoble meaning£. A new JCAO olphobot embodyina th'!'~ c~iteriQ wgs propo~ed, and during the ~riod of review and tomri'ieot by ICAO StQtO$, .rwo minor ~CI!"~' were proposed. These cha:-.ges, os well as the. basi e nlphabet, were Qc ;.opted by the m.mber nations to1 use os on i11tfJ'"notionol $t~·.tl'*'rd tt\ h<' ~t.t J<:tive 1 .Ap:-il 1952 This new otph~et (~~Appendix, p • .~0} figure" · ~., promiMntly as o boloncing factor in gaining world-wide aeceptar1c:O of th" Eng.t.hlonguogo ~ fhe international medium of:o,.,iqtion communjc.oti(lfl. . . fmmediately ah~r it' odQptfon, criti.cism of rne new ICAO word alphobet wm r&9btel'fiJd by pi IQh and operata~ a~~·tomed to thft ABLE, BAKER, CHARLIE •.. list. To e>"piOte wme of the cbj'!:ctionJ,. and in thG' ,nte~sts of on optitl"!um alphabet fer· ioint ond· combine~ operations, ·nv: -ably witf, the NATO nations, ttw USAF directed Opt-rational ~Hcctions Laboratol)', AFCRC, ARDC, to monitor a project with the Research Foundc.tion of The Ohio State University. Th~t specific problem was to dett:nnine by oxperimental tests whic'n of the twO vlfiOobets is· bette~ ~ited for U$0 by.Amcfican ond foreign personnel op.Jrating under varying·conditions of commu!'!i'cotion, and whether suHable changes could be determined .ana should ben~ .to in:-ProYe its efficiency. Clearly the e~nse and inconvenienc• of ct-JQ&1ging <;Jiready established procedures would be Justified only if the words utilized by the ICAO alphabet were better ~ted then those of the US-UK ,.Jp_hObet t1) the pilonemic hallln of intemational UMn and would, therefMt, provtt .nOrt effec~ive in «r.tblrt- .. d operations. 11 II. COfv\PARiSON·Ot- i<..AO AN:) US-UK ALPHABErS Several reppr:) on comparisons of the IC A() ~"~nd US-UK alohobe.ts hove been submitte-.:! by this laboratory thruugh offido channels and ure ~vm:;:ari zed b£.>1...,·....-. · · · A preliminary ~omporison of·the. alphok=-en under Or~e condiTion o~ umbient noise w=th on untrained group of 60 Air Force ROTC senior studenh at Ohio State a~ ,Jxperimentol ~ ... bj~cts indi coted superiority of the ICAO Iists. On thP. bus is tJf this, niore spec:i tic ~.;~i'll were des·igned for more completely trained liH~~"'ing panels and test speakers representing six NATO notions. l :dening wtJs. ccccmplished vmkt five di fferer•t signal .. to-noise ratio conditio.,s. The idea of cordu.cting rc)rs under ~ooditions of high noise interference is to provide o.qui.cker·, rr'INe eco.,omi cql way of detennining the relntive effectiveness of·alphob~i words. ~xperimentol ev:dence indicates that higher noise levels do not create co~fusion. out do intensi'fy thcne confusions already :r.heu~nt ocrween the word!. ~n question, tht.:s enabling the experimenter to pick out more easily the actually a11d· potentioliy i.11effective words. The noise levels and S/N rotic~ uM!d do riot deviate markedly from the levels encountered in air operations when reo3ption c.:onditrons. are poor beco~J~e of distance from the tronsmi tter, stoti c, 01 equipme1't mol function. Speakers ·repre~nting the NATO nationalities ipoke a number of lists of rondom'three-lett-er code grovps u;::.~ thl! two alphabet: to be investigated, and tope .tec~rdings were mode of. thtt-se lists. Two se'ts of list: were prepared, one for training purposes to o~uo.int th~ lhlcners with the words of each alphabet, noise i~terfer~nce-, ·o,..d fore;gn dialects of the speakers, while anot:ler set w~ made for. the actual tent condition. After approximately twelve hours of listening practice to en.sure complete familiarity with both olph~ tJts, the experi.r.ental subjects, foreign ond Ameri con, li~tened ro the test lists under thr; prescribed conditions of 11oi.se int~rference. Two t~s of noise generlltors were t:mployed to introduce int& .. fP.r"9rtce in th~ listuninn lines, end the speech level wa~ attenuated to achieve progressively more difficult reception condiiior\s. The resultant scores w"re C1>ri~ared end onalyz:ed for differences. · · ~oth foreign and Ameri con liste~er~ showed significantly better re1ulta in rece:'fing the .ICAO alphabet t_Jnder reeepti~ co.,ditiOt\s ror.ging from foir to vert bad (viz., -5 to -16 db S/N ratio). This perforrMnce is st«.~tistlcolly significant at a confidence levt~l of onta-tenth of one per e.nt t~.rovghout the mcat discriminative 5/N ranges·(~lz., -10 db and :.12 db). 12 lr. :he r..<>u;se of this· oipho&Jet investignti'on one of the military services requested thot the experi'me.nt. be repeated ·using sul::iects of :ower acaor-mi c stet"'$ thcl"l •Jniv~rsit)r studentL Accordingly I t~o panels of nigh-!tchool JUniors were us.Ad as experimental subj'ects •. Resulti refl'eded high motivation end perhaps greater acuity of hearing in that so~whot hi.gh~r scores were obtained fnr both olpho~ts, but with the JCAO li~t ·again ~uperior. Ill. MODIFICATIONS TOWARD IMPRo'VEMENT OF ICAO ALPHABET Norwithstonding the b~~ter performance of the 1952 iCAO alphabet, th~ tollowing questions ~ere r~ised: · · (I) Con t~e efficiency of thi~ .~et be :~:-cved? {2) Con the confusable wo(ds in t.h~ lCAO set b~ replaced with less confusable words? . In order to evalvote the effec~i.venen of each word in tho IC.AO list, an international linguist selecied o number of alternate words which he considered as good or better then those in the ·ori9inol set. He followed the J1rindples estobl ished by Vin(Jy and studied the criti col comm.ents of operCitors. He wo s ossistfld b~ pone!$ of for There ore two bosic considargtions. in the development of a restricted vocobv!a~' S>Jch as th~ phvutiNc \.llphabet. In t~ first place, the arttculatlon score for each individual w()rd must be el)nsidered • Dt.,: to their phonemic eomposi,ion, certain wotd~·a~e intrinsically unintelligible and are to t.e avoided. Of equal importonc<~, howetver, is the foetor of confusobility. Phonetic similarity, whi c:h is not always. immediately opparent ~. moy leod to one word being h&ar-9, when another wa.rd was actually sp·oke{l. For example, the word FOOTBALL was considered at one· stQ¥e pi :h.a investigation as on exc:eilent prospect for an 11 F11 word,~porticu!ariy whftn It showed .o slightly h=gher art3culotion score than FOX TROT. However, FOOTBALL (Figure 3) wa~ heard when other words, ospecially HOTEL and VlCTOR, were spoken. The over-a!l e~ctiveness of wa• raised by tho use of FOXl'ROT. the a:phobut . continu;;d . Accotdlngly 1 . te ariswer ·~ q~stion about improving an ~lphobet, a detailed item onolyais ¢~f both artlcui~JQn .and ~onfusion scores must be effected. A ~._enitnf method is. to·resort to a visual dlsp.lay· such ·~ that representee:' in Figures 1, 2, ond 3. The crtkt:lction score ·of the i,dividuaf word may be read in the extreme right co.lumn; it repre~nts the j,erc;a,tage of the times the vsord is correctly identifie9· w~n spoken The ::olumn toto) ot the bottom under each letter gives tha confusability score a,d r~)resents. the number of times the word is heard when another Is spoken. The .ideal word would hove a mCPlim"'rn articulation value and a !Jlinimum confus~iJ'ity score. To isolate trouble !pots we Med only look .for Iorge e-rrc~ :c6res. In the figures all error .:.ells exceeding an arbitrary Yalue hove been cird6d. The number-of Cirdes gives a rough comparison of the two alphabets. Th-e line of attack for improvement is indicated in removing cs many of th~ circles as possi~le by th~ judicious substitution of ol temote words. · Ob~iousf.y, 'the fint step was to select for replacement 0 limited number of words exh~l:iiting high error den;ity. Three words,. COCA, METRO, and EXTRA, war~ first replaced by three othan: ·CHARLIE, MIKE, and X-RAY. The rationale for t~is selection w01 twofold: ·the_obove-ovorage performQ(Ice of these words in t~ us ... ut< ~t, and the or)inion of the project'l foreign language consultant that thai" were phor-~micolly adopted to NATO users. Articulation scores of the lister.i'lg pone Is reflected a significant improvem.rt in the efficlency of the modifi~ .. ,t. As a further check, additior.al tape,: were prepared, new ::~·•">iects w1re trained, and a different noise genarator was substituted in the r~ting program. While the raN percentage JCCfel on both the originclf and modified Nts were of lOme~~ higher magnitude,. the modlfied ICAO alphabet again show.d on•ncre.cu with high statistical sigftificonca. Furthor rew-.lreh indicated th~t· the higher scores could be attributed to the faCt that the ~bjects workel.f during the first phcu with two alphabet: whlle keeping but one in mind during the _I enter seri&s of tclts. lu th6 ntxt st~ in the modific:cition, thrn mo:• words were changed. FOOTBALL, UNIFORM, Cll'ld ZEBRA were Miected for insertion in the alphabet and o nsw series of tapa, trolnfng, and test . .OuiOfll were Jnatltuted. As previously mentioned, the )nteJUsibtlity of a word iu Mrious\y (lffected by the company U ka.pt, omHt Is the~fore niceaory to tat a substitution in the cont.xt of the •ntfre ~lphobet. Articu·Jotlon ~~'for individual words should be used onfy as indi~aton of the word'• po~~- in a given context. A study of the eompOrative scores on the two modifications and the original fCAO olphcC>.t showed that ·•lthough the six-word modificati l-4. -:----: ------ "' .. - ~ ~ ..ot\.'f\ ~ ... ~~ .... I ~· .. lr 'l' -·~ ~ . ~'-- ~'¥' \ ' ~ .. ·' ' " ...... ' ...... " ... " -"' ~ + 4 -~' "" ...\. - . . ... ·4 ~ "il ~'-~ ···~~···4 ,,_ ..... ~t .. ~ ~ !ot-41 ... 't ~ .. J, ' ~\ .- ...... ~ '~ '. 4 • ...... ~ • "'i='t~t~i ~-tiiTI-ra IT: ~~)-;T~ -~-~g .; - "'- A I :: 0 f F G H I J K_:L:_:M:.._:"-;_,::0:.._::_,::~~:_.::._.:i:._::'U:.._w:.·_::·lt:._:X~.:,.V_:Z:__~T~.--C>ol;;;::~•.;..·--G::·~t_. --M::.,;-."4:- .. "1 ALFA 1!. 23 3 1 1 1 -a 2 " 3 1111 10 9t " .. &~AVO 2 I S 4 I ~ 3 10 I 17 110 . 24 .2. i 10 10 2S 17 ·2 -' 6 I 9 17! 14 119 7~.1 122 " 10 2 (. 310 106 16 .294 62.8 l2S . 10 10 6 14 613 l3 ··® 1 207 2 3 -2®7 1 I 4 2 5 I 106 10 116 &5.3 1 :1 29 2 IS 2 I II 13 2 123 24 10 1111.4 4e~ li I 4 II I 6 6 4 3 IS2 II ICIJ ;o,c INDIA I 7 I 6 I I ~ 9 2 24 13 9 130 18 148 ll.l I JUU' rT II ·t.c 152 74.2 l ' " .@.' 15 tiLO I I 1 . 2 10 l 13 2 5 l 109 .!MA 17 2 l 04 9 2. 5 lOS 114 15,6 M:no 12 9 7 31_1' 13 ·.l@ 21 52.9 ""C!~ 2 I ·3·4 •. ® II 67.1 IS I 19 9 16 4 II $12 14 113 65.5 IS ? I 311 4 I n 12 , " .. QIJU(C + I II 6 10 I 1:1 4 I l 2 4 I ... 21 13' 12.7 I()MfO I'll ~211017 167 16 l&l 76,9 SIUlA l· 'I I 2. 11 12 TANGO 4 3 5 I 11 . 12 .• 2 :12 .. 4 ll llt II 10.5 UNION l I 3 12 e~ ~-® 217 ll ~.l VIC TOle 125 :i 6 2 II '13 • 6 9 Xlb " 71.7 6 I 1 I I 4 6· IJf 1)1 IO,f 2221'2) XII) 4 ' • ,. 214 n.1 6 6 1) • .... uw 2' 4 3 liS tM 75..S ~IOUII 2 • • IC~O (CMal.~te!) 1/.N btlt ••12A. . .,.._..,...COCA. ,_flO, ... IXTIA,....,. ....-~~~. MIIC!, ")(olAV, h~tf.W.~ ...ft..n._ .. ..,.. ...,...:....,. ., ... ICA0 ...... 71 .. 11t2.1,., .... . A I CO E f G HI J J: l M .N 0 Q • T \J v w- X 'f 1 T. ()ooiM. G.T. I .UFA 2 ! 29 o47 47 779 s.uvo I j 18 12 ,JI i I 20 '17.7 l I 21 97,8 10 ECHO I> ~ 4 I "n lo@ FOO 4 I ·10' 2 GOlF I I IJ 21 l - 3 104 ,_ 11~01,1. I I v 97. 10 ~.1 t::llO 'r.. I 2 2 I I 2 92 7 NtC1AI I 2 13 90.7 14 , ·~ 'b ;;\>' . .19 14 1\J IICI,9 I 14 lO K.6 QUU.EC 1_ "- . . 73 tOI.I£0 l I ",, Jl II OQ I I 2 2 l 10 I 2 II %l Itt ... : 21 X.aAY 7tl 92' YANK!! 917 ZU.lA 116 171 IS2 :a!. I FIGUU :) • • 10:~0 <•·•~•& "'olllllll u tlon) . WN&.tt•• ·I» ...... , ...... -* ~...,. -ft..-4 .,.nft' .-lrt. the ..._'lOili ...ftc.IIM lf•• J) ..t.l'- IOf;*(tt .. tile erl ..... ICAO Iff~~.~,_,._,.,. tMdl .. '-.,..! .... ,._, -'••· (f7 .0). ~-Ill !toll ..n. M\1 otlfl...... - .,. 41fllfllll! ...... ,ltleooM _...... eal7- ~· ' '•. p~hing a dent out af.Child's celluloid·bal.l-- e.ven· a wcceuful p•Jih loovas a small dent in another place~ · · lnspec;ti~ of the analysis for the second sori.cs of tests (Figure J) offered evidence that the ward UNIFORM has outstandingly good tran5mission characteristics in the ICAO environment and hei1ce should reoeivo further comideration, since the onal}"is clearly indicated that the correspondi,gly inferior scores of the second moe i fi cation were oot caused by this word. It h~ tubsequutly.be~n incorpOt:cted in the ~ec:ommended fCAO alphabet. One further change scorned· to ~ called for. The British research gr~, under that di recti or,. of Or. George Eric Bell, whose resulh gave s•riking confirmation to th-e U. S. re_sec;areh, hod noted a confusion between NECTAR and VICTOR, both experimentally and operationally. To tesolve this obiection both Briti5h and American research teGm$ conducted e~rimont\ for ~itable Nrand/or V words. A solid preforeuee by An~rican.air personnei fo1· retaining VICTOR, which agreed with~ ~oice of tht United Kingdom, led to the decision to concent:ote on a ~itoble ~plo~ment for NE"cTAR. Prelhninary, lntelllgtbtHty, ~fusion, and pronunciotion trio Ia involving lnttHtatlcncd ap.akers and lt"steners reduC!ad tht list of ovqiloblt pouibtlitles to two words ai the moat likely. pair from wf\lch to chooee: NOVEM BER and NUGGET. .lnosmUc:h as thore wcis agreement on the same ICAO al;hobet framework with C, ·M, U, ami X modtRc:otions to CHARLIE, MIK~: UNIFORM, and X-RAY, the reol Issue in qu.stlon ·w~ the selection Jf on N•word. Arrange menh we~ mode that 0 final dQcbion would be sought ry aoint tests conducted at The Ohio State ~ivtrsity. ·On the oasis q,f the ioint te$h it wos eof\duded that the word NOVEMBER is the most 5Uitub-le rep!acument for N in the moclifiad ICAO list. Therefor~,: it .was the consef\IUs of both the British anci A.,_ricon research teams that, as Rnally re~nded in 1956, the ICAO a!ph~t should stand as: · · · · · · ALFA FOX·TROT .KfLO QUEBEC VICTOR BRAVO GOLF LIMA. ROMEO WHlSKEY CHARLIE HOTEl MIKE SIERRA X-lAY DELTA INDIA. NOVEMBER TANGO Y,._.NKEE ECHO JULIETT OSCAR UNIFOIM zu:..u PA9A. iV. PROILEMS IE~TED .TO WOft~SP~LLI~'J ALPHAIETS In oddltian to the ta&k of ctSttrmlnlng fhe better of tht two atph•tl and tho subttltutf~ of aultabfe alternate wordl rot the "troWielpOtl" In 1M 11 better one, attention w~ directed to other ~5i~r~Hons related tc the alphabets. One step in the investigation was to examin~ the extent and stability of attitudes towards tM individual words of the oid and the new alphabet by testing both AMeria~n and foreign untrained subiects to detGimine if any preiudic:es ~xi~ted • Before receiving ony trciniug, the subjects rated oil words in beth sets on a 7-point preforence sc:ale using any cr~teria 'they chose. A rating of l meant top acc:epronce while ?stOod for strong repugnance. for the word, with intermediate ratin~ implying varying de~rees of like and di$like of the word.in.ques.tion. These ratings indicated a wide difference betw&&n the forei·gn and American .gr~·s, with t~~ former preferring tN: ICAO words, the lath~r ~trongly in· fO-.:or of the US-UK Wlt. After a six-week period of daily wQri( on each alphabet, they were retested to measure any shift in attitude. Neither group showed a l5ignificant preference. 11-.:: prejudice hod vanished after the newness hod worn off. Do&$ an unfavorable attitude toward a word operate to handicap that word's performance?. Comparison of pre-ttoining rating and the subsequent ortiwlati.on sccres of individual words showed no significanr correlation :>f. the 'two variables; tn~reby perhap5 implying that sufficient use of an alphabet serv"!1 to amelioratu a prier_ unfriendly _attitucb. ~ p0$Sibly important factor in the success Qf a worcJ .. spelling alphabet is the cJElgree of conficktnc:e U$81'1 have in Jt OVer Cnother alphabet in which they have been trained. To investigate thh cnpec:t, initially u~trained sub;ects were thoroughly trained equally and alternately with the 1r..AO ond us .. IJK words until score' showed no differences an retest and neither group £howed a ptli~MSnca for either alphcbet. At this point it wos ouumed that they might evince more confi dence in the use of one- than ~n the Qther whtsn a~ting under duress. Accordingly, a s.eries of tests requiring- oral f.'roduetion of \htee ... wo.tJ code groups indicated by tachistoscopic presentation of:three random lette~ w~ de~lsed c:.~d :.:dministered Sub(eets were instructed· th~t either alphabet cr any mixture was acceptable Qs Ql1 a.UW.r 1 and that only speed Of production WaS tO be miQSUI"ed • Their NlpOIUel, mode at top speed and recorded by a micrOphone, indicated CMSistent and sigr.ificontly greater use of fCAO words, regardless ('f the subjec:t's nationality. One other·dtvice w~l~ wet particularly striking in dllmonmating tiw differenctin effectiveness betw"n th~a h¥o ol.phcbeta for int.mational UM WOrrG\1h .-dol mentiM. This WOJ o 20-mtnute tape r•cordlng to ·.now fint-hand tM mutilation of alphabet worda ·when tpobn by ~~~ 'lptGkln. This reco:dtng and the rttultl of tM experiiMntol *ta of the two otphabe~ we,. uted as a demonatfa. tlon thot W01 pret~nted tc ciotnmunl cation ""'~itilt*, pilots Ond contro~ tower *Air C00tCHnoti"6 COfMSittM, Joint com;;;;nlcatlons-EiectiOftlct c:;;;;Jtt;;, Xlr Navigation Comml•ton_ of_ICAO, ~rltlsh Ministry of'CJvll A'.·lotlcn, OMOnQ othlra. 19 ~~rut.,0, os well os training officeN cooce~cd'with'miiitary and NATO 1 ~~~cnnr • C~tnllrily the recordang wo:. heard f9ll~ing tho 'tatidtc.al COfTl- porison of ~he \Jiphabets 0 • Li.steners were given a form to use' for ?orticipation o In the first part of the tope recording they were told that o native Uruguayan speaker would recxl a written s".ript with three 3-ietter code groups in tke .US-UK alphabet o He hod received no coaching On pronunci~tion on these, or on the three groups that would follow which wou'ld be ~n the ICAO alphabat. The listeners were to imagine that it was vital for them to receive the exact. letters .trensmitted, and wore to write down their ~st guesse~. It iS imp0$!ible to ~escribe the recording, but tbe following I'Jrthography repre~nts tli~ c~i·te judgment of University s:vdenn of what was said for the first ct'de group in each alphabet. US-UK 11 Nationolity Spanish -.Number one, wrHe:· HEEG, OH, HAY .. QR-HAY" ICAO 11 Nationolity Sp-anilh ~ Number t'~, write:. JULIETT, OTEL, GOLF .. For verification the ~~~t_eners were told that they wo\Jid hear the above repeated, and were to notJ~ :hat the letten are idi;,ticcl in the two cases. Yt'hife trained Ji,t:enen, ·such as thOM e~loied in the alphabet srudy, would hJve had no trouble r~cognf~fng a Spar1iord caying JIG, HON, GEORGE, finc:e the wOrds were spok~ withovt.-~ting noiso, no pilot wa1 able to identify aU th,.e le»ers In the US-UK alphabet •. On the other hand, no diffi culty WGI experienced by pilots in rec:ogniJfng the corretpoMtng ICAO word& even though H was milling in OTEL. (Tats have a!ap demonstrated that ptlob ejCfMrlenc:e no dlfAculty in identifying JULtETT when pronounc:.d HULlETT b1 othen for whom Spanish .fs the ri~fw tonp .) The second ond thftd ports of the NOKded 'demonstration c;anatated, *Ptctlwly, of groups of French and Spanl~·ncttloriols giving an uncoachod Individual Interpretation of the ~ndotfon of the U$•UK and lCAO lith In alphat~cal ~r. The Jfitenen weN Ina~~- to rote eadt word •poor, fair,., good on the cpproprlate tpace. It w01 unne-.. ... ·:'/to aalc whlah lilt wt11 rated c peri or, and it is prdlobly no exaggeroti9" to soy that this recording was .eee~""d .,..ith more enthusiasm thQn the stot•sticol comparis-on. lnP$much ·as intelligibHity, confusobility, ·and international suit obi t•ty, ·• o ...een streS~ed in the pre~·nt~tion, the discussion that followed provided an oppvrtunity to near objections, listen to COl:Jnterargurnent~, Clld, above I a: I, to hear whet constitutes 0 desiroble,alphc.bet frOm' the vie~oint 0{ the people wr·o ore to use it . · V. PROBLEMS OF SECURING ACCEPTANCE Much of the initial re~istqnce to the adoption of the new alphabet ... ~ld be otlribuied t.-. familiarity with the old without knowledge cr appreciation of what the new alphobc~ :,ought· to accomplish. Pi lots, like people in general, ore resistant to a change i~ thei'r old way of·doing th:ngs unless they ore convin~d of the wisdom of the change .. Opinion was. voiced ogai.nst the new replacement on ;h~ basis of excess o;ylloble.s, wCirds which .,;ere thoUght· to 50\Jnd alike, ond words which were, for many reaSons, real or imogine.d,· .fust not acceptable. The most conP.nt reason· for evM't. Ari'erh:'" . 1..: ··or, : ., .,.:; ;<~• -d .a. tin: Enslish-~okir.g aviotic.n industr. t(\ 9ive. vnonlmuus accepton... mo e~thusc.JStk :u?port to·~~ •lew olph~.· .. : 's th'l O'Y~. :,eimmg odvon~age of having hh r::Jrive language as th~ univerwl h~dium for international· ~diotelephony. Annex 10 to the Convention on lntemoti~ol Civil Aviatioo states that, v.hile the primary •,, ~ns of exchongi.ng Information in air-grou'nd communi cation i5 the ;.-:q;guoge of the ground station, the E'ng!ish language wiH be 9vai-lcble on r~uest where English is not the language of the ground 1tatian .. ~ .lor,g as the present provis.jons of Annex 10 remain inforee, the' English languoge·, used in accordance with the standard phraseologies and other provisions of the Annex, '#.ill be ovail~ble as a universal madium. The universal availabil.i-ty of one olp.hobet and at le~t one longuoae common to the pilot and the ground of>erator is i~T~Fortont for safety and efficiency in inremotional air navigation. It is indeed fortunate for English spooking pilots that .Er.gli~h is t~ most commonty. used secondary language among other major language .groups.~ It should be r~membored tJ,at the International Civil Aviation Organizoti~n of 73 Stotos pre5ently racognizes threta lungooges, i.e., English, French, and Spanish, for osiombly meeti~gs, confereno.u, reporn, 'and publfcations. However, r~or ond reporting radi 21 Some. U •. S. pi bts felt the prestige 'of. the Sc:-vice wen threatened by t~ abandonment ~f who_t- tney~consider~d on Air Force invention even though the ni$fory given earlier in. this raport showed the OS"-UK alphabet with which they were familiar was at its inception a ~romise orrongement accomplished for a specific phme of World War_ II. To invalidate thi_$ argument furthftr, o repro duction of what is beiieved to be the original "Air ~rce 11 alphabet is contained in Plate 2.• · First of all, the time fodor was considered of prime impottance. Thae additional ~yllablei of the recommended ICAO alph.:!-r use up channel time, and they thus might C:anstitut~ an. additional menf.zce'with the aevent of iet aircraft and the ever-incnKJSing:derisity of air rraffic. FOX scundcd all right, so why &an"t FOX identify "F" as ~II. as FOXTROT.'? ~ onswsr is, of course, that FOXTROT is an international word, while FOX ~t:omes.i.ORRA in ~sh, RENARD in Frt~nch, etc. Now while the British h.a,...reported it tokh no longer to say TANGO than it does to say T_ARE, a~_olthough American ond forsign ~iec:ts trained cone-...trrently in the use of tha.two alp~abets at Tf-..1: ·Ohio St~ University showed no diffe~c:e in the time required to scrtd Code 9f0upi with aithai !i;t, h mt.=t be odmltted that the nftW alphabet has more syllables. While at first glance it does seem ob-vious that chan.nel tlm.. Suppcte tho~ ~~ -~ PAUL is to be t~onsmittod with a ~.onosyllabic alphabet which used PIN for-P,·APT for A, USE for U, ond LINE for L. Auc.'f'l'ling that the pronunciation of each alphabet Wi\rci require1 one-fourth of a Mcond1 the trc2nlmisaion of PAUL would theoretical.ly take fust one 11cond. SuppoM, on the other hand, that a polysyllable olphat be 8q)loyH which uses PROPAGANDA fM P, ADVENTURf "for A, UNIFORM for U, and LIMOUS!NE for l, ~:that the overos;l time for each word Is one full ucond. Would'* be iuatifie~·in. saying that~~ o.f mon01yllables, In general, deaecus trcwft}lssion thna by a foetor pf -4? :While t!-:ia might be thecntlcolly COIII'8d, in practice the result would b. ..,tlrely dfffttrent. For one thing, the uu of rncw»>&yllabl~ would oU.tOmati~ally ereote. a ~cy, If not a ....,i...-.nt, to lengthen the MC6'110rY pauie be~ wordl. ~ch INn IMpGCttnt, lwwe\'W, ~~the conllderatfon that.,., a momentary noise could tftthely obUtltiJta the shcrtword, In which cole the list.ner would ~w to oak bo npetllfoft ,-.w, c:culng o net 1.- of •wral. 11condt. Suppcoe,. on IW.t other "-cc, thlt • Ml• . . • •. 'lit. 1 11 •• I • •o 1 •· .. '"''I .. t • ~ - I • • . I ~ ·.. ' .------~------~ AIR SER\'ICE INFORMATION CIRCULAR - c HEA.V.IER·THAN•AIR)' PUSUSHEI>- BY -THE DI~R OF AIR SERVICE., WASHINGTON, D. C. Vd.l No. 78 NOTES FOR COMMUNICATIONS OFFICERS t P~OVJSIONAL) Prepartd by TraiDing &Del Opcraticr.. Group Office Dtiottor of 1\ir Service. Ma~, 1919 ntE FCIU.OWJ>.IC ts P\,'IUSMU) F'OR INf"'tU4ATlON ON\.Y. nft \liFtS tJCnESSIO AU. I'«)T NECf.SSARLY 'THOS£ ~ l1i£ DlltlCTOR -~ Alit Sf'.RVJC%. NOTHINC HtRtzN II TO K ~l.'tO AS AN OR~ OGt OlllECTION ~ WH1CH SllUCT ~OMJ!UN'ICE 15 ~RY -6- .:.. Hove. o--Obl• • v--Vice. A-Nl•· H w--Watch. &--Soy. 1~-ltem. P--Pup • ' -Jt,.·. a--Quack.· -x--x-ray. c--Ca&t • J c. ·. -L · . Y-·Yoko. ck K--Kh~. R--Ruw.· . z.... z& £~,- .u.. , ·La (81_· _t Ru;h !.y )(-lCI/• ~ foUCMtJII -.. ,., ~-."an . • - Lo¥t0W.-. . sufficient to drown out alf of the word PIN wouldoccur d\iring the pronunciation of th. word PkOPAGAN.DA. The loss of one o~ ewn tWo syllables would not make t~ word unintellig_ible. · GANDA woulcf be sufficient to identify the letter • Therefore, the use of the polysyl~abfe w~!d hold the n~QUSity of repetition too minimum. It will be notad that the. fou~ poorest ~ords in the US-UK list (figure 1), QUEEN, KING, GEORGE, JI.G, ore rr ~osyllobiM, and that the most intelligible monasyJioble, HOW, is am6ng those most ~onfused. It :. ;.. i .. r•tting that NAN, one of the best over-all mOnoSyllable=- from the standpoint <)f intelligibjlity ond low confusability with otherolphobet words! continues_ to bo used in practica, but because of confusion with NINE and NINER* it has been otficiolly chang~d to NICKEL, in turn, incidentally·,_ o word discardea in ·the ICAO investigation. Perhaps the fact that most of the .·digits (0-9) are monosyllables is one of the stron9't't reasons for their spori11g U$0 in the alphabet; ~dhow fre<{uently r alphcrbflt words used in comparison with numbers? The followirtg frequency count , the lar;est ever made, is taker. from 121,296 words collsctef,f from all recordi"9i during Q given hour obtained by more. than 100 CAA towers in the United Stctfn. This study was mode i·n 1950 wh;en _only the ABlE, BAKER, CHARLIE ••• alphabet wos in use and when tadi~ tronsmissions w~r~ ~oor6r t~l3'l today. Digifl ONE 4955 ROGER 1045 . WILLI~~ 13 TWO 4249 ABLE 319 ·. LOVl12 ZERO -4219 NAN 290 SUGAR ~2 THREE 4~ I 1 1 •n; ili'OJ• "IIU. Niwi• (XI~r caune tor;ciher WO to iiiit)OCil1iJ Gftd 1iue NG\ - (Alter cou,... toeether to .2000) of'l In everydw ~ In tM b)to1 Navy, n the NtUl.t of confUIIon betw,en tl-.w' two mr.;ht wen'- dlattrM. •:=OG£1 Is olso the procedu~ -~ IIIICinl .. UCitV£Di AIU, HOW~ eel · Mil(£ ~ operatlril u. other th., • .~ ..,;w~~M' Perhaps the best ar.swer to tM question. of the desirability of polt syllabie words in the alphabet llst lies in the added intelligibility resulting from the extra syllables, ond thit inc:reCZMd variety, hence deCleosed c:onfulobility, mlfJiting frcm tho use of ~lphobet ~ordi.of one, two, and three syllables. In regard to the intaraction of the ICAO·alphobet wtth cigits, very little exisn. Most erron are .intra set,..!.:!.:, cft\lits v.:ith digits and letter~ wi.th lot~rs • .Another principle regq«Jed ~ bmic: in ·alphabet cOnstruction is thot the incii~-idua! wards must be r.odUy, ~ly-in fact, autorno~ieally~csso cioted with riM~ letter identified. Theoretically, ·the letter D mJoht be identified by DOG, LADDER,. MUD. Inspection ~f the different .olph*n in the "'*'dix rewalt olmost"Unl~md·~· tbot... a word'lhould.~ witt. the f~tlfying letttr ~ Statements to ·tttia. effect cn.fcund tn:tht· ..lfRiYf.U~b. ·w~ may be changitd from ·fi:fte' ~ ·tiN bu_t· ~,word:wJJI· ol~ bctin \tfltft tna lttt.r ft Jdentl~•; and In ~·.•1-r~tciph:oncftel~ ~lc.·"by ~cMiowing the nefti of the·le~,wJtlt J-.t-hqclentlt "'"·~ ~ IMeJ"f''no with· the IMt•r·in que8tlon." 1fte cloftpr·l~rent:.Jta aU_.risl ~ aperot~ ,...._ .fn •lading any C:omMon·n,.r~ ~.,_eple~ia·tt.,pOMiWIJt; ofUelftt.one ~_,...that sound aUk&-•·~Y, ·~.V," GMY, .HAfi&Y'- JEllY, ~IE, LARRY, MMY, PEUY, etc •. Pc.~Wy 1M ~t:of ~CI In tbt tei~.Je~w~llrindotton quotH~ Is ~~c.,.·tn proctiCI! ~.the ,.,t~t ~fQ-DQIA (conru.GW.- witt.·CqjA-LOIA) to O.,OAVJD. Anoflter ~. ·~~ ~~~·~ ·ts to twM ~word bie;~.~~t>~ · the "~ •.of ~:~1ft.., .. , ~~~- ~.~,. It ~·p.olnttd .9/Ut'that AIL£, ·EASY, ITEM, oter; ~tr .. n·~th tt. dl~ncH~~·I~ttfled, anct one ol ....,plfot,fliuirt.ci fhOt::ftt·ol• Waed ~-~ ~CI not hM boen reploCWNI ~th·UNCLE. ·lWIN~~-~~N-the US.UK e,t, wos.l .....ottly dtoppcd....., thly .htor~l·~~ctati'OM, ·~ch ai ~·~ced·wlth AH, EASY ~th A1 ..W 111~ WI~!. 1'hey ~ta,ci GOII'ftl an i111pr0~t ~ GEOIC¥ for G, IIJtce,·GE~GI QJtd JIG·IMteln wtth 1M·- "natural 'ound•M , TM problern of oohography- yerius letter sound has o!w~ plaguud alphabet builders .. Certc_in lette~ commooly represent. several \OUnd$ [ C:S (Caesar), =1< (c:at)l; [_ S=S (Sierra), =SH (~)l; andsaveralletten ean represent the S<:m8 $00nd os ~·and 0 tAuto ... Otto}. Also ~rtain speech sounds such C"R CH, SH, TH, WH, are ~pelted with tWo ·tett.rs. -~ diffieulty in the original ICAO <~lphabet wm that ~OCA, KllO, ond Q~SEC (Kaybedc) all hod the beginning soundof I'. E~lish-$peaking natitJnals have traditionally re~olved thi' prCoi"lem of letter i~•ntifieotion by using tM _CH-50Und CiS in CHARLIJ: fo1 C, the KW t.OUnd in QUEEN far·Q,_ ond reserving K {King or Kilo) for that letter. Attention has been directed to the _presen~ of three geographic or plaCE- nome.;, INDIA, liMA, ~nq·QUEBEC in-the final ICAO sat. This is a valid critieism, since the use of these words {night be mi~c:onstrued 05 forming p,:rt of an operational COfM'IOnd. It can only be· said' that tha$o words were in original 1952 set and have been found to work ~thfudorily. In the alphabet investigation INDIGO wen f~nd to be as gOod. but no _better than INDIA, and no word tested equalled either LIMA or QU~~EC in over-ell effectiveneu. QrJi nion was expressed by a few that the alphabet was no place for words O'J.~·ciatecl w:th commercialism. This remark_~ directed specifically to too wcrds COCA and VICTOR~ '1j\is orgum:tnt would discourage theruse of all tradenomes, eve!' thos4twhieh:enjoy 1ntematienel status. However, 50me of these, ~Uch as ESSO, JELLO~ KODAK, PEPSI, and VICKS, were gh~n s.:•rious consideration in-the selection o~ ~lt&mate words. F.Or example, KODAK ~ared to be an ideal alternate ·wo~ forK, if KILO wena to be discardod because of ccnfusion with _ZtRO arid o nongiographt cal subs~ttlte were· t'o4Jnd bQ~ - - It was also a~d that the Words of the US-UK list, partio.alorly in comblnotfon wUh othen, have the. desiroble trait of· "tripping" off the tongue. Thts property ts ex{;Mdtngly·dtft'i~Jt mevalu.ota, and th. proponents argued that it WGa SOfftiJtbi!'f' men thtirtmere fotntllarlty\lttth the old sys~m. Poull;ly ·the fact that the US·UK list ·hoi ""9"1 different parts of-st-ch -whid\ mob the wordl MOM readily CIIIOdoted lntq·combtnatlons, and t~ot there is l••·varlety in thl ~r of syltobl81, cantribute· to thli end. 'It b still open to question if thla "tripping• quality contribum to the over-oil efr.ctiY~MK of the alphabet. Finol~y, there ¥~ere COfNftlf)b ti'Ot could be ar:auptd under the NqVIre• Mnt tMt no wont Ghoulcl p011111 a iocletlout connotatlcn or be- of .,.otlw MOfCII YOI..,.. 1ft this-~ tt.N _.. o few who QOftllclottd .tt. W8ld WHISKEY ~~_.1 •. n.y ~ .t,_. ... ~cJ bf at r.-. OM·Iftonl.~ . ~...... It J! .,...Y. MIJ ~ tata o, ~OG~ SOOA1 n VODKA did not tum out w~IJ. On the orher hand, at l"ost o:te.Yiord 'in the US-UK ti:\r ;, distinctly sociafly unocceptobfe to·~ oft~ mo{or ·lan;uage groups, and it is weJ t known that some of the· eombinations in the US-UK· ~t were at least facetious. So for as the !CAO olph~r •s con~med, the only known facetious combmatior. in the earlier list, PAPA ROMfO NECTAR, h~ been .-ernoved with the sub5equent substitution of NOVEMBER. Several as~te languages. In this re$pect, the variation introduced in the pronunciation of on individual word courd be more detrimental than the theoretical contributh.m of o final consonant to distinguish the word from ~thers in the set. In so far as prcctic;oble, pofysyllobi~ words having a dimu"nt number of syllable' and di.fferent. accentuation by, vorioos longuoge 9roups were avoided; also, words of Roman~·loilgoage origin that hove Q different conno• tation ln English, for example,· ACTUAL and ACTUEL. W~s with Latin roots that ore ln common uu. in present-d~y English and Ramanc~ lang~s wer. given preference . The final selection of each word wos det..-mined by the best combination of sounds for moxirnum intelligibility and min·i~ c.onfuscbility. The minimum amount of 'u•]uistic coloring of the worc:U when spoken by differe,,t language groups is one ui the desirable feo,tvres of the JCAO set. Nevertheless, o standard pronu,c:iation for each word to eliminate wide votiations is desirable, and a recommendot{en.of apptoximc~te pronunciation is presented in Annex 10 (Aeronautical Telecommuni-:atiorts) to the Convention The finol vow•l in the words ALFA, DELTA, INQIA, LIMA, and SIERRA Js rtpreMnted cs AH (/a / In lntemotlonal Phoiwtlc Convention) lnshtad of UH (/• /). Thra pronundctron f.s uttd by ~II E.n;U~~klne nationals ln ~til!2 to tpeok with mcxtmum in~lllg1bJUty. It mu.ln fi'Oin an opproxi~Mlt.ly Ptmlll-~ . AHtm""* P""'fldd:a I f L4&r Wn 1~ LGli• Glpi4bcl p~~· r~IUWliola A Alta '.elfa M:: FAH B :Jnl'fO 'bra:'vo ---BRAH VOH c Ola:rlft 'tfo:li Dr CHAR LEE (1f 'fo-Ji SHAR I.EE D Delta 'delta.· DELL TAH ~~ &eho I ·~ko ECK OH Foztrot .'bbtr.)t FOKS TROT ] . 'G Golf cAlf GOLF H Hotel b4:'te1 HOH TELL I lwUa I 'indi-es IN DEE AH J Jr;~Uett ! 'd311:li•'et JEW LEE ETT r. Uo r . .'ki:lo · ~LOH L Lima 'li!mci LEE MAH !if lOb tnaik ·MIKE N NO'NIII.bw ·ao'vemba . NO VEM JlSR 0 Oar '*c -·OSS CAH p Papa J»'pa PAH~ 0 Qt\tboc ke'bek KEH BECK R I Romeo 'ro::mi·o ~MEOH 8 SLwra lli'ero· SEE!!._RRAH T I T._.., '.taD&O .~GO u UaiiONl 'ju:nlb:m .. . YOU NEE FORM (If . •u:c.iSrm · ~.~EE FORM v Vlctw 'v!kt'G !!!·TAH WldlbJ 'wie:d ~KEY "][ X·nr •tb'ra !9!! M! y Yaw 'jaaki. ~KEY z ZuJa ·~·;!~: . ~LOO Na - I# AlliHI...,. ,.,.., •lltw ... IMl.MSa .,..,•. ~ t. h _,.t'M .., ~lf;:t4. oq~i strca on both tyUabl.-s. · Th.is is a good· recommendation, and it might ~' odviVible to amderUne both syllables. New_if ~is principle would be ~lied to PAPA, the difference between tft. British PUH P.AH,/ ~·pa /and AmariC'lf'l PAH PUH~ / 'pcpu /could be resolved with PA'R"PAH i •pa•pa /. ,._, .· ...... E~ry student of spHch i' 9ware that the maJ~ty of Americ.ans uu: an r-colored vowel and that the majority of the British "drcp their r's" whan r is the flC'iCI letter of a syllabi~ •. n is cs unreasonable to· expect Americans to Gap the r in NOVEMBER, OSCAR, and VICTOR as it wouid be to ex~ct the British to Gad th. sound~ It COI.Jid be argued that to drop thrs sound does not strengthan these words, thot it does not conform to tho lfnguts~ic habib of tha frond\ C!nd Sponbh, ond·thot it odd$ to the total numbtr of words havi~ the d!sUnctf'4 endfng of AH. fn~ch-cs intema_tienal t( The re~nded prer.!unc.lation KEH. BECK for QUEBEC ·we. inferior, both in JnteiUglbUity Qnd in fihiect prefar•n·co, 10'1{WIH BECK or KAY BECK. The l01t promtnclction has bt ••• more or less ·(c)llow.d •tn~*"ihi""alphabet ~ introduced, ond ia the nat&Jral one .for both frend_l end Spanish natloncda. The caM for the KW prmuncla~ion to. dlfferentfottl between Q end K hoi be.n p~sont.d •arlier in ihb ~aper as o part of the problem o~ otthog~hy.. Th.is is o parttculor problem for the ICAO Speech Panel. to c:onstder. Otherwiee, the Anno)t 10 recommendation1 have.proved to be quUe satlafadory, ospeciolly In es~abliihing c conststent pronunciotion for ECHO aod MI~:E. VI. SUMMARY AND.CONCU!SIONS The hbi'ory of int.mati~al c:ornnkinlcations · ii.long, and h01 on occaaion been lnt.rrelated ·with the i!11MriaUsti.c ~ltl~ of great ~rs. While tne progreu olreody mode Js indicatiV. of a ~nufne desire among notions to achieve a c:omrnon ground, so many folium and litbaclcs have occurred that Brig. General Sir Osborne Monar~ concluded: --No ~lete or IO$ting liberation of tele~1cotlons from poll-ti~l inR'uenc:a con be exP-cied untlllt i& ciiGf that national S.airlty Ia In ~way· dependent on oxdu.Jw CC~~nUnlcotl.()n fo~Uitfea, -and. Ut.ltill~ternatlonol co;QMUnl• cotfcn~ Ot'8 riQOlded not aa on Jnatniment"of nfltlonol or. lntpOrlol policy but ~ on lnttmotlonol ~lc eervlce •nl01ln; lntomotl~cUy oU ·the privileges at ptMftt ~c:elvecl ftCtiOMIIy from tha nctlonalMrvlC*.". · - 29. The solution would appear to lie· in· an in~~ationol organization thnt could devise international stcm~ards and recommend practices eno.bling networks to ~rate iratornationally os easily. as- the,' dperate' notional!1 • \\e hove set-n that the lntdrnotional Civil AviatiOn Organization was founded with these exact principles in mind. One notable historical i~tanc:e of JUccessful intemotionol communi cation Is worrhy of ·mention •. It presents a striking pattern with a strangely p•ophetic implication tha't mat~ cit~d here as 0 parallel. It began in 1804 when Admiral .Sir ·Home ~~hom davised a sysrcm of tl ag si gnol s fC'"' the sh!ps ·of the. East India. CO!')'lpQny • . The ideo wos we II received, ar.d variOUJ systoms of signals .came· into being all oyer the world. As time went Ofl there was on ever... iricreasing need for s~andardizaticn sO that ships could conun&micate with each other. To meet this need, fifty years after the SY$tem was first started, the British Saard of Trade tned 18 fl~, all of the consonants except I X", "Y", ond nz·· I to form 70,000 sig~ols.. The signals uted for distress and the•r respecti.ve ~a,ings ~re listed be~{)W: FLAG SIGNAl ·. ML~NING N-C "lr. distress ,. wcmt assistance." N·D "I must abandon ihe veuel • " N-F "Do not abandon me •" 11 N-G 1 Om unncvigoble • II N·H i•1 am In danger or ihoal water- direct me how ·to· steftr. 11 Only eomonants ~~ used.to p-.vent phc;es and lrrespon~tble soilon from ~!,tlr·g Stbr.hdlt of&ansiva st;n~la. But thO· lq»ortant «.vent was that the ~tem was odoptcd by cH ~tries end translated Into ell J~uoges. It l=ted 30 years, after yJhic:h tho. system underwent several.revisrons., always on an h··•ema- tlonal bmis. · · In 1~, approxirnately JOO y"al'i after the invention of the sigr.cf f1aga, tho .eorliest known word....,.lllng clphobe~ .CC.'M into being, curiously enough in ~ U S Navy ~ fi1 mew of identifying IMse same alphabet flcgs. ,..,n the ~tem ·cau-ght On:, ar.d the 203 word-a1phcbeb oppendod to thla report Cft1 evidence ~ thll ~ o.f code has be~ ~~cbUIMd throughout the world. U,Uk$ the dlsHnctlw algnal fl.og~.ot th. conventional dlb an& d~ of ttl~ ond wlr.lea,_whieh by.thefr wry nature could ®afl~, be m'tJde lntemG• tJcn:l, ccnwr.unicc:atlons by volee ·hove o'i\lfO)'I bun plagued by the llmA~~Iom of 30 single-ion(;"'.JQge transmission as against the rteed for multi•ltJnguage reception. The parallel continues: today, approximately 50 y0ars after the oppooronc:e of the word-spell.ing clpiui>et, a soluti.on hn$ b9n effected. This time en intemati®of organizatiot'l .. has presented an alphabet specificafly developed to fit the nwltiHngtull require~nn of aU nctioru •. Th" porti euler problem at hand is l~rger and much more difficult than 1imple ~reemeht on en intemotiQ.,ol sfondord for ovioti()O. Somehow, this ioranc:lord mu1t bo applied by each nation to ib ~n particular eircurTtJtan.:es and conditions. It i1 onfy natural for an individva'l now using one of the numerous earlier systems to ref>ent a11y change in hi$ old way of doing things, just as it is natural for a non-En&li$h-speaking country to resent 'noving to leam to use English as a languone. It is always ~iff!cult for ona. group_ to understand the feelings of ono•her, especially when a moio1i.iy versus mil"'oritt decisicn is at stake. It must be apparent to mMy that tho iaeal s0hition would be world-wide acceptance of one word-spelling alphabet for.eve.ry· fbrm of voice communication. fhe fundamental reason·is that the number of o'temotive. word$ would be reduced ro an ab~lute minimum, one for each 16t1er, ~nd the listener need merely decide which of 26 alphabet equi volents has been spOken • S~c:h a standardization would mean that thi5 list would hecomo a working port af Gv-.aryone•, vocabulary, as basic as the A 8 C't and counting from 0 to 10 in thot·lcnguage. Sir.<:e th·r~ would bo world accaptanee, .it woold provide a basi$ for letter identification in any language. Is there any recison· for 203 known word·speiJing olphcsbetl comprising 1600 different wo~ds when ooe list o.f ~6 words will acc-.ompHsh the same purpo10? Is it offieient for an organization to u.se ane set of words for domestic CM~munieation end another for ove~os? ·Should on efficient American secretary, for example,· know several. aiphabets--ono fo~ uso on the telephone, another to talk to the tetlegt~h operator, onot/ler to call the police, and still anot~r fo: civil ~lon~e? Does anyone really boHave that communications are b6st served by giving an operator the option to U"..O any word that comes to mind at tho moment? And fn ordinary ck.ily ~ommunic:ation or Jn a formcrl lecture, how does one know which cilp~t t.o use? Car. one be sure' that a per100 talking will eomistnntJy use the words of the .set which is "~cognlud by the listener? Lack of en affirmative answer to t~ls last quest~on has ~come a.particular monaco in aviation communication. · · It has b.en demortstrated ·tJrr• ar1d again In the laboratory, and !t mcke1 good":.~~mo facie, that cor'1'ct ldantlfl~.tJon of words· Is a.ffe::ted by the aiZ* of the cry ant tM particular words Yhat make up tM voccbulcry fro:n which tho wordl oro drawn • ...7 The $tnallor the vocabulary uz.d, the easier it ia for the Hatener to Jdentlfy correctly tho Jndiv~duol worck o~ t~ speaker, Reaearch studies 31 have~ that, in general, the SU~ces$fulr-'~etion of a word will vary diredly with the number of ~yllables it. cc:ntcins .11~9 However, a ~w carefully selected single-syllable words hoving obvious ond ecsily discriminated phonetic diffe...nat! may brt employed, to; odvantoge, actually centrib.Jting ciMiroblts variety. But most l~ont of. aU b the matter qf uniV&ncl occeptance. If tho speabr usa only words from~· prearrang~~d lt.st~, th« .Ust.ner O»l participate in the =mmunlcotfon oct with an aswrance and Q high .~rM of reliability thot con be acquired cnly through famili~i_ty of both pGr.ti~u5 with tha 50m$ words. Today on ever-iracnasing ·.,umber 9f aircraft take off from various geographical location$ and fly the traffic oirways·of the entira world, lnnding ond then foldnQ off at many int•n\otionol airports. To do thls "'fely and .afficionfly, each hcs Us~ ~i~ radio whtch must'mczintain direct comrr.uni cation with similar equipment~ the ground of each ncthMt along its route. An obtolute requirement for. tofet)' and efflciency 'is the c:otrec:t ex1d raiiable tronsfar of infonMtion between human operators from tnulti-1~~~ groups. This is ac:complislwad through a syst•m of atr· traffic cont~l wherein cc~fuHy wlec:h:d words, cmd carefully prepared phrOs, ..•• " moldid into ngid. operational proce dures. An integral part cf-the system ~~,.,.now ICAO-alp_habet. It appeal'$ thnt tho parallel to the expetl$nce with the alphabet f1ogs is on tho way to COft12letion. It seems appropriate t~ emphasize ttM1 magnificent -opportunity that lies at hand to ochJeve universal acceptance. At this time t&.ca setms to be a deOnlte ~de.ncy Qn the pOrt ·of civil and commerclcd c~'Oni zaticns in the United States to mir.hnize the i~ortonce o.f their respective alphabo's. At least, thesa irid{vidual coda alit not given-the prominence in current directories and literature that they were ro~lving on_ly a few years ego. This change in emphasJs con -not be iustlfied On tho bo;~s of Improved equipment alono, since various for.rm- of ~ting nol~ are still present O.J or. variations in speerh habits including dialect and for.ign accent. lhti apparent gradual &a-emphasis may be something of c "face saving" gestur• toward an in-Mntion of tM organl:otion's own erection which somehow did not ~tvre the fancy of the public it was dedgned to. servo· •. No doubt ~ multlplo ~titlve systems have •rved to confuSe the pubhc~· wfthcut pi'Ovlding the odvontages that would ~·from a ~ln;le alphobet .: lt. ta hoped that ...,. ~ricon Radio Relay IJ:agua, tho American Assoeiotlon of Railroads, A T & .T Clld Its affiliates, WMt&m Unicn, gnd .the Amid can Police Organizatlcn will consent ·to the obondonment of their respectl~ alphabets in fa~ of the -,1,\gle reconwnended ICAO atphabet. For offldent na?lonal and lntematlonal C:onwnuntcattcns tt wot.ild be expedient to secure uniYMOI adoption of thts one alphabet which, for aU prcd5cal purpo~es, Ia 100 per <*'at English, 100 per cent French, ·and· 100 per ~t Spcnbh. ~rthtl'!ftO!!; It ls well ad\:pt.d to theaJSCt_of all otf,er foreign natloni, .and It Is difficult to IMUQine that t~ mere suitable medlum ~;~Jyer1al odq).ticn can be devised from any other 32. c~rab16 group ofJcnguages so widely usod. Cotuidercd in th~ true light of effective colnmunicatlon, tho experi ence with the new alp.h~t sh®ld go a long w~ in smoothing ovar the rough ~ots in intemQtional communi~icin~ It is believed and hop.td :hot it ai$0 may possibly contribute to i~roved mutual understanding ba~n natior.s in their . variOU$ foreign relations. _ . · - . · . .33 .REFER~NCES 1 . Henry M. ~r and John J . Dreher. A cqmparis~n of the US-UK and r: :, 7 ICAO Phonetic Alphabet~. HFORL Report No. 38, J.uly 1953. :; : I.. Henry M. Moser or.d John J. ·oreh.er. Evaluati.on of the Military A:jho~ts. Speech ~onograph~, Volume XXII, No. 5, N~_vember_l9~5, pp. 256-265 .~.. : 3. Study on radiotelephone phraseologje'l of CAA ai~pos:f traffic cor.trOI rowers conducted in 1951 by M Y. -McCom1ick, ChiefPsychologist, Safety Projects Branch, Me~i col Oi vision, CAA. · 4. drig. Gen. Sjr Osborne Monee. lnternctional Telecommunications, Oxford, p. 81. 5. W. J Bassett Lowke ond· George Holland. $h;·,~ and ~· George G . Harrop and Co., LTD, londorf, 1946. 6. G. A Miller, G. A. Heise; and W. Lichten. T-he·intelligibility of speech 0$ a function of th~ ~Ontext o~ the tost material •. J. Exp. Psycho!., 41, 1951, pp. 329-335. -.- -- 7. hwin Pollack, Louii R. Decker, ~r.d Herbert Ruber.stein, Jntelligib:iity ~f Selected Message-Sets.. J. Ac~Jst. So~:. Am., Vol.uina 30, No.7, July 1958, p.643. - -·-- 8. M. H. Abtcms and J . E. Karlin. Vocabularies· for military communication in noise. OSRD Report 1919# P1yc~o-Acoustic la~rctory, Harvard Univenity, 1943 (PB 22906), _p. 62 ._ . · 9. Davis Howes. C'"',n the Relation between the ln·tell~gibility ar.d Frequency of Occurrence of Eng Ibh Wordi. J . Acoust. Soc. ~ ., Volume '8, No. 2, February 1957, pp. 29{>-~. ---- APPENDIX A. ALPHABETS OF THE WORLD Co-mt:;;iee th.G.~ Signed the Or1g1nnl Document in Chicaso o.n 7 Decomber 1944 J'~ mr.tm:RLAKDS l~f1lA.N LEBAl'tOlf GUllA MEV Z\WJJID 1'\lSlBALI.A LIBERIA CJBII:IlZ f[£CARAQUA :aoLIVIA MIDCICO GUA1'D1ALA ?IOI'IIIJ CAJWlA rmJ."fiERLAHDS BAl'1'X PAlCIS'l'AH CHILE mJ1 ZEALAND BCIIWRAB PAIWRIAY CUIIlA NICARAGUA . ICII.JOO> PimU DCIWfiCAN REPU&LlC PERU DDIA PIIILIPPillE ECUADOR l'BlLIPPiliES IliDOB£BIA REPUBLIC YGIPT POLAND IRAN PQLMIID l"RAliCE PORTUOAL IRitQ POifl.'l1(lAL GREECE SPAIN IRZLAHD SPAIN HAr.L'I SiiEDEN ISRAEL. SUDAN .HomxmAB SYRIA ~ SIIEJBN ICBLAm>. 'l'URJ<:EY JAPitB ~· mDIA UNI'l'ED' JCt1tcmw J ll"'''mW. A . ·A~ • 'lU!ItS'£A. .IRAQ URt10UAl." . .BZPtmLic ·(8 'J!ORKKY IRELAND DANI~ ·Mnd:sr..m LAOS UlfiC!l ·(p . THAI ~.tsn!R IBBAJlOJ( SOl1Iil AFRICA LlBl'A t.1lln£D ARAB ·~ HKPtmLIC · .wmmoo.oo U1IIT£J) .xmcixxM itALAL\ t'Xtl!:D ~s 'MCEOCCO ~. MUICO V".ooJW#l URUGUAY' 'lhe abowt 1D:f01'WBt1on its f'l'OIIl "Procttedingo of t,:,., lnterna.tionnl. Civil Aviation Co.rd'onuJco ", ~~ Illinois (V~ II) pUblished 1>)" the lhl.Jted states Governm&nt Printing Oi":fict.!, 'W'ashinga.on: 19\-9. tawed by the Deparllaent ot State ~t 1ille ~1t$d St~tes. AFRICA J:aart Cm(s's l"'.rench Poeb cd .Atrica:& f.V~ auu~ Mr. South Mr. South We&~ Mrica ~eoc&. B:S:t'les r.G-UX Ser. ntat. ... !D!J., Mr. ~l. ICAO A?BICA AlJl3 AJWI AJllL A1I!I[{JR AJtiUl18 AliA :eaeAl' BAI:Ilttt BAlD aeam ur.rr B J'romlcll Prllnch v.n u-r. ~nMr. ~1. ottwtr lht'i.lT.!U\t. w. 'l'el0g. All Ame r 1:11 Cable e r.t'! Pn cas. it/'1 :ler. eo. ~ted cu::.d Radio, Inc • ~ .d~QQU!· .dA.TQU: .AI'l'C:llf.tO ALICIA ALICIA Jli'Siutn BDJA)ID BABliLO ~ SA.:rru:z CDQ:Wl ~ f;AH(!t..tftA CAll•)LJ]fA Ia:w:l ::r iF~ISS 1Jia[[S& OORamA DORONA ma:tl DQ1ARI) ~ J:'ITA KVA. ~ ·J'RAICfOIS I'IWt):OIS . . J'JWlCIA FRA.NCISCA P'IWJCISCA GAS!CII . (Jt$!<11 OAS'roll-cliOBGIS (]L.(EO UUIL~ ~ I!UlU l!PlU 13DlU 1VtK31ZRDAM ir ~ ...Dimwae ~n~b P'le~dll ~- &ar. Poatz '1\11. 'l'elf~· ihl..D~:. ~ .AU:l&Rr AMCC!I AlmruR Alf.lfJlJ!R ~.:za~ tal A.'«ml Rmlli.RXJ..SS mrussm. ~ Cli.ARLZS mmrA CARt1LI!'.IE CA.RatJJlB i:JI:!X.\I:CA DII\VD> c-ASAR msnm manu~: ~t:i EWARD ~ maL'I DaRL 1""~ FRil> :ooaA rwlmtiC ~RIK ~ CCQR(B ~- . ®3$fA.lJ: ~ c:~ nmm!. Jl'iUED."UCll mmRI Hr3lll.lliX l't.:tl..-t mAA!: GUS~V ISDlcm.E · :ISIDOOR ~~~ Jaal mnmu:cn JOOB:PR .,"OZEF ~ ICAT-3 ID\ -~n~. !OuxlnAM .r ~~~::!. mJ' JULIUs. LEQPt.')jJ> LEOPa~D F;.:'~~:D l".Q% KOlmAD MARm . IMRIA ~tt!% .m:x..t.D .LtJDriiG ~ON l!APOL!tON -~ OC!:AR HIUt'lH# .. a3CAii · OOKAR oa S'J!zR l"oRBEm' PIAlfO "PIAllO JL~ ~ grro QUIKVRAifl ~Vii.A.Df ~- ~ 03~'!Ca ·a~ R~~ ~ Ji\Ji.3L PAULA .SO.""ll.J.E S07.IA Cl~ SarAs QtBI.LB T!WmirutE TEI..YI()O.N 'fr..ll?tlai 100a:J RICH.ABD t~ UR3t1L'. ~ 7IC!'qR S~D VICTOR V!K'M;i '{7~J;~ ~ 'l!fiEOJY'~ WANRLOO WA'rl!.:m,(X:J Uf~ZMI X-PAY JlLRit;R XAVDm Y.A Vlt'R.H'S ~rt I J~l:l'!b ne.mtah 7reD'-ll Y.l.emiab French C Mm:n:D ~ A.Ia:e.Imr A.tJm!U ~ ALBllRT Aa'mUR t::UU.:l IZ:S ~ JmtiX£ITDt mmsmn. BERMUD BKlmAJU) .. BDJAM.IN ~ CA~ ~OL:;Jm CJJARLlll: ~I!a :t:9Dm ~ msrm: ;g~ nAvrD CD:L! . lCiiKL EMn..B l'MBL=~ ZMl.!.R RMIBL Etr.:ARD l'i:"f!tmiX l'lm:mlX lRAl:COlS FRAJ3 P'RA.!lCOIS FRAm3 Jl'MNK ~Vii: t.~i!J..KI GU31'AVJ: GUS~~ GUSTAVE GtiSTAAF OEORGE ~ m:mmx :mnnu: m:mmx. HEHRI .IIEJDl!liK BJDmY m~ D!x::DC: Cable and. Wi~lesa J(e.vy and Li.Jd:t.ed liavy 'l'cl. 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