Appropriate energy design guidelines for new desert housing in Egypt: "A case study for cluster houses at Sadat City".

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Appropriate energy design guidelines for new desert housing in Egypt: "A case study for cluster houses at Sadat City"

Chalfoun, Nader Victor, Ph.D.

The University of Arizona, 1989

Copyright @1989 by Chalfoun, Nader Victor. All rights reserved.

U·M·I 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

APPROPRIATE ENERGY DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR

NEW DESERT HOUSING IN EGYPT:

"A CASE STUDY FOR CLUSTER HOUSES AT SADAT CITY."

by

Nader Victor Chalfoun

Copyr ight © Nader Victor Chal faun, 1989

A Dissertation Submitted to the faculty of

THE COMMITTEE ON ARID LANDS RESOURCE SCIENCES (GRADUATE)

In Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 9 8 9 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read

the dissertation prepared by Nader Victor Chalfoun ~~~~~~~~~~~------entitled APPROPRIATE ENERGY DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR NEW DESERT HOUSING IN

EGYPT: "A CASE STUDY FOR CLUSTER HOUSES AT SADAT CITY."

and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of _.-1l.P.s. .t;:or"-,o",,f,,-,P,-,h..,.l.,.," l:.:o,,",s,,",o,,",p:.:.h~y,- ______

Fred Matter ~. ~c:: . Date i ,

Kenneth Clark ~11... ?!fiak $ni (t>, /101 f

Richard Date

7 t'

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the Graduate College.

I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.

D1SSertatiODirector \ iii

STATEMENT BY THE AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.

SIGNED: iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a pleasure for the author to take this

opportunity to express his sincere appreciation to his

dissertation directors, Dr. Charles F. Hutchinson and Prof.

Fred S. Matter. I am in dept to my committee chairman,

Prof. Fred Matter, for his guidance, generous time and

effort, and constructive advise as well as criticism. I am

thankful to Prof. Kenneth Clark for his valuable assistance

and challenging discussions throughout this study. I give

my special thanks to Dr. Michael Bonine and Dr. Richard

Reeves for their support and for reviewing the manuscript

of my thesis.

The author also acknowledges the Egyptian

Government and the AID for supporting exchange programs for

graduate students.

Last but not least, the author wishes to give his

special and sincere appreciation to his wife Marie, his

daughter Debora, and his son Fadi for their patience,

support and encouragement during his stay in Arizona and his course of study throughout this work. His gratitude is also extended to his family in Egypt for their moral support and to his brother Nagui for his effort in sending

the climatic and cost information from Egypt. v

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRAIONS . viii LIST OF TABLES ivx

ABSTRACT . . . . vix INTRODUCTION . 1 CHAPTERS: 1. EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENTAL POLICIES AND APPROACHES TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND DESERT HOUSING • • 4 1.1 The Problem . . . . . 4

1.2 The National Urban Policy Study 6 1.3 Regional Planning and New Land Development Outside the Nile Valley ...... 9

1. 3.1 The Suez Canal Region 9 1. 3.2 The High Dam Lake Region . 10 1. 3.3 The Red Sea Governorates . 11 1. 3.4 The Northwest Coast 12 1. 3.5 Sinai Development Study 13 1. 3.6 The New Valley Regional Plan . 13 1.4 Urban Development in Egypt's Larger Cities; the Case of Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region 14

1. 4.1 Greater Cairo Major Problems . 16 1. 4.2 Urban Growth Pattern 18 1. 4.3 New Desert Cities 21 1. 4.4 Sadat City ..... 23 2. ENERGY IMPLICATIONS FOR NEW DESERT SETTLEMENTS. 29

2.1 Physiological Aspects . . . 30

2.1.1 Criteria of Human Thermal Comfort. 30 2.1. 2 Index of Thermal Comfort Conditions 31 2.1. 3 Determination of a Thermal Comfort Zone ...... 34 vi

2.1.4 Conditions of Thermal Comfort in Egypt. . . • . . . . . • • 38 2.1.5 The Comfort Zone in Egypt. 44 2.1.6 Generali2ing and Expanding the Comfort Zone . 46

2.2 Climatic Analysis •. 53

2.2.1 Physical Environment of Egypt. .. 55 2.2.2 Determinants of the Egyptian Climate . • . . . . . • • . 57 2.2.3 Climatic Regions in Egypt. . 62

2.3 Microclimatic Modifications 65

2.3.1 Elements Modifying the Microclimate . .. ..•. 65 2.3.2 Site Design for Microclimate Modifications ...... 75

3. A METHODOLOGY FOR BALANCING CONSERVATION AND SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES BASED ON ECONIMIC ANALYSIS 80

3.1 Basis of the Guidelines 81

3.2 Balancing Conservation and Solar. 82

3.2.1 Law of Diminishing Returns 83 3.2.2 The Balanced Approach. 87

3.3 Conservation Optimization . 88

3.3.1 Conservation Cost Evaluation 88 3.3.2 Conservation Cost Optimization 95 3.3.3 Numer ical Example. .. ••.. 99

3.4 Conservation and Solar Optimization. 119

3.4.1 Solar Cost Equations . 119 3.4.2 Solar System Performance • • • • • 120 3.4.3 Constrained Optimization 123 3.4.4 Numerical Example. 127 3.4.5 Conclusion .. 137 3.4.6 Other Advantages to a Balanced System • . 138

3.5 Cooling Considerations. • 141 vii 4. DESIGN GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SIX MAJOR LOCATIONS IN EGYPT; INCI.UDING THE CASE STUDY OF SADAT CITY...... • • • 143

4.1 Generalizing the Method...... • 144

4.1.1 Conservation Factor (CF) Formulas. 146 4.1.2 Determining the Conservation Factor (CF). • . • 150 4.1.3 Design Procedures. . . . . 152 4.1.4 Numerical Example. • . . • 157 4.2 Computer Model "OPTIMIZE" of the Methodology . . • . . . . . • 165

4.2.1 Input Files ..... 166 4.2.2 Computational Files. 170 4.2.3 Output Data ..... 174

4.3 Summary of Defined Guidelines 176

4.3.1 The Guideline Tables . • •. 176 4.3.2 Trends/Comments on the Guideline Tables ...... • .• 190

4.4 Validation/Application of the author's guideline tables...... • . . • • 192 4.4.1 Validation of the Guidelines Through Compliance with Egyptian Cultural, Economic, and Climatic Issues 193 4.4.2 Validation of the Guidelines Using the Calpas 3 Energy Simulation Program . • • . . . 206

CONCLUSION . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . • . . 221 APPENDIX A: SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER DATA 225

J~PPENDIX B: PERFORMANCE MEASURES FOR FOUR PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS APPLIED TO SIX MAJOR LOCATIONS IN EGYPT . . . . . • • . . . 240

APPENDIX C: COST OF COMMON CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN EGYPT . . . • • . . . . . • • . 265

APPENDIX D: CALPAS 3 OUTPUT REPORTS. 271 LIST OF REFERENCES • 281 viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE Page

1-1 National Urban Study Framework . . . . • 8

1-2 New Valley Generalized Planning Region . 15

1-3 Population Growth by the Year 2000 in the Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region . . • . 17

1-4 Internal Migration to the Greater Cairo Region; (statistics of the year 1976). . . . . • •. 17

1-5 Schematic of the Four Urban Expansion Phases in the Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region 20

1-6 The Completed Urban Growth Master Plan • 20

1-7 Site of Sadat City .. 25

1-8 Sadat City Master Plan Analysis 25

1-9 Core House Expansion . 28

1-10 Typical Block of Attached Housing .. 28

2-1 The New ASHRAE Comfort Chart Based on the New Effective Temperature (ET) Scale . 35

2-2 The Bioclimatic Chart, for U.S. Moderate Zone Inhabi tants. • . . . . • . . . • . . • • . . . 37

2-3 Climatic Effect on Physical Activities of the Inhabitants of Egypt ..••...••.... 41

2-4 Formulation of Activity Pattern Due to Climatic Effects on Egyptian Urban Life, as Shown in Relation to Time Spent In or Out of the Home ...... • ...... 43

2-5 The Psychrometric Chart Showing the Optimum and Desirable Comfort Zones for Inhabitants of Egypt • • . • . • • . • . . . • . . • . . . 47 ix

LIST OF ILLUSTRATION--Continued FIGURE Page

2-6 The Bioclimatic Chart Showing the Parameters of Optimum and Desirable Comfort Zones for the Inhabitants of Egypt ...•..•.•. 48

2-7 Summary of Climate Control Design Strategies . 52

2-8 Climatic Zones Around the World. 54

2-9 Egypt's Major Topography ...• 56

2-10 Major Climatic Zones in Africa 58

2-11 Mediterranean Polar Front and Routes of Cold Northerly Air. . ... 60

2-12 Winds over the Red Sea Zone. 61

2-13 The Proposed Six Major Climatic Regions of Egypt. . . • . . . • • . • . • ...... 64

2-14 Beach Dwellings Micro-climate as Affected by Water Bodies . . . 67

2-15 Air Movements Near a Water body. 67

2-16 Relative Humidity Increases Through Evaporation for Dwellings Located Near Water Bodies . . . . • • ...... 69

2-17 Flow of Cold-Air Toward Lowest Spots and Nocturnal Temperature Distribution . 69

2-18 Solar Radiation Transmitted Through Windows as Direct, Diffuse, and Reflected Beams. The Amount of Transmitted Radiation Depends Upon Four Factors as Shown in the Figure ...... 72

2-19 Advantages of Vegetation as Used for: I-Adding Moisture to the Air 3-Shading Devices 2-Filtration of Sandy Winds 4-Windbreakers .. 74

2-20 Effect of Deciduous Trees on Seasonal Shading. 74

2-21 Solar Radiation Impacts at Different Orientations ..•••.••...... •.. 77 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATION--Continued FIGURE Page 2-22 The Recommended Range for Best Building Orientation. . . . . • . . . • • . • . . 77 3-1 Law of diminishing returns illustrated by the relation between the cost of R and the cost of energy per BTU/year...... 84 3-2 Law of diminishing returns illustrated by the relation of the cost of incremental improvement and the simple payback period . . . . • . .. 84

3-3 Relation between the add-on cost2(ocosti) and the insulation (Ri) for a 938 ft wall. . •. 91 3-4 Relation between Ri and Li for a 938 ft2 wall having a discreet choices of insulation values 91

3-5 Illustration of the inverse scaling law between the load (Li) and the add-on cost (OCosti) for a 938 ft 2 wall having an incremental cost per R ri = $ 0.0211 • 93 3-6 The Architectural Drawings of the 1500 ft 2 Example House in Tahrir, Egypt. • . • . . 100

3-7 The Air Density Ratio (ADR) for different elevations. The sea level air density is 3 0.075 Ib/ft • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 106 3-8 Relation between the Add-on Cost of Possible Energy Conservation and the Building Load Coefficient (L) for a 1500 ft 2 House Located in the Tahrir region, Egypt. . . • . • . • . • 112 3-9 Program in Basic Used to Calculate the Total Add-on Cost and Total Load for each of the 4096 possible Combinations for the 1500 ft 2 House at Tahrir, Egypt. • . • ...... • • •. 113

3-10 Total House Load Saving Corresponding to a $4000 Initial Investment for the 1500 ft2 house in Tahrir, Egypt. . . . • . • • • . 115 xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATION--Continued FIGURE Page 3-11 Modified Drawings for the 1500 ft 2 Tahrir House Showing the Added Passive Solar Elements; A Direct Gain Type 81, and a Semi­ enclosed Sunspace type C2 with R-9 Night Insulation . •• .•...•. .... 128

3-12 Graphical Method for Obtaining "D" the Derivative Function of Plotting SSF versus l/LCR of the Passive Systems used for the 1500 ft2 Example House in the Tahrir region of Egypt • ...... • . . . • •• 133 4-1 Architectural Drawings of the 1500 ft 2 Tahrir house in Egypt, Showing the Passive Solar Systems Used; a Direct Gain Type 81, and a Semi-enclosed Sunspace Type C2 with R-9 Night Insulation (5:30 pm to 7:30 am)...... 158

4-2 Sample Input File for the Tahrir Region in Egypt. .• • . . • 167

4-3 The Five Major Computational Files 171

4-4 Sample Showing Optimized Data Table. 175

4-5 Input Data File for the Matruh Region, Egypt 177

4-6 Input Data File for the Arish Region, Egypt. 178 4-7 Input Data File for the Tahrir Region, Egypt. 179

4-8 Input Data File for the Cairo Region, Egypt.. 180

4-9 Input Data File for the Hurghada Region, Egypt 181

4-10 Input Data File for the Aswan Region, Egypt. 182

4-11 Optimized Parameters and Performance for a 1500 ft 2 Reference House at the "Matruh" Region in Egypt as Obtained by "OPTIMIZED" 184

4-12 Optimized Parameters and Performance for a 1500 ft2 Reference House at the "Arish" Hegion in Egypt as Obtained by "OPTIMIZED" 185 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATION--Continued FIGURE Page 4-13 Optimized Parameters and Performance for a 1500 ft2 Reference House at the "Tahrir" Region in Egypt as Obtained by "OPTIMIZED" 186 4-14 Optimized Parameters and Performance for a 1500 ft 2 Reference House at the "Cairo" Region in Egypt as Obtained by "OPTIMIZED" 187

4-15 Optimized Parameters and Performance for a 1500 ft2 Reference House at the "Hurghada" Region in Egypt as Obtained by "OPTIMIZED" 188

4-16 Optimized Parameters and Performance for a 1500 ft2 Reference House at the "Aswan" Region in Egypt as Obtained by "OPTIMIZED" 189 4-17 Matrix Showing Energy Strategies Weighed Against Some Major Egyptian Housing Issues 196 4-18 Matrix Showing Degree of Compliance of the Basecase Selected Strategies with Major Housing Egyptian Issues. • ...... • 203

4-19 Drawing of the Selected Reference Case showing and Listing the Applied Design Strategies which have Proven Compliances with Major Egyptian Housing Issues. • ...... 205 4-20 The Architectural Drawings of the 1500 ft2 Basecase House in the Tahrir Region, Egypt 210 4-21 Calpas 3 Input File for the Basecase 213

4-22 Architectural Drawings of the Optimized Case Showing the Added Passive Solar Systems: a Direct Gain Type Bl, and a Semi-enclosed Sunspace Type C2 (with R-9 Night Insulation) 215

4-23 Calpas 3 Input File for the Optimized Case. 216

A-l Location of the six selected Egyptian cities representing the different climatic zones of the country. • . . • • . . . . • ...... 227

A-2 Sun-Earth diagram showing the variables Qh, Qhe' KT, and I ...... 231 xiii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATION--Continued FIGURE Page

A-3 Program for solving VS & KT values on the I-VAX.2 main frame computer at the University of Arizona ...... 236

A-4 The modified version of the same program used for solving I values at mid-month .... 236

B-1 Direct Gain system configuration, type Bl & B3 ...... • • ...... 251

B-2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace configuration type Cl & C2 . . . • . . . 251

B-3 Performance Curves of SSF vs LCR Values .• 262

D-l Calpas 3 Output Report for the Basecase. 273

D-2 Calpas 3 Output Report for the Final Case .. 276 ivx

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page 2-1 Human Energy Consumption-Production Rates. .. 33

2-2 Individual Insulation Values of M & W Garments 33 2-3 The Comfort Levels within Buildings for People Wearing Customary Egyptian Indoor Clothes, Engaged in Light Activity . . . . . • . . 45 3-1 Selected discreet choices of conservation levels for the constituent elements of the 1500 ft 2 example house located at Tahrir, Egypt . • • ...... 104

3-2 Selected discreet choices of conservation levels for the constituent elements of the 1500 ft 2 example house located at Tahrir, Egypt ...... • • . . . . 109 3-3 Optimum Mix Pairs for the 1500 ft 2 house located in the Tahrir Region of Egypt. • 132

4-1 Conservation Factors (CF) Corresponding to Three Levels of SSF for the Six Major Cities in Egypt . . . . . • • . . . . 151

4-2 Available Conservation Options . 183

4-3 Validation and Accuracy of the Author's Optimization Method • . . . . 219

A-l The geographical locations of the six Egyptian cities and the record period used. • . . . .. 229 A-2 Monthly mean daily global radiation falling on a horizontal surface (HS) (BTU/ft 2 day). • .. 229

A-3 Computed values of Ii the extraterrestrial solar flux at normal incidence at mid month 2 (BTU/hr ft ), obtained by the computer .... 234 vx

LIST OF TABLES--Continued

TABLE Page

A-4 Weather Data for "MERSA-MATRUH". 237 A-5 Weather Data for "EL-ARISH". 237

A-6 Weather Data for "TAHRIR". 238

A-7 Weather Data for "CAIRO" . . 238

A-8 Weather Data for "HURGHADA". 239 A-9 Weather Data for "ASWAN" . . 239

B-1 Characteristics of the selected Direct Gain systems . • ...... 255 8-2 Characteristics of the selected Sunspace systems . . . . . 255 8-3 Reference Design Characteristics for Direct gain and Sunspace LCR tables . • 256

B-4 Weather Characteristics for the selected US cities chosen to represent the six Egyptian locations ...• 258 B-5 SSF and LCR values for the Six Major Egyptian Ci ties . . . . • . • . . .. 261 vix

ABSTRACT

The tremendous increase of population in Egypt has caused the Egyptian government to rethink its settlement policy by planning for the development of new desert communities in remote arid regions outside of the Nile

Valley. Presented here is a methodology for generating appropriate energy design guidelines for desert housing in these new communities. The methodology also takes into account the culture, climate and economy of the country.

This interdisciplinary study starts by examining the current government national policy for regional and urban development in Egypt with emphasis on the new desert settlement programs is general and on the Sadat City in

Particular.

The criteria which determines human thermal comfort requirements for the indigenous people of Egypt is then presented. This part of the study also includes a climatic analysis of Egypt showing the major climatic components, the factors modifying the climate, the country's major climatic zones, and microclimatic considerations.

In the next chapter on energy analysis, the concepts and the mathematical basis of the methodology are presented. The process is based on balancing the incremental cost/benefit of conservation and passive solar viix designs in an optimum mix yielding the best performance and economic advantages for any given set of weather characteristics.

Finally, the method is generalized and reduced to a set of formulas which generate energy guidelines for conservation levels with selected passive solar system(s).

A computer model of the method is developed and energy guidelines for six major locations in Egypt are illustrated.

In conclusion, a preliminary design for low-energy cluster houses at the new desert community Sadat City is developed using the computer generated guidelines for that region. The energy results are then validated using the

CalPas3 energy simulation program, and a matrix is also developed for assessing the socio-cultural aspects of the design model. 1

INTRODUCTION

Because of its relationship with the Sahara Desert,

Egypt is part of the arid world. Deserts in Egypt account for roughly ninety-six percent of its land surface, and the remaining arable land is inadequate to support the rapidly growing population which is currently about forty seven million. From time immemorial, the Nile River has determined the patterns of life of the vast majority of people in Egypt that have settled between its two flanks in an attempt to escape the harsh environment of the remaining arid regions. Recently, the tremendous increase of the population of Egypt has caused the Egyptian government to rethink its settlement policies by planning for developing new communities in remote arid areas outside of the Nile

Valley. Accordingly, in Egypt and other parts of the

Middle East, the need to increase the productivity of arid lands is a national priority.

Development of deserts and remote arid regions is a challenge demanding coordinated applications of many areas of knowledge and experience. Therefore, the Egyptian government is now supporting cooperative relationships between its different Ministries and research institutions to develop and implement an integrated, comprehensive 2 approach to desert development. Among these are: the

Egyptian Ministry of Land Reclamation, the Egyptian

Ministry for Development and New Communities, the

Agricultural Research Center of the Egyptian, Ministry of

Agriculture, Egyptian Ministry of Electricity and Energy, the American University in Cairo, Cairo University,

Alexandria University, Tanta University, and Zagazig

University.

Through the Missions Department, the author was sent by the Egyptian Government to the United States to study and to acquire knowledge on recent techniques and technologies for development of arid regions and remote deserts. The first phase of study was held at the school of architecture in the University of Arizona where he was awarded a Master's Degree in Architecture in May of 1985.

The purpose of his study was to introduce to architects, planners and educators of arid lands, and specifically in

Egypt, an alternate approach to solving the problems of energy efficient houses through climate-responsive design solutions that emphasize passive solar systems. The study concluded with a methodology of passive solar design for houses in Egypt.

Within the context of the general objectives mentioned above, this presentation demonstrates an integrated approach to design guidelines for settlements in 3 newly reclaimed desert areas. It suggests different design patterns of low-cost energy efficient houses which could be developed in large scale programs for the development of deserts by either the governmental or the private sector.

The study also includes techniques on computer applications which are currently becoming a common engineering tool to design professionals for energy simulation and computation.

This will further enhance some of the limitations that apply in the hand-method based methodology developed by the author for his Master's Degree, where the thermal performance of some of the passive solar technological features were hard to predict. By developing facilities and design criteria that show the promise of being economically feasible with local resources, the ultimate goal is to demonstrate alternative patterns that can be replicated for the establishment of viable desert communities for Egypt. Such communities should offer a quality of life attractive enough to encourage migration of families from overcrowded cities and villages to desert areas. 4

CHAPTER 1

EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENTAL POLICIES AND

APPROACHES TO URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND DESERT HOUSING.

This Chapter discusses and addresses statements of accomplishments and work in progress by the Egyptian Government through its different Ministries* and local and foreign organizations** concerning the country's national policy to housing, urban development, and new settlements programs.

1.1 The Problem.

Although Egypt's borders enclose about 1,000,000 km2, 96% of the nation is desert. Only 3% of the land is cultivated and no more than 4% is habitable. In effect,

Egypt's 40 million people are clustered on some 40,000 km 2 of land, principally in the Nile Valley and throughout its fertile delta.

* - Ministry of Development; MOD - Ministry of Housing; MOH - Ministry of Land Reclamation; MOLR ** - Ministry of Planning; MOP - General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP) - United States Agency For International Development (USAID) 5 Compounding the problem of land scarcity is the fact that Egypt has a population growth rate among the highest in the world. Internal migration from Upper Egypt to Lower Egypt and from rural areas to the major cities, continues at an alarming rate. During the last two decades of this century, Egypt's population is projected to grow at a rate of 2.3% per year, a net increase of more than 1,000,000 people every 10 months.* Total inhabitants of the country will be nearly 70,000,000 by the year 2000. Since the majority of urban communities originated as agricultural and market centers, they are located in the midst of the most fertile land. They have no way of horizontal expansion, except at the expense of critical agricultural land.

Thus, Egypt's 6,000,000 feddans (acres) of agricultural land are slowly being consumed for non- agricultural uses. Without strict governmental controls, the amount of agricultural land being diverted for commercial, industrial and other uses could double by the end of this century jeopardizing Egypt's food security programs.

* Statistics by the Ministry of Development (MOD) 1981. 6 1.2 The National Urban Policy Study.

In a developing nation with a limited supply of arable land, a limited supply of capital and an increasingly growing population, urban development pose an ever greater challenge to policy makers.

Since 1973, the Arab Republic of Egypt has been attempting to address these problems founded on the encouragement of an "Open Door" policy through import of advanced technology from the developed nations.

In November 1973, the Ministry of Development was charged with immediate planning for reconstruction and future development to accommodate the long range growth needs of Egypt for the next 25 years.

The Ministry concluded that the Nile Valley has become overcrowded and that comprehensive plans for social and economic development of the large surrounding uninhabited desert and coastal zones must start immediately. A decision was made to exploit whatever potential may exist in these areas for increasing national production based on the premise that development of deserts will lead to increases employment opportunities and relief of population pressure elsewhere in the country.

The national urban study has progressed with the collection of relevant information and development of an appropriate methodology. An analytical framework of the 7 study centered around two major trends (Fig. 1-1):

1- Regional planning and new land development outside the

valley.

2- Planning in Egypt's larger cities; new settlements and

satellite cities.

The major products derived from this framework will be a set of feasible settlement strategies. The study contains several key elements including sectorial and spatial distribution of job-producing investments and a spatial distribution of population; that is, a settlement pattern for desert areas.

These feasible strategies will be evaluated for each suggested settlement to assist the government in selecting a strategy containing the preferred balance of goal accomplishment and costs. This will then be developed in greater detail.

In all cases, two facts of great significance have been confirmed that will affect the formulation of a National Urban Policy in Egypt * : 1- the settlement problems to be addressed by the

government of Egypt are both serious and extensive; and

2- the range of feasible solutions to these problems are

likely to be limited by constraints on financial and

physical resources, by socio-cultural factors, by * Ministry of Development Report, Egypt, 1981 8

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

EGYPT

SUDAN

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT: l-Canal 2-High Dam Lake (new lands development) 3-Red Sea 4-Northwest Coast 5-Sinai 6-New Valley @ URBAN DEVELOPMENT: a-Port Said b-Ismailia c-Suez d-Greater Cairo Fig. 1-1 National Urban Study Framework. [Original drawing by the Author) 9

administrative arrangements, and by the momentum of

existing urban policies, both explicit and implicit.

Through considerable efforts, remarkable achievements in meeting Egypt's urban development needs have been made since 1974. According to space limitation in this section, a brief outline of the major achievements realized thus far is given including a brief description of the major projects identified for implementation in the near future. Emphasis, however, will be made in general on the Greater Cairo Region and in particular on Sadat City which is the main subject of this particular study.

1.3 Regional Planning and New Land Development

Outside the Nile Valley.

Six major regions have been identified for potential development. These are as follows (Fig. 1-1):

1. The Suez Canal region

2. The High Dam Lake

3. The Red Sea governorate

4. The Northwest cost

5. Sinai

6. The New Valley.

1.3.1 The Suez Canal Region: In 1975, after the reopening of the canal, the

Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction was charged with 10 re-establishing normal conditions in the region.

Three overriding regional goals for the Suez Canal

Region were set forth: (1) Economic development at a high

rate to support growth of Region, (2) absorption of people

trom the overcrowded rural areas of Egypt, and (3) to

become the third urban region of Egypt, with maximum opportunities for current and future residents.

1.3.2 The High Dam Lake Region:

Consistent with the policy of reducing the

concentration of people in the Nile Valley and Delta, the

Government of Egypt has also investigated the possibility of opening up potentially habitable lands in the vicinity of Aswan and the High Dam Lake. This lake is the Egyptian part of the reservoir created by the construction of the

High Dam at Aswan. Until now, utilization of the High Dam

Lake and its surrounding area has been minimal. Therefore, an integrated regional development plan has been

formulated, which emphasizes the potentials for irrigated agriculture along the lakeshore, exploitation of fishery

resources in the lake, extraction of mineral resources, development of the transportation network, and the fostering of tourism at recognized sites around the lake.

The specific area covered by this study comprises the city of Aswan and the area around the High Dam Lake.

The project area extends roughly 300 km from north to south 11 and 120 km from east to west (Figure 1-1).

The Aswan Development area encompasses Wadi Kurkur, the High Dam and Aswan city. The expected development in this center would comprise redevelopment of the existing

Aswan city, construction of new urban areas and extension and improvement of the transportation network.

The High Dam Lake development study is sponsored by the Ministry of Development (MOD) and Japanese

International Cooperation Agency.

1.3.3 The Red Sea Governorate:

Forming roughly one sixth of Egypt's land mass, the governorate is a vast, sparsely-populated area. In 1980, the estimated population was 83,300 people; a density of

2 0.39 inhabitants per km • It can be considered an empty area but not one devoid of resources.

The Red Sea Governorate has an 800 km stretch of coastline. The presence of the sea can be the considered the basis of development in the following areas: (a) food supply; (b) leisure amenities; and (c) transportation. In addition, the mountains of the area have yielded minerals for centuries and further mineral potentials are noted in the plan. Finally, improvements in the bedouin economy of the south and some irrigated agriculture adjacent to the

Nile Valley are possible.

The regional plan for the Red Sea Governorate is 12 sponsored by the Ministry of Development (MOD) and the

French Government.

1.3.4 The Northwest Coast:

The coastal zone of the Western Desert extends some 500 km from the Libyan border to the edge of the Alexandria

Governorate. It lies generally north of the Qattara

Depression and is roughly 30 to 50 km wide. Other than the

Mediterranean coastline, the most important resources of the zone used at present are its rangelands.

The Siwa Oasis and the Qattara Depression are not within the boundaries of the region, but the development program, as drafted incorporates development of the Qattara

Hydropower Project and possible oil and natural gas reserves.

Only 130,000 people live in the zone, many without adequate drinking water, electricity, educational opportunity, medical care, and diversified employment.

Six existing towns have been identified which, on the basis of their available resources, could be developed into growth centers. These growth centers are from East to

West as follows: El Hammam-Sidi Kreir, El Dab'a-Fuka, Ras

El Hekma, Marsa Matruh, Sidi Barrani, and Salum.

According to the Regional Plan, some 750,000 new inhabitants can be accommodated in the area before the year 2000, with sufficient amount of work opportunities and 13 incomes compatible, at least, with the rest Egypt.

The Regional Plan for the Coastal Zone of the

Western Desert is sponsored by the Ministry of Development

(MOD). 1.3.5 Sinai Development Study: The need for the Sinai Development study became apparent immediately after the signing of the 1979 Peace

Accord when President Sadat identified Sinai as having the nation's "first development priority". The peninsula, with nearly 61,000 km 2 and no more than 200,000 people, can accommodate significant numbers of future Egyptians, including those displaced by war.

Significant parts of the Sinai may be reclaimed for agriculture, but its important minerals provide the basis for centers of employment and industry. Tourism, which can provide development points and attract foreign funds, has good potential especially after the national investment in the Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel which links Sinai with the Suez

Canal Zone. Sinai Regional Development Plan is sponsored by the

MOD and USAID. 1.3.6 The New Valley Regional Plan:

This region encompasses portions of two governorates--New Valley Governorate and Giza Governorate-­ includes the oases of Kharga, Dakhla, Farafra, and Baharia 14 (Fig. 1-2). The population of these oases is about

100,000 persons. It is estimated that at least an additional 50,000 persons engaged in agriculture can be located on reclaimed land. Present plans include a new community of 30,000 persons. In addition to persons engaged in agriculture, there is also the possibility of additional mineral based development.

1.4 Urban Development in Egypt's Larger Cities; The Case of Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region. The following cities have been recognized by the

National Urban Policy committee for potential growth:

1- Port Said 2- Ismailia

3- Suez 4- Greater Cairo Region

5- Alexandria 5- Others. The following description focuses on urban development in the Greater Cairo Region which is the major subject of this particular study.

According to its importance as a political, economical, industrial and historical capital of Egypt, the

Greater Cairo Region has been made first priority for urban development by the National Urban Policy committee.

Within the broader context of the National Urban

Policy Study, the original Master Plan for the Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region--first prepared between 1967 and 15

GlZA GOVERNORATE

SIWA OASIS

NEW VALLEY GOVERNORATE

Fig. 1-2 New Valley Generalized Planning Region.

[Original drawing by the Author, after the Ministry of Development (MOD), 1981] 16 1970--was updated when brought into the recent General

Organization for Physical Planning (GOOP) in the Ministry of Development (MOD). Given the role of the GOOP and recent government initiatives for decentralization, an update of the major problems as well as urban growth patterns have been identified in the revised Greater Cairo

Master Plan.

1.4.1 Greater Cairo Major Problems:

Three important problems affecting the revised

Master Plan have been recognized. The first problem deals with population growth of the Greater Cairo Region (GCR).

The National Urban Policy Study indicates that, even with development strategies that emphasize decentralization, the population in the GCR will be upwards of 14 million by the year 2000 compared to the 8.6 million statistic of the year

1982 (Fig. 1-3). This is due to the fact that the population of the region is increasing by an average of

350,000 persons every year.

A second important problem is the increasing number of internal migrations from Upper and Lower Egypt as well as nearby regions to the Greater Cairo Region which is presently considered the nation's major attractive zone.

Recently, internal migration contributed 35% of the population increase of the three constituent governorates of the Greater Cairo Region (Fig. 1-4). 14.0 Millions 17 14 en c 13 0 12 I I E 10 z 8.6 Millions 0 9 I-< I- 8 7 D- 0 6 D- 5 o 4 o IS> 3 (IJ 2

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 YEAR Fig. 1-3 Population Growth by the Year 2000 in the Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region (Cairo + Giza + Kalyubia). Source: The Ministry of Development (MOD), 1981

GREA TER CAIRO 41 REGION 7965

CAIRO

234

GIZA KAL­ YU8IA

( THOUSANDS) GREA TER CA I RO EI EXISTING O REGION Iii! HI GRANT S Fig. 1-4 Internal Migration to the Greater Cairo Region; (statistics of the year 1976). Source: The Ministry of Development (MOD), 1981 18 The third major problem is the consumption of the

Nile Valley fertil~ agriculture lands for urban growth.

The current pattern of growth in the GCR along the north­

south axis of cultivated land ignores potential expansion

to the eastern or western deserts. Latest statistics shows

that an average of 330 hectares/year of agricultural lands

were consumed during the period between 1968 and 1977.

1.4.2 Urban Growth Patterns:

In essence, the concern today in the Greater Cairo

Region is not with the question of whether or not the

region can accommodate the additional six to nine million

persons, or the notion of closing the region for new

migrants which reflects a lack of understanding of the

problem. Rather it is with the pattern and location of new

settlements needed to accommodate the anticipated growth.

Re-orientation of the north-south primary axis of growth and decentralization of activities within the region are

needed to improve the liveability of the Greater Cairo

Region and conserve agricultural land.

The urban growth pattern in the GCR as realized by

the GOOP can be summarized as follows (Fig. 1-5):

1- New satellite towns: These are expected to serve as the

first tier of what eventually will become a ring of self

sustainable satellite towns serving and interacting

directly with the central urban core of the region. by 19 their geographical location, they are also expected to

introduce a new order under which it will be possible to

re-orient the direction of growth to the east and west

and protect agricultural lands. With these objectives

in mind the regional approach developed for the three

satellite towns of the Fifteenth of May, Sixth of

October, and EI-Obour (Fig. 1-6) assumes that they will

absorb a significant portion of the Region's population.

2- New settlements: These provide urban expansion for the

new satellite towns and are designated to contain a

maximum of 250,000 people. Before the idea of creating

new satellite towns it was very difficult to plan for

such settlements since the cost of making them self

sustaining is very high. Now these settlements can be

planned as "fc,llowers" to the new satellite towns which

will make them attractive enough for migration in

respect to their close proximity to existing

economical centers created by the new satellite towns.

3- The Rinq Road: The purpose of the Ring Road is to tie

the new satellite towns and their follower settlements

with the Greater Cairo Region, to provide gates and

entrances to the region, and finally to provide a

perimeter link for the Eastern and the Western Desert

around the Greater Cairo Region.

4- New desert cities: New desert cities like the 20 10TH OF RAMADAN El OBOVR D K':, .,.' ...... ,." ~ D D CITYSADAT ... 0"~I :tJ..,: 0 6TH OF 0 ! BADR OCTOBER • CITY ~o GREATER CAIRO 00\ GREAlER CAIRO D o ~o \~o/ 15TH OF HAY \" ...... ···~'D>' ANALEl- PHASE 1&2 PHASE 3~4 (TOWARDS NEW SATELLITE TOWNS) (TOWARDS NEW DESERT CITIES) Fig. 1-5 Schematic of the Four Urban Expansion Phases in the Greater Cairo Metropolitan Region. [Original drawing by the Author]

TO ALEXANDRIA TO SUEZ

~ SATELLITE CITY o SET7LEHENT OF __ RING ROAD

~ NEW CITY THE GREATER CAIRO REGION EGYPT

Fig. 1-6 The Completed Urban Growth Master Plan. [Original drawing by the Author] 21 Tenth of Ramadan, Sadat City, Badr City, and Al Amal

City are geared towards the accommodation of population growth outside the Greater Cairo Region (500,000 people each). They are also intended as the first step in the

development of a national hierarchy of settlements to encourage development and population growth in the

currently uninhabited desert regions. Since the main focal point of the author's research is centered around new desert communities, the following is a brief description of government programs for new desert cities in general, and in particular for the new desert city of "Sadat City" which will be the focus of this study.

1.4.3 New Desert Cities:

The general objective of developing new desert cities in Egypt is to create new settlement patterns that will break away from established traditions that tie the

Egyptian people to the narrow cultivated areas of the Nile

Valley. This means that the new cities are not only intended as a means for reducing population overcrowding but also as a vehicle for the exploitation of underutilized areas outside the Valley. They are a tool which, if utilized successfully, could alter drastically many of the accepted conceptions in the minds of most Egyptians.

The more specific aims of the Ministry in undertaking development of these cities are: 22 To increase national and regional income;

To relieve populations pressures on the Nile Valley;

To increase the industrial base of the country;

To diversify and improve employment opportunities

Three new independent cities have been planned for the Greater Cairo Region development and are in various stages of realization:

1- Tenth of Ramadan New Industrial City, located along the

Cairo-Ismailia Desert Road 50 km northeast of Cairo.

The Master Plan was completed in April 1976; detailed

planning and concurrent design of some features were

started in 1977 and actual construction began in 1978.

Population target is 150,000 for the first 10 years and

500,000 for the next 25 years.

2- Sadat City, located along the Cairo-Alexandria Desert

Road 90 km northwest of Cairo. The Master Plan was

completed in September 1977; detailed planning,

management tasks and the design of key elements started

in February 1978 and actual construction began in 1979.

Population target is 30,000 for the first 10 years and

500,000 for the next 25 years.

3- Al Amal City, located forty kilometers east of Maadi on

the road to Qatamya toward Ain Sukhna in the Red Sea.

Population target is 250,000 ultimate. 23

1.4.4 Sadat City: Was the second new desert city, after Tenth of

Ramadan, to be planned by the ministry and the only other

one to have reached the construction stage. Roads and

infrastructure are nearing completion for the first

neighborhood and first industrial area. Construction has

also started on major buildings along the central spine,

including a new building for the Ministry of Development.

Sadat City occupies 300 km 2 (30,000 hectare) is

about 10 km from the delta (Fig. 1-7). As in the case of

the Tenth of Ramadan, the target population 25 years after

the start of development is 500,000. The first stage population will be 30,000 and intermediate steps of 60,000 and 150,000 are foreseen. Although these figures are

flexible, the various stages are determined more by the

types of actions required at each point rather than population.

Residential areas have been planned in close proximity to service and industrial facilities, which are organized into a simple, clear series of spines (Fig. 1-

8). The spines are linked together by a circulation system which provides separated routes for pedestrian, public transit and private vehicles. The district spines are designed to serve six neighborhoods (3 from each side) so that the maximum walking distance would not exceed 500 24 m. (550 yards).

The hierarchy of spines is as follows:

Central Spine: Designed for compact linear growth

contiguous with adjoining residential areas, the

central spine will contain higher-order government

functions, as well as major commercial, institutional,

city's housing on the form of apartment buildings.

District spines: Located to link residential areas

and recreational facilities and more than 10% of the

with the central spine and industrial spine by public

transportation routes, the district spines will contain

district service facilities, light industry and housing

in medium-rise apartments.

Neighborhood Spines: Located to link residential areas

with district spines by pedestrian and bicycle routes,

the neighborhood spines contain local service

facilities, small industry and apartment units above

stores.

Industrial Spine: Located along the southern edge of

the city, so that pollutive industry will be downwind

of the city, the industrial spine will include

industries that need optimal access to regional

highway, rail and canal facilities.

The site has been chosen for its potential underground water availability and existing transportation 25

Fig. 1-7 Site of Sadat City. [Original drawing by the Author] CENTRAL SPINE ~ORT SPINE

SADAT CITY YEAR 25 PLAN 600.000 POPULATION

HOT ~I1I1ERSANDY WIND Fig. 1-8 Sadat City Master Plan Analysis. [Original drawing by the Author] 26 facilities. The site is directly connected to the Cairo­ Alexandria Desert highway from the west, and by a canal which will be linked to the Nile River in the Delta as well as an existing main railroad from the east. Additional rail development is included in the master plan.

The climate is very dry with rainfall average 57 mm/year (2.2"/year). The average Dry-Bulb temperature is about 22°C (71.5°F) with a yearly maximum mean of day 30°C (86°F) and minimum 22°C (72°F). Prevailing winds are north and north-westerly while summer hot dusty winds (Khamassin) blows from the south and south-west direction.

In response to the climate, the south, west and north-west side of the city are protected by a vegetation shelterbelt. Also, the streets have been designed 45° west from north so houses can capture the steady north and north-westerly prevailing winds. This orientation will also provide early morning heating to houses to overcome the region's large diurnal temperature swing (10°C or 50°F) and to avoid the late hot afternoon radiation.

Housing policy will be based on people owning the lots but restricted to those working in the city. Lot size will average 7 X 20 m. (20 X 60 ft) designated for moderate to low-income people. Flexible designs have been suggested which vary from a basic core house of 37 m2 (400 ft2) up to a liO m2 (1200 ft2) for larger families. Figure 1-9 shows 27 stages of the core house expansion and Figure 1-10 shows a typical low-cost attached block of housing.

Construction materials are concrete blocks for walls and prefabricated concrete panels for roofs. This will result in reducing the unit cost where an average price of the basic unit of 37 m2 according to the 1977 study has been estimated 1300 L.E. Other residential areas particularly those connected with major spines are designated for relatively wealthy families where construction of building apartments or villas is permitted.

Construction work was started in 1979 with the early work being concentrated in infrastructure projects.

Construction of buildings in the central and neighborhood spines was initiated in late 1980. 28

......

[1] [2] [3] 37 m2 (400 f t2 ) 49 m2 (530 f t2 ) 73 m2 (780 f t2 )

[4] [5] [6] 86 m2 (925 ft2) 98 m2 (1055 ft2) 110 m2 (1200 ft2)

Fig. 1-9 Core House Expansion. [Original drawing by the Author]

l

(

Fig. 1-10 Typical Block of Attached Housing. [Original drawing by the Author] 29

CHAPTER 2

ENERGY IMPLICATIONS FOR NEW DESERT

SETTLEMENTS IN EGYPT.

This chapter demonstrates three major aspects of

energy implications in designing new low-energy desert

settlements in Egypt. The first criteria determines human thermal comfort requirements for the indigenous people of Egypt. These criteria will be graphically presented as comfort/climate charts to be used as a tool to evaluate the different bioclimatic needs for a target climatic zone. Second, climatic analysis of the country of Egypt is presented. The analysis includes description of the major climatic components, determinations of the factors modifying the climate, and finally identification of the country's major climatic regions.

The last part of this chapter deals with some microclimate considerations from which design solutions for the proposed new low-energy settlements in the deserts of Egypt will be drawn. 30 2.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS:

Since the purpose of climatic design, energy­ conscious design, and passive solar design is to minimize the energy cost of maintaining human thermal comfort conditions within building interiors, the problem of heat balance between the human body and its surrounding environment must be considered. Other factors that must also be considered include cultural and historical influences on this heat balance equation.

Very few studies have been conducted to ascertain the comfort requirements of the indigenous people of Egypt.

The intent of this section is to look into the experiences of other developed countries and relate their solutions to the region under consideration after re-evaluation in terms of quality of life for the people of Egypt.

2.1.1 Criteria of Human Thermal Comfort:

Heat is perceived by the whole of the body surface by any or all of the three heat transfer methods-­ conduction, convection, and radiation--and the skin perceives the combined thermal effect. The body also constantly produces heat, but at varying metabolic rates.

The study of the requirements for physiological comfort demonstrates that a person can feel thermally comfortable when his or her body is able to dissipate to the 31 surroundings all the heat it receives, including heat lost by evaporation from the skin and from the respiratory system. Therefore, a constant skin temperature can be maintained only if a balance exists between heat input to the skin and heat loss, or output.

Numerous active research programs and tests have been conducted over the last decades to determine what sets of conditions are judged most comfortable for human health and human thermal comfort. The results have been derived from a group of test volunteers who, after experiencing different physiological stresses and conditions, have defined the upper and lower limits of the optimum and desirable comfort zones through equal comfort sensations.

Described as thermal neutrality, the subject feels neither too hot nor too cold, nor feels any local discomfort due to asy~netric radiation, drafts, cold floors, non-uniform clothing, and so forth. Hence, a range of human thermal comfort can be defined as the state of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment [60].

2.1.2 Index of Thermal Comfort Conditions:

The various components of thermal comfort were not assembled into a single criterion until 1923, when c. P. Yaglou [8] published the results of his experiments on the

"effective temperature" at the Pittsburgh research 32 laboratory of ASHRAE * in the U.S.A. This has been the best known and most widely used of all thermal indices. The effective temperature index combines the effect of dry- bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, and air movement to yield equal sensations of warmth or cold. Those combinations of temperature, humidity, and air movement that gain equal sensations of comfort by the subjects tested were designated as having the same effective temperature (ET). The subjects tested were sedentary people engaged in light activity (1 MET ** rate) (Table 2.1), and wearing light clothing (1 CLO*** insulation)

(Table 2.2).

In later observations, experiments determining the effective temperature index have been progressively redefined. A new effective temperature scale has replaced the former after two major alterations:

First: Temperatures on the 50% relative humidity line have been chosen instead of the former 100% relative humidity line as these values are more easily associated with environments which we experience in our everyday life.

* ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

** MET values are rates of the body's ability to produce heat during different activities.

*** CLO values are measured by the effect of clothing in providing thermal insulation to the human body 33 Table 2-1 Human Energy Consumption-Production Rates.

ACTIVITY ...•. tljET UNITS ENERGY RATE FORAVERAGE SIZE MAN KCALlHR BTU/HR WATTS Sleeping 0.7 64 253 74 Reclining 0.8 73 289 85 Sitting, sedentary 1.0 91 361 106 Drafting or 1.2 109 433 127 Standing, relaxed Typing or Eating 1.3 118 469 138 Cooking 1.8 164 650 190 House cleaning 2.8 255 1011 296 Walking, 2 mph 2.0 182 722 212 3 mph 2.6 237 939 276 4 mph 3.8 346 1372 403 Sawing by hand 4.4 400 1588 466 • Body surface for an average size man is assumed 1.8 m2(19.4 ft2). The measurements used for average size man are: 173 cm and 70 kg ( 5' 8/1) (154 1b), after DuBois. e One Met Unit = 50 Kca1/hr(m2) = 18.4 Btuh/ft2 = 58.2 W/m2.

Table 2-2 Individual Insulation Values of M & W Garments.

GARMENT MEN CLO GARf'aENT WOMEN CLO COO 1 socks 0.03 Bras and panties 0.05 Warm socks 0.04 Pantihose 0.01 Bri efs 0.05 Girdle 0.04 T-shirt 0.09 Half slip 0.13 Undershirt 0.06 Full sl i p 0.19 140ven s. s. shi rt 0.19 Cool dress 0.17 Woven 1.s. shirt 0.29 Warm dress 0.63 Cool s.s. knit shirt 0.22 Warm 1.s. blouse 0.29 Warm s.s. knit shirt 0.25 Warm skirt 0.22 Cool 1.s.knitshirt 0.14 Cool l.s. blouse 0.20 Warm 1.s. sweater 0.37 Cool sl acks 0.26 Warm jacket 0.49 Warm slacks 0.44 Cool trousers 0.26 Cool sleeveless sweater 0.17 Warm trousers 0.32 Warm 1.s. sweater 0.37 Shoes 0.04 Cool s.s. sweater 0.17 .The effective clothing insulation (CLOeff.) may be found by summing each garment worn and entering in the following regressions: CLO eff. = 0.494 X total CLO from the table + 0.077 (men CLO eff. = 0.524 X total CLO from the table + 0.034 ( women • Scuce: D. Watson, Climatic Design. McQaw./fll , Inc. 1983 • After ASHRAf Hardlook of FIiWiilelltalS, 1981. 34

Second: A corrected effective temperature (CET) is

substituted for the dry-bulb temperature of the original

effective temperature scale, to correct for effects of any

intense radiant heat source in the surrounding environment.

2.1.3 Determination of a Thermal Comfort Zone:

In the United States, the most familiar set of

human thermal comfort conditions is that described in

ASHRAE comfort standard 55-74. It is based on the

responses of sedentary adults (activity level 1.0-1.2 MET)

wearing light office clothing (0.5-0.7 CLO). The chart generally applies to altitudes from sea level to 2134 m

(7000 ft), and to the most common special case for indoor

thermal environments in which mean radiant temperature is nearly equal to dry-bulb temperature and air velocity is less than 0.2 m/s (40 fpm). In figure 2-1 the ASHRAE 55-74 comfort zone is drawn based on the most recently developed effective temperature scale.

The acceptable comfort range also varies for any given individual throughout the year, so that one might speak of distinct summer and winter limits within the comfort zone. With the increasing need to conserve energy, adjustments have been mandated by the American federal government in the allowable winter and summer thermostat settings. The new U.S. government parameters for the comfort zone have been extended. The revised comfort zone 35 THE MOST COMMONLY RECOMMENDED DESIGN CONDITIONS ARE: "\.-' r...... DBT = MRT ... ". RH = 40% (20-60) AIR V<0.2 MIS (40 FPM),."

.~ ....

~, 26.5

..... :..

1_ ASHRAE COMFORT STANDARD 55_74 2_ KSU-ASHRAE COIVFORT ENVB.OPE 3_ LE ROY VAPOR PRESSURE BOUNDARIES 4_ EXTENSION MANDATED BY 11£ AMERiCAN FEDERAL GOVERNlViENT

\It Sourse: ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1981.

Fig. 2-1 The New ASHRAE Comfort Chart Based on the New Effective Temperature (ET) Scale. 36 for Americans thus falls between 20°C (68°F) and 26.5°C (80°F), and 20% to 80% relative humidity (RH), excluding the "hot humid" corners of these coordinates. This new range is represented in Figure 2-1 on the psychrometric chart. The comfort zone has been presented differently on a bioclimatic chart developed by the Olgyays nearly 20 years ago, at a time when architects and researchers began to show a great interest in climate as a basis of building design [44]. The values of effective temperature used in the chart (Fig. 2-2) were adjusted to the mean skin temperature index developed by Yaglou [8]. The chart is constructed with dry-bulb temperature as the ordinate and relative humidity as the abscissa. A "comfort zone" lies in the middle, with an indication of desirable and practical summer range and of somewhat lower winter ranges. At higher temperatures, the velocity of winds needed to restore the sense of comfort is shown in ft/min on the lines roughly paralleling the upper limits of the comfort zone. Where the problem is high humidity rather than high temperature, the chart also indicates required wind velocities. In hot dry climates, air movement of considerable velocity has little effect, and evaporative cooling may be of use in restoring a feeling of comfort if the latent heat of vaporization can be supplied by the air. 37 120r-_•• 00A--"-'-"-"-'~-'-'------~ '...... I " ...... 110 " ...... " ". u. •

60 "",

'"" r..:/~u. • ... O,"TIOI'I 2'"

1>C

]00 40

2OL-__~~ ____~ __~~ ____~ __~~ ____~ __~~ ____~ ____~ __~ o 10 20 SO 40 90 100

• A _AT DBT 75 of & 50% RH ,NEED IS NONE,THE POINT IS INSIDE THE COMFORT ZONE. • B _ AT DBT 80°F & 70% RH ,NEED 300 FPM WIND TO COUNTERACT VAPOR PRESSURE.

• C .. AT DBT 50°F & 60% RH ,NEED 250 BTU/HR SUN RADIATION. e SOURCE: V. OLGYAY ,"DESIGN WITH CLIMATE". PRINCETON, USA 1967. Fig. 2-2 The Bioclimatic Chart, for U.S. Moderate Zone Inhabitants. 38 The chart indicates amounts of moisture to be added in grains per pound of air. The lower edge of the comfort zone is the line above which shading is needed and below which solar radiation should be utilized. The limited degree to which variations in mean radiant temperature may restore feelings of comfort are indicated along the left side, and on the right a measurement is given of the solar radiation per hour needed to offset heat losses of the human body in the open air at lower temperatures.

2.1.4 Conditions of Thermal Comfort in Egypt:

Egypt is part of the great arid zone of North

Africa. Its environment, unlike the U.S.A., is generally regulated by hot dry climates where temperatures are usually high by day and often high at night, with low humidity and dry dust-laden winds.

In order to determine requirements for physiological comfort specific to the hot dry environment of Egypt, the results of the series of subjective tests and scales of measurements, which have been summarized above, should be modified and/or affected by a number of factors in addition to those previously described. These additional factors include the following:

CLIMATE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION ACCLIMATIZATION/ETHNIC ORIGIN INDIGENOUS ACTIVITY TRADITIONAL CLOTHING 39 2.1.4.1 CLIMATE

The upper limits of the comfort zone described by

ASHRAE were mainly based on experiments in northern regions where humidity is relatively high. In hot dry zones, as in the case of Egypt, where humidity is low, comfort limits could be shifted upward. It is interesting to note that the upper limits of comfort tend to get considerably lower as one moves to cooler climatic regions.

2.1.4.2 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

V. Olgyay, in his book Design with Climate [441, has explained that the bioclimatic chart (Fig. 2-2) is directly applicable only to inhabitants of the temperate zone of the United States, wearing customary indoor clothing, engaged in sedentary or light activity, at elevations not in excess of 1000 ft above sea level.

Olgyay added that if one applies the chart to climatic regions other than approximately 40° latitude, the lower perimeter of the summer comfort line should be elevated about 3/4°F for every 5° latitude change toward the lower latitudes, and that the upper perimeter may be raised proportionately, but not above 85° (29.5°C).

2.1.4.3 ACCLIMATIZATION AND ETHNIC ORIGIN

Acclimatization of man to the harsh environment of hot dry lands presents more of a problem to people who live in northern cooler climates than those who are indigenous 40 to arid regions. The problem is not necessarily confined

to physiological acclimatization, which according to

several medical authorities, takes only two to three weeks

to achieve; but also to sociological factors. Some of the

factors that give the people who live in hot arid regions

advantages in adaptation over those who live in cooler

climates are their capacity to drink and retain large

quantities of water, their low blood pressure, their

ability to conserve salt in their bodies, and their

relatively higher rate of perspiration [22]. These

physiological differences that have been observed arise

probably from the exposure of children to particular

foodstuffs, patterns of life, and seasonal temperature

changes throughout their lives. Their adjustments that

take place are those that any human being could make under

the circumstances.

2.1.4.4 INDIGENOUS ACTIVITY

The indigenous people of Egypt have successfully adapted themselves to the stresses and strains imposed upon

them by the region's harsh environment. They have adjusted

their daily life cycle so as to avoid unnecessary activity during extreme hot periods of the day and the cold periods of the night (Fig. 2-3). Their activity corresponds to a great extent to the climate. In Egypt the sun is the main

regulatory element for human activity; its rise means the 41

-LL -

00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 ~ ... .".... ~ .: . . . I INDOOR .:..... INDOOR I~DOORJ ISIESTAI WORKING WORKING

6) SIESTA IS A RELAXING nME USUALLY AFTER LUNCH AND BETWEEN THE TWO MAJOR WORKING PERI OS OF THE DAY.

e THE EGYPTIANS DURING SIESTA HOURS SLEEP OR GET INVOLVED IN LIGHT ACTIVITIES.

CD SIESTA TIME CORRESPONDS TO THE PERIOD WHERE DISCOMFORT DUE TO HEAT IS HIGHEST.

Fig. 2-3 Climatic Effect on Physical Activities of the Inhabitants of Egypt. [Original Drawing by the Author) 42 beginning of a new day, and by sunset the day's work has usually corne to an end. This is particularly true in rural

Egypt. However, in the large towns and cities activities usually extend for several hours after sunset. Other factors which can modify the activity pattern, such as business hours and working patterns, must also be considered. In Egyptian cities the working day is divided into two parts. The first starts between 0800 and 0900, and ends around 1400. The second lasts from 1700 until

2100, and between these two periods people have their lunch, the main meal of the day, and most take a siesta.*

It is important to point out here that siesta time corresponds to the period when discomfort due to heat is highest. After a day's work the city people usually spend the evening enjoying their leisure and social activities.

Most of these stop by midnight, to start again in the early morning (Figure 2-4).

2.1.4.5 TRADITIONAL CLOTHING

Individual human feelings of comfort differ according to the traditional type of clothing worn in different regions. For the purpose of building design, the internal environment is the most significant to

* Siesta is a relaxing time, usually after lunch and between the two major working periods of the day. The Egyptian sleeps or gets involved in light activities during the siesta period. 43 11 12 13

9 8

7

20 21

--OUT 1 ------IN-OUT 24 ==IN

~tifiiiitiii~ ASLEEP ACTIVnY ______f?}}:~ AWAKE ASlEEP/ AWAKE ------~ ______~/~------aJMATE ------, .'

Fig_ 2-4 Formulation of Activity Pattern Due to-- Climatic Effects on Egyptian Urban Life, as Shown in Relation to Time Spent In or Out of the Home. [After Dr. A Abdin, Cairo University, Egypt] 44

consider. Therefore, in this section comfort in the

internal environment will be taken as that environment in

which conditions satisfy the comfort requirements of at

least 80% of the occupants wearing customary Egyptian

indoor clothing. The traditional type of clothing worn in

the horne is a light-colored cotton "galabiya" or pajama.

This may be assumed equivalent to summer clothes having a

CLO value of 0.6 in the summer and 0.9 in winter, when a

flannel "galabiya" is worn.

In addition to the problems of physiological

comfort due to temperature, air polluted by dust and sand

is considered a major irritant in Egypt. Although there is

little scientific evidence to suggest that dust and sand

particles in the atmosphere are a hazard to human health,

dust storms limit visibility, cause discomfort and

irritation to the eyes, nose, and throat.

2.1.5 The Comfort Zone in Egypt:

Very few studies have been conducted to ascertain

the comfort requirements of the indigenous people of Egypt.

The intention of this section is to use the standard

indices that have already been described above and to

establish the modifications needed to satisfy human comfort

conditions in Egypt. 45

When estimating the probable comfort zone, it has

been suggested to allow 1 ET increase in effective temperature for each 5° reduction in latitude (see previous discussion of acclimatization and geographical location).

Therefore, it is assumed that the comfort zone for the

Egyptian inhabitants will be at 50° relative humidity, with

air temperatures between 21.5°C (7l0F) and 27°C (81°F). This is shown in Table 2-3 below, which indicates the

optimum comfort conditions for 80% of the occupants in

Egypt, and the desirable comfort conditions accepted by 70° of the occupants.

Table 2-3 The comfort Levels within Buildings for People

Wearing Customary Egyptian Indoor Clothes t Engaged in Light Activity.

COMFORT ZONES RELATIVE MINIMUM MAXIMUM HUMIDITY AMBIENT AMBIENT TEMP °C TEMP °C

The desirable 30% 19 32 comfort zone 50% 19 30 (70% of occupants) 70% 19 29

The optimum 30% 21. 5 28 comfort zone 50% 21. 5 27 (80% of occupants) 70% 22 26

These assumptions appear to be supported by the findings of

Dr. A. Abdin at of the University of Cairo in Egypt, for

Egyptian people inside buildings. 46

In Figure 2-5, the developed comfort zone for

Egyptian inhabitants is drawn on a psychrometric chart. It

is applicable to occupants wearing customary indoor clothing at 0.6 CLO and engaged in light muscular activity at 1.0 MET, in still air, velocity 0.10 mis, and at an elevation not in excess of 300 m (1,000 ft) above sea level.

The modified parameters of the Egyptian comfort

zone have been also drawn on the bioclimatic chart for the same conditions (Figure 2-6). Although these zones are shown by distinct lines in the figu~es, it should be

remembered that these are generalized averages and should

not be read to mean that a variation of one or two degrees

Centigrade or of a few percent relative humidity would place one either inside or outside the bounded conditions.

2.1.6 Generalizing and Expanding the Comfort Zone: The comfort zone developed in Figures 2-5 and 2-6, and those defined by ASHRAE, apply only for sedentary and slightly active, normally clothed persons at low air velocities, when the mean radiant temperature (MRT) is equal to air temperature. To generalize the physiological basis of comfort so that comfort for any environmental parameters can be predicted, Fanger [26] has developed a comfort equation based on a rationally derived heat balance )0 3Un~W3drf3~ ~N'OdM3a 47 0 III 0 III 0 M III 0 III I I I I I I I I W '" '" v ... ·3tm'y.tl:idI"11~ .If-41OdMlO II: ; 0 :; ~ ~ g g ~o :::l ~ 2 ~ ~ I- > < i= II: () J W C W Q. > ::E !i: w w CI ... III I- ~ i5 " IX! If) ... ~ :::l W • IX! e > W 0 >- CI IX! II:e < < CI j:' 0 Z W w e w " z u. < 8 0...... 0 () i CP III 0 M d 0 l- I'? < U. CI 0 Z If) i If) I- W 0 0 () M ... >< () w II: 0 0 ~ 0 l- .) ~ e 0z ." 0 ~ Z o ~Q" m III >- II: 0 '?.(~ '" < i= ~ ::E < ~O"'t ~ It) 0 > I- W If) ... .) ,..! W ~~~ :::l C\I () z '?~ E 0 CI < I- ~ '" Z < ii: e w < Z Z < 0 ~ If)- N If) t: I-z ~ 0 ~ ~ ...0 !il :::l () d 8 () ~ ~ 0 IX! II: g 0 ~ e u. w... iii w jg ... ==:. CD II: < () < ::i ... Q. i= III Q. If) <; < Fig. 2-5 The psychrometric Chart ~ a5 I- Showing the Optimum and II: ~ Desirable Comfort Zones :c

WOe ~o~ ______--, g:: PROBABLE SUNSTROKE :::l "I~... !;t 45 g:: w Q. ~ ~40 III ...I :::l III >- 35 g:: Q

30

21 20 5 ~ o =15 Z 15 =2S 5 3S " Z -45 0 ;: 10 =55 « C 100 65 « 75 '" 5 40 85

!.!l!.E.-z.!~

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ]00 RELATIVE HUMIDITY %

• THE OPTIMUM COMFORT ZONE IS AT 50% RELATIVE HUMIDITY WITH AIR l'EMPERATURE BETWEEN 21.5·C AND 27·c..

Fig. 2-6 The Bioclimatic Chart Showing the Parameters of Optimum and Desirable Comfort Zones for the Inhabitants of Egypt. [After Chalfounj (22)] 49

formula. From Fanger's equation, it is possible to predict

any combination of environmental factors that produce a

"comfortable" environment for differently clothed persons

(CLO) performing any selected activity (MET). These

combinations are presented in a series of charts, which are

computer solutions of his equation, and presented in

Chapter 8 of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1981 [8].

In each of these charts, comfort lines have been drawn, through various combinations of two variables which create comfort, provided values of other variables are kept constant. For application of the comfort charts, one must estimate the activity level and clothing according to the anticipated use of the space. Given this information, the combinations of the four environmental parameters which provide thermal comfort can then be found from the charts.

Successful passive cooling and heating strategies can contribute to a great extent in expanding the comfort

zone parameters to achieve indoor thermal comfort.

For example, if ambient conditions (outside shade­

temperature and humidity) are within the parameters of the comfort zone, then in effect no building is required; that is, one would be comfortable under a shade tree or tent.

But if the ambient conditions indicate an overheated period, comfort can be attained by properly designing the building envelope to control interior temperatures. This 50 can be achieved by time-lag effects through the structure,

which then acts as a surface for radiant cooling.

Nighttime ventilation for the structure can expand the

comfort limit even more. At higher humidities, still-air

conditions within the building would cause discomfort due

to moist skin. In this case, interior cooling for comfort can be achieved primarily by ventilation (control of

interior air movement) (see Fig. 2-7). Notice that there

is an overlapping zone wherein temperature control either

through time-lag or ventilation may be used, time-lag effects being more applicable in warm-dry climates, as are found in Egypt, where nighttime temperatures are appreciably lower than daytime temperatures. Above-comfort ambient temperature and humidity that cannot be suitably met by building envelope design or by ventilation alone, but which can be handled by adding techniques of evaporative cooling, or humidification are also shown in

Figure 2-7. For warm-climate ambient conditions that fall beyond the limits of building materials, ventilation, or evaporative-cooling strategies, mechanical cooling or air conditioning must be used.

For cool-climate conditions, passive solar strategies can achieve interior temperatures above the comfort minima, depending on the building envelope thermal properties and availability of sunshine during the cold 51 season. The limits of comfort might be further extended by the use of active and conventional heating systems. In summary, cooling design strategies used to maintain interior comfort when ambient conditions are above

(to the right of) the comfort zone are: high-mass structures, ventilation, evaporative cooling (passive), and conventional dehumidification and air conditioning (active). Heating design strategies used to maintain interior comfort when ambient conditions are below (to the left of) the comfort zone are: passive solar heating, active solar heating, and dehumidification (active). All these strategies are shown in Figure 2-7, as they relate in graphic form to the psychrometric chart. 52

o M

III M

Fig. 2-7 Summary of Climate Control Design Strategies. Source: Chalfoun, N. "A Passive Solar Design Methodology for Housing in Egypt" [22] 53 2.2 CLIMATIC ANALYSIS: There are various ways of classifying climates, but most classifications used today are based on work done in the early 1900s by the Russian meteorologist Vladimir Koppen. Koppen classified climates around the world into five main types. These types have been applied throughout the earth, and describe five basic zones: tropical rainy climate (hot and humid), dry climate (hot and arid), middle-latitude warm temperate climate (temperate), cold and snowy climate (cool), and polar climate (cold and dry).

The simplified map in figure 2-8 illustrates climatic zones, and depicts similarities around the world. It is a useful tool from which architects and designers can determine the climate type of a target region. It is also clear from the map that Egypt, experiences a hot-arid climate type in terms of these generalized zones.

To understand the Egyptian climate, and to understand its causes, it is important to analyze both the visual aspects (topography) and the thermal aspects

(weather) of this climate. This section summarizes the major physical regions in Africa and focuses on the specific topography of the Egyptian regions. Furthermore, it illustrates Egypt's climatic regions and the seasonal variations which characterize and determine the climate in Egypt. 54

§ I I W ~~ I

Fig. 2-8 Climatic Zones Around the World. [Source: OlgyaYi (44)] 55 2.2.1 Physical Environment of Egypt:

Egypt forms the northeastern corner of Africa and

occupies nearly 3% of the total area of that continent. A

population of about 50 million inhabits 5% of Egypt's

territory. A full 95% of Egyptian land area is arid and

considered uninhabitable. Egypt is bordered on the north

by the Mediterranean Sea, on the south by the republic of

Sudan, on the west by Libya, and on the east by Israel, the

Gulf of Aqaba, and the Red Sea.

The Egyptian territory extends over about ten

degrees of latitude, from 22°N to 32°N. About a quarter of

its area lies to the south of the Tropic of Cancer. This

latitudinal location means that most of Egypt falls within

Africa's dry desert region, except a northern narrow strip of land which experiences a Mediterranean type of climate.

Egypt measures 1073 km in length from north to south and 1262 km in breath from east to west. It embraces an area -of approximately one million square kilometers.

Although topography plays a minor role in the general climate of Egypt, it has some local effects. For this

reason it is necessary to point out Egypt's major physical

regions which are as follows:

the Nile Valley and Delta the Western (Libyan) Desert the Eastern Desert and Sinai Peninsula.

Figure 2-9 illustrates Egypt's major topography. 56

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

SEA

___LF AL ICABIR + 1.1192

11---; 200 m o m

Fig. 2-9 Egypt's Major Topography. [Source: Jones; (38)] 57 2.2.2 Determinants of the Egyptian Climate

The climate in Egypt is generally hot and dry, as classified above in figure 2-8 of the five basic climatic zones of the world. But the specific climate of the

Egyptian region is regulated simultaneously by two major causal factors [34]. These factors are:

-- Since Egypt is a part of the continent of Africa and occupies a great zone of its Sahara Desert--one of

Africa's major climatic zones (Fig.2-10)--it is affected by this zone.

Because Egypt is located at the northeastern extremity of Africa, and is bounded to the north by the

Mediterranean, to the northeast by Asia, and to the east by the red sea, its climate is also affected by the following modifier factors:

(a) the Mediterranean sea and Europe, (b) the Red Sea and Asia.

(a) The Mediterranean Sea and Europe: The Mediterranean Sea is considered one of the main factors which plays a basic role in Egypt's climate. It borders the continent of Africa from the north between 50 west and 35 0 east longitude. This huge water surface becomes the theatre for low-pressure zones when the contrasting winter air masses from Africa and from Europe encounter each other [34]. When this happens, it becomes 58

______!Q.Ul-!.qL __ _

INDIAN OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN

R Equatorial climate P;/;:}! Humid tropical climate _£A.!~CQ •.t' __ E::!l Tropical climate with lono ::::~ dry •• uon (6-0 monthoo)

§ Saholian climate o Dooort climate _ Mediterranean climate _ Climate modoratod by altltuda

Fig. 2-10 Major Climatic Zones in Africa. [Source: Jones; (38)] 59

an active polar front where several depressions appear

between October until May of each year. These depressions

cause some polar winds from the northern hemisphere to

invade the Mediterranean basin and the northern coastal

zones of Africa (Figure 2-11). They also cause rainfall in

maritime zones and hot dusty winds in spring and early

summer. In Egypt this is called the Khamaseen wind.

(b) The Red Sea and Asia

Although the red sea represents another factor on

Egypt's climate, its effects are less perceived in respect

to the Mediterranean Sea and its associated depressions.

It regulates only a narrow strip at the Eastern Desert of

Egypt. This strip is the enclosed land between the Red Sea

mountain chain which acts as a climatic barrier between the

Red Sea zone and the rest of Egypt. The narrow enclosed

land has a varying width of 10 to 30 kilometers and spreads all along the Red Sea coast from 22°N to 30 0 N latitude. It

depicts a transitional picture between Egypt's dry desert

climate and an almost hot humid zone (Figure 2-12).

Arabia and the Indian Ocean are the sources of hot,

southeasterly humid winds in this area. But the high mountains of the Red Sea prevent this wind from travelling across the eastern desert to Egypt. The Red Sea zone is also attacked in summer by a

northeasterly trade wind which travels across its surface 60

...... Medlterranen polar front (winter)

...... -+ Routes of cold northerly air ~ Mountainous zones

~~~~~ Mediterranean low pressure zone

Fig. 2-11 Mediterranean Polar Front and Routes of Cold Northerly Air. [Adapted After ShamYi (50)] 61

@l Travelling depressions

--'--0 Arabian southeasterly humid winds __ Red sea local currents

."...... ) Asian northeasterly winds _I High chain of mountains

Fig. 2-12 Winds over the Red Sea Zone. [Adapted After ShamYi (50)] 62

affect the elevated relative humidity or the hot

temperature of the area.

2.2.3 Climatic Regions in Egypt:

Regionally specific architecture inevitably results

from the application of climatic data to energy-conscious design. Each Egyptian region preserves examples of

specific architecture ranging from multistory buildings

with large balconies in Alexandria and coastal areas, to

the one-story courtyard adobe houses in the extreme south of Upper Egypt. While desert regions in Egypt reflect

unique types of bamboo walls and palm roofs of nomad

shelters, Cairo's high-rise concrete or steel towers

symbolize a contrasting environment.

The broad climate of the country as a whole leads to marked differences in the climate of the Egyptian

regions. The distinctions between these different climatic zones are factors that cause the existing architectural

variations.

Although the names differ and zones shift slightly, most sources agree that there are six major climatic

regions in Egypt. Notice that these zones are drawn on the

basis of not only weather conditions but also the physical environments and activity patterns in each region. 63

For the purpose of this section the author will consider Egypt as six climatic regions with assumed definite boundaries. However, it is important to note that these boundaries are merely transitional, and each region merges gradually into the next.

The six climatic regions are categorized as follows:

1. Lower Egypt, comprising the Mediterranean coast

and the Nile Delta,

2. Greater Cairo,

3. The Red Sea coastal region,

4. Middle and Upper Egypt, comprising the south 800

kilometers of the Nile Valley,

5. The Desert region, comprising both the Western

and Eastern Deserts, and

6. Sinai, which is the only high land in Egypt.

Figure 2-13 shows the proposed six major climatic regions in Egypt after adapted from the weather information received by the author from the Cairo Meteorological

Authority, Climatological Department in Egypt. 64

MEDITERRANEAN· SEA

SUDAN

Lowor Red 1 Egypt 600

Cairo Upper 2 zone 4 Egypt 6 DSlnal

Fig. 2-13 The Proposed Six Major Climatic Regions of Egypt [Adapted after Cairo Meteorological Authority) 65 2.3 MICROCLIMATE MODIFICATIONS

It is essential, from an energy conscious design

standpoint, to understand that the climate of a region

(Macroclimate) can be modified on a small scale within each

area and site (Microclimate). Therefore, different sites

located in major climatic regions should be clearly

characterized and understood during the preliminary stages

of climatic analysis. Only then can specific design

decisions be made for building orientation, shape, and

location.

Each water body, slope, valley or exposed hill

within a particular location has a precise, discrete, and

finite effect on the general climate of that region. These modifiers which create distinct environments are described

below. 2.3.1 Elements Modifying the Microclimate:

Relationship between land and water

Elevation above sea-level (altitude)

Topography / Slopes

Character of land surface

Vegetation

2.3.1.1 Effect of Water:

Bodies of water play an important role in supplying a great amount of moisture to the air in the region; beach dwellings are assume to experience a relative humidity 10% 66 higher than inland dwellings. Also, large water bodies do not block regional winds from acting on beach dwellings

(Pig. 2-14).

Bodies of water affect the microclimate of the beach areas through diurnal and seasonal inversions.

Water, having a higher specific heat* than land, is normally warmer in winter and cooler in summer, and usually cooler during the day and warmer at night than terrain.

Accordingly, the proximity of the land to the shore moderates extreme temperature variations, and in winter raises the lower temperatures and in summer lowers the heat peaks. In the diurnal temperature variations, when the land is warmer than the water, low cool air moves over the land to replace the updraft in the form of offshore breezes (Fig. 2-15). During the day, such offshore breezes may have a cooling effect of up to 5 °C (lOOP). At night the direction is reversed. The effects depend on the size of the water body, and are more effective along the lee side of the water body.

In an inland zone, where air is hot and dry, the addition of a pond or pool can improve physical thermal comfort by an increase in the relative humidity of the

* Specific heat (Cp): the number of BTU's required to raise the temperature of one pound of a substance lOP. 67

FOR THE BEACH DWEWNGS:

2 - OFFSHORE BREEZES HAVE A COOUNG """"'>=,..,",..." .,Q,. 3 - THERElA11VEHUMIDIlYIS 10% HIGHER

Fig. 2-14 Beach Dwellings Micro-climate as Affected by Water Bodies. [Original Drawing by the Author]

Fig. 2-15 Air Movements Near a water body. [Original Drawing by the Author] 68 nearby air through the evaporative process. This

process is greatly assisted by the suns's radiation and a clear sky condition (Fig. 2-16).

2.3.1.2 Effect of Altitude: Temperatures of the atmosphere decrease with altitude. The temperature drop in the mountains can be approximated as 1°C drop for each 200 meters (1°F for each

330 feet) rise in summer, and 1°C drop for each 225 meters

(400 feet) rise in winter [Olgyay-44]. 2.3.1.3 Effect of Topography:

Small differences in terrain can create remarkable modifications on the microclimate. At night, the outgoing

radiation under clear skies causes the heavier cold air to form a layer near the ground surface. The cold air behaves somewhat like water by flowing toward the lowest spots.

This flood of cooler air causes "cold islands". Accordingly, topography that impedes the flow of air can prevent the distribution of the nocturnal temperatures by dam action, while concave terrain, such as valleys become cold-air lakes at night (Fig. 2-17).

As a result of cold lakes, valley walls and bottom surfaces cool off at night. Air flow occurs toward the valley floor, but the higher sides of the slopes will remain warm. These areas, often indicated by more tropical vegetation, are referred to as the warm slopes or 69

Fig. 2-16 Relative Humidity Increases Through Evaporation for Dwellings Located Near Water Bodies. [Original Drawing by the Author]

COLD!@2d:;::1 WARMj NOCTURNAL MINIMA

Fig. 2-17 Flow of Cold-Air Toward Lowest Spots and Nocturnal Temperature Distribution. [Original Drawing by the Author] 70 "thermal belts." From these levels, the temperatures decrease as one goes farther up or down the slopes. Thermal belts usually appear in stable air conditions, and might be offset by stronger winds.

Topography plays an important role in local surface temperature variations. Differences in topography cause local variations in the angle at which solar radiation strikes the ground surface. Both the steepness and the aspect of a slope affect surface heating and cooling. Surfaces more nearly perpendicular to incoming radiation receive more heat per unit area than do those nearly parallel to incoming radiation. The maximum temperature on a slope depends upon both the inclination and orientation of the slope and on the time of day. In general, the highest surface temperatures are found on slopes facing to the southwest. 2.3.1.4 Effect of Land Surface:

When surfaces surrounding the site get exposed to the sun for a considerable period of time they become heated and re-radiate the heat. The greater the thermal capacity of surrounding materials, the more effective will be its rate as a heat reservoir. The specific heat, then, is another reason why the surface temperature of substances vary under similar conditions of incoming and outgoing radiation. A 71 substance with a low specific heat will warm up rapidly as heat is added to it, simply because it takes less heat to change its temperature.

The amount of absorbed and reflected radiation of nearby surfaces also depends upon surface texture and color. Bare earth, asphalt, concrete and other types of paving have a high absorptive capacity and thus become excessively heated during the day's exposure to solar radiation.

External surfaces can often direct radiation into or onto adjacent buildings by reflectance, thus producing discomfort due to glare and additional radiation. Reflectance values vary with conditions such as moisture content and angle of incidence (Fig. 2-18)

2.3.1.5 Effect of Vegetation: Intelligent use of vegetation, whether in the form of trees, shrubs, and/or grasses, is known not only to modify the microclimate of a building but to improve the environment of the region as a whole. Plants and grasses reduce the heat load on exposed surfaces by obstructing the passage of solar radiation.

Temperatures over grass surfaces on sunny summer days are found to be 6 to 8 °C cooler than those of exposed soil as grass permits only 20% of the solar load to reach the ground. 72

SOlAR RADIATION TRA"Ic!I'III""~

EITHER:

1-DIRECT 2-DfFFUSE

3 - REFLECTED III 111 ...... ,._

• HEAT GAIN BY R£F1.ECTM1Y ON A SP£ClRC WINDOW AND A nME OF DAY DEPENDS UPON: 1 - ANGLE OF INCIDENCE 3 - DISTANCE OF REFLECTOR 2 - TYPE OF G\ROU'tI)COVER 4 - aJMAlCCONlmON

Fig. 2-18 Solar Radiation Transmitted Through Windows as Direct, Diffuse, and Reflected Beams. The Amount of Transmitted Radiation Depends Upon Four Factors as Shown in the Figure. [Original Drawing by the Author] 73

Air temperatures at a standard 4 1/2-foot height within a forest in the afternoon are likely to be 5 to 8 of cooler than the temperatures in nearby cleared areas.

Openings in a moderate to dense timber stand may become warm air pockets during the day. These openings often act as natural chimneys. Night temperatures in dense timber stands tend to be lowest near the top of the crown where the principal radiation takes place. Plants also increase the percentage of relative humidity in dry regions through evaporation. Other kinds of vegetation may absorb over 90% of light falling upon it.

Vegetation may reduce wind speeds by 90% or increase them through air funnel effects. In an arid setting, vegetation further provides advantages by acting as windbreakers, thus arresting the flow of dust and sand into built-up areas and buildings (Fig. 2-19).

Deciduous trees can provide both shading in summer and penetration of sun in winter when they lose their leaves (Fig. 2-20).

The effectiveness of specific plant materials in climate control depends upon:

a. The form, character and density of plants

b. The climate of the region

c. The specific requirements of the site 1-HUMIDIFICATION

2 - FILTRATION 4 - WINDBREAKING Fig. 2-19 Advantages of Vegetation as Used for: I-Adding Moisture to the Air 3-Shading Devices 2-Filtration of Sandy Winds 4-Windbreakers [Original Drawing by the Author]

SUMMER DECIDUOUS TREE 2 - WINTER PENETRATlO": Fig. 2-20 Effect of Deciduous Trees on Seasonal Shading. [Original Drawing by the Author] 75 2.3.2 Site Design for Microclimate Modifications: In response to the microclimate modifications explained above, three major design decisions must be made for siting which will affect the thermal performance of a building. These decisions are as follows:

Location of building Orientation of building Shape of building

2.3.2.1 Location of building: The care taken in placing buildings on a specific site with respect to the natural elements explained above is perhaps the most important decision designers will make in the early stages of design.

Climatic designs must take full advantage of the site natural elements such as prevailing winds, slopes, sun, thermal belt, water bodies, and so forth. These elements have great impact on the thermal behavior of buildings. 2.3.2.2 Orientation of building:

The total problem of orientation for a building is composed of many factors: local topography, the requirements of privacy, the pleasures of a view, reduction of noise, and the climatic factors of wind and solar radiation. Without neglecting the importance of the other factors, climatic factors of sun and wind are the two main influences in building orientation. 76 The orientation of a building is affected by the quantities of solar radiation falling on its different sides at different times. In winter, a southern exposure receives more than two and one half times as much radiation as the east or the west sides, while in summer the radiation falling on the south and north sides is less than half of that absorbed by the east and west elevations together. This ratio is even more pronounced at lower latitudes (Fig. 2-21). After detailed studies of this matter, a number of researchers in the U.S. have reached the conclusion that the principal facade of a house should face within 30 Degrees from south (between south-southwest and south-southeast), with due south being preferred for cool climates (Fig. 2-22). In his book Design With Climate, Victor Olgyay cautions against generalizing to all building locations. He promotes the use of the "Sol-Air Temperature" method to determine the optimal orientation. The sol-air approach to orientation recognizes that air temperature and solar radiation act together to produce the sensation of heat in the human body. The importance of the sun's heat will, then, vary according to regions and seasons. The Sol-Air equation which combines radiation thermal impacts and convection heat is as follows: 77

'000 (40° ~L) .... t... , I ...... ' ... ~ .. ! " . .'. ' ' ...•• :: noo I ...... :l~ I i ~NuO '. I :~ I :- 'evo L''''' ... ! :0 I ' South . ! I, ....~. iii 1600 VI --- .... -- ! 0 ..i· .... '\. / 1 .' .- ----...... ~ .~·,·-r· '1--. 0 V ,;' ...... •.. i ..· .... I .'" . / "". ... ···r .,/ I I...... "1 "" ..... '" HOf'IIDnI., I '" ...... ,;' --~I .00 >-.,' --- ...... ! ...... EUI&Wut i i ... i '-.- • 00 ...... l I I ---,.,."".,.. I ,- ---1- -- -r--j Norlh ..... A.,og 5t'PI Otl .. SOURCE: MAZRIA, EDWARD. llIE PASSIVE SOlAR ENERGY BOOt<.

Fig. 2-21 Solar Radiation Impacts at Different Orientations.

WESTt=~~~~3=~-EAST

Fig. 2-22 The Recommended Range for Best Building Orientation. [Original Drawing by the Author] 78

SAT = T t + lex: + ho ••.....•...•.•.•.. (2.1) ou . Where: SAT Sol-Air Temperature Tout Outdoor air temperature (OF) I Incident Solar Heat Flux (BTU/hr. ft2) ex: = Surface Absorptance (dimentionless) ho Coefficient of Heat Transfer by Convection (BTU/hr. ft2 OF)

An optimum orientation for a given site would give maximum radiation in the underheated period while simultaneously reducing insolation to a minimum in the overheated period.

Building orientation should also respond to local winds effects. Protection from chilly winter winds and hot dusty summer seasonal winds is essential.

2.3.2.3 Shape of building:

In addition to careful building location and orientation on site, it is necessary to define the preliminary shape of the building, with consideration for radiation and wind impacts, before laying out interior spaces.

The ideal shape loses the minimum amount of heat and gains the maximum amount of insolation in the winter, and does just the reverse in the summer.

Of course, other factors must influence the selection of the shape of a house, including the demands of the site and needs of the inhabitants. But energy conservation can often be successfully integrated with these factors. 79 To investigate the effects of climate on building shape, the thermal impact of the sun on its different orientations should be computed and compared. The following conclusions are taken from Olgyay's book "Design with Climate" [44]:

The square house is not the optimum form in any location.

All shapes elongated on the north-south axis work both with less efficiency in winter and summer than the square one.

The optimum shape lies in every case (all climates) in a form elongated somewhere along the east-west direction.

In summary, this chapter defines human thermal comfort requirements, specifies an approach to climatic analysis from which climatic zones are identified, and finally explains the natural elements affecting the microclimate and some climatic design strategies for siting buildings within a given microclimate.

In the next chapter, an optimization methodology is given for designing an optimum building envelope which would yield the best thermal performance for the minimum cost. Although the methodology is generalized, it has been applied specifically to six Egyptian locations representing the six major climatic regions of the country. 80

CHAPTER 3

A METHODOLOGY FOR BALANCING CONSERVATION AND SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES BASED ON ECONOMIC ANALYSIS.

Guidelines, even if they are only approximate, are very useful early in the design process. Guidelines lose their effectiveness if they are either too complex or too narrow in application.

Until now, solar designers have had to rely on either very inaccurate rules of thumb or very detailed and highly technical design analysis methods, some of which required the use of computers. This Chapter presents guantitative but simple preliminary design guidelines based on balancing conservation and solar design that takes proper account of the cost of materials as well as the solar and weather characteristic of the target location.

It should be noted however that the guidelines do not substitute for thermal evaluation later in the design process, but they do provide a reasonable starting point for schematic design.

The guidelines will enable builders to design solar homes that perform well without requiring knowledge of complex design and analysis procedures. Also, It should be 81 understood that the process works on non-solar as well as solar buildings. The process gives the designer a strong indication of how the house will perform providing a relative guide for choosing between various solar and conservation design options.

Although in this chapter the methodology has been developed with design emphasis on low-cost cluster houses in the Tahrir region--one of the main desert regions in

Egypt and the focal point of this particular study--in the next chapter the method is generalized and presented for six locations representing the major climatic regions in

Egypt.

Solar radiation and weather data for the selected six Egyptian regions are presented in Appendix-A.

Performance measures for four selected passive solar systems which have proven to best fit with the economics as well as the socio-cultural aspects of the country are presented in Appendix-B. Materials and energy costs in

Egypt are presented in Appendix-C.

3.1 BASIS OF THE GUIDELINES:

The guidelines are based on balancing the incremental cost/benefit of Conservation and Solar strategies to obtain an optimum mix. While the guidelines are based on calculation of the heating-season performance 82 only, a set of guidelines for summer cooling is presented.

The guidelines are applicable to residential construction and small commercial buildings of less than

5000 ft 2 in floor area, arranged in one or two stories.

In order to obtain simple guidelines, assumed values have been used for the incremental cost of the following:

1. Conservation improvements (cost per R)

2. Passive solar aperture (cost per ft 2 of projected area)

3. Rate of fuel (cost per KWH electricity)

The applied methodology can also account for any desired set of assumed costs. Note however that the guidelines depend on cost ratios and thus will not change with inflation if all costs escalate proportionally.

3.2 BALANCING CONSERVATION AND SOLAR:

Energy conservation and passive solar are both strategies for saving energy and they compete with one another for builders' investment money. Conservation makes the passive solar system's job easier; likewise, passive solar reduces the need for auxiliary heat well below levels attainable by conservation alone.

It is often stated that proper building design consists of first doing energy conservation and then doing solar. But the question is how much conservation is 83 appropriate before starting to use solar? For example, should a wall insulation be R-19, R-25, or R-40? How does the answer vary with the climate, the solar system type, and with the solar contribution? These questions can all be lumped under a general question, "what is the optimum mix of solar energy and energy conservation ?".

3.2.1 Law of Diminishing Returns:

Both energy conservation and passive solar strategies can be characterized as behaving according to a

II La\.; of Diminishing Returns."

This fact can be easily illustrated in Fig. 3.1 for a wall insulation when the relation between the cost per

(R) and the energy cost per (BTUs/year) is plotted. If for an R-5 wall insulation the cost of energy per (BTUs/year) is Y. Let's assume the initial cost of the R-5 is X.

Increasing the wall insulation from R-5 to R-IO will result in increasing the cost of R from X to 2X and decreasing the corresponding energy cost per BTU/year from Y to !Y. Thus the cost of the incremental improvement of (R) varies inversely with the incremental savings assuming that the cost per (R) is constant, which is normally a reasonable assumption.

This characteristic of decreasing annual savings associated with each increase in investment is what is RELATION BETWEEN 84 INCREMENTAL COST OF R & INCREMENTAL SAVINGS

R-4D I COST OF R (X value)

1011 12 " 14'1e Ie 1 Fig. 3-1 Law of diminishing returns illustrated by the relation between the cost of R and the cost of energy per BTU/Yr. The Inc. cost of R (Xi) varies inversely with incremental savings (Yi).

RELATION BETWEEN SIMPLE 20 PAYBACK TIME (Ti) & COST OF INCREMENTAL IMPROVEMENT (Xi)

R-40 'i? 15 l .... Eo! ~ 10 i= ::.:: u ~ 0..; 5 R-20 ~ c.. ------:Ii Vi

5 COST OF INCREMENTAL IMPROVEMENT Xi Fig. 3-2 Law of diminishing returns illustrated by the relation of the cost of incremental improvement and the simple payback period (Ti). The payback time for an incremental improvement varies as Xi 2 85 meant by reference to a law of diminishing returns. It

characterizes virtually every energy conservation strategy from additional wall insulation to additional ceiling

insulation to increased perimeter slab edge insulation or

reduced air infiltration.

The cost effectiveness is normally measured by the payback period. In Fig. 3.2, the same characteristic of

the law of diminishing returns is illustrated for the same wall in terms of the simple payback time for each

incremental investment-increase of R. For example, let the

incremental cost of increasing a wall insulation from R-5

to R-IO be (Xi) and the incremental annual savings per

BTU/year be (Yi). If, for illustration purposes, Xi = Yi and we already know that Yi=l + Xi, thus the simple payback

time (Ti) of this increment is one year. The incremental cost of increasing an R-IO to an R-20 is 2X and the

incremental annual savings Y = 1 + X =1/2. Thus the simple payback time of this second increment is 2X + ~X = 4 years.

Also the incremental cost of further increasing the R-20 to an R-40 is 4X and the incremental saving Y=l + X=1/4. thus the simple payback time of this last increment is 4X/~X =

16 years .... and so forth.

From the above, it is concluded that the simple payback time (Ti) for an incremental improvement varies as

. 2 X 1 • However, the overall cost of going from R-5 to R-40 = 86

7X and the annual energy saving is 1.75 Y so that the overall payback time (T) is 7+1.75 = 4 years. Therefore, one should note that it is the incremental savings (Yi) compared to the incremental cost (Xi) and not the average that is important in determining when to stop increasing the R-value of the element.

In conclusion, It is easy to see that the incremental return associated with each incremental investment is decreasing while the payback time is increasing rapidly. Again we see a characteristic of diminishing returns.

Identically, the same fact characterizes investments in passive solar heating. The first added passive solar collection area is very effective because it saves auxiliary heat during the entire heating season.

Consider, however, adding additional solar collection area to a building that already has a very high solar contribution. Since the building only requires backup heat during periods of either extremely cold weather or prolonged cloudiness, the added collection area is beneficial only during these rare periods. Although the cost of the last collection area that is added may be the same as the first area that was added, its cost effectiveness is much less because the energy savings is much less. Again we see a characteristic of diminishing 87 returns and also the necessity of calculating on an

incremental rather than average basis.

3.2.2 The Balanced Approach:

Because of the above explained characteristics, it

is usually true that a mix of conservation and passive

solar strategies will produce the maximum energy savings

for a given initial investment. A good passive solar

design involves a balance of conservation and solar gains,

and the proper balance depends on the climate. This

conclusion is independently reached by cost/benefit

studies. This allow both energy conservation and passive

solar to work in their cost-effective range. At each point

of the design it is possible to weigh the options and to determine the best strategy for increasing performance.

The most important economic consideration is to determine the "best" size of solar collection area and the

"best" level of energy conservation for a particular application. This depends, of course, on the add-on cost of the solar features, the add-on cost of conservation

related to a starting point--usually called the Basecase.

The mathematics of this balancing process are presented throughout the next sections of this Chapter. 88 3.3 Conservation Optimization:

There are two basic components of the cost of maintaining comfortable temperatures in an energy

conservative house:

1. Conservation costs (insulation, double glazing ... )

2. Heat supply costs (fuel, electricity, ... )

In a solar house there are generally two sources of

heat supply: the solar heating system, and a back-up (or

auxiliary) heating system. In this case there are three

principle elements for the total cost:

1. Investment for energy conservation

2. Investment for solar heating system

3. Recurring cost of auxiliary heating

These three cost elements are interrelated in such a way

that anyone of them can be decreased through an increase

in one or both of the other two. The purpose of this

section is to show how a designer can take the fullest

possible advantage of this interrelationship.

Two aspects of this process are discussed: cost

evaluation and cost optimization, where optimization

consists of manipulating the design variables so as to minimize the total cost.

3.3.1 Conservation Cost Evaluation:

Conservation cost equations are based on the add-on cost of some available choices of conservation elements 89 which would increase the building insulation level above a reference case.

The incremental cost of each conservation strategy is given by a value r, as follows:

r cost per R per unit area for wall insulation w r cost per R per unit area for ceiling insulation c rd cost per R per unit area for door insulation r cost per R per unit length for perimeter insulation p rb cost per R per unit length for basement insulation r cost per glazing per unit area for one extra glazing g r cost per Hour Ai r Change (HAC) per unit volume for f =

decreasing infiltration

Where HAC l/ACH is the hours per air change,

and ACH Air Change per Hour.

Heat loss from a building is the sum of several heat flows which are represented by the elemental components of that building, all of which are acting in parallel. For an opaque element, the cost of conservation is as follows:

Cost r. R. A. (3.1 ) i 1 1 1

Where r. the incremental cost per R per unit area 1 R. the R-value of the element 1 A. the area of the element 1 90

The additional cost (OCost ) over a reference case can be i vir itt en as:

( 3 • 2)

Where Ci is the conservation cost of the reference element.

The relations (3.1) and (3.2) are shown in fig. 3.3 for a 938 ft2 wall having an R-7 reference insulation value and a constant incremental cost per R (ri) of $ 0.0211.

The wall, then, has been gradually upgraded to an R-60.

The load coefficient of any element (Li) is the area of that element times its U-value. It is related to the R-value as follows:

L'~ ( 3 .3)

Where the 24 factor is to convert from a per hour basis to a per day basis. Fig. 3.4 shows the relation between the

R-value and the load copfficient (Li) of the same wall described above.

From Eqns. (3.2) and (3.3), the additional cost of conservation (oCosti) for any element can be related to its load coefficient (Li) by: RELATION BETWEEN 91 1100 ADD-ON COST (OCOSTi) R-60 1000 & WALL INSULAtiON (Ri)

gOO

BOO

700

600 ~ 0 ~ !SOO 400

300

200

100

30 40 50 60 70 -13~~ WALL Ri value

Fig. 3-3 Relation between the add-on cost (OCosti) and the insulation (Ri) for a 938 ft2 wall.

4000 RELATION BETWEEN Ri AND Li OF A

R7 938 sq. ft. WALL 3200

,"",2400 Cl Cl ~ b5 ;1800

800

R6D

10 20 30 40 !So 60 70 RI Wall

Fig. 3-4 Relation between Ri and Li for a 938 ft 2 wall having a discreet choices of insulation values. 92

( 3.4 )

2 Where 24 q Ai (3.5)

The inverse scaling law between the additional cost

(OCosti) and the corresponding load (Li) is illustrated in

Fig. 3.5 for the same example wall. It worth to note here, that in most cases it is necessary to choose from among several different choices such as wall thickness options.

Thus the cost equation is not a continuum as indicated in

Eqn. (3.4) but actually a series of discreet points which might lie along a line indicated by that equation.

In a completed design, the same inverse scaling law between the additional cost (oCosti) and the load (Li) applies for all the other elements that constitute of the house. The roof is similar to the wall. For windows, the choices are the number of glazing to be used or the possibility of applying insulation on the windows at night.

Doors will have the same inverse scaling law. Slab perimeter insulation will also have the same inverse scaling law. Its additional cost equation can be written as follows:

oCosti (Perimeter)= ri (Ri+5) Length - Ci (3.6)

Where: q (5) Length ( 3.7 ) 93

1200 INVERSE SCALING LAW BETWEEN THE LOAD (Li) & THE ADD-ON R60 COST (8COSTi) OF A 938 s. ft WALL HAVING AN ri= 0.0211 $ 1000

800

...... ~ ...... - F 600 (j) SCOSTi - bi/Li - Ci 0 0 c.o 400

R19 200

R7 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Li (BTU/DD)

Fig. 3-5 Illustration of the inverse scaling law between the load (Li) and the add-on cost (oCosti) for a 938 ft2 wall having an incremental cost per R ri = $ 0.0211 94

And Li (Perimeter)= 100 Length/(Ri+5) ( 3 • 8 )

b' The ~ - C' ( 3.9 ) L'1 1

Where: bi(Perimeter) 100 ri(length)2 (3.10 )

Although infiltration represents a major part of the building load coefficient, little information is available on the cost of reducing the infiltration load. It is a logical conclusion, however, that the cost will behave according to the same type of inverse scaling law as follows:

1 6Costi (Infiltration)= ri ACH (3.11)

Where: . ri is the incremental cost per unit volume of

increasing l/ACH. ($375 per unit of l/ACH/V)

V is the volume and Li (Infil) = 0.432 (ACH)(ADR)V (3.12 )

Where ADR = air-density ratio (see Fig.3-9)

The additional cost of increasing l/ACH can then be related to its load coefficient Li(Infil) as follows:

6Costi(Infil) (3.13) 95

Where bi (Infil)= 0.432 ri (ADR) V2 (3.14 )

Note that Egns 3.8 and 3.12 used for calculating the

Perimeter and Infiltration load respectively are empirical forms derived from ASHRAE [8] and the Passive Solar Design

Handbook [16]. The forms are an approximation to tabular data where the constants are chosen to give a good fit (see also the discussion on calculating the Building Load

Coefficient BLC in section 3.3.3).

3.3.2 Conservation Cost Optimization:

Successful design guidelines should be based on minimizing the total additional cost of all the conservation elements put together to enhance the house performance to a certain target load. For an "n" number of elements, the total additional cost (~Cost) and the total load (L)--which also can be called the Building Load

Coefficient (BLC)--are given by the following:

n /5.Cost L oCosti ( 3.15) i=l

n L Li ( 3 .16) 1=1r

n and Cc Ci (3.17) r1=1 96

The minimum total additional cost (6Costmin) and the total load (L) or (BLC), can be shown related by:

6 Costlllin (3.18 )

Where b is a constant to be determined such that 6 Cost is minimized as follows:

( 3 .19)

In addition, at minimum total additional cost, the load of each element is related to the total load by:

L'1. L (3.20 )

And the additional cost of each element (oCosti) is related to the total load (L) by:

~ bj b (3.21) L

PROOF:

The total additional cost (6Cost) is:

n 6Cost \ (...E.L - C1.') r=l Li 97

(3.22 )

From Eqns. (3.18) and (3.22) it follows that:

n b L (3.23) ---r- i=l

n or b L L -h i=l Li

n + L L' j=l J jr!i

To determine b as a function of bi'S only and at its minimum value we perform the following:

If X and Yare any two positive numbers, then, the arithmetic mean between X and Y is greater or equal to their geometric mean: i.e;

X + Y > (3.24) 2

Hence, we can write

n ~ Lj > (3.25) J=l jr!i 98 It follows that the minimum value of b is:

n-l b + 2 t-l

Thus, the minimum total additional cost (~Costmin) is given by Egns. (3.18) and (3.19) as claimed previously.

From Egns. (3.19) and (3.23) it follows that:

or

By manipulation, we can get Egns. (3.20) and (3.21). 99 3.3.3 Numerical Example:

Suppose a schematic design of an approximately lSOO Et 2 conventional house located in the desert oE the Tahrir

region in Egypt is to be made oE the following

characteristics:

Wall R-3.4

Ceiling R-S.OS

Windows R-0.93 (single glazing) Doors R-I.O

Perimeter R-O (no slab-edge insulation)

Infiltration 1.S ACH.(average construction)

Compile a list of available conservation options

for each building part. Then, within the limits of a

certain investment, apply the conservation optimization

technique to indicate the lowest possible value of combined

heating load and conservation add-on cost.

a. Surface areas:

Start by making rough estimates of the combined surface areas of all non-solar elements; i.e., walls, rooE,

perimeter, windows and doors. Also calculate the total

heated volume of the house. Figure 3-6 illustrates the architectural drawing of the assumed example house at

Tahrir, Egypt. ~o ••

Fig. 3-6 The Architectural Drawings of the 1500 ft2 Example House in Tahrir, Egypt. 101

DININO ROOM

BED ROOM BED ROOM

_ 4 o I~: "' . .:& VESTIBULE '.> 000 :; II ( .. I <': N I

I

I ~l-. PLAN ~ 't: o

I 1 i , t.," BUILDING INFORMATION: 0246810 Solar Collection Area: Direct Gain (south windows only)= 32 ft2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace (18 X 7) 126 ft2 Non Solar Opaque Walls ....•.•.•.. 632 ft2 Roof (excluding the entrance) .... . 1500 ft2 Non Solar Windows (E,W,&N) ...... 144 ft2 ft2 000 r s (2 X 3 X 7) •••••••••• ••••••• 42 108 ft' Slab Per imeter ...••••.•..•....•.. 3 Volume (1500 X 9) •.•.•....•.. •···· 13500 ft Fig. 3-6 ••••• [Continued] 102 Non-south window area = 144 ft 2 (10% of E, W, N walls) "As a rule of thumb, the non-south window fraction will normally be between 0.05 of the E, W, & N walls for a situation with minimum window area, and 0.1 for a case with ample window area [16]."

Solar collection area 32 ft 2 (South windows) 126 ft 2 (Sunspace)

Non-solar opaque walls 632 ft2

Roof 1500 ft2

Doors 42 ft 2

Perimeter lOB ft'

Volume 13500 ft 3 b. Conservation options:

For each building part make assumptions on improving its conservation level above the reference case; i.e., for walls, a 2" thick. R-B.3 or a 4" thick. R-12.4 rigid insulation may be added. Windows may be replaced by a double or triple-glazed casement of 1.09 and 0.B2 U-value respectively. Perimeter slab edge insulation may be of I" thick. R-2.2 or 2" thick. R-4.5 asphalt impregnated cork.

During design development there is insufficient information available to estimate the building infiltration. Rather, at this point, the designer should consider the determination of the air change parameter to be a matter of design criteria rather than prediction. The minimum value which might be chosen will depend on one of two considerations: 103 1- The minimum air change rate recommended for

residential applications is 1/2 ACH. Below this

the building becomes stuffy, odors build up, and

humidity builds up due to water release within the

building. For lower rates, forced ventilation with

heat recovery units must be employed.

2- The natural air infiltration rate associated

with normal building construction normally

exceeds the 1/2 ACH lower limit. To achieve this lower number requires meticulous attention to

sealing all cracks where air might leak in or

out of the house. A more useful lower limit,

which might be associated with careful

construction practices, would be in the range of

3/4 to 1 ACH.

Table 3.1 shows each building part of the example house associated with its surface area and its conservation options above the reference case (shown as case No 1). The last column gives descriptions of the conservation element being used. c. Calculation of Building Load Coefficient:

The next step is to calculate the several components (L.) 1 of the building load coefficient (BLC):

Wall area Walls: R-value of walls 104

Table 3-1 Selected discreet choices of conservation levels

for the constituent elements of the 1500 ft2

example house located at Tahrir, Egypt:

Element Case Conservation Description Area No Level

.!II Walls 1 R-3.4 Wall + 2 Asphalt sheeting 632 ft 2 2 R-7.5 R-4.1 I" rigid fiber glass 3 R-l1. 7 R-B.3 2" , , , , , , 4 R-19.5 R-16.5 4" , , , , , ,

Roof 1 R-5.05 Concrete, No insulation 1500 ft 2 2 R-12.75 R-7.7 1" foam type on roof 3 R-20.45 R-15.4 2" , , , , , , , , 4 R-35.B5 R-30.B 4" , , , , , , , ,

! .. Windows 1 U-l.l R-0.93 single 4 clear 144 ft2 2 U-O.B Tightly closed draperies 3 U-0.6 R-l.67 double 1/4" air gap 4 U-0.4 R-2.3B triple 1/4" air gap

Doors 1 R-1. 0 Frame, plywood both sides 42 ft2 2 R-2.5 2" solid core softwood 3 R-B.5 2" bat, plywood both sides 4 R-13.5 3~" bat , , , , , , Perimeter 1 R-O.O Slab on grade no insulation 111 lOB ft' 2 R-l.l 2 Asphalt impregnated cork 3 R-2.2 I" , , , , , , 4 R-4.5 2" , , , , , ,

Infiltration 1 1.5 ACH Average construction 13500 ft 3 2 1.0 ACH Good quality construction 3 .75 ACH add plastic vapor barrier 4 .50 ACH seal joints, foam cracks 105 Roof area Roof: 24 X R-value of roof Non-south windows: LG = 24 X area X (U-value) or I R

Perimeter: Lp 100 X length of perimeter insulation R-value of perimeter insulation + 5 Doors area Doors: LD 24 X R-value of doors

Infiltration: LI (0.432) X (average ACH) X (ADR) X (ceiling height) X (floor area) Where: ADR is the Air Density Ratio shown in Fig. 3.7

to account for other-than-sea-Ievel locations.

The derivation of these formulas is based on ASHRAE [8] heat gain/loss equations. All terms contain a factor of 24 to convert from BTU/hr OF to BTU/day OF (BTU/DD). For the perimeter loss, the form is an approximation where the constants are chosen to give a good fit to tested data.

Note that the solar glazing (south windows) is not included in the calculation of BLC for the following reasons:

1- The solar glazing would not be present in a non-solar building which is the principal basis of comparison.

2- The solar wall is a net energy gainer, not a loser, and to present it as part of the load would be

misleading.

3- The tables which are to be used for the correlation

between LCR and BLC are defined without the solar

wall included (see Appendix B) 106

1.0

~ ~ .9 " ~ ~ ~ ~ Q S 0 .~ .8 "' ~ ~ &! 1" a ~ .~ ~ III I:: ~ .7 ~ ~ ,.. , .~ i ~ i I i '"' I , .6 1 1 I , I i I

.5 o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Elevation, thousands of feet

Fig. 3-7 The Air Density Ratio (ADR) for different elevations. The sea level air density is 3 0.075 lb/ft • 107 d. Cost estimation:

Once the design options have been made, one must make or obtain cost estimates for each of the items.

Common architectural practice is to state variable costs in unit terms; e.g., $/linear foot ($/ft), and $/square foot

2 ($/ft ). In some instances, cost will be on a per-item basis and not vary with the size of the system. The last are called fixed costs, and are stated in total $ terms.

In addition, the unit or variable costs (VC) and the fixed costs (FC) have both a materials and installation or labor component.

Cost information can be obtained from construction materials suppliers, insulation contractors, and so forth.

Variable costs and fixed costs for different functional elements commonly used in building construction in Egypt are provided for our example by the author and through personal communication with his brother in Egypt.

When increasing the level of conservation in a building, elements of the cost common to all conservation options need not be included in this accounting procedure.

Note that optimization is based on the incremental cost rather than average cost (see section 3.2.1). For example, wall insulation options might include 1" (R-4.1), 2" (R-

8.3), and 4" (R-16.5) of rigid fiber glass, at costs of

$.44, $.75, and $1.51 per square foot respectively. 108 In determining the insulation incremental cost of that wall, it is not appropriate to simply divide the cost per ft 2 of the wall by the R-value--that's the average.

Instead, it is desirable to determine the costs and R- values of two different wall sections and calculate the incremental cost by dividing the increase in cost per ft 2 by the increase in R-value. The incremental cost per R/ft 2 for that wall can now be determined as follows:

(.75) - (.44) .31 Incremental cost 0.0738 $/R ft 2 (R-8.3) - (R-4.1) 4.2

Note that the cost of the wall element common to all insulation options (e.g., brick, exterior and interior plaster, paint, etc.) is not included and will not affect the calculated cost per R in the above example. Also, one may determine a more accurate incremental cost by repeating the above explained procedure for the next insulation level and take the average.

Table 3-2 shows the different building parts, the conservation level options, the load component Li(BTU/DD), and the add-on cost (ocost ) of conservation for the above i explained example.

In order tQ determine unit costs for windows, it is necessary to use the same techniques as above in which the R-value (l/U) is determined for different integer numbers 109

Table 3-2 Selected discreet choices of conservation levels

for the constituent elements of the 1500 ft2

example house located at Tahrir, Egypt:

Building Case Conserva­ Load Add-on Cost Elements No tion Component Cost ($) Of Area Level (Li) (oCosti) Ref. ( f t 2 ) (R-value) (BTU/DO) ($ ) ($ ) ) (C i

Walls 1 R-3.4 4461* o 183 632 ft 2 2 R-7.5 2022 220 q=0.085 3 R-11.7 1296 446 4 R-19.5 778 865

Roof 1 R-5.05 7129* o 765 1500 ft 2 2 R-12.75 2824 1167 q=0.101 3 R-20.45 1760 2333 4 R-35.85 1004 4666

Windows 1 U-l.l 3840* o 1115 144 ft2 2 U-0.8 2880 372 ri=8.6 3 U-0.6 2160 867 4 U-0.4 1382 1981

Doors 1 R-l.O 1008* o 7 42 ft2 2 R-2.5 403 11 q=0.168 3 R-8.5 119 53 4 R-13.5 75 88

Perimeter 1 R-O.O 2160* o 377 108 ft' 2 R-l.l 1770 461 q=0.699 3 R-2.2 1500 544 4 R-4.5 1337 717 Infiltration 1 1.5 ACH 8748* o 562 13500 ft 3 2 1.0 ACH 5832 188 q=0.028 3 .75 ACH 4374 281 4 .50 ACH 2916 375**

* The Reference Case load (Lref) = 27346 BTU/DO ** The incremental cost of increasing l/ACH is constant and is equal to $ 375 per unit of l/ACH per unit volume. 110

of glazing and the incremental cost is determined in the

same fashion. For perimeter insulation, the incremental

cost needed is per R-value per linear foot of perimeter. The cost of reducing infiltration presents a

special case in which it is very difficult to make accurate estimates. The following assumption is derived from the

Passive Solar Design Handbook, V.III [16], pages 23 & 24:

"For a house \vi th an average floor area of 1500 ft 2 the

incremental cost of increasing l/ACH is constant and is equal to $375 per unit of l/ACH. This corresponds to

$0.028 per ft 2 for our 13500 ft 3 example house." e. Cost optimization:

From Table 3-2 the following characteristics can be determined for our reference house:

Element A. C. r. b. b. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.

Walls 632 183 0.085 814800 903 Roof 1500 765 0.101 5454000 2335 Windows 144 1115 8.6 4279900 2069 Doors 42 7 0.168 7112 84 Perimeter 108 377 0.699 815300 903 Infiltration 13500 562 0.028 2204500 1485

Sum C E C. 3009 Total 7779 c 1.

Note that Ci and bi have been calculated from Eqns 3.2 through 3.14 as described in section 3.4.1--conservation cost equations. III

From the above information and at minimum total additional cost (~Costmin) we can conclude the following:

When b (L ~bi )2 (see Eqn. 3.19) (7779)2

60510000 and (see Eqn. 3.17)

3009

b Thus ~Costmin -C (see Eqn. 3.18) ~ c

60510000 / L - 3009

There are 46 = 4096 combinations possible from the array of original choices. The total add-on cost and total load of each of these possible combinations is plotted on

Fig. 3-8. The curve corresponding to Eqn. 3-18 is also plotted on the same figure. One can see that the curve does represent the lower bound of choices as claimed. e. Select optimum conservation levels:

The definition of Eqn. 3.18 and/or its corresponding curve presents an important design tool from which the optimum load (at minimum) relative to an initial investment can be easily identified.

There are two approaches to solving the problem; the first is when a designer is under a limited initial 112

COST OF CONSERVATION OVER THE COST OF THE REFERENCE $ CASE AS A FUNCTION OF THE BUILDING LOAD COEFFICIENT 10000 (L) FOR THE 1500 FT:2 EXAMPLE HOUSE IN TAHRIR. EGYPT

GOOO

Q) III 8000 I;> ()

Q) 7000 () c E BODO ....Q) E 5000 Q) > 0 .c <4000 I;> c 0 3000 :.:; 0 ....> 2000 Q) III c:: 0 () 1000

"- 0 .... 0 III 0 () -1000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Building Load Coefficient. BTU/oF-Day

Fig. 3-8 Relation between the Add-on Cost of Possible

Energy Conservation and the Building Load

Coefficient (L) for a 1500 ft 2 House Located in the Tahrir region, Egypt.

Note: Values of add-on cost and total load for each of the 4096 case are obtained through a simple computer program shown in Fig. 3-9. 113

10 REM 20 DIM WALL(4),CEIL(4),WIND(4),PERM(4),DOOR(4),INFL(4) 25 DIM WALC(4),CEIC(4),WINC(4),PERC(4),DORC(4),INFC(4) 30 FOR 1= 1 TO 4 40 READ WALL(I),CEIL(I),WIND(I),PERM(I},DOOR(I),INFL(I) 50 NEXT I 55 FOR J = 1 TO 4 60 READ WALC(J),CEIC(J),WINC(J),PERC(J),DORC(J),INFC(J) 65 NEXT J 70 OPEN "NADER.DAT"FOR APPEND AS 1 80 FOR 1=1 TO 4 90 FOR J= 1 TO 4 100 FOR K= 1 TO 4 110 FOR L= 1 TO 4 120 FOR M= 1 TO 4 130 FOR N= 1 TO 4 140 VALUE= WALL(I)+CEIL(J)+WIND(K)+PERM(L)+DOOR(M)+INFL(N) 145 VALC=WALC(I)+CEIC(J)+WINC(K)+PERC(L)+DORC(M)+INFC(N) 150 REM PRINT I;J;K;L;M;N;VALUE;VALC, 155 PRINT#l,VALUE,VALC 160 REM 170 NEXT N,M,L,K,J,I 180 DATA 4461.7129,3840,1008,2160,8748 190 DATA 2022,2824,2880,403,1770,5832 200 DATA 1296,1760,2160,119,1500,4374 210 DATA 778,1004,1382,75,1337,2916 220 REM 230 DATA 0,0,0,0,0,0 240 DATA 220,1167,372,11,461,188 250 DATA 446,2333,867,53,544,281 260 DATA 865,4666,1981,88,717,563

Fig. 3-9 Program in Basic Used to Calculate the Total

Add-on Cost and Total Load for each of the 4096 Possible Combinations for the 1500 ft2 Bouse at Tahrir, Egypt. 114 investment by his client and wants to obtain the

corresponding house minimum load, and the second, is when a

designer is seeking to define the minimum additional cost

corresponding to a certain decrease in the house reference

load. In both cases the optimum conservation levels can be selected as explained below. Continuing with our example house, suppose a client

had approximately $4000 to spend on improving the

insulation level of the house. What would be the optimum

design ?i i.e. the best possible combination. Looking in

Fig. 3-10 or solving in Eqn. 3.18 the cost entry is found corresponding to an L = 8633 BTU/oF day, that is about a 57% saving from the reference case. Solving in Eqn. 3.20, an L. (at optimum) for each 1. element can be found, and the closest case corresponding to each load can also be found from Table 3-2 as follows:

(3.20)

Element L opt. Closest case (s) Walls 1001 ( 3 ) or ( 4 ) Roof 2591 ( 2 ) Windows 2295 ( 3 ) Doors 94 ( 3 ) or (4 ) Perimeter 1002 ( 4 ) Infiltration 1647 ( 4 )

Total L = 8630 BTU/DO 115

BUILDING LOAD COEFFICIENT CORRESPONDING TO AN $ INITIAL INVESTEMENT OF $4000 ON CONSERVATION 10000 FOR THE 1500 FT2 EXAMPLE HOUSE IN TAHRIR. EGYPT

gOOD

Q) CJ) 8000 0 0

(J) 7000 0 C Q) L BODO .....Q) ~ !IOOO (I) > 0 .0 4000 0 c 3000 :.:.0 c ~ 2000 Q) Ul c: 0 1000 0 Qaux2 ..... 0 a o

Qauxnew (2) ~ Energy Savings (%) 1 - Qauxref(l) ]

Fig. 3-10 Total House Load Saving Corresponding to a $4000

Initial Investment for the 1500 ft 2 house in

Tahrir, Egypt. 116

This process has narrowed the number of choices from 4096 to 4, avoiding the computation of total load for each of the 4096 possible combinations. The designer can now pick any of the 4 defined combinations knowing that each is an optimum. The choice between the 4 cases may well be based on preferences or some considerations other than economics.

For economic analysis, one might now calculate the add-on cost and the load of each of the 4 combinations and pick the closest case to the initial investment. This is done by drawing the "Tree" of all 4 combinations as follows:

Constant ARd- Total Case $=3126 & L=9237 80st ( L) No. t t R2~G3~P4~I4~D3 3625 10652 .• [ 1 ] _C 3660 10608 ... [2] W3 R2~G3~P4~I4~D4 W4 -c R2~G3~P4~I4~D3 =14044 101341 ... [3] R2~G3~P4~I4~D4 = 4079 10090 ... [4]

From the above analysis a designer can now determine that the optimum conservation level of the house is represented by case No.3 as follows:

Walls R-19.5 additional 4" rigid insulation

Roof R-12.75 1" foam-type insulation

Windows U-0.6 double, with 1/4" air gap

Doors R-8.5 2" bat, plywood both sides

Perimeter R-4.5 2" asphalt impregnated cork

Infiltration 0.5 ACH seal joints, foam cracks 117 The above characteristics represent the house at its optimum performance relative to the initial investment. f. Estimate total backup heat (Qaux):

In order to determine the savings we calculate the following:

Annual Auxiliary heat; Qaux BLC X DD = op Where DD is the annual normals of heating degree-days below the base temperature 65 OF (see Appendix A for DD values of the selected six major locations in Egypt, and Appendix D of the Passive Solar Design Handbook [16] for 219 U.S. and Canadian Cities.

Hence Qaux = 10134 X 1141 (for Tahrir)

11.5 million BTU/year

Since, Qauxref= BLCrefX DD 27346 X 1141

31.2 million BTU/year

Qaux __ 1 _ 11.5 63 0 Hence, the saving 1 - '0 Qaux 31.2 ref

g. Calculate optimum pay-back period:

The efficiency of any design is normally measured by the payback period. In the above example the add-on cost of conservation is minimized as well as the load relative to an initial investment. The end result of this 118 process is a minimized or optimum payback period. It is proven as follows:

b. Cost (the add on cost) payback years (Y) $ Savings

b. Cost Qaux(saved) X C

Where C is the unit price per BTU (fuel or electricity)

Since: Qaux < Qaux op ref then, Y is always < Y op

Assuming that the cost of electricity in the Tahrir region in Egypt is $ 0.075 per KWhr, and the efficiency

(coefficient of performance COP) of back up heating system is 100% (typical of electric resistance heaters), then the dollar saving per year is calculated as follow:

[(31.2-11.5) X 1000 + 3.41 + 1 = 5777.13 KWhr then the dollar savings 5777.13 X 0.075 = 433.3 $/Year

4044 (conservation add on) Hence the payback period (Y) 433.3 $/Year

= 9.3 Years 119 3.4 CONSERVATION AND SOLAR OPTIMIZATION:

The method to be described provides a technique for keeping the solar and conservation levels in proper balance with one another. The other side of the decision is determining how far to go with the combined strategies.

Here there are two possibilities:

The first, and most likely situation, is that the designer

will be up against an economic limit and this

will constrain the total combined investment in

conservation and passive solar.

The second, is that life-cycle costing will determine the

degree of energy savings strategies, weighing

the potential for future fuel savings based on

projected future cost adjustments against the

cost of the additional investment.

A simple procedure for determining the life-cycle optimum solar savings fraction (SSF) is presented in the next section. Constrained optimization is described below.

3.4.1 Solar Cost Equations:

While the conservation cost equations--explained in the previous section--are based on the cost of incremental improvement of each conservation element, the solar equations presented here are also based on the costs of 120

incrementally increasing the solar collection area.

With the existence of different varieties of

passive solar systems, especially those comprising tilted-

glazing systems; i.e. sunspaces, the solar collection area

is defined for purposes of simplification as the principal

net glazing area projected on a vertical plane.

The add-on cost of the solar collection area varies

linearly with the area as follows:

a A + C Cost solar P a (3.26 )

Where C is a fixed cost price (usually employed for a active solar systems, i.e. photovoltaic .. etc),

A is the solar collection area of the passive p 2 system(s) projected on a vertical plane (ft ),

and a is the cost per unit area of the vertical plane

of the passive solar system used.

The solar cost constants, a and C , vary widely with the a solar system type and effectiveness. For our case-study

the active solar cost constant is chosen to be zero.

3.4.2 Solar System Performance:

In a particular climate the average temperature which will be achieved inside a "passive solar building" is determined by two factors: 121 1. The Building Load Coefficient (BLC) (BTU/oF day)

2. The size of the Solar Projected Area (A ) (ft2). P The ratio of these two numbers is referred to as the Load

Collector Ratio (LCR) as follows:

BLC (BTU/DO) LCR Ap (FT2) (3.27)

Where BLC is the Building Load Coefficient defined as the additional energy, in BTU/day, required to

increase the building inside temperature one

additional degree Fahrenheit. It is equal to the

normal Design Heat Gain/Loss Coefficient (on a

daily basis) calculated by ASHRAE procedures minus the loss through the south-facing solar

aperture.

This parameter (LCR) is the single variable which most influences the solar performance of the building. In one simple ratio it determines the relationship between energy conservation, which is determined by the non-solar Building Load Coefficient (also called Net Load Coefficient NLC in some references), and the amount of solar gain, which is determined by the size of the Solar Collection Area.

The Load Collector Ratio (LCR) also determines the solar savings (fuel savings) which will be realized in the building. The relationship between LCR and solar savings 122

is different for each locality, depending on the amount of

incident sunshine and the Heating Degree Days (HOD).

The solar performance curve must be determined for

the local climate. This can be done using the F-Chart method for an Active System--excluded in this particular

study-- and/or the monthly Solar Load Ratio (SLR) method

for a Passive System or through a detailed simulation analysis. In any case, the results should be expressed as

the Solar Saving Fraction (SSF), versus the Load Collector

Ratio (LCR) as follows:

SSF Function of LCR

solar savings net reference load (BLCXOO)

net reference load (BLC X OO)-auxiliary heat net reference load (3.28)

Auxiliary heat required by the solar building 1 _ Qaux or 1 - Auxiliary heat required by a is&arence comparable non-solar building

For any particular locale, this relationship can be expressed as a table of values of SSF as a function of LCR.

In Appendix B such tables are presented for 6 major locations in Egypt representing the climatic zones of the country. The correlations are for the type of solar system being used, and based on specific reference designs. 123 3.4.3 Constrained Optimization:

The annual auxiliary energy required by a building

(Qaux) is given by the following equation:

Annual Qaux (BLC X DD) (l-SSF)

(net reference load L re f) (I-SSF) (3.29 )

For a constrained optimization situation, the annual auxiliary energy is to be minimized subject to a limit on the initial cost given by the following:

Initial Cost cost of solar + cost of conservation

(3.30 )

Thus it is necessary to minimize the product Lref(l-SSF) subject to a fixed initial cost. This can be solved by

"lagrangian multiplier techniques"--explained below--or other methods to produce the following solution:

L b LCR (a N) (3.31 ) 0 ~ I Apo Lo I LCR ( 3.32) Where, N = 1 + LCR(l-SSF) I D (3.33 ) and D d(SSF) I d(l/LCR) (3.34 ) derivative of SSF with res~ect to I/LCR and has units of BTU/DD-ft . (the physical significance of D is that it represents the 124

equivalent additional load, in BTU/DO, which can be fully satisfied by one additional square foot of solar collection area. "0" is defined graphically.

These equations define the locus of points which represent an optimum mix between conservation and solar strategies for a given initial cost.

PROOF: We need to obtain a minimum possible (optimum) value of Qaux when given a certain cost. In other words, we need to minimize Qaux subject to a fixed initial cost

(Costo ). When the lagrangian multiplier (n) method is used we can write the following:

b L(l-SSF) + n[aAp + Ca + L

L From Eqn. 3.27 Ap LCR

1 or Ap LZ assuming Z LCR

Hence, we can write Qaux as a function of Z and L as follows:

Qaux (Z,L) = L(l-SSF) + n[ a L Z + ~ - Cc - Costo ] by differentiation: aQa!Jx aL = (I-SSF) + n [ba Z - ~ o ••••••• (A) 125

aSSF aQallX + n a 8 ) az az o .•..••..•....•..• (

From Egn. 3.28 SSF=function of LCR=function of Z. Thus,

aSSF dSSF (because SSF is a function of Z only.) az dZ

dSSF D .••.... (see Egn. 3.34 ) 1 d LCR

aSSF dSSF Hence from (8) na az 1 d LCR

1 dF D n -- -- [ a ] I a [ d LCR ]

d From (A) when n -- \ve get: a

D 1 b (I-SSF) + -- 0 a [a LCR -V- ]

D b o (I-SSF) + LCR -[ -V- +--J

b D LCR LCR(I-SSF) + D - L2 a o

b D LCR LCR(I-SSF) + D L2 a 126

L 2 a [ LCR(l-SSF) + D J b D LCR

b D LCR a[ LCR (l-SSF) + DJ by division over D:

b D LCR LCR (l-SSF) D

LCR (l-SSF) Let N 1 ...... (see Eqn. 3.33) D +

Then, L2 b LCR a N

Thus, La b LCR / a N • ...... • . . .. (see Eqn. 3.31)

From Eqn. 3.27 it follows that:

LCR 127

3.4.4 Numerical Example:

Suppose that the previously explained 1500 ftl

Tahrir house is now using a mixed strategy by combining conservation and two passive system types; a Direct Gain

DG-Bl and a Sunspace SS-C2 (semi-enclosed) type (refer to

Appendix-B for more details about the selected systems).

For the same initial investment--$4000, what would be the optimum design ?; i.e., the conservation level and the size of solar collection area which would yield a minimum Qaux relative to the initial investment.

a. Obtain building information:

The south solar collection area which was deducted from the surface area of the previous example (see section

3.4.3) is now used by the two selected passive systems as follows:

DG-Bl Direct gain system ...... 32 ftl

SS-C2 Semi-enclosed sunspace with

R-9 night insulation ...•.•..... 126 ftl

Total 158 ft 2

It should be mentioned here that the same solar collection area was considered here as in the previous conservation example in an effort to keep the BLC unchanged for comparison purposes. Figure 3-11 shows the architectural drawings of the modified 1500 ftl house in Tahrir, Egypt, 128

LIVING &

DINING ROOM

HO ROOM SED ROOM

PLAN ~ o

PI",!" ::D"lP"'I":::&:IIi=aoi~ T 1 2 :3 4 0246810 DOUBLE 6" 10" UPPER & GLAZED THERMAL MASS LOWER PANELS SLAB WALL VENTS

Fig. 3-11 Modified Drawings for the 1500 ft2 Tahrir House

Showing the Added Passive Solar Elements; A Direct Gain Type BI, and a Semi-enclosed

Sunspace type C2 with R-9 Night Insulation. 129 using a direct gain and a semi-enclosed sunspace. b. Cost information:

In the normal fashion, it is assumed that the add­ on cost of solar collection area varies linearly with the area as follows:

Cost of solar (C ) s .. (see Eqn. 3.26)

In many instances, passive solar design elements

(glazing, storage, etc.) replace or augment various construction items that otherwise would have been installed. To arrive at the add-on costs attributable to the chosen passive design, credit must be given for those items that were replaced or augmented. For instance, if

"normal" construction practice was a 4" slab on grade and a

6" slab was poured for direct gain thermal mass storage purposes, only the additional 2" of slab should be counted as add-on cost.

In the case of a passive solar collection area, an allowance for the cost of the insulated wall displaced by the solar aperture should be deducted from the square-foot cost of the passive element.

The following assumptions on the cost of the selected passive system types are taken from Appendix.C where cost and most common materials used in house 130 construction in Egypt are described:

Direct Gain: $8.6 per ft 2 of projected area Sunspace: $17.7 per ft2 of projected area

In this determination, the designer first calculates the

full cost of the sunspace per ft 2 of glazing area and then

subtracts a reasonable estimate of the amenity (appraisal)

value per ft2 to obtain the incremental cost of $9.7/ft 2 .

An additional cost of $8.D/ft 2 is added for the R-9 night

insulation used by the selected sunspace. For direct gain,

the designer determines the cost of double glazed windows

at 8.6 per ft2. Since the sunspace area (126 ft 2 ) is 4

times larger than the direct gain area (32 ft 2 ), then the

area-weighted passive solar cost is:

$17.7 X .8 + $8.6 X .2

assuming that tentatively the designer will incrementally

scale the size of the sunspace and the size of the direct

gain according to 4:1 proportion.

c. Cost optimization:

For an initial investment of $4000 we are

interested in manipulating the building load and the solar

collection area parameters for the best possible economic advantage. The optimization equations Eqns. 3.31 through

3.34 can now be used to generate Table 3-3. 131

In Table 3-3, the first and second columns lists values of SSF and LCR for the Tahrir region in Egypt taken from Appendix.B which lists such values for 6 major regions relative to four different passive system types--2 direct gain and two sunspace with and without R-9 night insulation. Values of LCR are weighted according to the

1:4 proportion between the direct gain and the sunspace.

Column 3 lists values of D which are graphically obtained by drawing the relation between SSF and l/LCR as explained above (see Fig. 3-14). In column 4, values of N are calculated from Eqn. 3.33. Corresponding optimum mix values of BLC and Ap are also shown in the table determined from Eqns. 3.31 & 3.32 respectively using the cost constants (a) and (b) from the previous example. The total initial cost, the conservation cost, and the solar cost are then calculated from Eqn. 3.30. In the last column, is the energy savings compared to the conventional house for which the cost of conservation and the cost of solar are zero.

It is calculated as follows:

(L f - L ) + Lo X SSF ) re 0 Energy Saving

1 - ( 1 - SSF ) ...... (3.35) 132

Table 3-3 Optimum Mix Pairs for the 1500 ft2 house located

in the Tahrir Region of Egypt.

SSF LCR* D** N BLC Ap Can. Sol. Init. Enrgy (La) Cost Cost Cost Sav. (%) (BTU/DD-ft 2 ) (BTU/DD) (ft2) ($) ($) ($) (%)

10 1042 97.1 10.7 19251 18 134 286 420 14

20 542 95.3 5.6 19192 36 144 572 716 23 30 347 88.5 3.8 18642 54 237 859 1096 35 40 244 71.0 3.1 17307 71 487 1129 1616 48 50 178 57.8 2.5 16460 92 667 1463 2130 59 60 133 43.9 2.2 15168 114 980 1813 2793 67 70 98 31.1 2.0 13655 139 1422 2210 3632 80 75 84 26.5 1.8 13326 158 1532 2512 4044 83

80 71 20.5 1.7 12607 178 1790 2830 4620 88 90 47 12.8 1.4 11303 240 2344 3816 6160 94

* LCR values are area-weighted according to 1 direct gain to 4 sunspace calculated from Appendix.B as follows: (lXLCR direct gain B-1 + 4XLCR sunspace C-2) + 5 ** D values are graphically obtained from Fig. 3-12 133

0.90

VALUES OF D FOR USE IN THE ECONOMIC OPTIMIZATION OF A DG-B1 AND SS-C2 S'(STEMS IN THE TAHRIR HOUSE IN EGYPT.

-5000 o 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 (X 1 0 - ~ 1/LCR

Fig. 3-12 Graphical Method for Obtaining "D" the

Derivative Function of Plotting SSF versus

IlLeR of the Passive Systems used for the 1500

ft2 Example House in the Tahrir region of Egypt. 134 d. Select optimum conservation and solar parameters:

Looking in Table 3-3, an initial investment of

$4000 is found to approximately corresponding to a solar savings fraction SSF of 75% which leads to an initial cost of $4044. Corresponding values of L and A are 13326 o p BTU/DO and 158 ft 2 respectively. The savings is 83% compared to the reference example house, and calculated from Eqn. 3.35.

In order to define the optimum conservation levels the load (L.) of each component can now be calculated from 1 Eqn. 3.20 and the closest case(s) can be determined as follows:

L. L b./b (3.20 ) 1 ~ 1

Element L opt. Closest case (s)

Walls 1546 ( 2 ) or ( 3 ) Roof 4001 ( 1 ) or ( 2 ) Windows 3544 ( 1 ) or ( 2 ) Doors 144 ( 3 ) Perimeter 1547 (3 ) Infiltration 2545 (4 )

Total L = 13326 BTU/DO

Again, we see that this process has narrowed the number of choices from 4096 to 8, avoiding the computation of total load of each of the 4096 possible combinations.

The designer can now pick any of the 8 defined combinations knowing that each is an optimum. As mentioned in the 135 previous example, the choice between the 8 cases may well be based on preferences or some considerations other than economics. For economic analysis, one might now calculate the add-on cost and the load of each of the 8 combinations and pick the closest case to the initial investment. This is done by drawing the "Tree" of all 8 combinations as follows:

Constants A\id- Total Case $=972 & L=4535 80st (L) No. .j. .j. - D3-P3-I4-Rl-Gl = 1192 17526 .. [ 1 ) D3-P3-I4-RI-G2 =1 1564 165661 ... [2) W --+ - 2 - D3-P3-I4-R2-Gl 2359 13221 · .. [ 3 ) - D3-P3-I4-R2-G2 2731 12261 · .. [ 4 ) - D3-P3-I4-RI-Gl 1418 16800 · .. [ 5 ) D3-P3-I4-RI-G2 1790 15840 · .. [6) W3 --+ - - D3-P3-I4-R2-Gl 2585 12495 · .. [ 7 ) - D3-P3-I4-R2-G2 2957 11535 · .. [ 8) From the above analysis a designer can now determine that the optimum conservation level of the house is represented by case No.2 as follows: Walls R-7.5 additional 1" rigid insulation Roof R-5.05 the reference case Windows U-O.B tightly closed draperies Doors R-B.5 2" bat insulation with plywood on both sides Perimeter R-2.2 1" asphalt impregnated cork Infiltration 0.5 ACH plastic vapor barrier, seal joints, foam cracks 136 Also, the solar collector area is 158 ft 2 as obtained from

Table 3-3. Both solar systems; the direct gain and the

semi-enclosed sunspace, can now be sized as follows:

Area-weighted average Direct Gain 0.2 X 158 32 ft 2 , , , , , , Sunspace 0.8 X 158 126 ft 2

The above characteristics represent the house at its

optimum performance relative to the initial investment.

f. Estimate total backup heat (Qaux):

In order to determine the savings achieved by the mixed

system we calculate the following:

Annual Auxiliary heat; Qaux BLC X (l-SSF) X DD* op 16566 X 1141

4.7 million BTU/year

Since, Qaux = BLC X (l-SSF) X DD ref ref 27346 X (1-0) X 1141

31.2 million BTU/year

Qaux mlx. Hence, Energy Savings . 1 - mlx Qaux ref 4.7 1 - 85 % = 31. 2

* DD= Heating Degree Day below the 65°F base and is equal to 1141 for the Tahrir region in Egypt. The value is taken from Appendix A. 137 g. Calculate optimum pay-back period:

The efficiency of using a mix system is now proven when calculating the payback period. In the above example the add-on cost of conservation and solar is 1564 + 4069

$ 4069. The optimum payback period is then as follows:

Cost (the add on cost) paybac~ years (Y) $ Savings

Cost Qaux(saved) X C

Where C is the unit price per BTU (fuel or electricity)

Assuming that the cost of electricity in the Tahrir region in Egypt is $ 0.075 per KWhr, and the efficiency

(coefficient of performance COP) of back up heating system is 100% (typical of electric resistance heaters), then the dollar saving per year is calculated as follow:

[31.2-4.7) X 1000 1 • 3.41 + 1 = 7771.26 KWhr then the dollar savings 7771.26 X 0.075 = 583 $/Year

Hence the payback period (Y) 4069 (cons.+solar add on) 583 $/Year 6.9 Years

3.4.5 Conclusion:

From the above example it follows that:

Qaux 31.2 million BTU/year ref 138 For approximately $4000 initial investment:

Qaux 11. 5 mi 11 ion con BTU/year 63% Saving and Qaux . million mlX 4.7 BTU/year 85% Saving and Payback years (Y ) 9.3 Years cons Payback years (Ymix ) 6.9 Years.

Because of these characteristics, it is usually true that a mix of conservation and passive solar strategies will produce the maximum energy savings for a given initial investment. This allows both energy conservation and passive solar to work in their most cost-effective range.

3.4.6 Other Advantages to a Balanced System:

Other considerations that favor a mix of conservation and solar can be seen if we investigate problems that arise from either extreme taken alone. These problems can be largely avoided with a balanced design; the resulting building will be more comfortable, more livable, more resilient, more salable, less backup heat will be needed, and the initial cost will be less.

The extreme of energy conservation attempt& to isolate the inside from the outside. A very cloistered and seemingly artificial environment is created. One has to go outside to see the sky, clouds, birds, weather, and trees bending in the wind. This type of indoor environment may 139 be exactly what some desire, but not others.

The other extreme is an overdone solar building

without adequate insulation. In this case, virtually every

south-facing surface is a solar collector. storage,

control, and distribution of huge solar gains become a problem, increasing cost and forcing unwelcome compromises

in space allocation. Large temperature swings may be

unavoidable. A traditional oversized backup heating plant

is needed with careful attention to distribution and zone control, and this adds to the cost. Cold will and window surfaces require a higher inside air temperature to maintain comfort.

With a balanced approach, most of these problems simply go away. A friendly and livable indoor environment

is achieved maintaining good visual connection with the outdoors but with comfortable shelter from its extremes.

The atmosphere seems natural and not artificial, working with nature and not against it. Since the solar collection area is less than the entire south facade of the house,

there is more architectural freedom in the design. Thermal storage requirements are met easily by interior mass walls serving a dual function and thus not seeming out of place.

Good insulation and other conservation strategies reduce the size and cost of the backup heating plant. Elaborate distribution of heat is not particularly critical. Icy 140

drafts from cold wall and window surfaces disappear.

Another advantage of balanced design is resilience.

Suppose backup heating fuel or electricity were simply not available for an extended period. Suppose a total disruption of all utility service occurred. Suppose the average outside temperature were 10 of and cloudy. The

balanced design bullding fares better under these conditions than either of the extremes. Because of high

internal heat capacity and good insulation, the building

temperature drops slowly (over a period of 3 to 5 days) and eventually levels off. Because even cloudy-day solar gains are significant, this stable temperature condition is well above the outside temperature and certainly well above freezing (at least in the 48 contiguous United States).

The extreme energy conservation house may cool quickly or more slowly, depending on its internal heat capacity, but y}ill eventually reach low temperatures because of the absence of any heat source. The extreme solar house will cool quickly due to poor insulation, and north rooms may be in danger of freezing.

Marketing is another consideration. Energy performance is of increasing concern to those who purchase buildings, both residential and commercial. Solar is visible, well publicized, and has demonstrated market appeal. Good insulation and other conservation strategies 141

are less evident but well understood to be essential to

both energy savings and comfort. Together they make a

consistent and very compelling argument to an increasingly

knowledgeable buying public, Balcomb [16].

3.5 COOLING CONSIDERATIONS: Although the design guidelines of balancing

conservation and solar presented in this chapter is based

solely on considerations of the heating season, year-round

comfort and energy efficiency is the goal of a balanced

passive solar design, the fact that makes cooling

strategies an important design factor.

A passive solar heating system may aggravate the

summer discomfort or cooling load due to excessive solar gains through the solar aperture, but suitable summer solar controls can largely alleviate this potential problem.

Reliance on experience and on application of the method, most of the elements of a good passive solar design for heating also enhance summer comfort. This fact is particularly true with conservation strategies namely, mass for thermal storage. This means that in effect and especially in cooling load dominated regions, designers should shift the balance toward an increased reliance on conservation rather than passive solar. In this case a lower SSP or a higher LCR value should be focused on. This 142 will reduce the magnitude of cooling loads created by passive solar heating elements. Accordingly two major facts needs to be mentioned here:

1. The annual auxiliary heating load will not change

because the conservation levels are increased,

2. The initial cost also will not change much because the

optimization method operates near an optimum point

where the incremental cost/benefit of each conservation

option is just equal to the incremental cost/benefit of

the passive solar strategy being used.

Other important cooling considerations are sun protection and ventilation in the summer. Carefully designed shading devices over the passive solar elements will not affect the winter heat gain, yet provides comfort cooling in summer. Moveable insulation whether seasonally controlled outside the window or diurnally controlled inside the window are often beneficial.

It is a significant design challenge to effectively integrate the necessary controls with the passive solar heating system and the building so that the heating system performance is not unnecessarily compromised yet does not significantly aggravate summer discomfort or cooling loads. 143

CHAPTER 4

DESIGN GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SIX MAJOR

LOCATIONS IN EGYPT; INCLUDING THE CASE STUDY

OF SADAT CITY.

In this chapter, the process of balancing

"conservation" and "solar" strategies for a best cost/performance yielding--as explained in the Chapter 3-­ has been generalized and reduced to a set of formulas which indicate appropriate conservation levels to be used with selected passive solar system(s). A computer model is also developed with which results can be obtained for any region provided that the solar and weather characteristics as well as the cost of materials are defined for a selected region. An application of this computer model is used to determine conservation and solar guidelines for six major locations in Egypt, and the results are tabulated.

Finally, a design case study of low-energy cluster houses at Sadat City in Egypt is presented using the computer generated results. The energy results have then been validated using Calpas3, and a matrix is developed for assessing the socio-cultural aspects of the design model. 144 4.1 GENERALIZING THE METHOD:

In the previous chapter, it has been proven that it is usually true that a mix of conservation and passive solar strategies will produce the maximum energy savings for a given initial investment. The decision, however, always involves a trade-off between the cost of the improvement versus the increased performance.

The other side of the decision is determining how far to go with the combined strategies ??. In other words; hmv far along the "optimum mix" line does it make economic sense to proceed ?? The possibility is that life-cycle costing will determine the degree of energy savings against the cost of the additional investment. This will then lead to a three-way optimum between future fuel cost and initial conservation and solar system costs.

To determine the life-cycle optimum point, assumptions should be made on the "Levelized Fuel Cost", that is; the cost of backup heat levelized over the accounting period, as well as on the "Fixed Charge Rate"

(FCR) defined as the overall factor that converts an initial investment into an equivalent annual cash flow, accounting for interest, taxes, depreciation, maintenance, discount rate, and resale value. For a detailed discussion of levelizing fuel cost and of fixed charge rate, see

Chapter H of Passive Solar Design Handbook, vol. II (14). 145

This procedure, although straight forward, does require the estimation of future fuel costs and the knowledge of many imponderables, and is, therefore, of limited value.

In general, Life-cycle costs may be the dominant consideration for some designers and total dollar constraints may also be the dominant consideration for others. Both approaches involve fairly complex procedures.

Experience shows that in most instances a simple procedure that give answers in the right ball park will receive much wider use and thus have a much greater impact on design than a complex procedure that leads to more precise answers but will rarely be used. Therefore one can save time by making intelligent choice for the initial value of SSF depending on the level of integrating the balanced approach into the design. Knowing, however, that at each selected level an optimal mix is achieved when the incremental cost/benefit of each conservation option is just equal to the incremental cost/benefit of the passive solar strategy being used.

The mathematics of this balancing process have been reduced to a set of formulas that indicate appropriate conservation levels to use with a particular value of Solar

Savings Fraction (SSF). The formulas incorporate incremental cost information for both solar and conservation improvements and also a conservation factor 146

(CF), which accounts for both the climate and system

performance considerations. The procedure to be described

in this section begins with these formulas, carries through

a building load calculation and annual solar performance

calculation, and concludes with a summary of the first cost

and performance implications of the initial design

assumption. A numerical example is also presented.

4.1.1 Conservation Factor (CF) Formulas:

Recommended levels of insulation and building

airtightness can be computed based on a conservation factor

(CF) which is determined as a function of the climate and

the passive system(s) under consideration.

The following formulas are used to determine the optimum conservation levels to be employed in conjunction with different passive solar strategies:

for walls, ceiling, doors, and E,W,N windows:

Passive System Cost (a), $/ft 2 R CF X •••••••• (4.1) Insulation cost (r.), $/R ft 2 J. for Perimeter:

2 Passive System Cost (a), $/ft _ 5 R 2.04 X CF X (4.2) Insulation cost, $/R linear ft 147 for Infiltration:

Cost to increase l/ACH by 1, $/ft 3 7~5 X 2 (Passive system cost, $/ft ) X (ADH) ACH •••• ( 4 • 3) CF

The quantity H is the "R-value," the thermal resistance in units hr OF ft 2 /BTU. The passive system cost is the cost per square foot of "Projected Area". The quantity ACH is the infiltration rate in air changes per hour. The cost of reducing ACH is expressed as the cost of increasing the quantity l/ACH by 1 per cubic foot of heated volume.

"CF" is the conservation factor used to determine optimum conservation levels and is given by the following formula:

CF 24 [l/LCR + (l-SSF)/D] ...... •. (4.4)

Where: LCR load collector ratio = BLC/Ap SSF solar savings fraction

D d(SSF)/d(l/LCR)

The above mentioned equations are derived from the following equations:

Eq n s . (3. 2 ), (3. 5 ), (3. 6 ), (3. 1 0 ), (3. 11 ), (3. 14) i n section 3.3.1 (Conservation Cost Equations), Eqns. (3.20) in section 3.3.2 (Conservation Cost Optimization), and Eqns. (3.31), and (3.33) in section 3.4.3 (Constrained Optimization) • 148 PROOF:

Given:

L. 24 A. /R. , ( 3 .3) 1. 1. 1. · ......

b. 24 r. A~ , ( 3 . 5) 1. 1. 1. · ......

L. L b. /b ( 3.20) 1. ~ 1. · ......

b LCR L (3.31 ) 0 a N · ......

LCR (I-SSP) N 1 + , D ...... (3.33 ) and D d(SSP) / d(l/LCR) ...... (3.34 )

Since we need to define the recommended R-value as a function of the climate and SSP, then we must find a relation between Rand LCR or SSP;

Prom Eqns. (3.20) and (3.31), at optimum L = L o then L. LCR/a N jb./b 1. ~b 1.

LCR b. / a N ( 4 • 5 ) 1.

Prom Eqns. (3.3), (3.5), and (3.40):

24 Ai /Ri = ~ LCR/ a N ~ 4 r. A ~ LCR/ aN.... (4. 6 ) I 1. 1 By squaring both sides of Eqn. (3.41):

24 r. A~ LCR 1 1. (R ~ ) a N 1. 149

A~ LCR 1

24 a N (R. ) 2 1 r. LCR 1

LCR (I-SSF) From Eqn. (3.33) , N = 1 + 0

24 a R 24 a 1 LCR (l-SSF) Then, R~ 1 + 1 r. LCR r. LCR D 1 1

a (I-SSF) R~ 24 1 r. [ L~R + D ] 1

By taking the square root;

1 (I-SSF)] ~ j24 [LCR + D

Then, R. X CF 1 r+1

1 Where: CF (I-SSF)] J 24 (LCR + D

a Passive System Cost, $/ft 2

r. Insulation Cost, $/R ft 2 1

Using the same procedures we can obtain the proof of

Equations (4.2) and (4.3) of the optimum conservation level of the slab perimeter and the Infiltration rate respectively. 150 4.1.2 Determining the Conservation Factor (CF):

The conservation factor (CF) can be determined for any desired value of SSF and passive solar system type.

Table 4-1 lists value of CF as functions of three different values of SSF for the selected six major locations in Egypt. The three different values of SSF listed in the table 10%, 50%, and 80%, serve different purposes to the designer in estimating desirable levels of solar use. These three can be characterized as a threshold level, a typical solar building, and a major solar building, respectively.

The threshold level is characterized by the value for 10% SSF. That is to say the building should be insulated to the levels indicated by the CF for 10% SSF before solar should be considered at all. This essentially quantifies what is meant by the frequently used phrase

"conservation first."

During the schematic design phase of the design process, one can select either the 50% SSF level if the objective is to obtain typical passive solar building, or the 80% SSF level if the goal is to design a building that has heavy reliance on passive solar.

Corresponding values of LCR's are adapted from

Appendix B Table B-5 and are also given in Table 4-1 for the six major cities in Egypt. 151 Table 4-1 Conservation Factors (CF) Corresponding to Three Levels of SSF for the Six Major Cities in Egypt.

SOLAR SOLAR SAVINGS FRACTION LOCATIONS SYSTEM SSF 10% I SSF 50% I SSF 80% TYPES LCR I CF I LCR I CF I LCR I CF

MERSA-MATRUH OG Bl 645 0.6 99 0.7 41 1.0 OG B3 702 0.6 113 0.7 53 0.9 (00=1501) SS Cl 767 0.6 105 0.8 42 1.0 SS C2 743 0.5 127 0.7 52 0.9

EL-ARISH OG Bl 684 0.6 102 0.7 42 1.0 OG B3 745 0.6 116 0.7 54 0.8 (00=1825) SS Cl 806 0.6 109 0.8 43 1.0 SS C2 780 0.5 131 0.7 53 0.9

TAHRIR OG Bl 944 0.5 149 0.6 61 0.8 OG B3 994 0.5 163 0.6 74 0.7 (00=1141) SS Cl 1116 0.5 154 0.6 60 0.8 SS C2 1067 0.4 184 0.6 73 0.7

CAIRO OG Bl 604 0.7 114 0.8 67 1.1 OG B3 665 0.6 139 0.7 78 0.9 (00=874) SS Cl 731 0.6 130 0.8 72 1.0 SS C2 708 0.5 152 0.7 78 0.9

HURGHAOA OG Bl 856 0.5 143 0.6 61 0.8 OG B3 910 0.5 156 0.6 74 0.7 (00=642) SS Cl 1020 0.5 147 0.6 59 0.8 SS C2 983 0.4 176 0.6 73 0.7

ASWAN OG Bl 2798 0.3 468 0.3 208 0.4 OG B3 2801 0.3 474 0.3 220 0.4 (00=297) SS Cl 3260 0.3 470 0.4 184 0.5 SS C2 3088 0.3 547 0.3 221 0.4 Values are adapted from the Passive Solar Oesign Handbook, V.III, from tables of corresponding U.S. cities after validated in Appendix 8 of this thesis. 152 CF values in Table 4-1 have been computed using

Eqn. (4.4) as follows:

CF ~ 24 [l/LCR + (l-SSF)/D] ( 4 • 4 )

Where: LCR load collector ratio taken from table B-5 in

Appendix B.

SSF solar savings fraction

D d(SSF)/d(l/LCR) is graphically determined by

plotting SSF versus l/LCR for each selected

passive system type (see Fig. 3-12).

4.1.3 Design Procedures:

The process consists of selecting a desired value of SSF and then computing the implication of this choice.

The process can then be repeated if necessary for iteration.

The process is adapted from Balcomb [16], and the design procedures are presented below:

Step 1, getting started:

In most situations the building program will have already determined much about the design and the passive system choice. Considerations of space layout, daylighting, lot shape and orientation, function, 153 aesthetics, and preference will have already provided a starting point.

One way of getting started is to simply choose one of the three SSF values listed in Table 4-1 under the desired location and according to the level of reliance on solar as explained before.

A second possible way of getting started is by using a rule of thumb for selecting a reasonable LCR value.

The rule of thumb is found in Balcomb (16] and states that "it frequently turns out that a good choice is LCR = 20 BTU/DO ft 2 in cold climates and LCR = 30 in warm climates." Since Egypt lies in the hot zone rather than the warm one, an LCR value of 40 BTU/DO ft 2 may be a reasonable starting point. One should note, however, that the recommendation for SSF or LCR is independent of the choice of passive system type or types.

Step 2, determine CF:

Look up CF from Table 4-1 and interpolate if the selected SSF value is other than 10, 50, or 80%.

If a mix of more than one passive system is used, then calculate CF based on an average, weighted according to the relative areas of the various passive system types being used. 154 Step 3, determining unit costs:

Determine the appropriate incremental costs for conservation measures and for the selected passive solar energy system. Incremental costs for some common construction assemblies in Egypt are presented in

Appendix.C, and are discussed in Chapter 3, sections 3.3.

Step 4, select conservation levels:

Calculate R-values and other conservation levels using the formulas (4.1), (4.2), and (4.3) given earlier and the appropriate incremental costs determined in step 3.

Typically, the formulas give an R-value or other conservation level that is in between practical choices.

Select the closest practical value.

Step 5, calculate building load coefficient:

Calculate the building load coefficient (BLC) as explained earlier in Chapter 3, Section 3.3.3 using the following formulas:

Wall area Walls: 24 X R-value of walls

Roof area Roof: = 24 X R-value of roof

Non-south windows: LG = 24 X area X U-value

Perimeter: Lp 100 X length of perimeter insulation R-value of perimeter insulation + 5 155

Doors area Doors: 24 X R-value of doors

Infiltration: L = (0.432) X (average ACH) X (ADR) I X (ceiling height) X (floor area)

Where: ADR is the Air Density Ratio shown in Fig. 3-7 to account for other-than-sea-level locations.

Step 6, look up LCR, calculate Ap~

Pick the corresponding LCR value from Table 4-1 if the selected SSF is one of the three choices given in the table. Otherwise refer to Appendix B tables where LCR is given for values of SSF at 0.1 spacing.

For a mix of passive system types, calculate LCR based on an average, weighted according to the relative areas of the various passive system types being used.

Compute the required net passive solar projected area from:

BLC , ft 2 • LCR

Step 7, estimate add-on cost:

The building is now completely specified. Estimate the total add-on cost of both the passive solar and conservation levels. 156

Step 8, calculate auxiliary heat:

The objective of the balancing process should be to minimize auxiliary heat within the cost constraints. The annual backup heating can now be computed from the formula:

Annual Auxiliary Heat (l-SSF) X BLC X DD.

Where DD is the annual heating degree days for the target

location (refer to Appendix-A for DD values for

the six selected cities in Egypt.)

If the performance from Step 8 and costs from Step

7 are satisfactory, then one can stop here. Otherwise, repeat Step 1 through 8, adjusting SSF upward to reduce auxiliary or downward to reduce costs. Each case calculated is an optimum mix. One can calculate several cases, if desired, and choose among them. 157 4.1.4 Numerical Example:

Consider the single-family attached house designated for the Tahrir region in Egypt is now to be designed using the generalized method for optimization.

The designer has developed a rough sketch plan for the house with 1500 ft2 floor area plus 162 ft 2 of semi­ enclosed sunspace (see Figure 4-1). Tentatively, a 20-80 combination of direct gain (system DG-Bl) and R-9 night insulated sunspace (system SS-C2), respectively, has been selected.

It is now desired to estimate the house appropriate conservation levels, size the passive system glazing area, predict annual performance, and estimate costs.

Step 1:

Among the two previously explained ways of getting started, the designer decided to go for an explicit passive solar house and so opts to use an SSF value of 80% as a starting point.

Step 2:

Looking at Table 4-1, values of CF for Tahrir can be determined as follows:

SYSTEM % AREA AT SSF 80%

DG-Bl 20% CF 0.8

SS-C2 80% CF 0.7

Area-weighted average CF (0.2 X 0.8 + 0.8 X 0.7) 0.72 158

o 00

I .

I I i oX +- $UHI PLAN ~ &)

Fig. 4-1 Architectural Drawings of the 1500 ft 2 Tahrir

house in Egypt, Showing the Passive Solar

Systems Used; a Direct Gain Type Bl, and a

Semi-enclosed Sunspace Type C2 with R-9 Night Insulation (5:30 pm to 7:30 am). 159

Step 3:

The designer can now determine conservation cost numbers by

comparing two wall sections as follows:

R-7.5 wall cost $ .44/ft 2 (I" rigid fiberglass)

R-ll.7 $ .75/ft 2 (2" , , , ,

Therefore, the incremental cost of wall insulation within

this range is:

Incremental cost (.75 - .44)+(11.7 - 7.5) 0.073 $/R ft2

It is recommended, for more accurate results, that designers repeat the above procedure for the next wall insulation level and take the average (see discussion on determining conservation incremental costs in Section 3.3.3 and in Appendix-C).

Other conservation costs are then calculated in similar fashion. Assume that the following incremental costs are determined:

Wall insulation 0.085 $/R ft 2

Roof insulation 0.101 $/R ft 2

Window glazing 8.6 $/R ft 2

Doors 0.168 $/R ft 2

Perimeter 0.699 $/R linear ft ( 2 ft depth) Infiltration 0.028 $/ft 3 (see earlier sections) 160

The incremental costs of the passive systems used

are determined in Appendix-C and the cost estimates are as

follows: (see also Section 3.4.4)

Direct Gain (DG-Bl) $ 8.6 per ft 2 of projected area

Sunspace (SS-C2) $17.7 per ft 2 of projected area

Then, the area weighted passive solar cost is:

( $17.7 X 0.8 ) + ( $8.6 X 0.2) $15.9 per ft 2

Step 4:

The optimum conservation levels can now be selected by using the Conservation Factor formulas (4.1), (4.2), and

(4.3) as follows:

Passive System Cost (a), $/ft 2 CF X Insulation cost (r ), $/R ft2 i

0.72 X 15.9 0.085 R-9.8

Similarly,

RRoof 0.72 X 15.9 0.101 R-9.0

RGlass 0.72 X 15.9 8.6 R-l.O or U-l.O

RDoors 0.72 X 15.9 T 0.168 R-7.0 161 For Perimeter:

2 Passive System Cost (a), $/ft _ 5 Rp er. = 2.04 X CF X Insulation cost, $/R linear ft

= 2.04 X 0.72 X ~ 15.9 + 0.699 - 5 R-2.0 For Infiltration:

. Cost to increase l/ACH by 1, $/ft 3 7.5 X Passive system cost, $/ft 2 X ADR ACH CF

= 7.5 X 0.028 + (15.9 X 1) 0.72 = 0.43

The designer must now take this guidance and make intelligent choices of actual, buildable values to use. From Table 3-1 the following choices are made:

Wall R-7.5 1" rigid fiber glass insulation

Roof R-12.75 1" styrofoam type insulation Windows R-0.93 Single clear 1/8" thick. Doors R-8.5 2" bat, t" plywood both sides Perimeter R-2.2 1" asphalt impregnated cork

Infiltration 0.5 ACH Vapor barrier, seal joint/cracks

One should note that the windows here are referred to as

the East, West, and North windows. The south "solar" windows are double glazed, each pane is 1/8"thickness, 1/2" air gap between panes and without night insulation (DG-Bl). 162

Step 5:

The building load coefficient can now be calculated as follows:

FORMULA BLC (BTU/DO)

Wall area 632 ft2 24 X 632 7.5 2022

Roof area 1500 ft 2 24 X 1500 12.75 2824 2 E,W,N windO\vs :: 144 ft 24 X 144 0.93 3716

Doors area :: 42 ft2 24 X 42 8.5 119

Perimeter length :: 108 ft 100 X 108 (2.2 + 5 ) 1500

3 Volume :: 13500 ft 0.432 X .5 X 13500 X 1 2916

Total BLC 13097

Step 6:

From Table 3-4 calculate the area-weighted average LCR:

Area-weighted average LCR :: .2 X 61 + .8 X 73 :: 70.6

Then, the solar collection area can be obtained as follows: BLC 13097 A :: :: 185 ft 2 P LCR 70.6

Direct gain .2 X 185 36 ft2

Suns pace .8 X 185 148 ft 2

Total 184 ft 2 163 Step 7:

The additional conservation and solar costs can now be calculated as follows:

First: to calculate the conservation add-on cost, we need

to know the starting point or reference level, that is the basecase values. In our Tahrir house example these are shown in Table 3-2. The add-on cost is:

- Walls assumed basecase is R-3.4, overall add-on

cost is (7.5 - 3.4) X 0.085 X 632 = $220 - Roof assumed basecase is R-5.05, overall add-on

cost is (12.75 - 5.05) X 0.101 X 1500 $1166

- Windows assumed basecase is U-1.1, remained

the same. Add-on cost = $0.0 - Doors assumed basecase is R-l.O, overall add-on cost is (8.5 - 1.0) X 0.168 X 42 = $53 - Perimeter assumed basecase is R-O,

add-on cost is 2.2 X 0.699 X 108 = $166 - Infiltration assumed basecase is 1.5, add-on cost

from Table 3-2 is $375

Total conservation add-on cost is $ 1980

Second: The solar add-on cost is 15.9 X 184 $ 2925

Total conservation and solar add-on cost $ 4905 164 Step 8,

The total backup heat can now be calculated from:

Annual Auxiliary Heat (Qnew) (l-SSF) X BLC X DD

(1-0.8) X 13097 X 1141

2.9 million BTU/Year For comparison purposes, the basecase auxiliary heat is: Annual Auxiliary Heat (Qref) (1 - 0) X 27346 X 1141 31.2 million BTU/Year

Q (new) Hence, the % Energy Saving 100 Q (ref) X 2.9 1- X 100 90.71 % 31. 2

Conclusion:

The energy saved by the combined conservation and solar strategies is: 31.2 - 2.9 = 28.3 million BTU/year Therefore, one would have spent an extra $4905 to save 28.3 million BTU annually.

The dollar savings per year is calculated as follows: ( 28.3 X 1000 ) + 3.41 + 1 = 8299 KWh 8299 X 0.075 622 $/year

This saving corresponds to the cost of electric heat at

7.5 ¢ per KWh and an efficiency of 100% (typical of electric resistance heaters).

Hence, The simple payback = 4905 622 7.8 years. 165 4.2 COMPUTER MODEL "OPTIMIZE" OF THE METHODOLOGY:

A computer model, based on the generalized method which has been described in the previous section, is developed by the author and is presented in this section.

The model calculates the optimum insulation and air tightness levels (conservation) as well as the optimum solar projected area (Ap) of the selected passive solar system(s) for residential and small commercial buildings of less than 5000 ft2 in floor area, arranged in one or two stories. The model is also applicable for any desired region provided that the solar and weather characteristics of that region as well as the cost of materials are given.

The computer program models three different types of building performances depending on the level of reliance on solar; in other words, the level of integrating the balanced approach into the design. The initial values of

SSP (the solar saving fraction) corresponding to each level is as follows:

10% SSP Threshold level (conservation only),

50% SSP Typical passive solar building,

80% SSP Building with heavy reliance on passive solar. The program consists of three major parts:

1- Input files,

2- Computation files,

3- Output data. 166

4.2.1 Input Files:

The input files are data files which carry building envelope information as well as solar and weather information to the computational files. Each input file consists of 12 data sets which need to be input by the user each time an input file is created for a new region or a new building parameters. The description of these data sets are as follows (see also Fig. 4-2 for a sample input file for the Tahrir Region in Egypt):

(1) TITLE: Country name and city name.

(2) ADR: The Air Density Ratio of the target region. This value depends on the altitude of the region and can be obtained from Figure 3-7 in Chapter 3.

(3) DD: The 65°F base heating Degree-Days (or D-65).

(4) ENERGY COST/PERFORMANCE:

a. Price of electricity $/KWhr

b. Equipment Coefficient of Performance (COP):

COP=l for electric resistant heaters,

COP=EER+3.41 for heat pump,

COP=S~~R+3.41 for other systems;

where EER and SEER are the Energy Efficiency

Rating and the Seasonal Energy Efficiency

Rating respectively. These values can be

obtained from the manufacturer's literature. 167

'(I) EGYPT: TAHRIR'

'(2) Altitude: 39 ft' adr==l

'(3) Climate' dd==1141

'(4) Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh==0.075, cop==l

'(5) Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri==[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028)

'(6) Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa==[8.6,15,10.7,17.7]

'(7) Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' pl==.2, p2=.8

'(8) The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta==[632,1500,144,42,108,13500] 'R-values and Air-change' tro==[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5]

'(9) Conservation Options' t w== [ 3 . 4 , 5 . °, 7 . 5, 9 . 6 , 11 . 7 , 19 . 5 ] tr==[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85] tg=[1/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/O.4] td=[1.0,2.5,3.12,4.8,8.5,13.5] t p== [ 0, 1 . 1 , 2 . 2, 3. 4 , 4 . 5,6 . 7 ] ti==[1.5,1,0.875,0.75,0.625,.5]

'(10) LCR and CF at 10%' tlcl==[944,.5; 994,.5; 1116,.5; 1067,.4]

'(II) LCR and CF at 50%' tlc2==[149, .6; 163, .6; 154, .6; 184, .6]

'(12) LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3==[61, .8; 74, .7; 60, .8; 73, .7]

'Program Operation Key' f==[1,1,1;1,2,2;2,1,3;2,1,4;2,2,3;2,2,4] End

Fig. 4-2 Sample Input File for the Tahrir Region in Egypt. 168

(5) CONSERVATION COST: The incremental cost "r" of each conservation strategy which are as follows: r cost per R per unit area for wall insulation w r cost per R per unit area for ceiling insulation c rd cost per R per unit area for doors insulation r cost per R per unit length for perimeter insulation p rb cost per R per unit length for basement insulation r cost per glazing per unit area for one extra glazing g cost per HAC per unit volume for decreasing r f infiltration

Where HAC = l/ACH is the hours per air change.

(6) SOLAR COST: Cost of selected passive solar system per

2 unit area (ft ) of projected area (Ap). The projected area is defined as the principal net glazing area projected on a vertical plane.

(7) AREA PERCENTAGE: This option is used only if more than one passive system--the minimum required--is used in the design. Since the direct gain system is always used-­ assuming that a south facing glazing is essential for passive solar collection--the area percentage is then I for direct gain and 0 for other systems. If a sunspace is used in conjunction with a direct gain an area percentage between both is required. For example, 0.2 direct gain to

0.8 sunspace means that the total south glazing area consists of 20% direct gain and 80% sunspace. 169 (8) REFERENCE CASE DATA:

a. Areas (walls, roof, windows and doors),

perimeter length, and volume.

b. R-values (walls, roof, windows, doors, and slab

edge if any) and number of air changes per hour

(ACH).

(9) CONSERVATION OPTIONS: This is a list of available conservation options by building part for upgrading the reference case. For more realistic results, it is advised that the list contains actual buildable building cross sections and materials commonly used and available in the target region. The list can have up to six options for each building element where the first value must be that of the reference case.

(10,11&12) LCR AND CF VALUES: The LCR and CF values of each selected solar system corresponding to the three SSF levels--10%, 50%, and 80%-- need to be input in data sets

10, 11, and 12 respectively for the target region. These values can be picked up from The Passive Solar Design

Handbook, Volume 3, Appendix B [16] for 219 U.S. and

Canadian locations and for 94 reference passive solar system. A table of LCR and CF was also developed by the author for the selected six major locations in Egypt and for a selected four passive solar systems (see Appendix B and Table 4-1). 170

4.2.2 Computational Files:

The computational files handles processing the

input data to obtain the output results. They are designed

to work either on the University of Arizona mainframe

I-VAX.2 computer using a subroutine called "Control Cit, or

on personal computers PC's provided that a software called

"MathLab" is available.

The program consists of five computational files.

These are as follows (see also Fig. 4-3):

1. OPTIMIZE.M

2. MS2.M

3. MSC2.M

4. SYSl.M

5. SYS2.M

Each of these files serve different functions and could be

called within the program by the other files. For example;

SYS1.M and SYS2.M are files called if one passive system-­

i.e. Direct Gain only--is used or a mix of more than one passive system--i.e. Direct Gain and Sunspace--are used

respectively. The OPTIMIZE.M file is the program calling

file that the user would type in its name to initiate and

run the program.

Figure 4-3 shows listing of the five major computational files which constitute the author's OPTIMIZE program. 171

1. OPTIMIZE.M for il-l:3, ind=il; ms2;end end

2. MS2.M for i2=1:6, k=f(i2,1); jl=f(i2,2); j2=f(i2,3); msc2;end tboptimum=tbop tbmodified=tbr tbcost=tbc, end

3. MSC2.M x-ones(1,6); if k==l, a=tsa(jl)i sysli end if k==2, al=tsa(jl)i a2=tsa(j2); a=pl*al+p2*a2; sys2; end

'Reference Building Load Coefficient (BLC)'; lwr=24*ta(1)/tro(1); lrr=24*ta(2)/tro(2)i 19r=24*ta(3)/tro(3)i ldr=24*ta(4)/tro(4); Ipr=lOO*ta(5)/(tro(5)+5); lir=.432*ta(6)*tro(6)*adr i lref=lwr+lrr+lgr+ldr+lpr+lir

'Optimum Conservation Levels'; rwn=cf*sqrt(a/tri(l»; tbop(i2,1)=rwni rrn=cf*sqrt(a/tri(2»; tbop(i2,2)=rrn; rgn=cf*sqrt(a/tri(3»i tbop(i2,3)=rgni rdn=cf*sqrt(a/tri(4»; tbop(i2,4)=rdni rpn=cf*sqrt((lOO*a)/(24*tri(5»)-5; tbop(i2,5)=rpni achn=(sqrt((24*tri(6»/(.432*a*adr»)/cf; tbop(i2,6)=achn

'Actual Buildable Conservation Levels'; aw=abs(rwn*x-tw); [mw,iw]=min(aw)i rwm=tw(iw); tbr(i2,1)=rwm; ar=abs(rrn*x-tr)i [mr,ir]=min(ar); rrm=tr(ir); tbr(i2,2)=rrm; ag=abs(rgn*x-tg); [mg,ig]=min(ag); rgm=tg(ig); tbr(i2,3)= rgm; ad=abs(rdn*x-td)i [md,id]=min(ad); rdm=td(id); tbr(i2,4)=rdm; ap=abs(rpn*x-tp); {mp,ip]=min(ap); rpm=tp(ip); tbr(i2,5)=rpm; ach=abs(achn*x-ti)i [mach,ich]=min(ach)i achm=ti(ich)i tbr(i2,6)=achm i

Fig. 4-3 The Five Major Computational Files. 172

'Modified Building Load Coefficient (BLC) '; lw=24*ta(1)/rwm ; lr=24*ta(2)/rrm ; 19=24*ta(3)/rgm ; Id=24*ta(4)/rdm ; Ip=100*ta(5)/(rpm+5); li=.432*ta(6)*achm*adr; In=lw+lr+lg+ld+lp+li;

'Add-on Cost of Conservation'; wcos=(rwm-tro(l»*tri(l)*ta(l); rcos=(rrm-tro(2»*tri(2)*ta(2); gcos=(rgm-tro(3»*tri(3)*ta(3); dcos=(rdm-tro(4»*tri(4)*ta(4); pcos=(rpm-tro(5»*tri(5)*ta(5); icos=((1/achm)-(1/tro(6»)*375; ccos=wcos+rcos+gcos+dcos+pcos+icos; tbc(i2,1)=ccos;

'Optimized Area of Passive Systems'; ap=ln/lcr;

'Add-on Cost of Passive Systems'; if k==l, scos=a*ap; tbc(i2,2)=scos; tbr(i2,7)=ap; tbr(i2,8)=O; end if k==2, apl=round(pl*ap); ap2=round(p2*ap); cosl=apl*al; cos2=ap2*a2; ... scos=cosl+cos2; tbc(i2,2)=scos; tbr(i2,7)=apl; tbr(i2,8)=ap2; end

'Total Additional Cost'; tcos=ccos+scos; tbc(i2,3)=tcos;

'Q auxiliary at 10, 50, and 80%'; if ind==l, qaxn=.9*ln*dd; end if ind==2, qaxn=.5*ln*dd; end if ind==3, qaxn=.2*ln*dd; end tbc(i2,4)=qaxn/lOOOOOO;

'Q auxiliary of Reference'; qaxr=lref*dd;

'Energy Savings'; es=(l-(qaxn/qaxr»)*lOOi tbc(i2,5)=es;

'Dollar Savings per Year'; dq=(qaxr-qaxn)/lOOO; kwhy=dq/(3.41*cop); dsy=kwhy*pkwh; tbc(i2,6)=dsy;

'Pay-back Years'; pby=tcos/dsYi tbc(i2,7)=pby;

end

Fig. 4-3 The Five Major Computational Files .•• Continued 173

4. SYS1.M 'one system'

if ind==l, lcr=tlcl(jl,l); cf=tlcl(j2,2); end if ind==2, lcr=tlc2(jl,1); cf=tlc2(j2,2); end if ind==3, lcr=tlc3(jl,1); cf=tlc3(j2,2); end end

5. SYS2.M 'two systems'

if ind==l, lcrl=tlcl(jl,1);cfl=tlcl(jl,2); lcr2=tlcl{j2,1);cf2=tlcl{j2,2); end if ind==2, lcrl=tlc2(jl,1);cfl=tlc2(jl,2); lcr2=tlc2{j2,1);cf2=tlc2{j2,2); end if ind==3, lcrl=tlc3(jl,1);cfl=tlc3(jl,2); lcr2=tlc3{j2,1);cf2=tlc3(j2,2); end lcr=pl*lcrl+p2*lcr2 cf=pl*cfl+p2*cf2 end

Fig. 4-3 The Five Major Computational Files. 174

4.2.3 Output Data:

After each run is made the program generates the

results according to the following two groups of data:

1. HOUSE OPTIMIZED PARAMETERS:

Under each SSF value (10%, 50%, and 80%) the

program lists the optimized insulation levels of the walls,

roof, windows, and doors. Also, an optimized slab edge

insulation value is given along with the recommended number

of air changes per hour (ACH). Finally the optimized

projected area (Ap) of selected passive solar system is

given for each system individually.

2. PERFORMANCE/ECONOMIC DATA:

The add-on cost of conservation, which resulted

from upgrading the reference case, is given followed by the solar add-on cost and the total (conservation and solar)

cost. Qaux(opt) of the optimized house is calculated and

the percent of energy savings is given after compared with

reference case Qaux(ref). Finally, the annual dollar saving is given based on the cost of energy (electricity or

fuel) and the coefficient of performance (COP) of the mechanical heating system. The last given value is the simple payback years which actually measures the thermal and economic efficiency of the optimized design.

Figure 4-4 shows the program output data table. P S SSF A Y OPTIMIZED PARAMETERS PERFORMANCE AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS S S S T I E R- R- R- R- R- ACH DG SS CONS SOLAR TOTAL Oaux Z Dollar Simple V M WALL ROOF WIND []ooR PER Ap Ap ADD- ADD- ADD- M8TU/ Energy Saving Payback E S f't2 ft2 ON $ ON $ ON $ Year Saving $/Year Years IOZ A 8 50Z A 8 A+C A+D 8+C 8+0 80Z A B A+C A+D 8+C 8+0 NOTES: ~l. PASSIVE SYSTEMS: A = DG 81 Direct Gain without night insulation, ~ 8 = DG-B3 Direct Gain with R-9 night insulation, ~ C = SS-Cl Semi-enclosed Sunspace without night insulation, ~ 0 = SS-C2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace with R-9 night insulation. ~. REFERENCE CASE: Load = 27307 BTU/DO, Oaux = 27307 X (DO) = Million BTU/Year I-- Parameters: Walls=R-3.4, Roof=R-5.05, Windows=R-O.93, Doors=R-l.O, I-- Perimeter=R-O.O, Inf'iltration=I.5 ACH ~. EACH CASE SELECTED FROM THE ABOVE 14 CASES REPRESENTS AN OPTIMUM MIX OF CONSERVATION & SOLAR

Fig. 4-4 Sample Showing Optimized data table f-' -...J lJl 176 4.3 SUMMARY OF DEFINED GUIDELINES.

The author's computer model "OPTIMIZE"--described in the previous section--has now been applied to the same

1500 ft 2 reference house used in the previous examples.

4.3.1 Guidelines Tables:

In order to generate guidelines for the six major locations of Egypt, six different runs have been conducted each is for one of these locations. Accordingly, six input data files had to be created each of which carries the weather information as well as the conservation and solar options to upgrade the reference case. These input data files are shown in figures 4-5 to 4-10. The variation between the six locations is presented by:

1- the ADR value (Latitude dependent), 2- the DD (the heating 65°F base), 3- the LCR and CF values at 10%, 50%, and 80% SSF.

All the other data are kept constant including the reference case parameters, the energy price, the cost of materials, the area percent Direct gain to sunspace, and the coefficient of performance of the mechanical backup heating system. The conservation options that the computer model has to choose from according to the level of integration of the mix system are presented in table 4-2.

Finally, Figures 4-11 to 4-16 shows the recommended design guidelines for each of the six Egyptian regions as well as the energy and cost efficiency of each. 177

'EGYPT: MERSA-MATRUH'

'Altitude: 82 ft' adr=l

'Climate' dd=1501

'Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh=0.075, cop=l

'Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri=[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028]

'Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa=[8.6,15,lO.7,17.7]

'Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' pl=.2, p2=.8

'The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta=[632,1500,144,42,108,13500] 'R-values and Air-change' tro=[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5]

'Conservation Options' tw=[3.4,5.0,7.5,9.6,11.7,19.5] tr=[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85] tg=[l/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/0.4] td=[l.0,2.5,3.12,4.8,8.5,13.5] tp=[O,1.1,2.2,3.4,4.5,6.7] ti=[l.5,1,0.875,O.75,0.625,.5]

'LCR and CF at 10%' tlcl=[645,.6j 702,.6; 767,.6; 743,.5] 'LCR and CF at 50%' tlc2=[99,.7; 113,.7; 105,.8; 127,.7] 'LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3=[41,1.O; 53,.9; 42,1.0; 52,.9]

'Program Operation Key' f= [1,1,1 iI, 2,2 i 2,1,3 i 2,1,4 i 2,2,3 i 2,2,4]

end

Fig. 4-5 Input Data File for the Matruh Region, Egypt. 178

'EGYPT: ARISH'

'Altitude: 102 ft' adr=l

'Climate' dd=1825

'Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh=0.075, cop=l

'Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri=[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028)

'Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa=[8.6,15,10.7,17.7)

'Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' pl=.2, p2=.8

'The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta=[632,1500,144,42,108,13500) 'R-values and Air-change' tro=[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5)

'Conservation Options' tw=[3.4,5.0,7.5,9.6,11.7,19.5) tr=[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85) tg=[1/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/0.4) td=[1.0,2.5,3.l2,4.8,8.5,13.5) tp=[0,1.1,2.2,3.4,4.5,6.7) ti=[1.5,1,0.875,0.75,0.625,.5)

'LCR and CF at 10%' tlcl=[684, .6; 745, .6; 806, .6; 780, .5) 'LCR and CF at 50%' tlc2=[102,.7; 116,.7; 109,.8; 131,.7) 'LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3=[42,1.0; 54,0.8; 43,1.0; 53, .9)

'Program Operation Key' f=[1,1,1;1,2,2;2,1,3;2,1,4;2,2,3;2,2,4)

end

Fig. 4-6 Input Data File for the Arish Region, Egypt. 179

'EGYPT: TAHRIR'

'Altitude: 39 ft' adr=l

'Climate' dd=1141

'Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh=0.075, cop=l

'Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri=[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028)

'Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa=[8.6,15,10.7,17.7)

'Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' pl=.2, p2=.8

'The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta=[632,1500,144,42,108,13500) 'R-values and Air-change' tro=[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5)

'Conservation Options' tw=[3.4,5.0,7.5,9.6,11.7,19.5) tr=[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85) tg=[l/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/0.4) td= [ 1 . 0,2.5,3.12,4.8,8.5,13.5) tp=[O,1.1,2.2,3.4,4.5,6.7) ti=[l.5,1,0.875,0.75,0.625,.5)

'LCR and CF at 10%' tlcl=[944,.5; 994,.5; 1116,.5; 1067,.4) 'LCR and CF at 50%' tlc2=[149,.6; 163,.6; 154,.6; 184,.6] 'LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3=[61,.8; 74,.7; 60,.8; 73,.7)

'Program Operation Key' f= [1,1,1; 1,2,2; 2,1,3; 2,1,4; 2,2,3; 2,2,4]

end

Fig. 4-7 Input Data File for the Tahrir Region, Egypt. 180

'EGYPT: CAIRO'

'Altitude: 244 ft' adr=0.99

'Climate' dd=974

'Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh=0.075, cop=l

'Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri=[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028]

'Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa=[8.6,lS,10.7,17.7]

'Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' p1=.2, p2=.8

'The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta=[632,1500,144,42,108,13500] 'R-values and Air-change' tro=[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5]

'Conservation Options' tw=[3.4,5.0,7.5,9.6,11.7,19.5] tr=[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85] tg=[l/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/0.4] td=[l.0,2.5,3.12,4.8,8.5,13.5] tp=[O,1.1,2.2,3.4,4.S,6.7] ti=[l.5,1,0.875,O.75,0.625,.5]

'LCR and CF at 10%' t1c1=[604, .7; 665, .6; 731, .6; 708, .5] 'LCR and CF at 50%' t1c2=[114, .8; 139, .7; 130, .8; 152, .7] 'LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3=[67,1.1; 78,.9; 72,1.0; 78,.9]

'Program Operation Key' f=[l,1,1;1,2,2;2,1,3;2,1,4;2,2,3;2,2,4]

end

Fig. 4-8 Input Data File for the Cairo Region, Egypt. 181

'EGYPT: HURGHADA'

'Altitude: 9 ft' adr=l

'Climate' dd=642

'Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh=0.075, cop=l

'Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri=[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028]

'Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa=[8.6,15,10.7,17.7]

'Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' pl=.2, p2=.8

'The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta=[632,1500,144,42,108,13500] 'R-values and Air-change' tro=[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5]

'Conservation Options' tw=[3.4,5.0,7.5,9.6,11.7,19.5] tr=[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85] tg=[l/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/0.4] td=[ 1.0,2.5,3.12,4.8,8.5,13.5] tp=[O,1.1,2.2,3.4,4.5,6.7] ti=[1.5,1,0.875,0.75,0.625,.5]

'LCR and CF at 10%' tlcl=[856, .5; 910, .5; 1020, .5; 983, .4] 'LCR and CF at 50%' tlc2=[143,.6; 156,.6; 147,.6; 176,.6] 'LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3=[61,.8; 74,.7; 59,.8; 73,.7]

'Program Operation Key' f=[1,1,1;1,2,2;2,1,3;2,1,4;2,2,3;2,2,4]

end

Fig. 4-9 Input Data File for the Hurghada Region, Egypt. 182

'EGYPT: ASWAN'

'Altitude: 656 ft' adr=O.97

'Climate' dd=297

'Cost of Electricity (KWhr)' pkwh=O.075, cop=l

'Cost of Conservation (ri)' tri=[ .085, .101,8.6, .168, .699, .028]

'Cost of Passive Systems (a)' tsa=[8.6,15,10.7,17.7]

'Percentage Direct Gain to Sunspace' pl=.2, p2=.8

'The Reference Case' 'Areas, Perimeter Length, and Volume' ta=[632,1500,144,42,108,13500] 'R-values and Air-change' tro=[3.4,5.05,1/1.1,1,0,1.5]

'Conservation Options' tw=[3.4,5.0,7.5,9.6,11.7,19.5] tr=[5.05,10.3,12.75,15.05,20.45,35.85] tg=[l/1.6,1/1.1,1/.8,1/.6,1/.5,1/0.4] td=[l.0,2.5,3.12,4.8,8.5,13.5] tp=[0,1.1,2.2,3.4,4.5,6.7] ti=[1.5,1,0.875,0.75,0.625,.5]

'LCR and CF at 10%' tlcl=[2798,.3; 2801,.3; 3260,.3; 3088,.3] 'LCR and CF at 50%' tlc2=[468, .3; 474, .3; 470, .4; 547, .3] 'LCR and CF at 80%' tlc3=[208, .4; 220, .4; 184, .5; 221, .4]

'Program Operation Key' f= [ 1,1,1; 1,2,2; 2,1,3; 2,1,4; 2 , 2 , 3 ; 2 , 2 ,4]

end

Fig. 4-10 Input Data File for the Aswan Region, Egypt. IB3 Table 4-2 Available Conservation Options:

WALLS: 1. R-3.4 10" Red brick, no insulation 111 2. R-5.0 10" Red brick + R-l.5B 2 rigid fiber gls.ins. 3. R-7.5 10" Red brick + R-4.1 I" , , , , , , , , 4. R-9.6 10" Red brick + R-6.2 l~" , , , , , , , , 5 . R-ll.7 10" Red brick + R-B.3 2" , , , , , , , , 6. R-19.5 10" Red brick + R-16.5 4" , , , , , , , , ROOP: 111 1. R-5.05 6" Concrete + 2 asphalt sheeting 2. R-IO.3 6" Concrete + R-5.26 I" Polystyrene extruded 3. R-12.75 6" Concrete + R-7.7 I!" Polystyrene extruded 4. R-15.05 6" Concrete + R-IO.O I" Polystyrene extruded 5. R-20.45 6" Conc.+ R-15.4 2" Sprayed Fibrous Foam type 6. R-35.B5 6" Conc.+ R-30.B 4" Sprayed Fibrous Foam type

WINDOWS: 1. U-1. 6 (R-0.625) Single l/B" clear glass (3 mm)[$-370] 2. U-1.1 (R-0.909) Single 1/4" clear glass (6 mm)[$O.O] 3. U-O.B (R-1.25) Sing.!" clear+tightly drapes or blinds 4. U-0.6 (R-1.67) Double l/B" thick. with !" air space 5. U-0.5 (R-2.0) Double 1/4" thick. with ~" air space 6. U-0.4 (R--2.3B) Triple 1/4" thick. with ~" air space

DOORS: 111 1. R-l.0 2" frame door wi th 4 plywood both sides 2. R-2.5 2" solid core softwood doors 3. R-3.12 3" solid core softwood doors 4. R-4.B 2" frame door,~" plywood + I" batt insulation 5 . R-B.5 2" frame door,~" plywood + 2" batt insulation 6 . R-13.5 3" frame door,!" plywood +3~" batt insulation

PERIMETER SLAB EDGE INSULATION: 1. R-O.O (+5) Slab on grade, no insulation 2. R-1.l (+5) !" asphalt impregnated cork 3. R-2.2 (+5) 1" asphalt impregnated cork 4. R-3.4 (+5) I!" asphalt impregnated cork 5. R-B.5 (+5) 2" asphalt impregnated cork 6. R-13.5(+5) 2!" asphalt impregnated cork

INFILTRATION: 1. 1.5 ACH Basecase / average construction 2. 1.00 ACH Good/fair quality 3. 0.B75 ACH Detailed window casement 4. 0.75 ACH Plastic vapor barriers added 5. 0.625 ACH Seal joints (weather stripping) 6. 0.5 ACH Foam cracks (caulking) MERSA-MATRUH, EGYPT

P .'.:0 A ..,.. 55F OPT I ~1 I ZED PARFlt·1F.:TEP5 PERFORMA~:E AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 5 S 5 T E IP- IP- IP- I ACH OG 55 CON5 SOLAR TOTAL Oaux Z Dollar 5imple l) ~1 ~~LLI~~OF m~m DOOR PEF! Ir-'lp lAP IIAOD- ~.1,00- FIDO- t''lBTU/ Enen~l'::I Sa·.... in':! Pal::lb.:lck E C -' ft2 ft2 ON $ ON $ ON $ rY~ar Saving $/Year Years --I--. -- 4 .-. 10;·; A 5.0 5.05 0.625 .. Ct CI O. ?!:i :35 - 11 299 :llO :10. :I 26.1 ;.; 235 1 .. ::: R 7 .. 5 sOon!:; o. '010'3 4.::1 1.1 0.5 25 - IBO Dlell 1211 2··t.l 41. 2 ;.: 371 ::1 .. ::: - 50% I R 7 .. 5 10.:::1 0 .. F.:I2 !:I 4.::1 0 0.625 209 - 245 179B 2043 15.5 6.2. 1 ;.; 560 :3 .. tl B 9.6 10. ::1 0.909 4 .. 13 1.1 0.5 122 - 1~'-"-'" "':1':' 1828 35b6 10.3 74 .. 8 ;.~ b74 5 .. ::: A+C 9.6 10.3 0.90'3 4 .. 13 1.1 0.5 27 106 17:~:8 1]66 3104 10.:3 74 .. B ;.~ 674 4.E. '-'"1 A+O 9.6 10.3 0.909 13.5 2 .. 2 0.5 .:::...,:;: 1313 1:347 1747 35'34 10.1 75.4 ;-:: 680 5 .. :=, B~ 9.t. 10. :::1 0.'0109 4.13 1.1 0.5 26 103 173::: 1492 3230 10.::: 74 .. 8 ;.~ 674 4 .. :~: .... ,.-, ~D 9.6 10.3 0.90'3 13.5 2 .. 2 0 .. 5 .:::..:: 136 1.847 1852 :36 139 10.1 75.4 ;.: 680 5.4-

80;.: I 11 9.6 10.3 0.909 '13.5 2 .. 2 0.5 :::127 JI:':47 '::~B 1::: 466[1 4.0 90.2 ;.: 1313 5 .. 7' B L1. 7 10. :::: 1.25 '8.5 3.4 0.5 ~:.!24 247:1 :1:lI':.1 5:::::34 3. c. 91 .. 3 ;.~ 823 ?1 A+C 11. 7 10. ::-J 1.25 8.5 3.4 0.5 5? 22? 247::1 ;?919 5392 :1.6 91. 3 ;.~ c.-j-;),_10::..--, 6.Eo A+O L1. 7 12.75 1 .. 25 :3 .. S 4.5 0.5 44 17::: 2927 :::529 6456 ::: .. :::1 91. 9 ;.: 'Jo::..uo~o 7 .. B 1 -,C' B+C 11. 7 10.3 .L..o.J 8.5 3.4 0.5 54 215 247::: '::::110 5583 3. t, '31 .. ::: ;.~ 1323 6 .. EI 8+D L1. 7 12. 75 1. 25 :3_5 4.5 0.5 42 16,,1 :2927 "3621. 654:::: :=:_.::1 91. 1 ;.; 828 7 .. 9 NOTES: 1. PASSIVE SYSTEMS: A OG 81 Direct Gain Idithout night insulation, B DG-B3 0 i r-ect Ga i n t.j i th R-'3 n;: '3ht i nsu 1at. i on, C SS-(:l Semi-enclosed 5unspace without night insulation, o S5-C2 Semi-en=losed Sunspace with P-9 night insulatIon. ? REFERE~:E CASE: Load = 27307 BTU/DO, Oaux = 27307 X 1501 (DO) = 40.98 Million BTU/Year Param~ters: Walls=P-3.4, Poof=P-5.05, WindoIJs=P-0.93, Doors=P-1.0, Perimeter=P-O.O, Infiltration=I.S ACH 3. EACH CASE SELECTED FF-'[I~l THE AEm'')E 14 CASES PEPRESENTS F"iN OPT HlUt'l m>:; OF CONSEP'.)FITION e, SfJL.AP

,====~=---- -==== Fig.4-11 Optimized Parameters and Performan=e Prediction of a 15m) ft2 Reference House Locat~d at I-' CXl th.? "t'lAT~!UH" Pegion in E'~I'::Ipt, as Obtained from the Fiut.hor's Comput.er- t'lodel "OPTHnZ[". .t:> EL-ARISH, EGYPT

=-=-;0 P ~; SSF I R 'i' OPT I t'l I ZED PRRAt1ETERS PERFORMRNCE AND ECONOMIC ANRLYSIS 5 ~; S T p- p- E R- P,- 1<- ACH DG S5 CONS SOLRR TOTAL Oaux ::-; /Dollar /SimPle 1.,1 ~1 ~lRLL ROOF j..,IINO ODOR PEP. Ap Ap AOO- AOO- ADD- M8TU/ Energy Saving Payback E 5 ft2 ft2 ON $ ON $ ON $ 'i'ear Saving $/Year Years r --.,-.-, ---r-- 10;.:10 5.0 5.05 0.625 4 .. 13 0 0.75 ::1:3 -- 11 ':::"-:1"::' 2]9 :::1:,.9 26 .. 1 i~ 285 1.0 B 7.5 5.05 0.90'3 4.13 1.1 0.5 ;:'4 - 13'30 '359 118'3 .?9 .. ~: 41. 2 ;.: 451 2 .. E. I r 50;·: I R 7.5 5.05 0 .. 625 4.8 0 0.t.25 202 - 245 1745 1'390 IB .. '3 62.1 ;.: 680 2.9 8 '3.t. 10.:3 O. '30'3 4.B 1.1 0.5 L 18 - 173::: 17:31 :::::519 12.6 74.8 ;.: 820 4 .. ::1 .., -, A+C 9.b 10.3 0.90'3 4.8 1.1 0.5 2(, 102 17::::3 1315 ::053 12.Eo 74.8 ;.; 1320 .:1 .. " A+D '3.b 10.3 0.909 8.5 2.2 0.5 21 86 1847 1703 3550 12.2 75 .. 4 ;.~ :327 4.3 4 ,-, 8+C 9.t. 10.3 0.90'3 "I::' 1.1 0.5 25 100 173:3 1445 318:3 1~:. Eo 74 .. 8 ;.~ 820 ::1 .. 9 '-J "' 8+D 9.6 10.3 0.909 8.5 ~ .. .::.:.. 0.5 ;:' 1 :34 1:347 1802 3649 12 .. 2 75.4 ;': 827 4.4 ""-,-:0 :30;.:10 9.b 10.3 0.909 8.5 2.2 0.5 .::r.::: .•' - 11::::47 2746 4593 4.':1 90.2 ;.~ 913::: 4.t. '-J ."') qao 8 9.6 10.::: 0.909 8.5 c:...~ 0.5 2:~4 - 1847 ::1725 5572 4. '3 90 .. 2 ;.~ ... 1_10 5:..6 --:t', .. A+C 11. 7 10.::1 1.25 8.5 3.4 0.5 57 c::.:..:.::...::.... 247.3 28'3£1 5321 4.::1 91.::: ;.: 1000 5. ::: A+D 11. 7 12 .. 75 1. 25 :3.5 4.5 0.5 44 174 ;2927 :::4513 6385 4.0 '31. '3 ;.; 1007 F; .. ::1 co c' 8+C II. 7 10.3 1.25 :3.5 3.4 0.5 !:i4 210 2473 3042 5~15 4.3 '31.::: ;.: 1000 .J ..._1 8+D II. 7 10.3 1.25 13 .. 5 3.4 0.5 45 179 2473 ::184':: 6316 4. ::::: '31. 3 ;.; 1000 6_::1 NOTES: 1. PASSIVE SYSTEMS: A OG B1 Direct Gain without niqht insulation, S = DG-83 Direct Gain with p-g niqht insulation, C SS-Cl Semi-enclosed Sunspace ~ithout night ~nsulation, o 5S-C2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace with R-9 night InsulatJon. ? REFERENCE CASE: Load = 27307 BTU/DO, Qaux = 27307 X 1825 (DO) = 49.8 Million BTU/Year ~3rameters: Walls=R-~.4, Poof=P-5.05, j..,Iindows=R-0.93, Doors=P-1.0, Perimeter=R-O.O, Infiltration~1.5 ACH 3. EACH CASE SELECTED F~OM THE A80VE 14 CASES REPRESENTS RN OPTIML~ MIX OF CONSEPVRTION & SOLAR

Fig.4--L? Optimized Par-alTleters and Per-fonnance Prediction of a 1500 ft:2 Pefel·-ence House Located at I-' the "APISH" Region in Eg'::Ipt, as Obi:,,;:,in,:·d fr-olll t.he Rut.hor-'s COlTlputer- I'lode] "OPTHlIZE". CO lJ1 TAHRIR, EGYPT P S 55F I A Y OPTIMIZED PARAMETEPS PERFORMANCE AND ECONOMIC ANALY5I5 5 5 5 T E ACH DG 55 CONS SOLAR TOTAL Oau>: IP- IR- I~'- IP- IP- :;.: IDollar ISimPle l,J t1 HALL RUOF ~HNO DOOR PEP Ap Rp AOO- AOO- ADO- t'18TU/ Energy Saving Payback E 5 ft2 ft2 ON $ ON $ ON $ ""'eat- Saving $/Year Years '-1-' --t-. 10::--: I A 5.0 5.05 0.625 ::1.. 12 0 0.:375 25 - -72 212 140 23.9 23.3 i: 160 0.9 B 7.5 5.05 0_625 4.B 0 0.625 20 - ;::'45 312 C'r=~..... _1,· 21.2 :31.. 8 ;.:: ;:18 2.5

50:;.; I A 5.0 5.05 0.625 4.8 0 0 .. 75 150 - 11 1295 1306 12.::: 5:3.9 :;: 404 3.2 B 7 .. 5 5.05 0.90'3 4.13 .1 0.5 110 - :::30 164;~ 2472 10. ;';0 67 .. 3 i~ 461 5.4 .. co,_I '-,"""1 1':lOCI A+C 7 .. 5 5.05 0.625 4 0 0.625 .:::..,' 108 245 ...11_11._1 16::~3 l1.B 62.1 :;: ,t26 ::1.13 .., c A+O i .....1 5.05 0.90'3 4. :0: .1 0.5 20 81 ::130 1606 24::\6 10.2 67 .. 3 i~ 461 5.3 -,"7 4 .-, 8+C 7.5 5.05 0.625 4 .. 13 0 [1 .. 625 .:::.,' 106 245 15:lq 17f:l4 11.8 62.1 ;.: 426 . .:::. 8+0 7.5 10. ~: 0.'3m 4.::1 · 1 0.5 16 6~1 625 E:5~j 29E10 8.1 74.0 ;'; 507 5.9 -- -- :30;.: I A 7 .. 5 5.05 0.90'3 4.:3 .1 0.5 292 - ::::=:0 ::~516 3:34E. 4.1 136 .. 9 i~ 595 5.6 B 9.6 10.3 0.90'3 4 .. 8 .1 0.5 186 - 1 ?'::~:3 2713~~ 45:=:0 3.1 :39.9 ;.: 616 7.4 A+C 1 -'-00-' 9.6 10.3 0.90'3 4.13 · 1 0.5 46 18:3 " .::'.:' 2354 40'32 3.1 8'3. '3 ;'; 616 6.6 A+O 9 .. 6 10.3 0.90'3 EL5 ,I .. ~~ 0.5 ::u:J 152 1847 301? 4864 3.1 90.2 i: 618 7.'3 0::0 8+C '3.6 10.3 0.90'3 4 .. I_I · 1 0.5 44 175 17:3::1 253~~ 42?0 3.1 139. '3 i: b16 6.9 8+0 9.6 10.3 0.909 B .. 5 2 .. ~~ 0.5 ::17 14? 1:::47 ::115? 5004 3.1 90.2 i: 618 8.1 tmTE5: 1. PASSIVE SYSTEMS: A DG B1 Direct Gain without night insulation, B DG-83 DIrect GaIn WIth R-9 night l~;ulatlon,

I C 55-[: 1 SE'm i -enc I os,,,,d 5unsp.3cE' ,... 1 i thout night i nSIJ 1at i on, E o S5-C2 Semi-enclosed 5unspace with R-9 night insulation. 1[-2· REFERENCE CASE: Load:::: 2?-=:07 BTU/DO, f),3Ul<::::: 27307 :": 1141 ([10) = 31.1 Mi 11 ion BTU/lear Parameters: Walls~R-3.4, Poof=P-5.05, Hindows=P-0.93, Ooors=R-l.O, ~ Perimeter=P-O.O, Infiltration=1.5 ACH I 1-3. EACH CA~:;E SELECTED FPOt'1 THE F1E:OI·)E 14 CASE~; REPPESENTS AN I]PTH1U~1 t1I)<: OF CONSE~q·,.iATION e, SOLAR

Fig.4-13 Optimized Parameters and Performa~=e Prediction of a 1500 ft2 Reference House Located at ...... CD t re "TAH~~ I R" Peg ion in Egypt, as Clbta i n>?oj from t.he fiuthor" s Computer t'1ade 1 "OPT I t·1 I ZE" . 0'1 CAIRO, EGYPT == .,r ==-=- P C; SSF I A \. r OPTIMIZED PARAMETEPS PERFORMANCE AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS S S S T I E R- P- R- p- DC:; ~:;s CONS SOLAR TlJTAL tJau:< Z Dollar Simple 'v' ~1 HALL ROOF ~~Hm DOOR PER Ap Ap ADD- ADO- ADD- ~1BTU/ Enen=1'.,f 5 a'· ... i tKI Paqback E S O-I; FF fF~ Ot·~ .t- ON $ ON 'I: Year- Savi~~ $/Yea~ Yeirs 1O;~ I R 7.5 5.05 0 .. 625 4 .. ':.'_I o 0.625 34 245 294 539 18.1 31.7 % 185 2 .. 9 -, 0::- B " .. .J 5.05 0.90'3 4.8 1.1 0.5 26 830 40;" 12:32 15.6 41.1 Z 240 5.1

50;·: I F-I 7 .. 5 5.05 0.90'3 4.8 1.1 0.5 156 8:30 1344 2174 fl.? 67 .. 3 ~.-:: ~392 5.5 B '=l.E. 10.3 0. '30'3 4 .. :3 1.1 0.5 '38 17::::3 14::1:3 3221 6.7 74 .. 8 /: 436 7.4 .-e'-J r= " R+C 9 .. E. 10.3 0_'309 4.::: 1.1 0.5 "-"- :37 17~:::1 112:::: 2856 J .. " 74.8 i: 436 6.6 A+O 9.6 10.3 0.'309 8.5 2 .. 2 0.5 19 74 1847 147:=1 3320 6.5 75.4 ;~ 440 7.6 8+C 9.6 1[1.3 0.90'3 4.13 1.1 0.5 21 :3:3 1"'-"-'..._,el 1;,,(1:3 2941 6.7 74 .. 8 i: ,~36 6.7 8+D 9.E. 10.3 O. '30'3 8 .. 5 c."":I .. "",c: 0.5 It: 72 1:::47 1~;44 .3::J91 E... 5 75.4 i: 440 7.7

r-·:l .....) :30Z I A 11.6 1[1.3 1 .. 2S 8.5 3.4 0.5 176 247.3 15;,'1'1 :39CJ3 2 .. ::1 91.3 i: .. )..::J'::'" 7 .. 5 --, .-, 8 11.6 10.3 1 .. 25 B .. 5 :::1.4 0.5 1"'-'.• _1.:.. 247:: 2~?7:3 4751 .::::. .. :. ':31.::: ;.: 532 13.:9 A+C 11.6 10.3 1.25 :3 .. 5 3.4 0.5 33 1.33 247::1 1706 4179 2 .. :3 91.3 ;.: ~J32 7.9 ,.., A+D 11.6 12.75 1 .. 25 CI. '",_I 4.5 0.5 29 116 ;C~927 230;~ 52~~'3 2.1 91.'3 :,: 536 9.8 4":1-:'-' 8+C 11.6 10. :: 1 .. 25 8.5 3.4 0.5 :32 129 247::: 1Ei60 ~ -.J_1 '::" 2.3 '31_:3 ;,~ ~)32 1:1. 1 8+0 11.6 12.75 1 .. 25 :3.5 4.5 0.5 28 113 29=-~? 2421J 5::147 2.1 '31. '3 ;.: ~)3E, 10.0

NOTES: . PA5SI')E S·.,..STEt·15: A DG 81 Direct Gain ",i t.hout. niqht· insulation, S = OG-83 ~irect Gain ~ith R-'3 night insulation, C 55-C1 Semi-enclosed 5unspace ~ithc~t night insulation, [ o 55-C2 Semi-ern~losed Sunspace with R-'3 night insulation. ? REFERENCE CASE: LO.3d = 27:307 BTU./oO, Qau>~ = 27307 :": '37··~ (DO) =: ;;:~E..t. t1Illion 8TU/'o'ear Parameters: Halls=P-3.4, Poof=R-5.05, HirnjcMs=R-0.93, Ooors=P-1.0, Perimeter~R-O.O, InFiltration=I.5 ACH 1-3. EACH CA,=,E SELECTED FPOt'l THE ABO')E 14 CASES PF::PRESEtHS At·~ OPT It-1Ut·1 t·m': OF CDNSERt)ATION ~. SOLAR

Fig.4-14 Optimized Parameters and Performance Prediction of a 1500 ft2 Reference House Located at f-' to the "CA I PO" Reg i on in ESI'::IPt-" as Obta i ned f ro,T! t.he AuthfJr'·.=: Computet- t10de 1 "OPT It-1I ZE" ...... :J HURGHADA, EGYPT - - ===;0===.==-'=-=--=== P S SSF I A ..... r OPTIMIZED PARAMETERS PERFORMANCE AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS S 5 S T R-- E R- !=!- R- R- ACH OOJ" CONS 50LAP. TOTAL Oau" % /Dollar/SimPle (,! ~1 ~~ALL ROIJF ~HN[I DClIJ!=! PER Ap Ap ADD- RDD- AOD- MBTU/ Energy Saving Payback E -'C ft2 ft2 ON $ ON $ ON $ Year ~;avlrlg $ ...... l/ear ',('ears

10:,: A 5.0 5.05 0.625 ::1.12 IJ 0.\37527 - -72 2:~r3 161 13.0 23.3 % 87 1_8 E'-' 7 .. 5 5.05 0.Eo25 4. :3 o 0.625 22 - 245 34:t 586 11 .. 6 31.8 % 119 4.9 r--- 50;,: I A 5.0 5.05 0.625 4 .. 1::: 0 0.75 15Eo 11 1:::49 1360 7.0 58. 9 i~ 220 6.2 E'.' 7.5 5.05 0.909 4. B 1.1 0.5 114 :::30 1716 254Eo 5.6 67 .. 3 ;.: 252 10.1 '"")":)'-) A+C 7.5 5.05 0.625 4.8 0 0.t,25 28 113 245 1449 16'34 6 .. 5 6:~ .. 1 i~ '::::'--''::'" 7.::: A+D 7.5 5.05 0.'309 4. :3 1.1 0.5 21 :34 :::30 1667 2497 4.6 67.3 i; 252 9.9 B+C 7.5 5.05 0.62~; 4 .. ,-,0 0 0.625 -'0':::.'-' 111 ;:045 160;? 18!:i2 4.5 62.1 ;.: 232 :3 .. 0 B+D 7 .. 5 10.3 0.909 4.13 1.1 0.5 17 66 1625 152:3 30410: 4.4 74.0 i: 277 11.0

..., co :30;~ I A " .. .J 5.05 0.909 4.13 1.1 0.5 292 :::30 2516 "3346 2. ~~ :36 .. 9 i~ 326 10.3 8 9.E. 10.3 0.'309 4 .. I_I':' 1.1 0.5 1::::6 1?3:3 27'3~~ 45:::0 1.6 139 .. 9 ;.~ 337 1:::.4 A+C 9.6 10.3 0.90'3 4. :e: 1.1 0.5 46 11'15 17'3:3 237~) 4113 1.6 8'3.9 ;.; 337 12.2 ""::' -, 1 c:-, A+D '3. Eo 10.3 0.'309 E:.5 .:...... :..:.. 0.5 3E: . de::.. 1B47 301? 48E04 LEo '30.2 ;.; 338 14.4 8+C 9.6 10.3 o. '309 4 .. B 1.1 0.5 44 178 1·;:-''=::3 2564 4302 1.6 B9 .. 9 ;.~ 337 12.8 8+D '3.6 10.3 0.909 B_5 2 .. 2 0.5 .:1.''-I"? 147 1:::47 '3156 5004 1.6 '30.2 :.-:: :33Ef 14.8

--~-- NOTES: -1. PR5SIVE SYSTEMS: A oG 81 Direct Gain withm~t night insulation, 8 DG-B3 0 i I-eet. Ga i n I. •.' i t.h j:,!-g rn qht i nsu 1 at. i cln, f- C = 5S-Cl Semi-enclosed Sunspace ~ithout night insulation, o = 5S-C2 Semi-en~losed Sunspaee with P-9 night insulation. .') -<.. REFERENCE CRSE: Load = 27307 BTU/~O, Oaux = 27307 X 642 COD) = 17.5 Million 8TU/Year- Parameters: Walls=R-3.4, Poof=R-5.05, Windows=R-0.93. Doors=R-l.0, f- Per- i meter-=:p':"n. D, I nf i I b-.;:,t i on= 1.5 ACH . . -3. EACH CASE SELECTED FRml THE RBDI')E 14 CA';E~; PEPPE-:;ENT'; AN OPT I MUt'l t·1 I ::< OF CIJt'6ER(,lAT I ON ~.. SOLAR

Fig.4-15 Optimized Parameters ~nd Perfcrma~~e Prediction of a 1500 ft2 Reference House Located at I-' co the "HURGHADA" Region in Eg.~pt, .;:,s Obt.3ino?d fn:"n t.hf? Author's Computet t·Jo::,del "OPTHlIZE". co ASWAN, EGYPT P S S5F I A V OPTIMIZED PARAMETERS PERFOPMANCE AND ECONOMIC ANRLysIS 5 S. 5 t E p- P- RCH OG SS CONS SOLAR TOTAL C!au>( Z 100IlarisimPIe I.} t·! DOOR PER Ap Ap ADO- AOO- AOD- t'1BTU/ Energy Saving Payback E S 1~~LlOOF-I~~"O fF ft. 2 ON $ ON $ ON $ Year Saving $/'l'ear "(ears

10;-: I A I 3.4 5.05 0.625 2.5 0 1.:5 10 - --:::141 82 -2~i5 7.5 6.2 i': 11 -23.0 8 3.4 5.05 0.625 ::L 1 0 1.0 '3 - -211 135 -7Eo 6 .. 7 15.'3 i~ 28 -2.7

50;.-; I R '3.4 5.05 0.625 2 .. 5 0 1.5 60 - -341 517 176 4.1 47 .. 9 /~ 84 2.0 B 3.4 5.05 0.625 ::1. 1 0 1.0 53 - -211 7'3'3 587 3.7 53.3 :': 94 6.2 --I -:" C':--' -::w -, A+C 3.4 5.05 0 .. 625 3.1 0 1.0 11 43 -211 554 342 .::. .. " ._I.J .. ::.J l • 94 3.6 1,+0 3.4 5.05 0.625 ::1 .. 1 0 1.0 10 38 -:'11 758 546 3 .. 7 53. 3 i~ 94 5.8 8+C 5.0 5.05 0.625 3.1 0 1.0 10 40 -125 57::1 452 ::: .. 5 55.9 i: 98 4.5 --. co -' 8+0 5.0 5.05 0.625 :~I. 1 0 1.0 9 36 --125 772 646 .:. .. ,_I 55 .. 9 i~ '38 6.5

co n °0·'IJ /_ I A 3.4 5.05 0.625 :':1. 1 0 1.0 121 - -211 1044 833 1.5 81 .. 3 i~ 144 .:1.0 8 5.0 5.05 0.625 ::1. 1 0 0 .. 875 l1J5 - -,',::7--. 1576 1504 1.4 132 .. '3 :;~ 146 10.3 7--' A+C 5.0 5.05 0.625 :':1. 1 0 0.875 24 98 -'1' 0:::.. 1255 1183 1.4 82 .. '3 i~ 146 13.1 A+D 5.0 5.05 0.625 ::. 1 0 0.75 21 82 0 1632 16:::2 1.3 :33. 4 /~ 147 11. 1 8+C 5.0 5.05 0.625 4.13 0 O.7!:i .:..-,.:>'" 93 10 1340 1:350 1.3 83.5 ,: 147 9.2 8+0 5.0 5.05 0.625 4.13 0 0 .. 75 20 81 10 17:':1:':1 174::1 1.3 :33 .. 5 i~ 147 11.8

NOTES: 1. PASSIVE SYSTEMS: A = OG 81 Direct Gain without night insulation, S = OG-83 Direct Gain with p-g niqht insulation, C SS-Cl Semi-enclosed Sunspace ~ithout night insulation, o = 5S-C2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace with R-9 night insulation . .') PEFERENCE CASE: Load = 27307 BTU/[I[I, flau:.; = 27307 :": 2'37 0: DO) = 8. 1 t'1 ill ion BTU .... Year Parameter-s: ~alls=R-3.4, Roof=P-5.05, Windows=R-0.93, [loors=R-1.0, Perimeter=~-O.O, Infiltration=1.5 ACH 3. EACH CASE SELECTED FPm1 THE AB[II..JE 14 CRSES REPRESENTS AN ClPTIMUt·1 m:x: OF CONSERI)RTION f:. SOLAR

Fig.4-16 Opt i.nized P",r-ameters .3nd Pet-formance Pt-edid:.ion of a 1500 ft"' Peference HOIJse Locat.ed at. I--' the "A9·IRN" Re,~:ion in Egypt, as Obt.ained fr·om t.he Ruthor-' 5 Comput.er ~1odel "OPTHlIZE". ex> \0 190 4.3.2 Trends/Comments on Guideline Tables:

After evaluating the guideline tables for the six major locations in Egypt the following comments can be made:

1- The hotter the region the lower the recommended values

for insulation and the smaller the recommended solar

collection areas.

2- According to the law of diminishing returns, the higher

the selected percentage of integration of conservation and solar strategies (50% or 80% SSF), the longer the payback period.

3- For 10% SSP the use of a sunspace system is not

recommended because the area calculated is too small for a well proportioned sunspace configuration.

4- If the calculated add-on cost has a minus (-) sign, this means that some of the recommended house parameters have lower insulation values than the Basecase.

5- If 50% or 80% SSP has been selected, it is best to choose a mixed system of sunspace and direct gain versus a case that uses direct gain only. This is because a large area of south facing windows cause a cooling problem in summer.

6- Although the difference between the energy savings of a selected case from the guidelines' table of a hot region

(i.e. Aswan) and the energy savings of the same case from a 191 relatively cooler region (i.e. Matruh) is about 5% to 10% only, the dollar saving in the cooler region is about 5 times greater than that of the hotter region. This is because the cooler region has a higher heating load than the hotter region. As an example:

90% energy savings from the 40 MBTU/Year heating load of the Matruh (cooler climate) region is a 5 times greater quantity than the 90% energy saving from the 8 MBTU/Year heating load of the Aswan (hotter climate) region.

7- The following "Actual" energy savings is accomplished with the different selected percentages of SSF:

"Actual Energy Status saving"

about 10% without night insulation At 10% SSF -[ to 45% with night insulation

about 50% without night insulation At 50% SSF -[ to 75% with night insulation

about 80% without night insulation At 80% SSF-[ to 95% with night insulation 192 4.4 VALIDATION AND APPLICATION OF THE

AUTHOR'S GUIDELINE TABLES.

As shown above, the methodology of balancing

conservation options and solar systems has provided sets of

tabulated guidelines that takes proper account of the cost

of materials as well as the solar and weather

characteristics of the target location. Each case selected

from these tables represents an optimum performance

relative to the initial investments. It should be noted

here that the produced guidelines do not substitute for

thermal evaluation later in the final design process, but

they do provide a reasonable starting point for schematic

designs.

Therefore, in this section, (1) for energy and cost

validation purposes, the author will apply one of the

generated sets of guidelines obtained from his computer

model "OPTIMIZE" as an example using the Tahrir region as a

case study site. As a simulation tool, the Calpas 3

computer energy program is then used to predict the energy

results and the savings of the selected case. When these

results are compared to the tabulated ones validation of

the method is proven.

(2) For a social and cultural validation of the proposed guidelines, a "Matrix" has been developed which then has been used as a compliance tool weighing the 193 selected Basecase* strategies against major Egyptian cultural, economic, and climatic housing issues.

4.4.1 Validation of the Guidelines Through Compliance with

Egyptian Cultural, Economic, and Climatic Issues.

In the last section the development of the reference case, from which the design guidelines for the six major Egyptian regions are generated, was based solely on energy standards, performances, and costs. But, efficiency of design as defined by numbers alone is grossly inadequate. Cultural and social aspects of the region under consideration play an important role in shaping and refining the design guidelines.

Traditional architecture in Egypt demonstrated techniques which often provided not only solutions to the problem of controlling the environment but also fulfilling cultural and social needs.

At present, unfortunately, the structures and traditions of many of these techniques have been ignored in the name of progress and modernization. Many building programs and developments in Egypt today obviously do not reflect or respond to traditional ways of life. This

* The Basecase is an original design which represents a typical conventional middle-class Egyptian house upon which the guidelines tables have been generated for the six major Egyptian locations. 194 reflects an attitude that turns away from indigenous social characteristics and cultural values as important considerations to contemporary solutions.

On the other hand, it has been proven that in some instances reliance upon traditional techniques is largely inadequate to the solutions of modern conditions. Many of the situations under which traditional techniques were effective in the past have now changed to the point where the original techniques are no longer appropriate.

What appears to be needed, therefore, is a scientific understanding of the principles upon which indigenous architecture solutions were generated. This understanding can then serve as a useful foundation upon which to develop contemporary solutions more in keeping with the local economics, environment, and society than those that have replaced the traditional ones.

The attempt in this section is to combine the traditional solutions with the contemporary problems in a rational manner. It is also to show quantitatively and qualitatively how the selected reference case fits the criteria for contemporary design and simultaneously for solutions to the energy problem while being based on techniques rooted from indigenous and traditional characteristics of Egyptian architecture. 195 4.4.1.1 Development of the "Matrix":

Figure 4-17 represents the development of a matrix which is used to combine Egyptian cultural, economic, and climatic housing issues with passive solar design strategies. The matrix could also be modified for other cultures when other social and economic issues are used in the horizontal scale replacing those particular to Egypt.

As shown in Fig. 4-17, the Egyptian housing issues on the horizontal scale of the matrix are divided into five major groupings; Appropriate technology, Economics,

Cultural acceptance, Environment and climatic acceptance, and finally Historical precedents. The vertical scale represents three groupings of energy guidelines;

Climate/Comfort, Conservation, and Passive Solar. On each cross reference between the energy strategy (the vertical scale) and one or more of the cultural values (the horizontal scale) a hollow dot is given indicating that there is a possible implication--either negative or positive--of the strategy to Egyptian housing issues.

Blank spaces indicate that the cross reference is not applicable.

The following is a brief discussion covering each of the groups on the horizontal scale.

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY: This category shows whether the selected strategy could be constructed using available E GYP T I A N HOUS I NG S SUE S ECO-"CULTURALLY ACCEPTA­ HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS NOM~ ICS

ENE R G Y STRATEG

1- COt1FORT /CLI NATE: North/South orientation a a a a o 0 0 a a 0 a o a a 000 o Q Min. East/West openlngs a a a a a a 0 a o a 000 o Common walls 0 0 o 0 o a a a a a a a 000 000 Q a Cross ventilation a a a a a a 0 o a o 0 a a a Convective ventilation a o 0 a 0 0 a a a a a a a 0 000 000 c. 0 o a Min. outside surface area 0 a o 0 o a a a a a a 000 0. 0 a Q o Controlled thermostat o a a o a a a a a 000 Q a a Utilities as buffer spaces a o 0 a a a a a a a a o 0 a a a a o a a Protected entrances a o a a a a a a a o 0 a Space/Actiyity location a a a a a 0 0 a o a a 0 a 0 0 a o Controlled humidity ratio o o o a a 0 0 o a o a '" a Vegetation sun/wind contrl o o 0 a a a a o a a a a a 2- CONSERVATION: Massive walls/roofs/slabs I a a o 0 o o o o 0 o 000 a 000 a Insulation .• rigid a a o 0 o o o o 0 o o a 0 o 0 blankets o 0 o a bituminous a a o 0 o o 0 o a o Earth berm a a o 0 o o o o o o 0 o a 0 a a Movable insulation a a o 0 o o o 000 o o a a a a a o Oouble glazed windows a a o 0 o o o 0 o a Q Shading •• Outside shutters a a o 0 o o o 000 o o 0 o 0 Q Overhangs a a o 0 o o o 0 o o 0 o 0 a Reflective exter. surfaces o o o o 0 a 0 a 0 o a Tight construction I a a o o 000 o o a o 0 3- PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS: a a 0 a o 000 0 o 0 Q 0 a a a a o o 0 o a 0 a 0 o o 0 o o a a 000 a 0 a a a '" a a a 0 a 0 a a 0 a 0 o a a a a 0 000 a 0 a a a a a

(0) Strategies with Possible IBplications to I. Concrete,Brick,Stone,Mud 4. Ventilator

construction materials, which are common to architectural practice in Egypt, and have a low maintenance cost after construction is completed.

ECONOMICS: For compliance with this category, the selected strategy must have low capital cost as well as effective energy savings. The energy saving is measured by the short-term simple payback which is defined as "the capital cost devided by the dollar savings". A straregy which generates a seven year or less payback period is considered an acceptable strategy.

CULTURALLY ACCEPTABLE TO CONTEMPORARY EGYPT: Cultural acceptability is defined herein by the following issues: a- Traditional Street Facade; the applied strategy must be one that involves minimum departure from the traditional physical appearance of Egyptian housing. b- Religious Spatial Orientation; some belief systems as in

Pharaonic Egypt mandate a west orientation since sunset

represents death, while the east orientation, sunrise,

represents life. In Islam, the arrangement of some spaces

is restricted in respect to the orientation of Mecca. c- Adapted to Lifestyle; guidelines which conflict with the

lifestyle of an Egyptian family are not favorable. Large windows and open-space plans, are all features sensitive to this issue. d- Resistance to Technological Innovations; some advanced 198 passive solar features, such as water walls, water roofs, and rockbed storage bins, may produce effective human thermal comfort but on the other hand they offer psychological discomfort for most Egyptians. e- Need for Privacy; Privacy for the Egyptian family and particularly for women is an important social and religious factor which through history has affected the adoption of many architectural features such as inward orientation and protected windows. Acoustical privacy is also as important as visual privacy for keeping the noise from streets and neighbors out of the home. f- Activity Pattern; Indigenous people of Egypt have adjusted their time of day activity so as to avoid extreme hot periods. Their working day is divided into two shifts with the main meal and siesta in between. Bedrooms must be located on the east side of the structure to be kept cool in the afternoon and living rooms, where leisure and social activity is taken place, are to the north to take full advantage of the prevailing north breezes. g- Defense (Environmental and/or Social); Is one of the major cultural values which affected the architectural style and settlement pattern in Egypt. The inward orientation of the house for privacy as well as defence meant that houses did not need to be freestanding. As a result, they were packed against each other sometimes 199 without a particular geometric shape. This also created concentrated settlement patterns versus dispersed patterns.

ENVIRONMENTALLY AND CLIMATICALLY ACCEPTABLE: To be in

Compliance in this group, each strategy must have positive implications on the following issues: a- Physiological Comfort; Is referred to as human "thermal comfort" which can be defined as the state of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. The study of the requirement of physiological comfort in the hot dry environment of Egypt demonstrates that a person can feel comfortable when his/her body is able to dissipate to the surroundings all the heat it receives, including heat lost by evaporation from the skin and from the respiratory system. b- Indigenous Landscape; Selected strategies should encourage the use of native landscaping and vegetation as they are vital in the improvement of the environment in general and the microclimate in particular. Landscape strategies for hot arid environments, as in Egypt, must be limited to those species corresponding to areas were water is perpetually short and where the range of tall trees, shrubs and grasses is fairly limited. c- Viable Outdoor Spaces; Strategies which would encourage the use of outdoor spaces or contribute to their creation are perfectly applicable to this category of Egyptian 200 housing issues. Throughout the history of Egyptian architecture, studies prove that outdoor spaces have been used by the housewife for her extended activities such as cooking, washing and drying clothes, and raising animals and birds. For the household, protected outdoor spaces are used for social gatherings with neighbors and visitors providing indoor privacy and seclusion for the family. In terms of climatic and solar design, outdoor spaces are beneficial as buffer zones, spaces for landscape and vegetation, and/or spaces for solar collection (i.e., sunspaces and greenhouses). d- Viable Indoor Spaces; Selected strategies must allow space arrangement to meet with the cultural as well as the climatic needs--explained under activity pattern--of the house. In pre-modern Egyptian society, men and women moved in two separate but overlapping circles. However, since the women were not allowed to maintain direct social contact with other men, especially those unrelated to the family, they were allowed access to discussion and conversation only from behind screens in their private quarters. Due to this fact, the practice of separate quarters has been carried over and has become an essential feature in contemporary housing in Egypt. e- Traditional Clothing; Individual human feelings of comfort differ according to the traditional type of 201 clothing worn in different regions. For the purpose of building design, strategies achieving the desired internal environment are the most significant to consider. This environment will then be taken as that in which conditions satisfy the majority of occupants wearing customary

Egyptian indoor clothing. The traditional type of clothing worn in the home is a light-colored cotton gallabiya or pajamas. This may be assumed equivalent to light summer clothes having CLO value of 0.6 in the summer and 0.9 in winter (see discussion on Chapter 2, section 2.1.4). f- Geographical Location; Human thermal condition varies according to the geographical location of the region under consideration. Therefore, strategies for thermal comfort must be specific to the geographical location of Egypt which lies in the hot arid zone of the world. Such strategies could be recommendations for shading devices types and measurements, apertures sizes and dimensions, and shutter operations. All of these are related to solar angles and paths which are functions of the region's location. g- Desert Climate Fit; Architectural guidelines which have an impact on the thermal behavior of housing and thus on human thermal comfort should be tailored to fit the characteristics of desert climates. Such guidelines could be related to house layout, orientation, location, and 202 shading. Other guidelines should be tailored to reElect

the uniqueness oE a desert dwelling such as colors, materials, shapes, and landscape features.

HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS: These are issues which have been echoed throughout the history of Egyptian architecture and which have proven to correspond well with cultural as well as climatic requirements of the region.

4.4.1.2 Compliance of the Selected Basecase with

Major Egyptian Housing Issues.

In order to test the compliance oE the selected basecase with the Egyptian housing issues, the above developed "Matrix" can now be used.

Figure 4-18 shows the Matrix after the selected basecase strategies are overlaid on it. The blackened circles indicate that the associated strategy has been used

in the Basecase and that it complies positively with the

Egyptian housing issues. Hollow circles indicate that the strategy could possibly have an implication but that it has not been used or that the specific implication has not been developed in the selected basecase. In addition, in the last column oE the matrix a number is given indicating the percentage oE developed relationships between cultural

issues and a particular energy strategy out of the total possible number oE positive relationships Eor that E G V P T I A N H 0 U SIN G S SUE S HISTORICAL PRECEOENTS

N

E Ii ERG A

1- COMFORT/CLIMATE: North/South orientation 0 0 0 • • 0 a • a a • • • 90 .. .. 1 Min. East/West openings 0 0 0 • • •• a _. • • 0 •• 93 Comnan walls 0 • • • •• • • • • • • • a • 0 90 Cross ventilation •• • e a a 0 a • 0 86 Convective ventilation 0 a a 0 a a a a a 0 a a a a a a a a a a a a 0 0 Min. outside surface area 0 0 a a a 0 a a 0 a 0 a a a a Controlled thermostat • • • . D.. 0.. 0 o 0 ~ 0 01 87 Utilities as buffer spaces G... 8 0 • • • • ••• a • • • • • 90 Protected entrances a 0 0 0 • •• • • • • 83 Space/Activity location 8 0 .00 D •• •• 0 • • • • • • 0 84 Controlled humidity ratio 0 0 a a a a a a a a o 0 Vegetation sun/wind contrl 0 0 0 a a a a a a a 000 2- CONSERVATION: Massive walls/roofs/slabs • 8 0 a • • • II D • • • • a • • • 94 Insulation.. rigid 0 a 0 ••• o • 0 • • 0 •• 93 blankets o 0 o o bituminous boo a a o 0 o o 0 Earth berm 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 o 0 o o a 0 a Movable insulation 0 • • a • •• 0 • CIa • • 0 0 a • a o 80 Oouble glazed windows 0 • 0 o ... • • 83 Shading •• Outside shutters 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 a 0 o a 0 0 0 a Overhangs a a 0 a 0 o 0 o 000 Reflective exter. surfaces 0 0 0 o 0 o 0 a a a a Tight construction 0 0 0 0 000 o 0 o '" 3- PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS: Direct Gain I. • a a • • • • •• • 9S Water Walls/Roofs a a a a o o 0 o Tronbe Walls •• sealed/vent. a a a a a o 0 o o Sunspaces •• attached o a a a a o 0 a o 0 o o semienclosed/Mass I mo. • • a • •• •• • • • '3S semienclosed/Frame o 000 0 o 0 o o 0 o o

(0) Strategies with Possible Inplications to I. Concrete, Brick, Stone, Mud 4. Ventllator(Malqaf). W,nd Egyptian Housing Issues_ 2. Capital Cost 7 Energy Savings Scoops~ Clerestory Windows (Blank) Cross Reference not Applicable. 3. Canopy,Overhang,Shutter,Mashrabiya Sa Prlvdle,SemiPrivale,Public (0) Case Strategy Positevely Complies with Issue. ~ Fig. 4-18 Matrix Showing Oegree of Compliance of the Base case Selected Strategies with Major Egyptian Housing Issues. o w 204 strategy. The higher the percentage the greater the conformance of the strategy making it a design priority for the basecase or other cases.

It is obvious from the evaluation of the matrix that the applied selected reference case and the selected improvement strategies have combined successfully with a large number of the Egyptian housing issues and cultural requirements. It is also important to note that some of the strategies have proven to be of great conformance to

Egyptian housing issues since illustrated by higher percentages. These strategies are: North-South orientation with minimum east or west openings, Common walls, Utilities as buffer spaces, Massive walls, roofs and slab with rigid insulation, Direct gain, and Sunspaces.

Figure 4-19 illustrates the selected reference case design and lists as well as graphically shows all the applied energy improvement strategies which have proven to be in accordance with the major Egyptian cultural, economic, and climatic housing issues. 205 \..'ll PREVAILING NORTH AND ~ NORTH-WEST COOL BREEZES

1,.-....

UlUT ~ SOUTHWESTERLY HOT AND ~ DUST-LADEN KHAMASSIN WIND 4

1- North-South Orientation 8. Space/Activity Location 2. No East or West Windows 9. Massive Walls/Roof/Slab 3. Common Walls 10. Rigid Insulation 4. Cross Ventilation 11- Movable Insulation 5. Controlled Thermostat 12. Double Glazed Windows 6. Utilities as Buffer Spaces 13. Direct Gain 7. Protected Entrance 14. Semi-Enclosed Sunspace

Fig. 4-19 Drawi~g ~f the Se1ec~ed Reference Case showing an~ L1st1ng the App11ed Design Strategies wh1ch have Proven Compliances with Major Egyptian Housing Issues. 206 4.4.2 Validation of the Guidelines Using Calpas 3

Energy Simulation Program.

It is important at this point to also validate the author's tabulated guidelines in terms of their energy and cost results. To do so, Calpas 3 energy simulation program is used as a compliance tool.

4.4.2.1 Introduction to Calpas 3:

CalPas 3 is considered one of the most sophisticated energy design/simulation programs for houses and small commercial buildings. It is a useful design tool with a full 8760 hour simulation capability for predicting energy performance. It calculates hourly air, surface, and mass temperatures throughout the building, as well as heat transfer among components, the contribution of natural energy to comfort levels, and the mechanical heating or cooling needed to maintain temperatures specified by the designer. User-supplied seasonal efficiencies are also used to convert loads to fuel requirements.

CalPas 3 was checked against data from test cell buildings at Los Alamos National Laboratories. The program was very accurate in the normal range of building temperatures (errors of 1 to 2°F, up to 4°F above 100 OF).

Weather data are available for about 250 locations in the United States and Canada, and about 22 international locations. 207

Calpas3 is the property of and is licensed by

Berkeley Solar Group (BSG), 3401 Grove st., Berkeley, California 94703 (415 843-7600).

On July 15, 1981, the California Energy Commission

(CEC) adopted the 1982 energy standards for new residential buildings. These regulations, entitled, "Energy Building

Regulations for New Residential Buildings", comprise Title

24 of the California Administrative Code.

The Berkeley Solar Group's CalPas3 is certified by the California Energy Commission for predicting energy consumption of both single family dwellings and lodging houses and cluster and apartment buildings for Performance

Method compliance. If the annual energy consumption for space conditioning predicted by CalPas3 is less than or equal to a specific energy budget, the building complies with Title 24 requirements.

CalPas 3 can model conventional and passive solar residential buildings, including any of these features:

o Attached sun space, greenhouse or envelope. o Thermal mass in many forms, such as mass wall, water wall, slab, underslab rockbed. o Any wall and window orientation and type. o Seasonally variable shading from shutters, overhangs, fins. o Movable window insulation. o Wind, convective, and forced ventilation. o Evaporative cooling. o Many locations and climates -- hourly weather data now available for 300 cities, more locations continuously being added. 208

4.4.2.2 Creating the Basecase Input File for the Tahrir

region in Egypt:

CalPas 3 runs as a "batch" program, where an "input file" describing the building is created on the computer and submitted to the program. CalPas 3 then checks this input file for errors, simulates the building energy performance, and produces an "output file" containing the results of the CalPas 3 calculations.

Information needed for CalPas3 input files is usually taken from building drawings and specifications, this includes: 0 A plan (or plans) o Four elevations (min.) o A section o Building information (areas, U- values .. ) etc ... ) .

Creating an input file which describes the above information to the CalPas3 program is a process of inserting argument values to a corresponding group of commands listed in the program manual. Most commands have default argument values which CalPas3 will use if no alternate has been supplied by the user. This means that a user can accept standard values and prepare meaningful input for a standard building with very few commands. At the same time he may have the flexibility to reject the default values and input whatever his building analysis requires.

Our case study is an attached 1500 ft 2 single 209 family dwelling located in the Tahrir region of Egypt. The lot size is 60 X 80 feet (see figure 4-20).

In order to create the Calpas input file for this example two types of assumptions have been made: 1. FIXED ASSUMPTIONS;* are constant values carried over throughout the design development process: - House floor area ....•...•. = 1500 ft2 - House volume •...•.•...... = 13500 ft 3 - Ground reflectivity ...... = 0.3 - Internal gains •...••....•. = No internal gain - Ventilation ...... = No ventilation - Thermostat settings ...•.•. = 67 0 min. & 80 0 max. - Energy costs; electricity 0.075 $/KWhr - Coefficient of performance 2 (air condition) 1 (electric resistant heaters)

2. VARIABLE ASSUMPTIONS; to be upgraded according to desired set of guidelines. For the Basecase, these are as follows:

- WALLS R-3.4 10" red brick with !" Asphalt sheeting & I" Stucco outside & I!" Gypsum plaster inside. - ROOF R-5.05 A 6" Reinforced concrete slab covered with cement tiles and Gypsum plaster from inside, no insulation. - WINDOWS U-l.l Single pane, 1/8" thickness clear (N,E,W only) glass. - DOORS R-l.O 2" hollow core wood doors with til plywood both sides. - PERIMETER R-O.O 6" Slab-on-grade with no slab edge insulation. - INFILTRATION 1.5 ACH Air Change per Hour for an Average type construction.

* For a proper comparison between the computerized hand-method and the Calpas 3 results these assumptions must remain constant. I (Qyp~i~fiDI MASTER PLAN

16 __ _ _. 1~ 1~. 40 __ 60_____ 60_ ~o"

Fig. 4-20 The Architectural Drawings of the 1500 ft 2 Basecase House in the Tahrir Region, Egypt. 211 !~-~j;'1111-frHtrm .... fl· •..•.• ·····j?\:ilJ:·ml···i

~ liVING ~ DINING _OOM

UO 100M lEO lOOM I N N :;; 1= :L i ~ (jAR"'Ca ! 0 M vESTI8ULE I ~I hi , I~ r; 0o~ 11 1 ~ 1:1 ! .if'+ a:

l'

II I 'I 1 ,.., I BUILDING INFORMATION: 0246810 Solar Collection Area: Direct Gain (south windows only)= 32 ft2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace (18 X 7) 126 ft2 Non Solar Opaque Walls ...... = 632 ft2 Roof (excluding the entrance) .... . 1500 ft2 Non Solar Windows (E,W,&N) ...... 144 ft2 Doors (2 X 3 X 7) ...... 42 ft2 Slab Per imeter ...•...... ••....•.. 108 ft' Volume (1500 X 9) ...... 13500 ft 3

Fig. 4-20 ••••• [Continued] 212

Figure 4-21 shows the Calpas 3 input file which has been used to describe the selected Basecase design in the

Tahrir region of Egypt. It should be noted that the values used in creating the Calpas input file are identical to those used by the author's OPTIMIZE program in Chapter 4 and the hand method calculation described in Chapter 3.

The next step is to run the program using the

Tahrir region weather file to obtain the basecase house heating and cooling loads and the energy costs.

The Calpas output report for the basecase is provided in Appendix D. From that report it can be demonstrated that the predicted basecase results are in accordance with those obtained by the author's OPTIMIZE program. According to the OPTIMIZE program, the basecase house heating load is 31.1 MBTU/Year and the Calpas predicted value is 30.2 MBTU/Year. A 2.9 percent difference between the two methods is found which means an accuracy of 97.1% is achieved.

4.4.2.3 Testing the Guidelines:

For validation purposes, Let us now use one set of strategies from the Guidelines table for the Tahrir region­

-see Figure 4-l3--to upgrade the basecase design and then test to determine if the energy and cost savings claimed by the guidelines are achievable.

Assume that a designer has chosen an 80% Solar 213

*TITLE SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (BASECASE), BY; NAD~R SITE LOCATION=TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. AZMSOUTH 0.0 GREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FEBGR=0.3 MARGR=0.3 APRGR=0.3 & MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=0.3 AUGGR=0.3 & SEPGR=0.3 OCTGR=0.3 NOVGR=O.3 DECGR=0.3 HOUT 2.64 ; film coeff. 3 mph,light air *HOUSE FLRAREA=1500 VOL=13500 ROOF AREA=1500 AZM=O TILT=O UVAL=0.198 ABSRP=0.3 WALL NAME=SOUTH AREA=216.0 AZM=O TILT=90 & UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR" WALL NAME=SOUTHWEST AREA=77.0 AZM=+45 TILT=90 & UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=WEST AREA=51.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & UVAL=O.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=NORTH AREA=288.0 AZM=180 TILT=90 & UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=MAINDOOR AREA=21 AZM=O TILT=90 & UVAL=1.0 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=SIDEDOOR AREA=21.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & UVAL=1.0 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=PERSLBLOSS AREA=108 AZM=O UVAL=0.9 & ABSRP=O.O SLAB AREA=1500 THKNS=4 MATERIAL=CONC120 & HTAHS=1.3 RSURF=0.05 GLASS NAME=NORTH AREA=144 AZM=180 TILT=90 & NGLZ=l UVAL=1.075 GLSTYP=l XRFLCT=O.14 & RSHTR=O.O TRSHTR=1.0 SCFWNTR=O SCFSMR=l SGDISTWNTR AIR=1.0 SLB=O.O IW=O.O SGDISTSMR AIR=1.0 SLB=O.O IW=O.O GLSGREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FE8GR=0.3 MARGR=O.3 APRGR=0.3 & MAYGR=O.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=0.3 AUGGR=0.3 & SEPGR=O.3 OCTGR=0.3 NOVGR=0.3 DECGR=O.3 SGFACTORS JANSGF=1.0 FEBSGF=1.0 MARSGF=1.0 APRSGF=1.0 & MAYSGF=1.0 JUNSGF=1.0 JULSGF=l.O AUGSGF=1.0 & SEPSGF=1.0 OCTSGF=1.0 NOVSGF=1.0 DECSGF=1.0 SHADING WHEIGHT=4 WWIDTH=36.0 OHDEPTH=6 INFIL ACBASE=1.50 ; standard (average) construction INTGAIN INTGAIN=O ; No internal gains VENT TYPE=NATURAL AINLET=O; No ventilation TSTATSWNTR THEAT=67 TDSRD=76 TCOOL=80 THEATNIGHT=67 TSTATSSMR THEAT=67 TDSRD=72 TCOOL=80 THEATNIGHT=67 WINDFACTOR 0.5 ; adjustment factor for actual wind & velocities around houses in urban areas CHNGSEASON TYPE=TEMP TEMP=67 DAYTIMES WDBEG=8 WDEND=18 SDBEG=8 SDEND=18 OPCOST ELPRICE=O.075 ACCOP=2.0 HEATING=ELECTRIC & HTCOP=1.0 WARMUP WUDAYS=7 WUCYCLES=l SOLARCALC FREQ=MONTHLY *END

Fig. 4-21 Calpas 3 Input File for the Basecase. 214

Saving Fraction (SSF) to upgrade the basecase. This means that he is seeking a building with heavy reliance on passive solar. Also, let us assume that the designer has chosen a Direct Gain type A and a Semi-enclosed Sunspace type 0 (with R-9 night insulation) as passive solar systems to be integrated into the design as shown in Figure 4-22.

Looking in the guidelines table for the Tahrir

region (refer to Figure 4-13), and at 80% SSF and A+D passive systems, one can find that the following optimized house parameters are recommended:

For Conservation:

R-Walls 9.6 (l~" rigid insulation) R-Roof 10.3 (1" rigid insulation) R-Windows 0.909 (Single i" clear pane) R-Doors 8.5 (frame door with 2" bat) R-Perimeter 2.2 (1" asphalt impregnated cork) No. of ACH 0.5 (Tight construction)

For Solar Systems: 38 ft2 of south-facing double glazed Direct Gain windows without night insulation. 152 ft 2 of Semi-enclosed sunspace type "0" with R-9 night insulation. (refer to Appendix B for more details on these two passive solar systems)

In order to prove the validation of the above

recommended optimized parameters Calpas 3 is then used for a second time to simulate the developed Basecase or the final design. Figure 4-23 shows the input file which describes the optimized Final design to the Calpas 3 LIVING &.

OINING ROOM o !~ i~ I :

1)1 I " 1 2 3 4 01=1""1';2=-4'\=-;6=-1=6-10 DOUBLE 6· 10· UPPER & CLAlED THERMAL MASS LOWER PANE LS SLAB WALL VENTS The Direct Gain Windows = (5.5 X 4)+(2 X 4)+(3 X 4)= 38 ft 2 The Semi-Enclosed Sunspace = 18 X 8.5 = 153 ft2 Fig. 4-22 Architectural Drawings of the Optimized Case Showing the Added Passive Solar Systems: a Direct Gain Type Bl, and a Semi-enclosed Sunspace Type C2 (with R-9 Night Insulation). 216 *TITLE SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASE), BY: NADER SITE LOCATION=TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. AZMSOUTH 0.0 GREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FEBGR=0.3 MARGR=0.3 APRGR=0.3 & MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=0.3 AUGGR=0.3 & SEPGR=0.3 OCTGR=0.3 NOVGR=0.3 DECGR=0.3 ;& assumed reflectivity value for lawn HOUT 2.64 ; film coeff. 3 mph,light air *HOUSE FLRAREA=1500 VOL=13500 ;excluded the Sunspace ROOF AREA=1500 AZM=O TILT=O UVAL=0.097 ABSRP=0.3 WALL NAME=SOUTH AREA=178.0 AZM=O TILT=90 & UVAL=O.104 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=SOUTHWEST AREA=77.0 AZM=+45 TILT=90 & UVAL=O.104 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=WEST AREA=51.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & UVAL=O.104 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=NORTH AREA=288.0 AZM=180 TILT=90 & UVAL=O.104 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=SIDEDOOR AREA=21.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & UVAL=O.117 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR WALL NAME=PERSLBLOSS AREA=90 AZM=O UVAL=O.63 & ABSRP=O.O ;Uval is Nearest F2 factor for R2.2 MATERIAL MATERIAL=SSBRICKWALL VHCAP=30 COND=l SLAB AREA=1500 THKNS=6 MATERIAL=CONC140 & HTAHS=1.3 RSURF=O.05 ;Basecase Thick was 4"

GLASS NAME=SDUTH AREA=38.0 AZM=O.O TILT=90 & NGLZ=2 UVAL=O.6 GLSTYP=l XRFLCT=O.18 & RSHTR=O.O TRSHTR=1.0 SCFWNTR=O SCFSMR=l ;& original area was 32 now must add 6 ft2 to it SGDISTWNTR AIR=O.4 SLB=O.6 IW=O.O SGDISTSMR AIR=O.7 SLB=O.3 IW=O.O GLSGREFLECT JANGR=O.3 FEBGR=O.3 MARGR=O.3 APRGR=O.3 & MAYGR=O.3 JUNGR=O.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=O.3 & SEPGR=0.3 DCTGR=O.3 NDVGR=O.3 DECGR=0.3 SGFACTORS JANSGF=1.0 FEBSGF=1.0 MARSGF=1.0 APRSGF=1.0 & MAYSGF=1.0 JUNSGF=1.0 JULSGF=1.0 AUGSGF=1.0 & SEPSGF=1.0 DCTSGF=1.0 NDVSGF=1.0 DECSGF=1.0 SHADING WHEIGHT=4 WWIDTH=9.5 DHDEPTH=O ;[4.5+2+3]

GLASS NAME=NDRTH AREA=144 AZM=180 TILT=90 & NGLZ=l UVAL=O.909 GLSTYP=l XRFLCT=0.14 & RSHTR=O.O TRSHTR=1.0 SCFWNTR=O SCFSMR=l SGDISTWNTR AIR=1.0 SLB=O.O IW=O.O SGDISTSMR AIR=1.0 SLB=O.O IW=O.O GLSGREFLECT JANGR=O.3 FEBGR=O.3 MARGR=0.3 APRGR=0.3 & MAYGR=O.3 JUNGR=O.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=O.3 & SEPGR=O.3 DCTGR=O.3 NOVGR=0.3 DECGR=O.3 SGFACTDRS JANSGF=1.0 FEBSGF=1.0 MARSGF=1.0 APRSGF=1.0 & MAYSGF=1.0 JUNSGF=1.0 JULSGF=1.0 AUGSGF=1.0 & SEPSGF=1.0 OCTSGF=1.0 NOVSGF=1.0 DECSGF=1.0 SHADING WHEIGHT=4 WWIDTH=36.0 OHDEPTH=6

Fig. 4-23 Calpas 3 Input File for the Optimized Case. 217

INFIL AC8ASE=O.5 ; Improved air tightness INTGAIN INTGAIN=O j No internal gains VENT TYPE=NATURAL AINLET=O j No ventilation TSTATSWNTR THEAT=67 TDSRD=76 TCDDL=80 THEATNIGHT=67 TSTATSSMR THEAT=67 TDSRD=72 TCDDL=80 THEATNIGHT=67

SUNS PACE FLRAREA=162 VDL=1377 j [18X8.5] SSRDDF AREA=162 AZM=O TILT=O UVAL=O.075 A8SRP=O.3 j& R-10.3 as recommended + R-3.0 for Dropped & Ceiling and the air spa~e between SSWALL NAME=SSPERLDSS AREA=18 AZM=O.O UVAL=O.63 & A8SRP=O.O SSMASSWALL AREA=153 THKNS=15 MATERIAL=SS8RICKWALL & HTASS=O.O HTAHS=1.5 RSURF=O.29 HDGLS=O.O & HOTASS=1.5 HGTASS=1.5; By Default area of & SSglass = area of SSmasswal1 [18 X 8.5J SSMWGLASS AZM=O.O TILT=90 NGLZ=2 UGLASS=O.6 GLSTYP=l & XRFLCT=O.18 RSHTR=9 TRSHTR=O SCFWNTR=O & SCFSMR=l jUses R-9 Night Insulation SGDISTWNTR SSAIR=O.2 SSMWO=O.2 SSSLB=O.6 SGDISTSMR SSAIR=O.7 SSMWO=O.O SSSLB=O.3 GLSGREFLECT JANGR=O.3 FEBGR=O.3 MARGR=O.3 APRGR=O.3 & MAYGR=O.3 JUNGR=O.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=O.3 & SEPGR=O.3 OCTGR=O.3 NOVGR=O.3 DECGR=O.3 j& ground reflectivity as recommended by method SGFACTDRS JANSGF=1.0 FEBSGF=1.0 MARSGF=1.0 APRSGF=1.0 & MAYSGF=1.0 JUNSGF=1.0 JULSGF=1.0 AUGSGF=1.0 & SEPSGF=1.0 OCTSGF=1.0 NOVSGF=1.0 DECSGF=1.0 & ;no outside shutters in winter or summer SHADING WHEIGHT=8.5 WWIDTH= 18 OHDEPTH=O.O j & No Shading on Sunspace Glass SSSLAB AREA=162 THKNS=6 MATERIAL=CONC140 & HTASS=1.3 RSURF=O.O UDB=O.Oj Loss thru per. SSINFIL ACBASE=O.5 SSVENT TYPE=NATURAL SSTSTATSWNTR THEAT=45 TVENT=95 SSTSTATSSMR THEAT=45 TVENT=95 j as specified by method SSCDUPLING UATAHS=O VENT=NATURAL AREALDW=4.5 & AREAHIGH=4.5 HDIFF=B SHVEFF=0.8

WINDFACTDR 0.5 j adjustment factor for actual wind & velocities around houses in urban areas CHNGSEASDN TYPE=TEMP TEMP=67 DAYTIMES WDBEG=8 WDEND=18 SDBEG=8 SDEND=18 DPCDST ELPRICE=0.075 ACCDP=2.0 HEATING=ELECTRIC & HTCDP=1.0 WARMUP WUDAYS=7 WUCYCLES=l SDLARCALC FREQ=MDNTHLY *END

Fig. 4-23 ••••• Continued 218 program. In this Figure, the underlined parameters indicate the upgraded values over those used by the basecase. the two additional passive solar systems (the direct gain windows and the semi-enclosed sunspace) are shown within frames.

The obtained output report for the optimized case also has been provided in Appendix D.

4.4.2.4 Validation and Accuracy of the Guidelines:

After evaluating the final Calpas 3 output report from Appendix D, one can now compare the predicted results on energy and cost savings with those claimed and listed in the author's guidelines' table of the Tahrir region and then determine the degree of their validity.

Table 4-3 shows a comparison between the Calpas 3 predicted values and the author's OPTIMIZE program values.

It is obvious that both results are in close accordance with each other with a difference of not more than 4%.

According to the guidelines table for the Tahrir region, the final improved house heating load is 3.1 MBTU/Year while the Calpas 3 predicted value is 3.066 MBTU/Year. A

1.1% difference between the two methods is found which means an accuracy of 98.9% is achieved. The same range of accordance between the two methods is also achieved for the energy cost, the percent of solar savings, the percent of dollar savings, and the expected simple pay-back period as 219 Table 4-3 Validation and Accuracy of the Author's Optimization Method:

AUTHOR'S CALPAS3 % OPTIMIZATION SIMULATION ACCURACY METHOD METHOD

REFERENCE CASE

1. Q-AUXILIARY (MBTU/Year) Cooling: N/A 17.225 --- Heating: 31.1 30.157 97.0% 2. ENERGY COST ($/Year) Cooling: N/A $189.4 --- Heating: $684.0 $663.2 97.0%

OPTIMIZED CASE

1. Q-auxiliary (MBTU/Year) Cooling: N/A 14.318 --- Heating: 3.1 3.066 98.9% 2. ENERGY COST ($/Year) Cooling: N/A $157.45 --- Heating: $68.18 $67.35 98.9% 3. ENERGY SAVINGS ( %) Cooling: N/A 16.9% --- Heating: 90.0% 89.8% 99.6% 4. DOLLAR SAVINGS ($/Year) Cooling: N/A $ 31. 95 --- Heating: $615.8 $595.77 96.7% 5. SIMPLE PAYBACK YEARS ... 7.9 8.1 97.5%

Explanation of terms: - Energy Cost - Qaux (MBTU/Year) X 1000 + 3.41 + COP X cost of electricity (0.075 $/KWhr) - % Energy Savings = [1 - (Qaux OPT + Qaux REF)] X 100 - Dollar Savings = Energy Cost (REF) - Energy Cost (OPT) - Simple Payback Years = Total Add-on Cost (Conservation + Solar) + Dollar Savings. 220 shown in Table 4-2.

It should be noted here that, although the author's optimization method is developed based on analysis of the heating loads only, it also achieves about a 17% reduction in the house cooling load. This proves that the method works for both heating and cooling strategies as previously claimed in Chapter 3, section 3.5 where the following statement is quoted: "Reliance on experience and on application of the method, most of the elements of a good balanced passive solar design for heating also enhance summer comfort. This fact is particularly true with conservation strategies, namely envelope resistance and thermal storage mass".

Finally, it can be concluded that the guideline tables obtained by the author's "OPTIMIZE" program are valid and could be used as design guidelines for any of the six major locations in Egypt where each selected case represents an optimum house energy performance relative to the initial investment.

The guideline tables could also be generated for any other location by using the author's "OPTIMIZE" program if the weather characteristics of that region as well as the cost,of materials are given. 221

CONCLUSION

Development of deserts and remote arid regions is a challenge demanding coordinated applications of many areas of knowledge and experience.

In housing design, the goal is to develop strategies and guidelines for alternate designs that show promise of being low-energy consuming and economically feasible to construct and maintain conforming to the limited resources of desert areas. Such designs should also show promise of being culturally and socially acceptable to offer a quality of life attractive enough to encourage migration of families from overcrowded cities to new housing centers.

The expected end product of such an interdisciplinary study would be appropriate low-cost energy efficient and culturally acceptable house design patterns which could be replicated and developed in large scale programs by either the governmental or the private sector for the establishment of viable desert communities in Egypt.

Chapter 3 presented a simple quantitative methodology for defining appropriate energy design guidelines based on balancing conservation techniques with 222 passive solar systems. This methodology took proper account of the cost of materials as well as the solar and weather characteristics of a target region.

Although the method presented in Chapter 3 involved manipulation of different variables which then required some tedious mathematical and graphical processes, in

Chapter 4 the method was generalized and reduced to a set of simple formulas which indicate the optimized house parameters by suggesting appropriate conservation levels to be used with passive solar system(s) for any target region.

A computer model "OPTIMIZE" was then developed by the author to manipulate the formulas and from which the guideline tables were generated for six major locations in

Egypt representing the six major climatic zones of the country.

In order to validate these guideline tables, two different tools were used; a "Matrix"--developed by the author--and the "Calpas 3" computer energy simulation program written by the Berkeley Solar Group. When these two tools were used both the cultural and the energy guidelines were validated with an accuracy in energy results of about 97%.

In order to experience the benefits of these previously described methods, let us now apply the guideline tables for a specific region. 223

Let us consider the Sadat City site, which is the location for a government program for a new settlement in the desert of the Tahrir region located north of Cairo and outside the fertile zone of the Nile Delta.

Let us assume that the designers choose a 1500 ft 2 low-cost one-story attached single family housing unit as a model for developing the Sadat City residential neighborhoods, knowing that as a first stage, the target population of the city is 30,000 inhabitants.

The next assumption to make is to select the desired degree of integration of passive solar design into the house. This could be 10% if the objective is to design a conservation only house, 50% for a typical passive solar house, or 80% for a house that has heavy reliance on passive solar. Each selected case will have an add-on cost to the construction of the basic unit and some savings in the house energy load and energy cost.

As an example, let us assume that the program calls for housing units with heavy reliance on passive solar technology. And, let us also assume that the designers choice has been made for a Direct gain system without night insulation and a semi-enclosed sunspace with R-9 night insulation. Looking into the Tahrir region guideline table an amount of 4086 dollars (8989 1../.:.) add-on cost is found. 224 With the assumption that each unit housing is to accommodate a family of four the number of units will be

7500. Then the total cost in addition to conventional construction is about 67.4 million Egyptian Pounds (/ .. 1,:.).

From the same guideline table the energy savings per unit is found to be about 28 MBTU/Year. With the assumption that the energy price is 0.075 $/KWhr the dollar savings for mechanical heating and cooling is about 618 dollars (13601 .. 1':') per unit. This yields a total savings of about 10.2 million Egyptian pounds per year. If one accounts for continuing inflationary pressures and the resulting increases in the cost of electricity the actual payback period is expected to be lower than the 6.6 years mentioned. It should also be mentioned that the value of the house is appreciated as a result of the additional design features associated with the guidelines, such as the sunspace system and the double glazed direct gain windows.

As a conclusion we can see that the goal is to prove the benefits and usefulness of the author's guideline tables as a design tool for schematic designs. The main goal of this energy study is to present appropriate guidelines for solving the energy problem in remote arid regions of the country yet to provide appropriate housing solutions that culturally fit with the majority of

Egyptians. 225

APPENDIX A

SOLAR RADIATION AND WEATHER DATA

To create the present monthly SLR correlations and the annual LCR tables of SSF for solar system performance evaluation, it was important to obtain an estimate of S, the monthly solar radiation absorbed by the different reference solar systems per unit of their projected area

(Ap) for different representitive cities throughout the

U.S.A. and Canada. (Recall that the projected area is the principal net glazing area projected on a vertical plane.)

The cities were chosen in order to represent a wide geographical and climatological range. To apply the data for other locations, one of the reference cities must be chosen to represent the city of interest on the basis of climate similarity. Two gross measures are, then, of use in making the choice:

1. The solar radiation incident on a vertical

south facing surface, (VS)

2. The 65 OF base heating degree-days, (D65) other climatic factors such as wind and humidity, are not included in the system performance comparison process. 226

In this Appendix are tabulated monthly average solar radiation, temperature, heating degree-days, and solar position data useful in solar design analysis. The data are presented for six major locations in Egypt representing the different climatic regions of the country.

This includes the Tahrir desert location which is designated as a desert site for new settlements, the subject of study of this work (see Figure A-l).

The quantities tabulated are the following:

HS normal daily value of total hemispheric radiation

incident on a horizontal surface (BTU/ft 2 day).

VS normal daily value of total solar radiation

incident on a vertical south-facing surface

(BTU/ft 2 day).

TA (Tmin + Tmax )/2 where Tmin and Tmax are monthly (or annual) normals of daily minimum and maximum

ambient temperatures (OF).

D65 monthly (or annual) normals of heating degree-days

below the base temperature 65 of (OF days).

KT average monthly (or annual) clearness ratio, i.e.,

the ratio of total hemispheric radiation incident

on a horizontal surface (Oh) to the

extraterrestrial radiation incident on a horizontal

surface (Ohe). LD LAT-DEC, latitude minus mid-month solar declination 227

Fig. A-I Location of the six selected Egyptian cities representing the different climatic zones of the country. 228 The geographical locations of the six Egyptian cities

together with the record period used are shown in Table A-

1. These were available from the Egyptian Meteorological

Department.

HS values:

The most usual solar radiation parameter available to the designer is the monthly total solar radiation incident on a horizontal surface per unit area. These values, shown in Table A-2 for the six selected Egyptian cities, are homogeneity tested and were available from

Cairo Meteorological Authority, Climatological Department, by Dr. G. A. Moti, chairman of the department.

VS & KT values:

Assuming that only the monthly total horizontal

(HS) and extraterrestrial horizontal radiation data-­ radiation incident on a horizontal surface outside the atmosphere--are availble to the designer, correlations were made [16] of the ratio incident-to-total horizontal to find

VS. The primary independent parameter for these correlations is the solar-noon Zenith angle at mid-month,

LAT-DEC, where LAT is the lati tude and DEC is the mid-month solar declination defined as follows:

Jan. -21.4 Apr. 9.1 Ju1. 21. 4 Oct. - 9.1

Feb. -14.0 May. 18.6 Aug. 14.0 Nov. -18.6

Mar. - 2.8 Jun. 23.1 Sep. 2.8 Dec. -23.1 229

Table A-I The geographical locations of the six Egyptian

cities and the record period used:

STATION I LATITUDE I LONGITUDE I ALTITUDE I RECORD USED Mersa-Matruh 31° 20/ 27° 13/ 82 (ft) 1976 - 1977 El-Arish 31° 07/ 33° 49/ 102 (ft) 1979 - 1981 Tahrir 30° 55/ 29° 55/ 39 (ft) 1964 - 1977 Cairo 30° 08/ 31° 24/ 244 ( f t ) 1969 - 1977 Hurghada 27° 17/ 33° 46/ 9 ( f t ) 1957 - 1960 Aswan 23° 58/ 32° 46/ 656 (ft) 1972 - 1977

Table A-2 Monthly mean daily global radiation falling on a

horizontal surface (HS) (BTUjft 2 day):

MONTH IMersa- IE1- ITahrir Icairo IHur- IAswan Matruh Arish ghada

JAN 958 967 1062 1045 1214 1525 FEB 1274 1396 1375 1366 1544 1842 MAR 1687 1705 1651 1702 1858 2158 APR 1970 1993 2124 2038 2172 2387 MAY 2332 2305 2306 2315 2384 2578 JUN 2494 2406 2345 2470 2512 2634 JUL 2479 2037 2376 2389 2462 2563 AUG 2291 2214 2208 2230 2334 2468 SEP 1938 1915 1860 1942 2096 2151 OCT 1436 1561 1431 1591 1614 1845 NOV 1068 1140 1112 1171 1306 1646 DEC 877 945 934 980 1078 1473

SOURCE: Cairo Meteorological Authority, Climatological Department, by Dr. G. A. Moti, Chairman. NOTES:- The data are homogeneity tested. - Data on Tahrir are obtained from Berkeley Solar Group of California, U.S.A. - The following conversions have been used: MJ/day X 88.1186 = BTU/ft 2 day Cal/cm 2 or LY/day X 3.69 = BTU/ft 2 day 230

A second correlating parameter indicating the degree of clearness is also necessary. The most readily available such parameter is the ratio of monthly total horizontal to monthly extraterrestrial horizontal radiation, KT.

For any location, monthly values of VS and KT can be computed using the following correlation:

2 VS/HS = (0.6866 - 0.6623Y + 1.3269y ) +

2 RT (- 0.4458 + 0.3090Y + 4.7776y ) •••• [A.I]

Where Y = (LAT-DEC)/lOO, LAT is the latitude (degrees),

DEC is the mid-month solar declination (degree), and KT is the average monthly clearness ratio.

The average monthly clearness ratio, RT, is the ratio of the normal monthly value of total hemispheric radiation incident on a horizontal surface, Qh, to the monthly extraterrestrial radiation incident on a horizontal surface, Qhe (see Figure A-2):

KT .... [A.2]

The monthly horizontal surface radiation is determined from the normal daily value:

N HS .... [A. 3] 231

NHS (BTU/DAY FT2) K T =,- Q H

: Q HE NIY1 (BTU/DAY FT2) , , , , , , , , A~TMOSPHER _--_ : : "..-- ..... 1'- , // ~C ' ~ \ / I Z 'I I -~ I -f\(T \ ( f \ ". --- I \ I \" '- \ / // *------~*- " ..- ..... --..------1 = I 5 ( (Cll m(,Clr. <'ClI'lh-sun d ISla'" ~ )

Pig. A-2 Sun-Earth diagram showing the variables Qh, Qhe' KT, and I.

Note: The mean earth-sun distance is equal to 149.7 X

10 6 KM (93 X 10 6 Miles) and occurs about April 4

and October 5 of each year. 232 Where N is the number of days in the month. The monthly extraterrestrial horizontal surface radiation is determined r:rofll the daily value at mid-month:

.... [A.4)

Where I is the extraterrestrial solar flux at normal

2 incidence at mid-month, (BTU/hr ft ), and Yl is the ratio of the daily total norffial incidence radiation to horizontal surface radiation (the integral of the sine of the solar altitude from sunrise to sunset):

Yl (24/IT) [cosL cosD sinHs + Hs sinL sinD) .... [A.5)

Where

cos-l (-tanL tanD) .... [A.6) is the sunrise hour angle in radians,

and L lati tude D solar declination at mid-month. 233

The quantities I and D are approximated by:

I Isc (1 + .033cos (360n/365)) •••• [A. 7)

and

D 23.45 sin (360 (284 + n)/365), •••• (A. 8)

where D and the arguments of the cosine and sine are in

degrees, n is the day of the year, taken to be the mid-day

of each month, and Isc is the solar constant taken to equal

428 BTU/hr ft2.

For all the selected cities which represent the

Egyptian climatic regions, values of VS, I, and KT were

computed by a computer subroutine called "CONTROLC" which

runs 011 the I-VAX.2 main-frame computer at the University of Arizona. The program which uses the subroutine has been aeveloped by Eng. Refaat M. EI-Banna, a Ph.D. candidate at

the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department in the

University of Arizona. The obtained values of VS and KT were, then, tabulated in Tables A-4 through A-g. Values of

I are shown in Table A-3. 234

Table A-3 Computed values of Ii the extraterrestrial solar

flux at normal incidence at mid month (BTU/hr

2 ft ), obtained by the computer

MONTH I I MONTH 2 2 (mid) I (BTU/hr ft ) (mid) I (BTu/~r ft ) I

JAN 441.6242 JUL 414.2842

FEB 438.0940 AUG 417.9060

MAR 432.0162 SEP 424.2175

APR 42-1.6880 OCT 431.5480

MAY 418.2519 NOV 437.9226

JUN 414.4419 DEC 441.6243

NOTE: The sun occupies a position at one of the foci of the ellipse that is the earth's orbit. The eccentricity of this ellipse (ratio of the distance of one focus from the center of the ellipse to the length of one-half the major axis) is responsible for the varying earth-sun distance affecting the values of I. Together with the phenomenon of parallelism (consistent inclination of the earth's axis of spin with respect to the plane of its orbit) this eccentricity determines the variability of insolation (solar radiation received on the earth) associated with the changes in season.

The aphelion, when the sun is farthest from the earth (152.1 X 10 6 Km), occurs about July 4. The perihilion, when the sun is nearest the earth (147.3 X 10 6 Km), occurs about January 3. The average earth-sun distance (149.7 X 10 6 Km) occurs about April 4 and October 5. 235

TA and D65 values:

Values of TA were obtained from the Cairo

Meteorological Authority, Climatological Department from

Dr. G.A. Moti. Values of D65 are adapted from the author's

Master Thesis entitled lOA Passive Solar Design Methodology for Housing in Egypt--Appendix D, after being converted from degree centigrade to degree fahrenheit, and from an indoor base temperature of 67 OF (19.5 °C) to a 65 OF

(18 °C) base.

For comparison purposes all values of HS, VS, TA,

D65, KT and LD are tabulated in tables A-4 through A-9 for the six representitive Egyptian cities. Figure A-3 shows the program written for calculating the VS and KT values.

Figure A-4 shows the modified version of the same program used to calculate the I values at mid-month. 236 II PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING VS & KT VALUES TAB-0*ONES<12.6)1 LATR=LAT*3.14159/180 FOR J=I:12. N3=6.2832*N(I.J)/365; .. . I=428*(I+.033*COS(N3»; .. . DECR=DEC(I.J)*3.14159/180; ... Y3=COS(LATR)*COS(DECR)*SIN(HS2(1,J»; Y4=HS2 ( I. J) *SIN(LATR) *SIN( DECR); •... Y2=24*(Y3+Y4)/3.14159; ... KT=HS(I,J)/(I*Y2); ... Yl = (LAT-DEC (1. J» 1100; ... VS1=.6866-. 6623*Yl+l. 3269*(Yl**2); VS2=KT*(-. 4458+.309*Yl+4. 7776*(Yl**2»; VS=HS(I.J)*(VS1+VS2); TAB(J. 1)=HS<1. J); ... TAB(J.2)=VS; ... TAB(J.3)=TA(1.J); .. . TAB(J.4)=D65(I.J); .. . TAB(J.5)=KT; ... TAB(J.6)=Yl*100iEND Fig. A-3 Program for solving VS & KT values on the I-VAX.2 main frame computer at the University of Arizona.

II PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING VS • KT & I VALUES TAB=0*ONES(12,6); TABI=0*ONES<12,1); LATR=LAT*3.14159/180 FOR J=l:l2. N3=6.2832*N(I,J)/365i 1=428*(I+.033*COS(N3»; ... TABI(J,I)=Ii ... DECR=DEC(1. J)*3. 14159/180; ... Y3=COS(LATR)*COS(DECR)*SIN(HS2(1,J»; Y4=HS2(l,J)*SIN(LATR)*SIN(DECR); Y2=24*(Y3+Y4)/3.14159; ... KT=HS(1.J)/(I*Y2); ... Yl=(LAT-DEC(I,J»/100i ... VSl=. 6866-. 6623*Yl+l. 3269*(Yl**2); VS2=KT*(-. 4458+.309*Yl+4. 7776*(Yl**2»; VS=HS(I,J)*(VSl+VS2); TAB (J, 1 )=HS( 1. J); ... TAB (J, 2)=VS; ... TAB(J,3)=TA(1.J); .. . TAB(J,4)=D65(1.J); .. . TAB(J,5)=KT; ... TAB(J,6)=Yl*100;END

Fig. A-4 The modified version of the same program used for solving I values at mid-month. 237

Table A-4 Weather Data for MRRSA-MATRllll LAT. 31° 20' LONG. 27° 13' ELEV. 82 ft.

I MONTH HS VS TA D65 KT LD JAN 958 1222 54 351 0.5 52.7 FEB 1274 1350 56 279 0.6 45.3 MAR 1687 1266 59 190 0.6 34.1 APR 1970 1018 63 124 0.6 22.2 MAY 2332 939 68 40 0.7 12.7 JUN 2494 926 74 18 0.7 8.2 JUL 2479 931 77 0 0.7 9.9 AUG 2291 1006 78 0 0.7 17.3 SEP 1938 1213 74 8 0.7 28.5 OCT 1436 1312 69 33 0.6 40.4 NOV 1068 1274 61 159 0.6 49.9 DEC 877 1157 56 299 0.5 54.4

I YEAR 1733 1134 65 1501 0.6 31. 3

Table A-5 Weather Data for ElrAWSII LAT. 31° 07' LONG. 33° 49' ELEV. 102 ft.

I MONTH HS VS TA D65 KT LD JAN 967 1228 53 398 0.5 52.5 FEB 1396 1520 54 341 0.6 45.1 MAR 1705 1272 58 240 0.6 33.9 APR 1993 1023 63 124 0.6 22.0 MAY 2306 931 69 33 0.7 12.5 JUN 2406 914 75 8 0.7 8.0 JUL 2037 857 77 o 0.6 9.7 AUG 2214 980 79 o 0.7 17.1 SEP 1915 1190 76 o 0.7 28.3 OCT 1561 1453 71 24 0.7 40.2 NOV 1140 1387 57 269 0.6 49.7 DEC 945 1279 53 388 0.6 54.2

I YEAR 1715 1169 65 1825 0.6 31.1

NOTES: - HS values are taken from Table A-2 VS, KT & LD values are computed by the computer. TA values are taken from Cairo Meteorological Authority, Climatological Department, Egypt. D65 values are adapted from the Author's Master Thesis [22) 238

'fable A-6 Weather Data for 'j'AI1IUR LAT. 33° 55' LONG. 29° 55' ELEV. 39 ft. I MONTH HS VS TA D65 KT LD JAN 1062 1396 54 340 0.6 52.3 FEB 1375 1476 57 227 0.6 44.9 MAR 1651 1217 60 170 0.6 33.7 APR 2124 1071 65 64 0.7 21. 8 MAY 2306 928 71 14 0.7 12.3 JUN 2345 905 75 14 0.7 7.8 JUL 2376 913 77 o 0.7 9.5 AUG 2208 974 76 o 0.7 16.9 SEP 1860 1148 73 o 0.6 28.1 OCT 1431 1287 71 6 0.6 40.0 NOV 1112 1327 64 54 0.6 49.5 DEC 934 1252 57 252 0.6 54.0 I YEAR 1732 1157 68 1141 0.6 30.9

Table A-7 Weather Data for CAIIW LAT. 30° 08' LONG. 31° 24' ELEV. 244 ft.

I MONTH HS VS TA D65 KT LD JAN 1045 1318 57 254 0.6 51. 5 FEB 1366 1417 58 260 0.6 44.1 MAR 1702 1226 65 124 0.6 32.9 APR 2038 1013 70 44 0.6 21. 0 MAY 2315 918 77 o 0.7 11.5 JUN 2470 914 82 o 0.7 7.0 JUL 2389 907 84 o 0.7 8.7 AUG 2230 962 83 o 0.7 16.1 SEP 1942 1167 78 o 0.7 27.3 OCT 1591 1432 74 o 0.7 39.2 NOV 1171 1383 66 52 0.6 48.7 DEC 980 1292 59 240 0.6 53.2 I YEAR 1761 1162 71 974 0.6 30.1

NOTES: - HS values are taken from Table A-2 VS, KT & LD values are computed by the computer. TA values are taken from Cairo Meteorological Authority, Climatological Department, Egypt. D65 values are adapted from the Author's Master Thesis (22) 239

Table A-8 Weather Data for IIllIWHADA LAT. 27° 17' LONG. 33° 46' ELEV. 9 ft. I MONTH HS VS TA D65 KT LD JAN 1214 1453 60 195 0.6 48.7 FEB 1544 1496 61 144 0.7 41. 3 MAR 1858 1227 65 76 0.7 30.1 APR 2172 987 72 18 0.7 18.2 MAY 2384 896 78 0 0.7 8.7 JUN 2512 906 82 0 0.7 4.2 JUL 2462 895 85 0 0.7 5.9 AUG 2334 928 86 0 0.7 13.3 SEP 2096 1144 82 0 0.7 24.5 OCT 1614 1312 77 0 0.6 36.4 NOV 1306 1438 68 60 0.6 45.9 DEC 1078 1317 62 149 0.6 50.4

IYEAR 1881 1166 73 642 0.6 27.3

Table A-9 Weather Data for ASWAN LAT. 23° 58' LONG. 32° 46' ELEV. 656 ft.

I MONTH HS VS TA D65 KT LD

JAN 1525 1741 61 137 0.7 45.3 FEB 1842 1644 65 76 0.7 37.9 MAR 2158 1268 72 8 0.7 26.7 APR 2387 958 81 o 0.7 14.8 MAY 2578 887 89 o 0.7 5.3 JUN 2634 917 90 o 0.8 .8 JUL 2563 896 91 o 0.7 2.5 AUG 2468 893 92 o 0.7 9.9 SEP 2151 1050 89 o 0.7 21.1 OCT 1845 1357 85 o 0.7 33.0 NOV 1646 1721 71 24 0.7 42.5 DEC 1473 1785 66 52 0.7 47.0

I YEAR 2105 1259 79 297 0.7 23.9

NOTES: - HS values are taken from Table A-2 VS, KT & LD values are computed by the computer. TA values are taken from Cairo Meteorological Authority, Climatological Department, Egypt. D65 values are adapted from the Author's Master Thesis [22] 240

APPENDIX B

PERFORMANCE MEASURES FOR FOUR PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

APPLIED TO SIX MAJOR LOCATIONS IN EGYPT

An explanation of the performance of four typical passive solar systems is presented in this Appendix.

Included is discussion on both the monthly calculation, the

Solar Load Ratio (SLR) method and the annual calculation the Load Collector Ratio (LCR) method, both of which have been developed by personnel at the Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratory (LASL) in U.S.A. Tables and curves of the annual Solar Saving Fractions (SSF) versus LCR for selected reference designs are presented for six Egyptian locations representing the country's different climatic zones.

Introduction:

It is now generally accepted that a detailed, accurate analysis of all parameters that affect the hourly performance of a passive solar heated building requires the use of computers to simulate heat transfer through the various building components. While several simulation programs are now available their use requires specialized training, costly equipment, time and money. During the 241 early stages of design most designers want simpler yet quicker techniques.

In order to simplify this task, several typical passive solar systems have been analyzed in detail at the

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (1..-\S/.) in U.S.A. to develop correlation curves that can be used to predict and measure building performance. The curves are intended for specific reference designs. Values of Solar Saving

Fractions can be obtained from the curves indicating the efficiency of the design. A set of sensitivity data are also provided to account for variations from the reference designs.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method:

The solar savings predicted by the method is the extent to which the solar design has reduced the auxiliary heat requirement of the solar building relative to a particular reference building. The reference building is defined as one that has an energy-neutral wall in place of the solar wall in the solar building but which is otherwise identical. The energy-neutral wall has neither solar gains nor heat losses. Therefore, caution should be exercised in interpreting the solar savings beyond the terms of its definition. Three major points of consideration should be reviewed, these are as follows: 242

First: the solar savings is not the solar energy

contribution to the actual building's space

consumption. It is, in fact, smaller than the

actual solar contribution because credit is taken

for neither solar gains that offset losses through

the solar wall nor solar gains that raise the room

temperature above the thermostat setpoint.

Second: The solar savings is the savings in the space

heating requirement achieved by the solar building

relative to some "standard" building. This

interpretation is correct only if the "standard"

building is the same as the reference building

defined above, that is, one with an energy-neutral

wall in place of the solar wall.

Third: Another possible misapplication of SSF is as a

measure of comparison between two solar buildings.

Such a comparison is only valid when the two

buildings have the same Building Load Coefficient

(BLC). The quantity SSF is primarily useful as an

intermediate step in the calculation of the

auxiliary heat requirement of the solar building.

The significant advantage of this procedure is the speed with which many different combinations of passive systems can be analyzed. This allows the method to be used 243 very early in the design process when it is necessary to quickly examine alternative designs.

Solar Load Ratio (SLR) Correlation:

The quantity SLR (the monthly calculation) is a variable that incorporates sufficient building and site information that the annual auxiliary heat requirement

(Qaux) can be predicted with acceptable accuracy for a particular building type given its Building Load

Coefficient (BLC) and the twelve monthly values of SLR.

A general definition of SLR is

SLR (a.l )

Where Q is a monthly solar radiation input to the solar s aperture and Qload is a monthly building load. The specific definitions of Q and Q d differ somewhat s- l oa between the various passive system types.

The role of SLR in design analysis is through the

SLR correlations. These are correlations of the monthly

SSFs with the monthly SLRs. The correlations are developed in the following way. An assortment of reference designs is defined for each building type. Each reference design is a detailed specification of the passive solar feature of a building. The one parameter that remains variable is 244

LCR. Then a large performance data base is generated by computer simulation for each reference design. The data consists of monthly SSFs for different LCR values and for several different climates. Finally correlations are established between the monthly SSFs and the corresponding monthly SLRs.

The purpose of the monthly SLR correlations is their application to the calculation of the monthly SSFs, and hence the monthly and annual auxiliary heat. The monthly calculation, or "SLR method," is summarized below:

1. Obtain building information:

a. Building Load Coefficient, BLC

b. Projected area, Ap c. Load Collector Ratio, LCR = BLC + Ap

2. Obtain site & climate information: (Appendix.A)

a. Latitude

b. Latitude minus mid-month declination

c. Clearness ratio, monthly, KT

d. Incident solar radiation, on Hz.surf/month

e. Heating degree days, monthly, DO

3. Obtain absorbed solar radiation, monthly, S

4. Obtain monthly solar savings fractions, SSF

a. Calculate S/DD, monthly

b. Determine SSF, monthly, two options

i) Graphical, SSF-vs-S/DD curves 245 ii) Analytical, equations for SLR and SSF

5. Calculate auxiliary heat requirement, Q :

a. Monthly, Q = (I-SSF) X BLC X DD b. Annually, Q = sum of monthly Q 6. Calculate annual solar savings fraction:

SSF = 1 - [Q/(BLC X DD)]

For more details on these steps, refer to Passive Solar

Design Handbook [16] where step-by-step procedures, worksheets, and examples are found.

Annual Calculation- The LCR Method:

Application of the monthly calculation method leads to the annual auxiliary heat and annual SSF. At the Los

Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL), the monthly calculation has been performed for 219 chosen U.S. and

Canadian locations representing a wide climatological range. The calculations were done for each reference design, and for a variety of LCR values. The results are the tables of annual SSF versus LCR from which corresponding tables were adapted for six major locations in Egypt according to climatic similarity and Degree Days criteria as recommended [16](see Appendix.A).

The annual calculation, or "LCR method," makes use of the LCR tables to provide a useful first estimate of annual building performance. The method consists of the 246 following steps:

1. Obtain building information

a. Building Load Coefficient, BLC

b. Projected area, Ap

c. Load Collector Ratio, LCR = BLC + Ap 2. Enter the LCR tables (tables 8-5 through B-IO)

a. Under the desired city

b. Under the desired reference design

c. Determine the annual SSF by interpolation

d. Note the annual heating degree days, DD

3. Calculate the annual auxiliary heat,

Q = (l-SSF) X BLC X DD

If the building has a mixture of two or more system types, then the following procedures may be used. The projected area (step Ib) is the combined projected areas of all of the systems. Steps 2a-2c are performed for each system type; this amounts to assuming that the entire solar wall is first of one type, then the next type, and so forth. The final SSF is the average of each SSF determined in step 2c; the average is weighted according to the respective projected areas of the individual systems. The auxiliary heat is calculated in the normal way (step 3) using the average SSF. An example of using a mixture of two system types is given at the end of this appendix. 247 The reference designs:

The number of configurations (reference designs) for which correlations have been developed are 94 representing 4 major passive systems. These are as follows:

ww Water Wall Systems 15 TW Trombe Wall Systems (vented) 21

(unvented) 21

DG Direct Gain Systems 9

SS Sunspace Systems 28

TOTAL 94

Nine different direct-gain correlations have been developed representing different numbers of glazing, different values of storage-surface-to-glazing-area ratios and different wall thicknesses. Fifty-seven different thermal storage wall correlations have been developed representing Trombe wall and water wall, use or nonuse of night insulation, different numbers of glazing, use or nonuse of a selective surface, different Trombe wall thicknesses and thermal conductivities, different water wall masses, and both vented and unvented Trombe walls.

Twenty-eight different sunspace correlations have been developed representing five different configurations, glazed and unglazed end walls on the linear configurations, 248 use or nonuse of night insulation, and masonry wall or water drum storage. (for more details about these types refer to Passive Solar Design Handbook, Volume III [16]).

Criteria of selecting systems for Egypt:

Among the above described systems four reference designs have been selected for application in Egypt; two

Direct Gain Systems and two Sunspace systems. The criteria of selecting these systems is based on culture, climate, and economic fit and can be summarized as follows:

Selected Direct Gain Systems:

1- The Direct Gain Systenls have relatively high market

appeal because they involve less departure from

conventional construction in Egypt.

2- They take excellent advantage of views.

3- Their incremental cost relative to an otherwise

comparable nonsolar building is small.

4- When designed appropriately, direct gain buildings can

provide a cost-effective means to reduce energy

consumption for space heating especially with buildings

that contain large thermal mass for heat storage such

as the case in traditional houses of Egypt.

5- Their actual effectiveness is limited to mild and

moderate winter climates which is typical of Egypt's climate. 249

6- Among the nine different Direct Gain Systems, two types

have been chosen as their mass thickness, 6 in., is in

accordance with common brick wall thickness in Egypt.

7- The appropriate number of glazings for a direct gain

building is strongly dependent on climate. One or two

glazing layers in combination with night insulation is

greatly recommended for mild climates. There is very

little to be gained by adding a third layer and almost

no advantages to using a fourth. This fact led to the

elimination of triple glazed direct gain systems. In

addition, triple glazed windows are not a common

practice in Egypt because of their high cost.

Selected sunspace systems:

1- Sunspaces are attractive useful spaces capable of

serving other building functions such as a building

entrance, hallway and/or solarium. When the south

glazing is removed in summer they can serve as an

extended outdoor space for socializing and gathering

which is typical of Egyptian tradition.

2- The solar heating performance often exceeds the

performance of any other passive solar system occupying

the same area of south wall.

3- Attached sunspace systems are excluded because a semi­

enclosed Sunspace requires no end walls (east and west

wall) and no special roof construction which is costly. 250 4- Sunspace systems with tilted glazing geometry have

been excluded since they require high maintenance cost,

disturb the use of the space, and most importantly

have the risk of over heating the space in a mild

winter climate such as the case in Egypt.

5- Semi-enclosed sunspaces with common wall consisting of

frame wall configuration which includes a row of water

containers extending to the east and west walls for

thermal storage is not a common practice in Egypt.

Configuration of the selected reference designs: a. Direct Gain reference designs: A direct gain building

is a type of passive system in which solar radiation enters

the space directly through the windows. These solar gains serve either to meet part of the current heating needs of

the structure or are stored in the building mass to meet heating needs that arise later. Space heating needs not satisfied by the solar gains are met by conventional backup systems. The selected high-mass reference designs have heat capacity of 45 BTU/oF ft 2 of glazing area. This level is achieved by a mass thickness of 6" and a mass surface area of three times the glazing area. Thermal storage mass is located on the floor and north wall of the illuminated zones (see Fig. B-1). More details about the reference design is found in table B-3. 251

WITH In" AIR CAP

~ 6" ~ THERMAL GROUND ••• ~~ ~ STORAGE REFLECTANCE ~ WALL : 0.3 < MASONRY)

6" THERMAL STORAGE SLAB (HASONH,)

Fig. B-1 Direct Gain system configuration, type Bl & B3.

R-20 ROOF

( WHEN USE 0 )1iii!~-iAl ___iii!ipiiiii~

ARE A OF 1/-9 NICH7 ~I l­ l­ 6r. OF NORTH lL lL INSULATION HALL CD '"

6" MASONRY SLAB

f l­ LL TWO lIS" THICK PAN =::::l ~ITH 1/4" IdR CAP F=! -- 1.---- 24 FT --.1,1 ~~~~~ ------

Fig. B-2 Semi-enclosed Sunspace configuration type Cl & C2 252 b. Sunspace reference designs: The selected semi-enclosed sunspaces have the following characteristics:

- They have three cornmon walls and the glazing is assumed to face due south. Thus wall locations are referred to by the compass directions: the principal glazing is the south wall, the principal common wall is the north wall, and the end walls are the east and west walls (see Fig. B-2).

- The semi-enclosed sunspaces are all 24 ft wide (east­ west) and 12 ft deep (north-south). The north common wall is 9 ft. high. Note however that a 16 ft. wide, 8 ft. deep and 6 ft high volume is also a sunspace of the same configuration, being just one-third smaller in all its dimensions but identical in shape. The effect of the absolute size of the sunspace is accounted for by the projected area Ap' an independent parameter.

- The south glass is a single vertical plane of glazing which has optical and thermal properties equivalent to two panes of ordinary eight-inch window glass with a half-inch air gap.

- The cornmon wall between the sunspace and building is insulated, 12-inch-thick, high-density masonry with a thermal conductivity of 1.0 BTU/hr.ft 2 .oF and a volumetric heat capacity of 30 BTU/ft 3 . oP. The cornmon wall configuration includes thermocirculation vents whose areas total 6% of the north wall area (3% for each of the top and 253 bottom vents}. The vent centers are separated by a height of 8 ft. There is no reverse thermocirculation.

- The night insulation, when used, has a thermal resistance of R-9 (9 hr.oF.ft 2 /BTU), and is in place from 5:30 pm to

7:30 am solar time.

- The end walls are insulated to a thermal resistance R-20.

- The sunspace floor is a 6-inch-thick slab with a thermal conductivity of 0.5 BTU/hr.ft 2 .oF and a volumetric heat capacity of 30 BTU/ft 3 of.

- The floor and common walls are capable for heat storage.

- A sunspace infiltration rate of 0.5 ACH is assumed.

- Auxiliary heating is assumed to maintain the sunspace temperature at 45 of and ventilation cooling is assumed to limit the sunspace temperature to 95 of if possible.

- The heating thermostat setpoint in the adjacent building is 65 OF and ventilation or auxiliary cooling are assumed to limit the room temperature to 75 of.

- There are no internal heat generation in either the sunspace or the adjacent building.

For both Direct gain and Sunspace systems, the parameters excluded from the definitions of the reference designs, the projected area (Ap) and the building load coefficient (BLC), are combined into the load collector ratio (LCR = BLC + Ap)' The quantity LCR then becomes 254 the principal building variable for a given reference design. Performance estimates for a given location are functions of LCR.

Tables B-1 and B-2 summarize the characteristics of the selected Direct gain and Sunspace systems respectively. More details about the reference designs are listed in Table B-3.

Compatability of the selected LCR values for the six major locations in Egypt:

Caution should be used in applying the LCR tables of a specific location to another; Compliances should be based upon the following two major factors:

FIRST: Each set of data is presented for different u.S.

cities chosen to represent a wide geographical and

climatological range. To apply the data, one of

the r~ference cities must be enos en to represent

the location of interest on the basis of climatic

similarity. Two gross climatic measures are then

of use in making the choice:

1- The solar radiation incident on a vertical

south facing surface, (VS);

2- The 65 OF base heating degree-days, (065).

These data are provided in Appendix.A for six major

Egyptian locations. When comparisons are made with 255

Table 8-1 Characteristics of the selected Direct Gain systems:

Thermal Storage Mass-to­ Capacity* Mass Glazing­ Night Designa­ (oct) Thick.** Area No. of Insula­ tion (BTU/ft 2 °F) ( in. ) Ratio Glazings tion

DG Bl 45 6 3 2 no

DG B3 45 6 3 2 yes

* The relevant mass properties may be expressed in terms 3 of oct, where a is the density (lb/ft ), c is the specific heat (BTU/oF lb), and t is the mass thickness (ft). The quantity oct is exactly the "thermal storage capacity" per square foot of projected area (Ap).

** The listed thickness is computed using oc(volumetric heat capacity)= 30 BTU/ft 3 of for masonry.

Table B-2 Characteristics of the selected Sunspace systems:

Glass Night Designa- Tilt Common End Insula- tion Type (Degrees) Walls Walls tion

SS Cl Semi-enclosed 90° masonry common no

SS C2 Semi-enclosed 90° masonry common yes

NOTE: The systems second designation (the letter and number) are kept consistant with the source of the above tables; Passive Solar Design Handbook, volume 3 256

Table B-3 Reference Design Characteristics for Direct gain and Sunspace LCR tables:

Masonry properties thermal conductivity (k) sunspace floor 0.5 BTU/hr ft of all other masonry 1.0 BTU/hr ft of density (0) 150 Ib/ft 3 specific heat (c) 0.2 BTU/lb OF

Solar absorptances masonry 0.8

Infrared emittances normal surface 0.9 selective surface 0.1

Glazing properties transmission charateristics dif fuse orientation due ~o~rh extinction coefficient 0.5 1n thickness of each pane 1/8 in air gap between panes 1/2 in

Control range room temperature 65 of to 75 of sunspace temperature 45 OF to 95 of internal heat generation 0

Thermocirculation vents (for sunspace only) vent area + projected area (sum of both upper and lower vents)= 0.06 height between vents 8 ft reverse flow none

Night insulation (when used) thermal resistance R-9 in place solar time 5~ pm to 7~ am

Solar radiation assumptions shading none ground diffuse reflectance 0.3

Source: Passive Solar Design Handbook, volume III [16]. 257 the us locations, climatic similarity has been found in the following corresponding cities:

US Locations Egyptian Locations

Long Beach, CAL Mersa-Matruh Los Angelos, CAL El-Arish Yuma, AZ Tahrir Laredo, TX Cairo Tampa, FL Hurghada Miami, FL Aswan

Note: When comparison is made no wind or humidity

factors have been considered.

SECOND: Characteristics of the solar systems reference

designs associated with each set of LCR values must

be in accordance with the design under

consideration as much as possible for accurate

results. However, although the annual method LCR

allows no departure from the reference design, to

treat off-reference designs the sensitivity data

may be used. For details on the sensitivity data

corresponding to the selected Direct gain and

Sunspace systems refer to the Passive Solar Design

Handbook, volume III, Appendix G, p.5l7.

For comparison purposes, Table B-4 shows the weather

characteristics of US cities which proven to have climatic

similarity with the six Egyptian locations. 258 Table B-4 Weather Characteristics for the selected US

cities chosen to represent the six Egyptian locations:

LONG BEACH, CALIFORNIA ELEV 56 lAT 33.8 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA ELEV 105 LAT 33.9 HS VS TA 050 055 060 065 070 KT lO HS VS TA 050 055 060 065 070 KT lO JAN 928 1291 54 17 79 189 339 490 .57 5!i JAN 926 1293 55 21 83 186 331 481 .57 55 FEB 1215 1373 56 9 53 140 273 406 .59 4 7 FEB 1214 1377 56 13 59 143 270 404 .59 48 MAR 1610 1289 57 5 35 116 247 397 .61 36 HAR 1619 130~ 57 11 53 138 267 419 .62 36 APR 1938 1056 61 1 10 55 148 284 .61 24 APR 1951 1066 59 5 26 91 195 338 .62 24 MAY 2064 913 64 0 2 18 71 192 .59 15 MAY 2060 914 '62 2 9 47 114 25T .59 15 JUN 2140 894 67 0 I 5 23 110 .59 10 JUN 2119 891 65 1 ' 4 20 71 180 .59 11 JUL 2300 939 7Z 0 0 0 0 35 .65 12 JUL 2307 942 69 0 I 5 19 99 .65 13 AUG 2100, 1024 73 0 0 0 0 24 .64 20 AUG 2079 1019 70 0 1 4 15 83 .64 20 SEP 1701 1186 72 0 0 I 7 39 .61 32 SEP 1681 1174 69 0 1 5 23 93 .60 32 OCT 1326 1342 67 0 1 6 48 122 .60 44 OCT 1317 1335 65 0 3 17 77 168 .59 44 NOV 1003 1335 61 1 10 55 155 284 .58 53 NOV 1004 1343 61 2 15 65 158 289 .58 53 DEC 847 1241 56 10 59 155 295 450 .56 57 DEC 848 1249 57 9 47 129 279 407 ,.56 57 YR 1600115663 46 250 740 1606 2834 .61 YR 1596 1157 62 64 299 849 1819 3216 .61

YUHA. ARIZONA ELEV 207 LAT 32.7 lAREOO. TEXAS ELEV 518 LAT 27.5 HS VS TA 050 055 060 065 070 KT lO HS VS TA 050 055 060 065 070 KT LO JAN 1096 1575 55 28 87 177 308 455 .65 54 JAN 959 1046 57 36 93 174 299 426 .49 49 FE8 1443 1675 59 8 33 93 192 303 .69 46 FEll 1195 1062 61 12 37 9Z 177 273 .51 41 MAR 1919 1534 64 3 11 41 97 212 .72 35 'HAR 1516 981 68 3 9 2'8 87 154 .54 30 APR 2413 1231 71 0 1 5 24 73 .76 23 APR 1727 833 76 0 0 0 0 36 .53 18 MAY 2728 1023 79 0 0 0 0 11 .78 14 HAY 1952 827 81 0 0 0 0 12 .56 8 JUN 2814 966 86 0 0 0 0 1 .78 9 JUN 2073 857 86 0 0 0 0 4 ,58 4 JUL 2453 948 94 0 0 0 0 o .69 11 JUL 2131 857 88 0 0 0 0 3 .61 6 AUG 2329 1070 93 0 0 0 0 o .71 19 AUG 2009 870 88 0 0 0 0 3 .61 14 SEP 2051 1406 87 0 0 0 0 1 .73 31 SEP 1705 979 83 0 0 0 0 8 .58 26 OCT 1623 1694 76 0 0 1 5 25 .72 43 OCT 1408 1152 76 0 1 5 8 44 .57 37 HOV 1215 1690 64 3 12 44 108 215 .68 52 HOV 1041 1093 65 5 15 45 74 193 .51 47 DEC 1000 1515 56 22 74 158 276 427 .64 56 DEC 8S9 .1022 59 23 64 138 231 365 .48 51 YR 1925 1358 74 64 218 520 1010 1724 .7Z YR 1552 965 74 79 219 482 876 1522 .56

TAMPA. FLORIOA ELEV 10 LAT 28.0 MIAMI. FLORIDA £LEV 7 LAT 25.8 HS VS TA 050 055 060 065 070 KT LO HS VS TA 050 055 060 065 070 KT LO JAH 1011 1148 60 16 46 110 203 316 .5249 JAN 1057 1121 67 1 4 18 53 142 .52 47 FE8 1259 1156 62 10 31 81 176 253 .54 42 FEB 1314 1130 68 1 3 14 67 118 .55 39 HAR 1594 1051 66 4 14 41 90 185 .57 30 HAR 1603 990 71 0 1 6 17 76 .56 28 APR 1908 904 72 1 3 11 9 84 .59 18 APR IB59 853 75 0 0 0 0 31 .57 16 HAY 1998 839 77 0 0 0 0 32 .57 9 HAY 1844 800 78 0 0 0 0 15 .53 7 JUN 1847 813 81 0 0 0 0 13 .52 5 JUN 1708 787 81 0 0 0 0 6 .48 2 JUL 1753 783 82 0 0 0 0 11 .50 7 JUL 1763 787 82 0 0 0 0 4 .51 4 AUG 1653 775 82 0 0 0 0 10 .50 15 AUG 1630 751 83 0 0 0 0 4 .49 12 SEP 1492 873 81 0 0 0 0 14 .51 26 SEP 1456 811 82 0 0 0 0 5 .49 24 OCT 1346 1108 75 0 0 0 0 53 .55 38 OCT 1303 991 78 0 0 0 0 15 .51 36 NOV 1108 1213 67 3 11 33 71 164 .55 47 HOV 1119 1131 72 0 1 4 13 61 .53 45 DEC 935 1119 62 12 36 93 169 285 .51 51 DEC 1019 1157 68 1 3 13 56 122 .53 49 YR 1493 981 72 47 141 369 718 1421 .54 YR 1474 941 76 3 14 55 7n6 599 .52

Source: Passive Solar Design Handbook, volume III [16). 259

Table B-5 shows LCR values associated with the SSF values for the six major locations in Egypt. In their normal application, the tables are entered with a value of

LCR, and an SSF value is then determined by interpolation.

A building with 100% SSF requires no auxiliary heat and a building with 0% SSF is a non-solar building. When a dash is entered instead of a value, the indicated SSF cannot be achieved.

Another alternative to Table B-5, and in order to avoid interpolation, is the performance curves presented in

Figure B-3. These are plots of the annual solar savings fraction (SSP) versus LCR for the four selected reference designs. The plots are obtained by simply drawing smooth curves through points obtained from the LCR table B-5.

For combinations of various systems, interpolate between values based on the relative areas of each system.

This may be done by determining the appropriate SSF for each system based on the total LCR and then adjusting the value according to the percentage of the total solar collection area occupied by each system.

Example: To determine the SSF for a residence in Tahrir

Egypt using Direct gain DG-Bl and Sunspace SS-Cl

systems with the following projected area Ap : 260

40 ft 2 (Direct gain system DG Bl)

70 ft 2 (Sunspace system SS C2)

1. Obtain percentage of each system from the total solar collection:

40 110 0.36 (Direct gain)

70 110 0.64 (Sunspace)

2. Assuming an LCR value of 50 is calculated. Then, from

Table B-5 or Figure B-3 the SSF for each system (based on

LCR=50) is : SSF= 0.85 (Direct gain without night insulation)

SSF= 0.90 (Sunspace with night insulation)

3. Thus the total saving fraction is:

Direct Gain Sunspace SSF (0.85 X 0.36) + (0.90 X 0.64) 0.88 (0.306) (0.567) 261 Table B-5 SSP and LCR values for the Six Major Egyptian Cities: MERSA-MATRUH SSP= .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 DG Bl 645 299 187 132 99 76 57 41 25 DG B3 702 332 209 149 113 89 70 53 36 SS Cl 767 356 217 147 105 77 57 42 28 SS C2 743 392 250 175 127 95 71 52 36 EL-ARISH SSP= .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 DG Bl 684 314 194 136 102 78 58 42 26 DG B3 745 346 217 154 116 91 72 54 37 SS Cl 806 373 225 152 109 80 59 43 29 SS C2 780 409 260 180 131 98 73 53 36 TAHRIR SSP= .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 DG Bl 944 448 286 201 149 114 85 61 39 DG B3 994 476 306 218 163 126 98 74 50 SS Cl 1116 521 318 216 154 113 83 60 40 SS C2 1067 565 362 253 184 137 101 73 49 CAIRO SSP= .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 DG Bl 604 287 181 127 114 99 84 67 39 DG B3 665 317 204 145 139 119 92 78 56 SS Cl 731 338 206 140 130 101 86 72 44 SS C2 708 373 239 167 152 134 98 78 56 HURGHADA SSP= .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 DG Bl 856 409 263 188 143 110 84 61 40 DG B3 910 436 283 204 156 123 97 74 51 SS Cl 1020 482 297 204 147 109 81 59 40 SS C2 983 525 340 239 176 132 99 73 50

ASWAN SSP= .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 DG Bl 2798 1380 877 619 468 361 278 208 141 DG B3 2801 1389 888 627 474 371 290 220 152 SS Cl 3260 1559 960 655 470 345 255 184 124 SS C2 3088 1662 1072 750 547 406 303 221 150 NOTE: Values are adapted from Passive Solar Design Handbook, volume III, from LCR tables of the corresponding US cities. 262 MERSA-MATRUH, EGYPT C.90 '",'", I ~.. ~. i 0.80 .---.., "' .... I LL.. DIRECT G

EL-ARISH, EGYPT 0.90 ~.~ I I """ o.so , u... DIRECT Gll

Fig. B-3 Performance Curves of SSF vs LCR Values 263 TAHRIR, EGYPT 0.90 ~ "' ~., I 0.80 ...... ~ 1...0.. ~ I (f) ~. 1"-..,: ! ~O.70 ., z ..... "R , -', 1 Q o.so .... o -...... : -...... - i ...... _ _ _ DIRECT G N B-3 (WITH N.INSU~.) i U!i 0.30 I _____ ...... 3UNSPACE C1 (W/O N. INSUIL) _ • _. SUNSPACE C2 (WrTH N. INSUt..) 0:: I 50.20 o U"J ! _I 1Q 3C 50 70 90 110 1 0 150 , 0 19 LOAD COLLECTOR RATIO (LCR) (BTU/DO p.,.. ft. of 91 •• 'nG) ex)

CAIRO, EGYPT 0.9[' I ~K'"'\. " ,.-., 0.80 I 1...0.. "'- DIRECT Gi'

~ ------j (f)~ -- 0.30 I 0:: i 50.20 o ifl I ! 0.10 10 30 50 70 90 '10 1 0 150 170 19 LOAD COLLECTOR RATIO (LCR) (BTU/DO p.r ft. af tn •• 1no) (I.)

Fig. B-3 •••••••• Continued 264 HURGHADA, EGYPT 0.90 ,.,"'- 0.80 " ,.-... '~ L1.. '" Ul ,.,." ~O.70 ,,~ " ...... Z '" ,'. Q 0.60 ~ ". f- r- ~-""'-"" U ~ ...... -.... ~>.. fo" ~ 0.50 -"";'- .... ~ -. (/) ~~ (!) 0.40 Z -- DIRECT GAIN 8-1 ~O N.INS L.) - -- DIRECT GNN 8-;5 TH N.INSU .) if,~ 0.30 ------SUNSPACE Cl (If,h N. INSfL,I ~ _ • _. SUNSPACE' C2 (lfilH N. INSU .) S 0.20 o U) 0.10 10 30 50 70 ge' 110 13C 1 0 170 19' LOAD COLLEC";"')R RATIO (LCR) (BTU/DD p.,.. ft' of 81 •• I."g) (X)

ASWAN, EGYPT G.90 - ...... ~ ..... - .... - .. ~ ____ 0.80 -.... - .. L1.. (f) ~0.70 Z Q 0.60 t5

(/) (!) 0.40 Z __ DIRECT G.. h~ 8- 1 (YMO N.INS~L.) DIRECT GNN 8-3 (\'11TH N.INSU ,) (f)~ 0.30 - -- .... _---- .. SUNSPACE Cl tAO N. INStL.) 0:: _ • _. SUNSPACE' C2 WItH N. INSU .) S 0.20 o (/) 0.10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 1 o LOAD COLLECTOR RATIO (LCR) CBTU/DD p." ft' of 01 •• '"9' (XI

Fig. B-3 ...... Continued 265

APPENDIX C

COST OF COMMON CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN EGYPT

This appendix gives cost information on some common construction and conservation materials frequently used in Egypt. It also gives cost estimates on some passive solar systems with or without night insulation

(i.e. sunspaces, single and double glazed windows ... etc).

Examples of how the incremental cost of some of the construction assemblies has been ca~culated are given.

In general, all unit prices are given--for convenience--in American dollar values ($) after being converted from the Egyptian Pound (L.E.) values at a rate estimated by the author as follow:

One American Dollar ($) = 2.2 Egyptian Pounds (L.E.)

This rate reflects the official dollar value after compared to the Egyptian pound in 1988.

C.l Cost estimates of Conservation:

Once the building conservation options have been made, cost estimates for each of the items must be made.

Common architectural practice is to state variable costs in unit terms; e.g., $/linear foot ($/ft), and $/square foot 266

($/ft 2 ). In some instances, the cost will be on a per-item

basis and will not vary with the size of the system. The

last are called fixed costs, and are stated in total $

terms. In addition, the unit or variable costs (VC) and

the fixed costs (FC) have both a materials and installation or labor component. All costs were determined in 1988.

Cost information can be obtained from construction materials suppliers, insulation contractors, and so forth.

The cost information used to calculate the incremental cost of conservation options listed below have been provided by

reliable sources in the construction industry in Egypt.

When increasing the level of conservation in a

building, elements of the cost common to all conservation options need not be included in this accounting procedure.

Note that optimization is based on the incremental cost

rather than average cost (see section 3.2.1). For example

the cost of a wall element common to all insulation options

(e.g., brick, exterior and interior plaster, paint, etc.) should not be included and will not affect the calculated cost per R/ft2.

In determining the insulation incremental cost it

is not appropriate to simply divide the cost per ft 2 by the

R-value--which yields the average. Instead, it is desirable to determine the costs and R-values of two different building sections and calculate the incremental 267 cost by dividing the increase in cost per ft 2 by the increase in R-value. Also, one may determine a more accurate incremental cost by repeating the above explained procedure for the next insulation level and take the average. The incremental cost $/R ft 2 for different building parts is now calculated as follows:

1- Incremental cost for wall insulation:

WI R-7.5 = $0.44/ft 2 (cost of 1" rigid fiber glass insul.) W2 R-11.7= $0.75/ft 2 (cost of 2" "" " ,,)

· t 1 0.75-0.44 0.31 2 T h e lncremen a cost r i = 11.7 - 7.5 4:"2 0.073 $/R ft W2 R-11.7= $0.75/ft 2 (cost of 2" , , , , , , , , W3 R-19.5= $1.51/ft 2 (cost of 4" , , , , , , , , Th· tIt 1.51 -.75 0.76 0.097 $/R ft2 e lncremen a cos r i = 19.5 -11.7 ~ Then the average incremental cost = (0.073+0.097) 2 0.085 $/R ftl

2- Incremental cost for roof insulation:

Rl R-12.75 = $1.01/ft 2 (cost of 1" foam type urethane) R2 R-20.45 = $1.71/ft 2 (cost of 2" "" ,,) 1.71 - 1.01 0.7 The incremental cost r. 0.09 $/R ftl 1 20.45-12.75 ~

W2 R-20.45 = $1.71/ft 2 (cost of 2" , , , , , , W3 R-35.85 = $3.42/ft 2 (cost of 4" , , , , , , 3.42 -1.71 The incremental cost r. - 1.71 - 0.111 $/R ft 2 1 35.85-20.45 - 15.4 - Then the average incremental cost (0.09+0.111) + 2 0.101 $/R ft2 268

3- Incremental cost for windows:

In order to determine unit costs for windows, it is necessary to use the same techniques as above in which

the R-value (l/U) is determined for different integer

numbers of glazing and the incremental cost is determined

in the same fashion.

Gl R-0.9 9.09 $/ft 2 (single glazed window, 3mm clear) G2 R-1. 6 15.0 $/ft 2 (double, 3mm clear, i" air space) 15.0 -9.09 5.91 The incremental cost r. 8.44 $/R ft2 I 1.6 - 0.9 Cf:7 4- Incremental cost for doors:

Dl R-2.5 = $2.16/ft 2 (cost of 2" solid core softwood door) 02 R-8.5 = $3.03/ft 2 (cost of 2" framedoor+2" batt insul.) . 1 t 3.03 - 2.16 - 1.5 - 0.25 $/R ft 2 T h e Incrementa cos r i = 8.5 - 2.5 - 6.0 - 02 R-8.5 = $3.03/ft 2 (cost of 2" framedoor+2" batt insul.) D3 R-13.5= $3.46/ft 2 (cost of 3" framedoor+3~" " " ) Th ' t 1 t 3.46-3.03 - 0.43 = 0.086 $/R ft2 e Incremen a cos r i = 13.5-8.5 - 5-:-0 Then the average incremental cost (0.25 + 0.086) + 2 0.168 $/R ft 2

5- Incremental cost of slab edge insulation:

For perimeter insulation, the incremental cost needed is per R-value per linear foot of perimeter at a depth of 2 feet.

PI R-O.O = $O.OO/linear ft (no insulation) P2 R-2.2 = $2.72/linear ft (1" asphalt impregnated cork) ' t 1 t - 2.72 -0.00 - 2.72 - 1 24 $/R ft' The Incremen a cos r i - 2.2 -0.00 - ~ - . P2 R-2.2 $2.72/1inear ft (1" asphalt impregnated cork) P3 R-8.0 = $3.64/1inear ft (2" asphalt impregnated cork) 269

Th ' tIt 3.46-3.03 0.92 = 0.15 $/R ft' e lncremen a cos r i = 8.0-2.2 ~ Then the average incremental cost (1.24 + 0.15) + 2 0.699 $/R ft'

6- Incremental cost of reducing infiltration:

The cost of reducing infiltration presents a special case in which it is very difficult to make accurate estimates. The following assumption is derived from the

Passive Solar Design Handbook, V.III (16], pages 23 & 24:

"For a house with an average floor area of 1500 ft2 the incremental cost of increasing l/ACH is constant and is equal to $375 per unit of l/ACH. This corresponds to the cost of $0.028 per ft2 for our 13500 ft 3 example house."

C.2 Cost estimates of Passive systems:

In many instances, passive solar design systems

(direct gain, sunspaces, etc) replace various construction items that otherwise would have been installed. To arrive at the add-on costs attributable to the passive design, credit must be given for those items that were replaced, reduced, or augmented. For instance, if "normal" construction practice were 4" slab on grade and 6" slab were poured as recommended by direct gain systems for thermal mass storage purposes, only the additional 2" of slab should be counted as add-on cost.

In the case of the passive solar collection area, 270

an allowance for the cost of the insulated wall displaced

by the solar aperture should be deducted from the square-

foot cost of the passive element.

1- Cost per sguare foot of Direct Gain system:

In this determination the cost per ft 2 is as follows:

A. Price per M2 of double glazing window having two pane of 6mm glass with ~" air space installed on aluminum frames. The price includes labor and transportation: ....••...... 240.00 L.E./M 2

B. Additional cost for 2" thick. concrete slab to upgrade from conventional 4" slab to 6" slab ...... 40.00 L.E./M 2

C. Credit for the replaced 10" redbrick wall including plaster and paint ...... 76.50 L.E./M 2

Total 203.50 L.E./M 2

The final price after converted to $/ft 2 is:

203.5 + 2.2 + 10.76 8.6 $/fe

2- Cost per sguare-foot of semi-enclosed Sunspace systems:

A. Considering the price of the above described double glazed windows, the unit cost is •••.•...•••••••••...•. 8.6 $/ft 2

B. An estimated addition of cost for the recommended upper and lower vents of the sunspace systems is given per ftl of sunspace projected area ...•.•.. 1.1 $/ft 2

Total (without night insulation) 9.7 $/ft 2

If the system uses R-9 night insulation, Then the additional cost per ft 2 is 8.0 $/ft 2

Total (with R-9 night insulation) 17.7 $/ft 2 271

APPENDIX 0

CALPAS 3 OUTPUT REPORTS

This appendix lists the output reports of the

Calpas 3 computer energy simulation program described in

Chapter 4.3. The energy and cost results provided by these

reports have been used to validate the author's guideline

tables provided in Chapter 4.3.

Figure 0-1 illustrates the Calpas 3 output report of the 1500 ft2 Basecase house located in the Tahrir

region in Egypt.

Figure 0-2 illustrates the Calpas 3 output report of the same Basecase but after applying the improvement strategies as suggested by the guideline tables. This final case design represents a house with heavy reliance on solar energy where two passive solar systems have been added to its original design and where its conservation elements have been improved as follows:

I. PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS:

THE BASECASE NONE

THE FINAL CASE: - 38 ft 2 of south-facing double glazed Direct Gain windows without night insulation. - 153 ft2 of Semi-enclosed sunspace type "0" with R-9 night insulation. 272 II. CONSERVATION ELEMENTS:

FOR THE BASECASE

- R-Walls =3.4 10" red brick with !" Asphalt sheeting & I" Stucco outside & I!" Gypsum plaster inside. - R-Roof =5.05 A 6" Reinforced concrete slab covered with cement tiles and Gypsum plaster inside with no insulation. - R-Windows U=l.l Single pane, 1/8" thickness clear (N,E,W only) glass. - R-Doors =1.0 2" hollow core wood doors with i" plywood both sides. - R-Perimeter =0.0 6" Slab-on-grade with no slab edge insulation. - Infiltration=1.5 One and one-half Air Changes per Hour for an Average type construction.

FOR THE FINAL CASE:

- R-Walls =9.6 (add I!" rigid insulation) - R-Roof =10.3 (add I" rigid insulation) - R-Windows =0.909 (Single i" clear pane or U=l.l same as the Basecase) - R-Doors =8.5 (frame door with 2" bat insulation added) - R-Perimeter =2.2 (l"asphalt impregnated cork) - Infiltration=0.5 ACH (Tight construction)

III. BUILDING INFORMATION:

FOR BOTH THE BASECASE AND THE FINAL CASE:

House floor area 1500 ft2 House volume (1500 X 9) 13500 ft 3 Ground reflectivity 0.3 (for grass) Internal gains No internal gain Ventilation No ventilation Thermostat settings = 67° min. & 80° max. Energy costs; electricity 0.075 $/KWhr Coefficient of performance 2 (air condition) = 1 (electric resistant heaters) 273

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (BASECASE), BY, NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 Licena.: PC0201 TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. Weather: NTAHRIR.EG1 (North Tahrir Egypt MKW)

SUM N A R Y Run period: JAN-01 - DEC-31 CDnditioned floor area: 1500 51

SPACE CONDITIONING LOADS Run totals Peaks

kBtu kBtu/s1 kBtuh

House Cooling 17225 11.483 34.860 Heating 30157 20.105 41.087

ENERGY CONSUMPTION Run totals Peaks

Prop line Source kWh; k8tu kBtu/sf kBtu/sf kW; kBtuh

Electricity

House cooling 2523 5.742 17.225 5.107 House heating 8836 20.105 60.314 12.038

Total 11359 25.846 77.539

Building total 25.846 77.539

OPERATING COSTS

Electricity @ 0.075 $/kWh $ 852 Fuel @ 0 s/kBtu $ o Total 852 ($0.57/sf)

Note: CALPAS3 is the property of and is licensed by Berkeley Solar Group, 3140 Martin Luther King Jr. Way, Berkeley, CA 94703 (415 843-7600). Correct applica­ tion and operation of CALPAS3 is the responsibility of the user. Actual building performance may deviate from CALPAS3 predictions due to differences between actual and assumed weather, construction, or occupancy. CALPAS3 is certified for California energy code compliance when used in accordance with the BSG publication "Using CALPAS3 with the California Residential Building Standards."

Run: C,BASECASE.ASC 009 21-NOV-88 20:42,11 PaQe 1 of 4

Fig. D-1 Calpas 3 Output Report for the 8asecase 274

SINGLE FAMILV ATTACHED (BASECASE), BV. NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 Licen6e, PC0201

TAHRIR REGION, EGVPT. Weather, NTAHRIR.EGl (North Tahrir Egypt MKW)

M 0 NTH L V H 0 USE ENE R G V BALANCE (kBtu; + into house)

GAINS & LOSSES TRANSFERS

MON COND SHCND INFIL SLR INT STRG RB+SS VENT COOL HEAT

JAN -6103.1 -3699.51134.1 o -11.9 o 8681.2 FEB -4094.0 -2849.3 1282.5 o -43.0 o 5706.3 MAR -3224.6 -2671.7 175B.8 o 4.18 o 4133.1 APR -l1B9.5 -1925.5 1960.0 o -95.1 -413.97 1669.B MAV 714.1B -1159.6 2279.2 o -23.1 -2052.2 242.B9 JUN 1931.0 -564.41 2360.6 o -27.2 -3947.B 249.46 JUL 242B.2 -389.53 2345.7 o 20.2 -4405.B o AUG 2020.2 -498.31 2107.9 o 29.4 -3660.9 o SEP 940.77 -793.97 1767.9 o 43.6 -2019.5 5B.51B OCT -39.247 -1065.1 1548.9 o -55.9 -722.51 337.22 NOV -1790.1 -1676.7 1214.8 o 150 -1.927 2094.9 DEC -4991.2 -3093.4 1091.5 o B.73 o 69B3.9

TOT -13397 -203B7 20852 o 0.00 -17225 30157

M 0 NTH L V CON D I T ION S (Units as shown)

TEMPERATURES (F) WTHR (F; Btu/sf) PEAKS (kBtuh) ec======MON THL THH THM TSL TSH TSM DBL DBH DBM SGL HSCL/DV HSHT/DV SSCL/DV SSHT/DV

JAN 67 69 68 45 63 54 1055 o 41.1 3 FEB 67 71 68 46 67 57 1376 o 31.9 17 MAR 67 74 69 49 70 59 1651 o 24.0 4 APR 67 7B 72 53 76 65 2125 -16.4 30 26.0 22 MAV 70 80 75 5B 83 71 2306 -32.5 IB 15.7 8 JUN 73 80 77 63 B6 75 2351 -34.9 25 18.4 15 JUL 74 80 78 67 87 77 2376 -32.B 10 o AUG 74 80 78 66 B7 76 2209 -30.4 IB o SEP 70 80 76 60 B6 73 185B -26.2 4 9.37 26 OCT 69 79 74 60 82 70 1430 -20.1 9 18.2 16 NOV 67 75 70 54 75 64 1109 -1. 93 10 28.9 28 DEC 67 71 6B 49 66 57 936 o 36.5 30

TOT 69 76 73 56 7B 66 1733 -34.9 41.1

Run. C.BASECASE.ASC 009 21-NOV-B8 20,42,11

Fig. D-1 .•.••... Continued 275

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (BA5ECASE), BY: NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 .License. PC0201 TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. Weather: NTAHRIR.EGI (North Tahrir Egypt MKW)

Line

1 *TITLE SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (BASECASE), BY: NADER 2 SITE LOCATION=TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. 3 AZMSOUTH 0.0 4 GREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FEBGR=0.3 MARGR=0.3 APRGR=0.3 & 5 MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=0.3 AUGGR=0.3 & 6 SEPGR=0.3 OCTGR=0.3 NOVGR=0.3 DECGR=0.3 7 HOUT 2.64 , film coeff. 3 mph,light air 8 *HOUSE FLRAREA=1500 VOL=13500 9 ROOF AREA=1500 AZM=O TILT=O UVAL=0.198 ABSRP=0.3 10 WALL NAME~SOUTH AREA=216.0 AZM=O TILT=90 & 11 UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 12 WALL NAME=SOUTHWEST AREA=77.0 AZM=+45 TILT=90 & 13 UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 14 WALL NAME=WEST AREA=51.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & 15 UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 16 WALL NAME=NORTH AREA=28B.0 AZM=180 TILT=90 & 17 UVAL=0.294 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 18 WALL NAME=MAINDOOR AREA=21 AZM=O TILT=90 & 19 UVAL=I.0 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 20 WALL NAME=SIDEDOOR AREA=21.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & 21 UVAL=I.0 ABSRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 22 WALL NAME=PERSLBLOSS AREA=10B AZM=O UVAL=0.9 & 23 ABSRP=O.O 24 SLAB AREA=1500 THKNS=4 MATERIAL=CONCI20 & 25 HTAHS=I.3 RSURF=0.05 26 GLASS NAME=NORTH AREA=144 AZM=IBO TILT=90 & 27 NGLZ=1 UVAL=1.075 GLSTYP=l XRFLCT=0.14 & 28 RSHTR=O.O TRSHTR=l.O SCFWNTR=O SCFSMR=l 29 SGDISTWNTR AIR=I.0 SLB=O.O IW=O.O 30 SGDISTSMR AIR=I.0 SLB=O.O IW=O.O 31 GLSGREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FEBGR=0.3 MARGR=0.3 APRGR=0.3 & 32 MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=0.3 AUGGR=0.3 & 33 SEPGR=0.3 OCTGR=O.3 NDVGR=O.3 DECGR=O.3 34 SGFACTDRS JANSGF=I.0 FEBSGF=I.0 MARSGF=I.0 APRSGF=I.0 & 35 MAYSGF=l.O JUNSGF=I.0 JULSGF=I.0 AUGSGF=I.0 & 36 SEPSGF=I.0 OCTSGF=l.O NDVSGF=I.0 DECSGF=I.0 37 SHADING WHEIGHT=4 WWIDTH=36.0 OHDEPTH=6 38 INFIL ACBASE=I.50 ; standard (average) construction 39 INTGAIN INTGAIN=O , No internal gains 40 VENT TYPE=NATURAL AINLET=O, No ventilation 41 TSTATSWNTR THEAT=67 TDSRD=76 TCOOL=BO THEATNIGHT=67 42 TSTATSSMR THEAT=67 TDSRD=72 TCODL=BO THEATNIGHT=67 43 WINDFACTOR 0.5 ; adjustment factor for actual wind & 44 velocities around houses in urban areas 45 CHNGSEASON TYPE=TEMP TEMP=67 46 DAYTIMES WDBEG=B WDEND=IB SDBEG=B SDEND=18 47 OPCOST ELPRICE=0.075 ACCOP=2.0 HEATING=ELECTRIC & 48 HTCOP=I.0 49 WARMUP WUDAYS=7 WUCYCLES=l 50 SOLARCALC FREQ=MDNTHLY 51 .END

*** No input errors. .0. Beginning simulation 21-NOV-88 20:42:14 Run: CIBASECASE.ASC 009 21-NDV-B8 20142111 PAge 3 of 4

Fig. D-1 ...... Continued 276

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASE), BYI NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 ,License: PC0201 TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. Weather: NTAHRIR.EGI (North Tahri,· Egypt MKW)

SUM MAR Y Run period, JAN-01 - DEC-31 Conditioned floor area: 1500 s1

SPACE CONDITIONING LOADS Run totals Peaks

kBtu kBtu/sf kBtuh

House Cooling 14318 9.545 22.290 Heating 3066 2.044 18.520 Sunspace Heating o o

ENERGY CONSUMPTION Run totals Peaks

Prop line Source kWh; kBtu kBtu/sf kBtu/sf kW; kBtuh

Electricity House cooling 2098 4.773 14.318 3.265 House heating B98 2.044 6.133 5.426 Suns pace heating o o o Total 2996 6.817 20.451

Building total 6.817 20.451

OPERATING COSTS

Electricity @ 0.075 $/kWh $ 225 Fuel @ 0 $/kBtu $ o

Total $ 225 ($0.15/sf)

Note: CALPAS3 is the property of and is licensed by Berkeley Solar Group, 3140 Martin Luther King Jr. Way, Berkeley, CA 94703 (415 843-7600). Correct applica­ tion and operation of CALPAS3 is the responsibility of the user. ActUAl building performance may deviate from CALPAS3 predictions due to differences between actual and assumed weather, construction, or occupancy. CALPAS3 is certified for California energy code compliance when used in accordance with the BSG publication "Using CALPAS3 with the California Residential Building Standards."

Run: CIOPTCASE.ASC 024 24-NOV-BB 17144122 Page 1 of 5

Fig. D-2 Calpas 3 Output Report for the Final Case 277

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASE), BY: NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 LicRnsR. PC0201 TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. Weather. NTAHRIR.EGI (North Tahrir Egypt MKW)

M 0 NTH L Y H 0 USE ENE R G Y BALANCE (kBtu; + into house)

GAINS & LOSSES TRANSFERS

MON COND SHCND INFIL SLR INT STRG RB+SS VENT COOL HEAT

JAN -4365.9 413.34 -1469.3 2126.5 o -98.7 1797.0 o 1602.5 FEB -3345.B 404.01 -1202.6 2193.2 o -107 1760.8 o 303.49 MAR -322B.l 457.93 -1235.1 2571.2 o 52.6 1339.6 -39.816 79.576 APR -1899.6 343.14 -913.73 2599.3 o -126 567.43 -643.13 78.700 MAY -628.80 158.75 -585.68 2817.3 o 0.41 59.212 -1822.1 o JUN 322.54 7.136 -305.33 2859.8 o -31. 4 2.120 -2853.2 o JUL 664.29 67.024 -222.58 2866.8 o 21.1 o -3397.8 o AUG 398.48 24.313 -273.09 2696.7 o 17.5 o -2864 .8 o SEP -363.62 -30.495 -429.45 2516.9 o 48.6 0.200 -1744.4 o OCT -1079.2 60.305 -579.71 2447.7 o -41. 9 74.092 -879.34 o NOV -2598.2 367.82 -959.86 2128.4 o 160 965.69 -73.217 3.258 DEC -3903.8 450.61 -1314.0 1998.0 o 93.6 1673.2 o 998.84

TOT -20028 2723.9 -9490.4 29822 o -11.6 8239.3 -14318 3066.4

M 0 NTH L Y CON D I T ION S (Units as shown)

TEMPERATURES (F) WTHR (F; 8tu/sf) PEAKS (kBtuh)

MON THL THH THM TSL TSH TSM DBL D8H D8M SGL HSCL/DY HSHT/DY SSCL/DY SSHT/DY

JAN 68 73 70 71 84 77 45 63 54 1055 o 18.5 3 o o FE8 68 75 71 72 86 78 46 67 57 1376 o 11.1 17 o o MAR 69 77 73 74 89 80 49 70 59 1651 -6.96 23 5.36 7 o o APR 72 79 75 76 89 82 53 76 65 2125 -14.9 30 7.05 22 o o MAY 74 80 77 77 83 80 58 83 71 2306 -22.0 18 o o o JUN 76 80 78 76 80 79 63 86 75 2351 -22.3 25 o o o JUL 77 80 79 79 82 81 67 87 77 2376 -20.9 10 o o o AUG 76 80 79 78 81 79 66 87 76 2209 -20.1 18 o o o SEP 74 80 78 74 78 77 60 86 73 1858 -17.8 4 o o o OCT 73 80 77 75 80 78 60 82 70 1430 -15.3 9 o o o NOV 71 79 75 75 88 81 54 75 64 1109 -5.54 10 1.42 30 o o DEC 69 75 71 72 86 78 49 66 57 936 o 16.6 31 o o TOT 72 78 75 75 84 79 56 78 66 1733 -22.3 18.5 o o

Run: C.OPTCASE.ASC 024 24-NOV-88 17:44:22 Pllc;le 2 of :;

Fig. D-2 •••.•••• Continued 278

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASEl. BY. NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 License, PC0201

TAHRIR REGION. EGYPT. Weather: NTAHRIR.EGI (North Tahrir Egypt MKW)

NON T H L Y SUN SPA C E ENE R G Y B A I. A N C E (k8tu; + into SS)

GAINS & LOSSES TRANSFERS ======:======MON TCOND INFIL SLR INT STRG R8 HS VENT COOL HEAT

JAN -1860.7 -207.69 4007.8 0 -113 -1797.0 -26.207 0 0 FE8 -1648.3 -180.54 3678.3 0 -64.1 -1760.8 -23.344 0 0 MAR -1783.9 -194.34 3283.5 0 55.3 -1339.6 -22.267 0 0 APR -1339.7 -154.44 2176.1 0 -79.1 -567.43 -34.048 0 0 MAY -644.29 -86.339 672.05 0 123 -59.212 -8.519 0 0 JUN -168.06 -35.132 251.98 0 -45.7 -2.120 0 0 0 JUL -227.37 -36.728 231.38 0 32.0 0 0 0 0 AUG -174.77 -32.876 193.54 0 13.8 0 0 0 0 SEP -168.59 -34.934 171.86 0 31.3 -0.200 0 0 0 OCT -482.17 -69.776 675.94 0 -24.0 -74.092 -25.473 0 0 NOV -1428.3 -155.52 2712.0 0 -32.8 -965.69 -128.18 0 0 DEC -1818.1 -195.86 3660.9 0 57.7 -1673.2 -32.493 0 0

TOT -11744 -1384.2 21715 0 -45.8 -8239.3 -300.53 0 0

Run: C.OPTCASE.ASC 024 24-NOV-88 17.44:22

Fig. D-2 ...... Continued 279

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASE), BY. NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 Licen~e: PC0201 TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. We.ther: NTAHRIR.EGI (North T.hrlr Egypt MKW)

Line

1 'TITLE SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASE), 8Y; NADER 2 SITE LOCATION=TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. 3 AZMSOUTH 0.0 4 GREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FE8GR=0.3 MARGR=0.3 APRGR=0.3 & 5 MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=O.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=O.3 & 6 SEPGR=0.3 OCTGR=O.3 NOVGR=O.3 DECGR=0.3;& 7 assumed reflectivity value for lawn 8 HOUT 2.64 , film coeff. 3 mph,light air 9 *HOUSE FLRAREA=1500 VOL=13500 10 ROOF AREA=1500 AZM=O TILT=O UVAL=0.097 A8SRP=0.3 11 WALL NAME=SOUTH AREA=178.0 AZM=O TILT=90 & 12 UVAL=0.104 A8SRP=O.3 INSIDE=AlR 13 WALL NAME=SOUTHWEST AREA=77.0 AZM=+45 TILT=90 & 14 UVAL=0.104 A8SRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 15 WALL NAME=wEST AREA=51.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & 16 UVAL=0.104 A8SRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 17 WALL NAME=NORTH AREA=2BB.0 AZM=180 TILT=90 & 18 UVAL=0.104 A8SRP=0.3 INSIDE=AIR 19 WALL NAME=SIDEDOOR AREA=21.0 AZM=90 TILT=90 & 20 UVAL=O.ll7 ABSRP=O.3 INSIDE=AIR 21 WALL NAME=PERSLBLOSS AREA=90 AZM=O UVAL=O.63 & 22 A8SRP=O.O ;Uval is Nearest F2 factor for R2.2 23 MATERIAL MATERIAL=SS8RICKwALL VHCAP=30 COND=l 24 SLA8 AREA=l500 THKNS=6 MATERIAL=CONCl40 & 25 HTAHS=l.3 RSURF=O.05 ;8asecase Thick was 4" 26 27 GLASS NAME=SOUTH AREA=3B.0 AZM=O.O TILT=90 & 28 NGLZ=2 UVAL=0.6 GLSTYP=1 XRFLCT=0.l8 & 29 RSHTR=O.O TRSHTR=l.O SCFWNTR=O SCFSMR=l ;& 30 original area was 32 now must add 6 ft. to it 31 SGDISTwNTR AIR=O.4 SL8=O.6 Iw=O.O 32 SGDISTSMR AIR=O.7 SLB=O.3 IW=O.O 33 GLSGREFLECT JANGR=0.3 FEBGR=O.3 MARGR=O.3 APRGR=O.3 & 34 MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=0.3 & 35 SEPGR=O.3 OCTGR=O.3 NOVGR=0.3 DECGR=O.3 36 SGFACTORS JANSGF=l.O FEBSGF=l.O MARSGF=l.O APRSGF=l.O & 37 MAYSGF=l.O JUNSGF=l.O JULSGF=l.O AUGSGF=l.O & 38 SEPSGF=l.O OCTSGF=l.O NOVSGF=l.O DECSGF=l.O 39 SHADING WHEIGHT=4 WWIDTH=9.5 OHDEPTH=O ;[4.5+2+3J 40 41 GLASS NAME=NORTH AREA=l44 AZM=lBO TILT=90 & 42 NGLZ=l UVAL=O.909 GLSTYP=l XRFLCT=O.l4 & 43 RSHTR=O.O TRSHTR=1.0 SCFWNTR=O SCFSMR=l 44 SGDISTwNTR AIR=l.O SL8=0.O IW=O.O 45 SGDISTSMR AIR=1.0 SL8=O.O Iw=O.O 46 GLSGREFLECT JANGR=O.3 FE8GR=O.3 MARGR=O.3 APRGR=O.3 & 47 MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=O.3 & 48 SEPGR=O.3 OCTGR=O.3 NOVGR=O.3 DECGR=O.3 49 SGFACTORS JANSGF=1.0 FEBSGF=l.O MARSGF=1.0 APRSGF=l.O & 50 MAYSGF=l.O JUNSGF=1.0 JULSGF=1.0 AUGSGF=1.0 & 51 SEPSGF=1.0 OCTSGF=1.0 NOVSGF=1.0 DECSGF=1.0 52 SHADING WHEIGHT=4 WWIDTH=36.0 OHDEPTH=6 53 INFIL AC8ASE=O.5 j Improved air tightness 54 INTGAIN INTGAIN=O ; No internal gains 55 VENT TYPE=NATURAL AINLET=O; No ventilation

Run: C.OPTCASE.ASC 024 24-NOV-88 17.44.22 PAge 4 of 5

Fig. D-2 •••..••• Continued 280

SINGLE FAMILY ATTACHED (OPT-CASE), BY, NADER CALPAS3 V3.12 Licvnse: PC0201 TAHRIR REGION, EGYPT. Weather: NTAHRIR.EGI (North Tahrir Egypt MKW) Line

56 TSTATSWNTR THEAT=67 TD5RD=76 TCOOL=80 THEATNI~HT=67 57 TSTATSSMR THEAT=67 TD5RD=72 TCOOL=80 THEATNIGHT=67 58 59 SUNS PACE FLRAREA=162 VOL=1377 , [18X8.5J 60 55ROOF AREA=162 AZM=O TILT=O UVAL=0.075 A85RP=O.3 ;& 61 R-IO.3 as recommended + R-3.0 for Dropped & 62 Ceiling and the air space between 63 55WALL NAME=S5PERLOS5 AREA=18 AZM=O.O UVAL=O.63 & 64 AB5RP=0.O 65 5SMA55WALL AREA=153 THKN5=15 MATERIAL=S58RICKWALL & 66 HTA55=O.O HTAH5=1.5 RSURF=O.29 HOGL5=0.0 & 67 HOTA55=1.5 HGTA55=1.5; 8y Default area of & 68 55glass = area of 55masswall [18 X 8.5J 69 55MWGLA55 AZM=O.O TILT=90 NGLZ=2 UGLA55=0.6 GL5TYP=1 & 70 XRFLCT=0.18 R5HTR=9 TR5HTR=O 5CFWNTR=0 & 71 SCFSMR=l ;Uses R-9 Night Insulation 72 5GDI5TWNTR SSAIR=O.2 55MWO=0.2 SSSL8=0.6 73 SGDI5T5MR SSAIR=O.7 55MWO=0.0 555LB=O.3 74 GLSGREFLECT JANGR=O.3 FEBGR=0.3 MARGR=O.3 APRGR=0.3 & 75 MAYGR=0.3 JUNGR=0.3 JULGR=O.3 AUGGR=O.3 & 76 SEPGR=O.3 OCTGR=0.3 NOVGR=0.3 DECGR=0.3;& 77 ground reflectivity as recommended by method 78 SGFACTORS JAN5GF=1.0 FEBSGF=I.0 MAR5GF=1.O APRSGF=1.0 & 79 MAYSGF=1.0 JUNSGF=1.0 JUL5GF=1.0 AUG5GF=1.0 & 80 SEP5GF=1.0 OCTSGF=1.0 NOV5GF=1.0 DEC5GF=1.0 & 81 ;no outside shutters in winter or summer 82 SHADING WHEIGHT=B.5 WWIDTH= IB OHDEPTH=O.O; & 83 No 5hading on 5unspace Glass 84 S55LA8 AREA=162 THKN5=6 MATERIAL=CDNC140 & 85 HTA55=1.3 R5URF=0.O UDB=O.O; Loss thru per. 86 S51NFIL ACBASE=0.5 87 S5VENT TYPE=NATURAL 88 SST5TATSWNTR THEAT=45 TVENT=95 89 SST5TATSSMR THEAT=45 TVENT=95; as specified by method 90 SSCOUPLING UATAH5=0 VENT=NATURAL AREALOW=4.5 & 91 AREAHIGH=4.5 HDIFF=8 5HVEFF=O.8 92 93 WINDFACTOR 0.5 , adjustment factor for actual wind & 94 velocities around houses in urban areas 95 CHNG5EASON TYPE=TEMP TEMP=67 96 DAYTIMES WD8EG=8 WDEND=18 5DBEG=8 5DEND=18 97 OPC05T ELPRICE=0.075 ACCOP=2.0 HEATING=ELECTRIC & 98 HTCOP=1.0 99 WARMUP WUDAY5=7 WUCYCLES=l 100 SOLAR CALC FREQ=MONTHLY 101 .END .** No input errors. *** Beginning simulation 24-NDV-88 17:44:28 *** Run complete.

Run. C.OPTCA5E.A5C 024 24-NDV-88 17.44:22 Page 5 of :;

Fig. D-2 ...••... Continued 281

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