DOCSLIB.ORG

Art and Identity in the Age of Akhenaten

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Art and Identity in the Age of Akhenaten Art and Identity in the Age of Akhenaten A thesis presented to The School of Historical and Philosophical Sciences At the University of Melbourne In partial fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Arts) by Rebecca Clifton February 2019 Supervised by Professor Louise Hitchcock Associate Professor Andrew Jamieson Words: 99,676 Abstract In this thesis, I investigate expressions of identity in the art of the Amarna Period, focusing on two main areas: firstly, artistic representations of the royal family and the Aten and, secondly, artistic representations of Amarna’s elite within their tombs. I argue that rapid social and theological change under Akhenaten had significant implications for not only conceptions of deity and kingship but also for artistic self-expression amongst Akhenaten’s officials. I illustrate this by comparison with earlier Eighteenth Dynasty tomb decoration. 2 Acknowledgments For the opportunity to write this thesis and for support in doing so, I am indebted to many dear and respected friends, family, mentors, and colleagues. Above all: To my supervisors, Louise Hitchcock and Andrew Jamieson, who graciously read tens of thousands of words at a time, soothed my academic anxieties, and always encouraged me to do things my own way. To my beloved partner, Holly; my dearest friends, Emily and Gabbi; and my whole family. Your love and support is everything. You are everything. I am so humbled by what we have all achieved the past three years. 3 Contents Introduction Part A: The Researcher 6 Part B: The Research 9 Chapter 1—Literature Review 1.1 Identity: The Self-Conception in Art and Society 12 1.2 The Nature of Egyptian ‘Portraiture’ and Its Implications for the Study of Individuals and Identity 21 1.3 Theorising ‘Sex’ and ‘Gender’ in the Modern World and the Ancient Past 42 1.4 Unpacking the Academic Canon Surrounding Sex, Gender, and the Family in Ancient Egypt 61 1.5 The Spotlight on Amarna 76 1.5.1 Geographical Location and Layout 79 1.5.2 The Benefits of Studying Amarna 89 1.5.3 Amarna as an Ideal Site for Research into Identity, Gender, and Family 92 1.6 Critical Issues: Intention, Interpretation, and Self-Reflexivity 95 Chapter 2—Royal and Divine Identities in Flux: Amarna’s Changing Conceptions of Deity and Kingship, Gender and Family 2.1 An Introduction to Amarna Art 110 2.2 Mother and Father of All That He Makes 114 4 2.3 Regality, Divinity, and Gender Duality in Akhenaten’s Royal Portrait 123 2.4 Nefertiti: The Smiting Ruler, Sweet of Love 158 2.5 Intelligent Design: Constructed Ideals and Intimacies of the Amarna Royal Family 186 Chapter 3—Constructing an Identity for Eternity: Change and Continuity in Tomb Decoration from Thebes to Amarna 3.1 Introduction 208 3.2 The Setting, Structure, and Decoration of the Tombs at Thebes and Amarna 212 3.3 Offerings for the Dead 217 3.4 Banqueting and the Beautiful Feast of the Valley 238 3.5 Fishing and Fowling 267 3.6 Awards and Promotions 288 3.7 The Reception of Inw 307 3.8 Theological and Social Responses to Death in Ritual and Funeral 324 Art and Identity in the Age of Akhenaten: A Conclusion 345 Figures 348 References 469 5 Introduction: Part A The Researcher I want to wish you a good morning because it is morning as I write this. It may be morning as you read it; it may not be. But here it is a cold, dark, beautiful morning in Sydney, Australia. I’m lying in bed next to my sister—the blanket thief, still sleeping—because I’m visiting my parents, who have more house guests than beds. The dog’s bed is next to ours, on my sister’s side, and I can hear him snuffling in the dark. Otherwise, it’s quiet here. I’ve just woken up but I feel excited—a little nervous—because I’ve just decided that these are going to be the first words of my thesis: the introduction. You are probably neither excited nor nervous, because this is not your thesis, but I will endeavour to imbue in these 100,000 words an enjoyable journey for you too. By their end, you should know me a little, because this is my voice and this is my research and if you did not know me at all it would feel dishonest. I am not an empirical third party to the happenings in ancient Egypt any more than I am an empirical third party to the happenings in my own world. I am a 25-year-old woman from Melbourne, via Sydney. My mother is a feisty, passionate, loving woman from Northern Ireland, who says things like “to be sure, to be sure” and “fil-im” with an epenthesis and who famously pronounced the word “bagel” as “badge-el” around the time she met my father: a devoted Sydney man, who loves to cook and spoils his dog. I’m a feminist and a queer woman. I have a partner, Holly; a brother, Ben; two sisters, Hannah and Kim; a dog, Baku; several tattoos; a septum piercing; and a thesis, which you are reading now, entitled Art and Identity in the Age of Akhenaten. 6 Throughout this thesis, the importance of self-awareness and self-reflexivity in scholarship is a recurring theme. I believe that no research is without bias, because no researcher is without bias, and that self-reflexive scholarship is not only an academic trend but an ethical choice, rooted in a desire to consolidate the integrity of the research itself. I believe that considering the impact of researchers on the direction, production, and applications of their research does not diminish scientific integrity; it increases it. Self-reflexivity opens research up to new questions—not only questions of where to lay ‘blame’ for specific viewpoints, but questions regarding the roles of research in our world and new ways of doing research—by making foundationally significant aspects of the academic process visible, rather than stifling them. The questions we ask of our research have meaning, not only for our subject matter but for ourselves, as humans. Sometimes this is as blatant as seeking the histories of ‘ourselves’ and the familiar qualities with which we align ourselves. At other times, we write the histories of our preoccupations, even our anxieties. There is so much of myself—or perhaps, myselves— in a project that asks: who are we? How do we express ourselves to the world? How are we constrained in this? And how can we ensure that we are correctly understood and not rejected? Each of these are threads that have run through my life: from my youth as a shy, queer girl in a Sydney Anglican school, through the anxious freedom of my undergraduate years, to the person I am now, carving out a professional identity, which refuses to preclude the personal. I am also aware that the choices I am making now have been enabled by a number of significant blessings. I was born into a family that loves me, that has always been equipped to 7 take care of me, and which has exposed me to new worlds through travel, education, and differences of opinion. I attend a world-class university on stolen land and I know that, although I am an openly queer woman in a society still greatly afflicted by misogyny and homophobia, to many, my voice is not only more ‘reliable’ but also far more audible than those of others who have all—and more—of my passion and talent but none of my advantages. I do not take this lightly. I have been considering the question of how best to apply this to my thesis as more than a guilty acknowledgement of unearned privilege and I believe that the best way to do so is to utilise my own individual voice, so that you—the reader—know at all times where the words you are reading originated: that they are not new ‘facts’ to be added to a history of everything but thoughts that came from one mind, inspired by others, which you are free to question but also to know, and which may have thought very different thoughts if it weren’t for the chain of events that have led it to formulate these precise words, to type them, and, on one morning in February 2019, to submit them to your judgment. 8 Introduction: Part B The Research The history and archaeology of ancient Egypt is not one of the tragically understudied subdisciplines in the history of our world. It is a region and an age that enamours the academic explorer with promises of grand monumentality, glittering riches, and an air of ‘culture’ that appeals to Western ideals surrounding ‘art,’ ‘literature,’ and ‘civilisation’. We have always been enamoured by the pyramids, the tombs, and the temples, the rulers and their grand historical narratives. In more recent decades, we have also begun to interrogate the materiality of the everyday, through household archaeologies, social archaeologies, and mortuary archaeologies of the non-elite. My interest, as a researcher, is in the connections between ideology, culture, and human experience. How does the historical context— politics, religion, and society—impact the way that humans conceptualise and express themselves: as individuals, in their communities, and in the world? What are the meaningful ways in which individuals express an ‘identity’, or facets thereof, and how are these self- expressions mediated by social pressures of which the individual may or may not be aware? How does expression relate to reception, both in its original context and for us as researchers, millennia after the fact? Are our impressions of individuals in ancient Egypt always or ever reliable? Identities are multifaceted things, difficult to pin down.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Enigma of KV 55 by Theunis W. Eloff the Valley of the Kings Is A
    The Enigma of KV 55 By Theunis W. Eloff The Valley of The Kings is a dry Waddi, or water course, in the hills on the West bank of the Nile at Thebes (Modern Luxor). It is here that most of the kings of the 18th and 19th Dynasties were buried. (c. 1567 – 1200B.C.). The existence of the valley has been known since antiquity and indeed several of the tombs have been open since ancient times. Excavating, or perhaps rather “Treasure Hunting” became popular during the 19th Century and it was only in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that more systematic archaeology began to be practised. Concessions to dig in The Valley were granted by the Egyptian Antiquities Department, to only one excavator at a time. In the early 20th Century, this was to Theodore Davis, an elderly, cantankerous American Retired businessman with no knowledge of archaeology, but a desire for “Anticas”. At first, he was prepared to fund exploration but leave matters in the hands of more knowledgeable men like Edward Ayrton and others. Supervision of the excavations fell to the Director of Antiquities for that district, Howard Carter then J. B. Quibell. But, in 1905, the new Inspector of Antiquities, Arthur Weigall, offered Davis a new contract, advising him to employ his own archaeologist and to get involved himself with supervising the work. This proved to be disastrous. He interfered with the work of his excavators and regularly argued with and overruled them. Ayrton complained that he found it difficult to work with the man and when Davis was present work went more slowly, was very unpleasant and things often went wrong.
    [Show full text]
  • Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth Fonctions Et Usages Du Mythe Égyptien
    Revue de l’histoire des religions 4 | 2018 Qu’est-ce qu’un mythe égyptien ? Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth Fonctions et usages du mythe égyptien Katja Goebs and John Baines Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/rhr/9334 DOI: 10.4000/rhr.9334 ISSN: 2105-2573 Publisher Armand Colin Printed version Date of publication: 1 December 2018 Number of pages: 645-681 ISBN: 978-2-200-93200-8 ISSN: 0035-1423 Electronic reference Katja Goebs and John Baines, “Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth”, Revue de l’histoire des religions [Online], 4 | 2018, Online since 01 December 2020, connection on 13 January 2021. URL: http:// journals.openedition.org/rhr/9334 ; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/rhr.9334 Tous droits réservés KATJA GOEBS / JOHN BAINES University of Toronto / University of Oxford Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth* This article discusses functions and uses of myth in ancient Egypt as a contribution to comparative research. Applications of myth are reviewed in order to present a basic general typology of usages: from political, scholarly, ritual, and medical applications, through incorporation in images, to linguistic and literary exploitations. In its range of function and use, Egyptian myth is similar to that of other civilizations, except that written narratives appear to have developed relatively late. The many attested forms and uses underscore its flexibility, which has entailed many interpretations starting with assessments of the Osiris myth reported by Plutarch (2nd century AD). Myths conceptualize, describe, explain, and control the world, and they were adapted to an ever-changing reality. Fonctions et usages du mythe égyptien Cet article discute les fonctions et les usages du mythe en Égypte ancienne dans une perspective comparatiste et passe en revue ses applications, afin de proposer une typologie générale de ses usages – applications politiques, érudites, rituelles et médicales, incorporation dans des images, exploitation linguistique et littéraire.
    [Show full text]
  • PYRAMIDS and ZIGGURATS AS the ARCHITECTONIC REPRESENTATIONS of the ARCHETYPE of the COSMIC MOUNTAIN. Part I
    I Andrzej WIERCINSKI, Warszawa PYRAMIDS AND ZIGGURATS AS THE ARCHITECTONIC REPRESENTATIONS OF THE ARCHETYPE OF THE COSMIC MOUNTAIN. Part I "Is there a man of you who by anxious thought can add a cubit to the age of his life? "(The Gospel of St. Matthew, 6, 27, according to Greek text) 1. Explanation of the problem The astrobiological religion played the role of a main ideological system which regulated societies of the formative-theocratic phase of cultural development of mankind which was distinguished by the rise of cultic centers of the monumental architecture. The latter ones were the cores of early urbanisation process. This religion has precised a model of the world with well defined position of man within it, and the sense of his activities. Its essence consisted of a dynamical and informational principle of transformation of an Absolute One into pairs of polarised opposites which, in turn, create an universal frame of reference of Cardinal Points organizing the time-spatial order of rhythmically repeating and mutually synchron­ ised cosmic, biological and socio-cultural processes and, at last, the psychic processes of the human individual. All these was vivified, personificated and deified ( for the main assumtions of the model see: A. Wiercinski, 19761 ). The astrobiological model of the world and man was statically patterned in mutually equivalent, due to a symbolical analogisation, archetypical (in Jungian sense) and iconic-numerical representations. Among them, the main position has been occupied by: the Cosmic Mountain, the Cosmic Tree � Cosmic Ladder � Cosmic Pillar, the Mandala, the Cosmic Man� man as Microcosmos and, © Del documento, los autores.
    [Show full text]
  • Akhenaten and Moses
    Story 27 A k h e n a t e n . and MOSES !? Aten is a creator of the universe in ancient Egyptian mythology, usually regarded as a sun god represented by the sun's disk. His worship (Atenism) was instituted as the basis for the mostly monotheistic — in fact, monistic — religion of Amenhotep IV, who took the name Akhenaten. The worship of Aten ceased shortly after Akhenaten's death; while Nefertiti was knifed to death by the Amun priesthood! Fig. 1. Pharaoh Akhenaten, his beloved Queen Nefer- titi, and family adoring the Aten, their Sun God; second from the left is Tutankhamen who was the son of Akhenaten. The relief dated 1350BC of the sun disk of Aten is a lime stone slab, with traces of the draufts- man’s grid still on it, found in the Royal Tomb of Amarna, the ill-fated capital of the founder of mono- theism long before Moses claimed it for Judaism. Aten was the focus of Akhenaten's religion, but viewing Aten as Akhena- ten's god is a simplification. Aten is the name given to represent the solar disc. The term Aten was used to designate a disc, and since the sun was a disc, it gradually became associated with solar deities. Aten expresses indirectly the life-giving force of light. The full title of Akhenaten's god was The Rahorus who rejoices in the horizon, in his/her Name of the Light which is seen in the sun disc. (This is the title of the god as it appears on the numerous stelae which were placed to mark the boundaries of Akhenaten's new capital at Amarna, or "Akhetaten.").
    [Show full text]
  • Macedonian Kings, Egyptian Pharaohs the Ptolemaic Family In
    Department of World Cultures University of Helsinki Helsinki Macedonian Kings, Egyptian Pharaohs The Ptolemaic Family in the Encomiastic Poems of Callimachus Iiro Laukola ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be publicly discussed, by due permission of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Helsinki in auditorium XV, University Main Building, on the 23rd of September, 2016 at 12 o’clock. Helsinki 2016 © Iiro Laukola 2016 ISBN 978-951-51-2383-1 (paperback.) ISBN 978-951-51-2384-8 (PDF) Unigrafia Helsinki 2016 Abstract The interaction between Greek and Egyptian cultural concepts has been an intense yet controversial topic in studies about Ptolemaic Egypt. The present study partakes in this discussion with an analysis of the encomiastic poems of Callimachus of Cyrene (c. 305 – c. 240 BC). The success of the Ptolemaic Dynasty is crystallized in the juxtaposing of the different roles of a Greek ǴdzȅǻǽǷȏȄ and of an Egyptian Pharaoh, and this study gives a glimpse of this political and ideological endeavour through the poetry of Callimachus. The contribution of the present work is to situate Callimachus in the core of the Ptolemaic court. Callimachus was a proponent of the Ptolemaic rule. By reappraising the traditional Greek beliefs, he examined the bicultural rule of the Ptolemies in his encomiastic poems. This work critically examines six Callimachean hymns, namely to Zeus, to Apollo, to Artemis, to Delos, to Athena and to Demeter together with the Victory of Berenice, the Lock of Berenice and the Ektheosis of Arsinoe. Characterized by ambiguous imagery, the hymns inspect the ruptures in Greek thought during the Hellenistic age.
    [Show full text]
  • In Ancient Egypt
    THE ROLE OF THE CHANTRESS ($MW IN ANCIENT EGYPT SUZANNE LYNN ONSTINE A thesis submined in confonnity with the requirements for the degm of Ph.D. Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civiliations University of Toronto %) Copyright by Suzanne Lynn Onstine (200 1) . ~bsPdhorbasgmadr~ exclusive liceacc aiiowhg the ' Nationai hiof hada to reproduce, loan, distnia sdl copies of this thesis in miaof#m, pspa or elccmnic f-. L'atm criucrve la propri&C du droit d'autear qui protcge cette thtse. Ni la thèse Y des extraits substrrntiets deceMne&iveatetreimprimCs ouraitnmcrtrepoduitssanssoai aut&ntiom The Role of the Chmaes (fm~in Ancient Emt A doctorai dissertacion by Suzanne Lynn On*, submitted to the Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, 200 1. The specitic nanire of the tiUe Wytor "cimûes", which occurrPd fcom the Middle Kingdom onwatd is imsiigated thrwgh the use of a dalabase cataloging 861 woinen whheld the title. Sorting the &ta based on a variety of delails has yielded pattern regatding their cbnological and demographical distribution. The changes in rhe social status and numbers of wbmen wbo bore the Weindicale that the Egyptians perceivecl the role and ams of the titk âiffefcntiy thugh tirne. Infomiation an the tities of ihe chantressw' family memkrs bas ailowed the author to make iderences cawming llse social status of the mmen who heu the title "chanms". MiMid Kingdom tifle-holders wverc of modest backgrounds and were quite rare. Eighteenth DMasty women were of the highest ranking families. The number of wamen who held the titk was also comparatively smaii, Nimeenth Dynasty women came [rom more modesi backgrounds and were more nwnennis.
    [Show full text]
  • The Religious Reforms of Akhenaten and the Cult of the Aten
    The Pharaoh’s Sun-Disc : The Religious Reforms of Akhenaten and the Cult of the Aten The 18th Dynasty Pharaoh Akhenaten, known to many as the “Heretic King,” made significant changes to the religious institutions of Ancient Egypt during his reign in the 14th century BCE. The traditional view long maintained that these reforms, focused on the promotion of a single solar god known as the Aten, constituted an early form of monotheism foreshadowing the rise of Western Biblical tradition. However, this simplification ignores the earlier henotheistic tendency of Egyptian polytheism and the role of Atenism in strengthening the Pharaoh’s authority in the face of the powerful Amun-Ra priesthood, as well as distinctions between the monotheism of Moses and Akhenaten’s cult. Instead, the religion of Akhenaten, which developed from earlier ideas surrounding the solar deity motif, can be seen as an instance of monotheistic practice in form but not in function, characterized by a lack of conviction outside the new capital of Akhetaten as well as an ultimate goal of establishing not one god but one ruling power in Egypt: the Pharaoh. This will become clear through an analysis of the background to Akhenaten’s reign, the nature of his reforms and possible motivations, and the reality of Atenism vis-à-vis later Biblical monotheism. The “revolution” of Akhenaten, born Amunhotep IV,1 evidently had significant implications both during and after his reign. The radical nature of his reforms is clearly visible in the later elimination of his name and those of his immediate successors from the official list of rulers.2 However, it is possible to see the roots of these changes, and perhaps of the Pharaoh’s motivations, in earlier developments in the importance and form 1 Greek Amunhopis IV.
    [Show full text]
  • Joyful in Thebes Egyptological Studies in Honor of Betsy M
    JOYFUL IN THEBES EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES IN HONOR OF BETSY M. BRYAN MATERIAL AND VISUAL CULTURE OF ANCIENT EGYPT Editors X xxxxx, X xxxx NUMBER ONE JOYFUL IN THEBES EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES IN HONOR OF BETSY M. BRYAN JOYFUL IN THEBES EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES IN HONOR OF BETSY M. BRYAN Edited by Richard Jasnow and Kathlyn M. Cooney With the assistance of Katherine E. Davis LOCKWOOD PRESS ATLANTA, GEORGIA JOYFUL IN THEBES EGYPTOLOGICAL STUDIES IN HONOR OF BETSY M. BRYAN Copyright © 2015 by Lockwood Press All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by means of any information storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright Act or in writing from the publisher. Requests for permission should be addressed in writing to Lockwood Press, PO Box 133289, Atlanta, GA 30333 USA. Library of Congress Control Number: 2015944276 ISBN: 978-1-937040-40-6 Cover design by Deborah Shieh, adapted by Susanne Wilhelm. Cover image: Amenhotep III in the Blue Crown (detail), ca. 1390–1352 BCE. Quartzite, Ht. 35 cm. Face only: ht. 12.8 cm; w. 12.6 cm. Rogers Fund, 1956 (56.138). Image copyright © the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image source: Art Resource, NY. is paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Introduction xi Abbreviations xvii Bibliography of Betsy M. Bryan xxiv Tabula Gratulatoria xxviii T A. BÁCS Some Aspects of Tomb Reuse during the Twentieth Dynasty 1 Y BARBASH e Lion-Headed Goddess and Her Lost Cat: Brooklyn Museum 37.1379E 11 H BASSIR On the Historical Implications of Payeftjauemawyneith’s Self-Presentation on Louvre A 93 21 L M.
    [Show full text]
  • Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue and Price List of Stereopticons
    —. ; I, £3,v; and Descriptive , Illustrated ;w j CATALOGUE AND PRICE LIST- t&fs — r~* yv4 • .'../-.it *.•:.< : .. 4^. ; • ’• • • wjv* r,.^ N •’«* - . of . - VJ r .. « 7 **: „ S ; \ 1 ’ ; «•»'•: V. .c; ^ . \sK? *• .* Stereopticons . * ' «». .. • ” J- r . .. itzsg' Lantern Slides 1 -f ~ Accessories for Projection Stereopticon and Film Exchange W. B. MOORE, Manager. j. :rnu J ; 104 to no Franlclin Street ‘ Washington . (Cor. CHICAGO INDEX TO LANTERNS, ETC. FOR INDEX TO SLIDES SEE INDEX AT CLOSE OF CATALOGUE. Page Acetylene Dissolver 28 Champion Lantern 3g to 42 “ Gas 60 Check Valve S3 •* 1 • .• Gas Burner.... ; 19 Chemicals, Oxygen 74, 81 ** < .' I j Gas Generator.. ; 61 to 66 Chirograph 136 “ Gas Generator, Perfection to 66 64 Chlorate of Potash, tee Oxygen Chemicals 74 Adapter from to sire lenses, see Chromatrope.... 164 Miscellaneous....... 174 Cloak, How Made 151 Advertising Slides, Blank, see Miscellaneous.. 174 ** Slides 38010,387 " Slides 144 Color Slides or Tinters .^140 “ Slides, Ink for Writing, see Colored Films 297 Miscellaneous, 174 Coloring Films 134 “ Posters * *...153 " Slides Alcohol Vapor Mantle Light 20A v 147 Combined Check or Safety Valve 83 Alternating.Carbons, Special... 139 Comic and Mysterious Films 155 Allen Universal Focusing Lens 124, 125 Comparison of Portable Gas Outfits 93, 94 America, Wonders cf Description, 148 “Condensing Lens 128 Amet's Oro-Carbi Light 86 to 92, 94 " Lens Mounting 128 •Ancient Costumes ....! 131 Connections, Electric Lamp and Rheostat... 96, 97 Approximate Length of Focus 123 " Electric Stage 139 Arc Lamp 13 to 16 Costumes 130 to 152, 380 to 3S7 ** Lamp and Rheostat, How to Connect 96 Cover Glasses, see Miscellaneous ,....174 Arnold's Improved Calcium Light Outfit.
    [Show full text]
  • Reading King Tut Bio Wb 22.2.21
    Monday 22nd February – cut each section out and stick them back in the order you think the biography should be! A When Did Tutankhamun Become King? Shortly before the death of Akhenaten, a mysterious person known as Smenkhkare ruled with him. Not much is known about Smenkhkare – not even whether they were male or female. Some people guess that Smenkhkare could have been Tutankhamun or another of Akhenaten’s children. Other people think that Smenkhkare was Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti and that she helped him to rule. After Akhenaten’s death, a female pharaoh named Neferneferuaten ruled over ancient Egypt for two years. Some people think that this was also Nefertiti. It is thought by some that Nefertiti did this because Tutankhamun was too young to become pharaoh. However, in around 1332 BC, Tutankhamun became pharaoh at eight or nine years of age. It is thought that, at first, he became the ruler under his birth name of Tutankhaten because a royal staff was found with this name carved into it. B Was His Name Really Tutankhamun? Surprisingly, Tutankhamun was originally known as Tutankhaten. This is thought to have meant ‘the living image of Aten’. The Aten was the disc of the sun in ancient Egyptian mythology. This meant that the name Tutankhaten had great religious meaning. However, Tutankhaten did not think that the Aten should be worshipped as the only god of ancient Egypt. Therefore, Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun. This showed everybody that he did not support the idea of just worshipping the Aten as a single god.
    [Show full text]
  • Marten Stol WOMEN in the ANCIENT NEAR EAST
    Marten Stol WOMEN IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Marten Stol Women in the Ancient Near East Marten Stol Women in the Ancient Near East Translated by Helen and Mervyn Richardson ISBN 978-1-61451-323-0 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-1-61451-263-9 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-1-5015-0021-3 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivs 3.0 License. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/ Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. Original edition: Vrouwen van Babylon. Prinsessen, priesteressen, prostituees in de bakermat van de cultuur. Uitgeverij Kok, Utrecht (2012). Translated by Helen and Mervyn Richardson © 2016 Walter de Gruyter Inc., Boston/Berlin Cover Image: Marten Stol Typesetting: Dörlemann Satz GmbH & Co. KG, Lemförde Printing and binding: cpi books GmbH, Leck ♾ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com Table of Contents Introduction 1 Map 5 1 Her outward appearance 7 1.1 Phases of life 7 1.2 The girl 10 1.3 The virgin 13 1.4 Women’s clothing 17 1.5 Cosmetics and beauty 47 1.6 The language of women 56 1.7 Women’s names 58 2 Marriage 60 2.1 Preparations 62 2.2 Age for marrying 66 2.3 Regulations 67 2.4 The betrothal 72 2.5 The wedding 93 2.6
    [Show full text]
  • Download Adobe PDF Document
    ...The Truth Is On The March... (Emile Zola, 1840-1902) by Edmond R. Mansoor ...In any event, I do not despair in the least of ultimate triumph. I repeat with more intense conviction: the truth is on the march and nothing will stop her! It is only today that this affair has begun, since it is only now that sides have definitely been taken: on the one hand, the culprits who want no light at all on the business; on the other, lovers of justice who would lay down their lives for it. I have said elsewhere and I say again, when the truth is buried underground, it grows, it chokes, it gathers such an explosive force that on the day when it bursts out, it blows everything up with it. We shall soon see whether we have not laid the mines for a most far-reaching disaster in the near future. (Emile Zola - Josephson, M. Macaulay, N.Y. 1928) ...Ce n'est pas, d'ailleurs, que je désespère le moins du monde du triomphe. Je le répète avec une certitude plus véhémente: la vérité est en marche et rien ne l'arrêtera. C'est aujourd'hui seulement que l'affaire commence, puisque aujourd'hui seulement les positions sont nettes: d'une part, les coupables qui ne veulent pas que la lumière se fasse; de l'autre, les justiciers qui donneront leur vie pour qu'elle soit faite. Je l'ai dit ailleurs, et je le répète ici: quand on enferme la vérité sous terre, elle s'y amasse, elle y prend, une force telle d'explosion, que, le jour ou elle éclate, elle fait tout sauter avec elle.
    [Show full text]