208 3.18 Seljuk Introduction: 1038-1118 AD Seljuqs Are Turkic

208

3.18 Seljuk Introduction: 1038-1118 AD

Seljuqs are Turkic nomadic origins, who ruled the Eastern Islamic region. Starting from Central Asian to Persia, conquering eastern

Anatolia and finally settling in Isfahan. After the Seljuks defeat of Ghaznavids Dynasty in 1040 AD and demolishing the Buyid

Dynasty in Bagdad they have established themselves as new protectors of Abbasid Caliphate in 1055 AD. Within fifty years, the

Seljuqs created a vast empire, encompassing all of Iran, Iraq, and [1] (Cavendish, 2006) much of Anatolia [1]. By the end of the tenth century, Seljuq P. 364 realm dissolved into separate territories governed by different branches of the dynasty. The main branch of Seljuq called, Great

Seljuqs, maintained control over Iran. Under Seljuq sultanate, Iran had a period of material, cultural wealth, creativity in art and [2] (Bosworth, 2007) p. 280. architecture [2] [3]. Turkic Seljuq adopted and supported local Perso-Islamic traditions. Seljuq art is recognized for the blend of [3] (Britannica, 2015)

Persian, Islamic, and Central Asian-Turkic elements together. During this period, the arts of Iran gained distinction in Islamic world. Beginning in the second half of the twelfths century, the art of inlaying bronze or brass objects with precious metals such as copper, silver, and gold became prominent in the Eastern Iranian province of Khorasan. The Seljuqs were great patrons of architecture. An unprecedented number of madrasas50 were erected throughout the Seljuq realm. Most notable, however, was the Madrasa Nizamiya, founded in Baghdad by the great Seljuq, Nizam Al Mulk, who ruled during 1063–1092AD to support Sunni51 education. In architecture, the four vaulted halls, iwan, became common in Islamic Period. The most celebrated period and

50 Schools 51 A denomination of Islam

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 209

influential Seljuq monument. Funerary monuments were the significant structures in this period when the most prominent

Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar built. Following the Seljuks conquest of Baghdad in 1055 AD, the Seljuq dynasty, descendants of Central Asian

Turkic, Oghuz tribe, managed to control most of West Asia, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. The attack on the Byzantine border in 1071 AD resulted into

Seljuq victory and conquest of Anatolia to Turkic settlement. A branch of the Seljuqs in 1078–81AD ruled from Nicaea City in north- western Anatolia named as the Seljuqs of Rum52, referring to the

Roman Byzantine past of the Seljuq territories. Apart from an earlier brief period of Arab rule in the east, Anatolia was new to Islam, and the Seljuqs were thus among the first to cultivate Islamic art and [1] (Britannica, 2015) architecture in these lands. As heirs to the Great Seljuqs of Iran, the [2] (Petersen, 1994) sultans of Rum adopted Perso-Islamic traditions. One of the major continual construction, Islamic site constructed since 771 AD is The [3] (Schroeder, 1977)

Friday Mosque of Isfahan famed as The Jameh Mosque of Isfahan [1] [2] [3].

a. The Great Mosque of Asfahan: 771 AD The Mosque consist of a prayer hall and two brick domed chambers built by architect Abul Fath dated from the eleventh century. The south-west dome, Maqsura, was built during Nizam Al Mulk in 1086-

1087 AD and named by his name [Figure 263]. While the North-East [4] (Hillenbrand, 1972) dome, Taj Al Mulk, was built a year later [Figure 266]. The construction of the Northern East dome is related to Seljuk building methods. The [5] (Idem, 1976)

Mosque was a hypostyle plan but the Seljuqs had the two brick dome chambers [4] [5]. The mosque considered a masterpiece in Persian architecture for its geometric balance. The North-East Dome rests on a square, massive piers with three slim round engaged columns, and

52 Rome

210

an octagonal transitional zone formed by four squinches, to rest another zone of sixteen arches with a drum comprising Islamic religious inscriptions. Ten double-ribs emerge from the dome’s drum and ascend to inscribe a pentagon. This dome can be accessed from the south and west. On the inside of the dome are Quranic verses inscribed in letters formed by bricks [2] [3]. Many architectural historians [2] (Galdieri, 1984) consider the Friday Mosque of Isfahan epitomize to Seljuks and early Safavid period. The two domes are distinct in their system of [3] (Hillenbrand, 1972) ornament. The south-west dome, remnants of stucco ornament, while the northeast dome are bricks that creates structural integrated ornamentations of variety of patterns. This consistency in the architectural language called: brick as ornament Method. This method lacked the southern dome because it was built on an existing structure. The Architectural historians often draw comparisons, regarding structure and ornament, between the earlier Southwest dome, built by Nizam Al Mulk, and the later, smaller Northeast dome, also referred to as Gunbad-e Khaki . They view the north-east dome an epitome of mathematical perfection, evident in the harmony of its horizontal and vertical divisions. A British travel writer, Robert Byron described the two Domes in his book: The Road to Oxiana. In XI century Iran, hypostyle mosques started to be converted into four-iwan mosques. The Great Mosque of Isfahan reflects this design method. The mosque was a hypostyle mosque that was modified later by Seljuqs of Iran after their conquest of the city of Isfahan in the XI century. The four Iwan Mosque layout is arranged around a large open courtyard as well. However, in the four-iwan mosque, each wall of the courtyard is adjusted with a monumental vaulted hall, the iwan. This type of mosque became widespread in the XII century.

211

The Safavid rulers refurbished these walls with new tiles in the XVI century. Though it originated in Iran, the four-iwan plan would become the new plan for mosques all over the Islamic word, used widely from India to Cairo and replacing the hypostyle mosque in many places [1]. The hypostyle plan dates back to Buyids in the tenth century period. The fire occurred caused damages to the mosque and [1] (Byron, 1937) prompted rebuilding of some of its old architectural elements and introducing new ones. Consequently, the mosque's plan evolved from a hypostyle plan with a rectangular inner court surrounded by prayer halls comprised of round columns carrying a wooden roof to Seljuk type. the southwest dome, the northeast dome rests on a square base of square, massive piers with three slim round engaged columns, with an octagonal transitional zone formed by four squinches, on top of which rests another zone of sixteen arches with a drum comprising an inscription band with religious inscription. Ten double-ribs emerge from the dome's drum and ascend to inscribe a pentagon. Most scholars consider this architectural act of Taj al-Mulk to be an attempt to surpass the dome built by his rival, Nizam al-Mulk, in the south.

This dome could be accessed from the south and west. On the inside of the dome are Quranic verses inscribed in letters formed by bricks. Architectural historians often draw comparisons, regarding structure and ornament, between the earlier southwest dome, built by Nizam al-Mulk, and the later, smaller northeast dome, also referred to as Gunbad-e Khaki (the earthly dome) built by Taj Al-Mulk [2] (Galdieri, 1984) [2].

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 212

Figure 260: Friday Mosque of Isfahan Location

Figure 261: Friday Mosque of Isfahan Plan Figure 262: Friday Mosque of Isfahan

Source: Idem

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 213

Figure 263: South-West Dome, Tag Al Mulk Dome, 1086-1087AD

Figure 264: Taj Al Mulk Dome, 1086-1087AD

Source: Ozone 11

214

Figure 265: North-East Dome, Nizam Al Mulk Figure 266: North-East Dome, 1088 AD

Figure 267: North-East Dome, 1088 AD

Source: http://artofislamicpattern.com/resources/educational-posters/

215

Figure 268:Nizam Al Mulk Dome Source: Hassan Zohouri http://www.arianica.com/en/taxonomy/term/1242/all

Figure 269: Three Type of Pitched Brick Methods in The Fridy Mosque of Isfahan

http://artofislamicpattern.com/resources/educational-posters/

216

3.18.1 Monumental Anatolian Seljuq Architecture: 1077–1308 AD

Along with Perso-Islamic traditions, however, Anatolia had a strong Byzantine and Armenian Christian heritage, which emerged with

Central Asian Turkic nomadic, northern Mesopotamian, and

Crusader cultures. The exchange and synthesis of these different traditions is vividly reflected in Seljuq architecture and art. For instance, Gök Madrasa features carved stone, typical of Armenian architecture, alongside brick, a common material in Iran and

Central Asia. In the arts, continued use of luster- and overglaze- painted tiles, as well as creations in wood and metal, are especially noteworthy [1]. [1] (Galdieri, 1984)

a. Ahmad Sanjar Mausoleum, 1157 AD This mud brick mausoleum represents the architectural peak of the destroyed Seljuk capital in Merv Oasis. Mohammad ibn Aziz in

Khorasan had built the mausoleum soon after the Khwarazm Shahs deposed the Seljuk dynasty. The mausoleum was part of a complex connected to a mosque on its west with grille window. It marks a significant shift, from the typical vertically-accentuated Seljuk tomb tower towards squatter proportions with emphasis on interior space. The mausoleum consists of an enormous brick cube, approximately 27 meters square crowned by large dome nearly 18 meters in diameter. The outer dome was once embellished with [2] (Hillenbrand, 1994) turquoise tiles, but only its interior's exposed, interlaced structural ribs exist today. These trace a central eight-pointed star motif [3] (Knobloch, 2001) P. 138 within the dome's eye, surrounded by a radial series of foiled [4] (Michell, 1978) arches and stalactite-topped pilasters [2] [3] [4]. P. 261

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 217

Figure 270: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum in Merv, Turkmenistan

Figure 271: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum Plan Figure 272: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum Section

Source: Tenth-century tomb of the Samanid, Bukhara, Uzbekistan (after Creswell)

218

Figure 273: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum. Source: after Creswell

Figure 274: Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar. External elevation.

Source: by A. Kononenko, 1993.© A. Kononenko

219

Figure 275: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum, Built 1096–1157 AD. Source: Photo by Hergit

Figure 276: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum, Merv: Turkmenistan in 1157AD

Criss Cross Vaults Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar. External elevation by A. Kononenko, 1993. © A. Kononenko

220

3.19 Factors for Vault Evolution from East to West

3.19.2 Silk Road

Turkmenistan has been at the cross roads of civilizations for centuries.

In medieval times, Merv was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road53 . The Silk Road was not a trade route that existed exclusively for the purpose of trading silk only, but many other commodities were also traded, from gold and ivory to exotic animals. As well as wide variety of material including precious gems, metals like jade and horses, apricots, melons, raisins, ceramic lusterware, and lacquerware. More importantly, it carried people, and so its use spread technological advances such as medical science from India and religions such as

Buddhism and of all the precious goods crossing this area, silk was the [1] (Hirst, most remarkable for people of the West [1].

K. Kris Hirst, an Archaeology Expert described The Silk Road or Silk

Route as the network of trade routes crossing Asia, first used in 206

BC starting from China. Over 4500 kilometres or 2800 miles of roadway crossing by three major trails between Chang'an in China until Rome in Italy. Using series of way stations and oases. The Silk Road spanned 1900 kilometres or 1200 miles of the Gobi Desert of Mongolia and the mountains Pamirs of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Important stops on the Silk Road included Kashgar, Turfan,

Yarkand, Dunhuang, and Merv Oasis. [Figure 277]. Mosque of the Walking Pilgrims were major architectural buildings spreading in crucial cities on the track of the road.

53 A caravan route used for trade with China until the mid-15th century.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 221

Figure 277: Silk Road Stations

222

3.19.1 Migration of Scholars and Science Evolution

From the eighth century to the thirteenth century AD, the Islamic period named as the golden Age. The Muslim expansions had experienced scientific, economic and cultural flourishing evolution.

This period initially began during the Abbasid caliph Harun Al Rashid, when the House of Wisdom in Baghdad was the center of all

Scholars. All of the world's classical knowledge were translated into

Arabic in this Period. An emphasize to the importance of obtaining knowledge had played virtual role in influencing Muslims of this time.

Artists, Scholars and scientific started seeking for knowledge and the development of science. The Quran was engaged to the values of education. For this, lots of religious philosophies were added and used by Scholars in Art and Architecture methods. Khwarizmi a great scholar famed during 780 – 850 AD had added Geometry Science, which was adopted in Islamic Architecture and Art. This science had [1] (Liu, 2010) flourished From Eastern regions to western regions. [1] [2]. [2] (Hirst, xx)

Figure 278: Scholor Gematrical studies

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 223

3.19.3 Sufi Mausoleum Domes Evolution: 728 AD

Sufism is a mystic and ascetic movement, which originated in [1] the Golden Age of Islam, from about the ninth to tenth centuries. [1] (Ibn Khaldun, ibid,) Sufiism started in Basra in 728 AD, it is defined as the P.[2] 403 inner mystical dimension of Islam. Over the years it developed to [3] The universal religion [2]of Hasan Islam Al providedBasri, is one the create its own architecture. Later, various Sufi orders had been ofmatrix the earliest within which links the in multiracial and influenced and adopted it philosophy into various religious and most Sufi lineages. multicultural Islamic society could subscribe to Architectural movements. Islamic Mausoleum developed since a universal science. The

ethnic and cultural Sufism evolution started in Bagdad till it reached Central Asia. diversity of the Islamic These structural designs were influenced by the Sassanid Char world was a source of strength and creativity to Taq structures. A combination of Zoroastrian Architecture with the movement of [3] (Kana'an, 2008) Islamic arithmetic and geometrical theories made by Muslim scientists, ideas and products. Scholars. The science developed by: Al Khorezmi, Al Fergani and [4] (Beckwith, 2009)

Ibn Sina to be applied into brick Patterns famed has: Hazarbaf in

Iranian Terminology, which is an architectural decorative art to create geometric patterns of a wall or to spell out sacred names or pious phrases [1]. This technique originated in Iraq in the eighth century, and matured in the Seljuq and Timurid era.

Hazarbaf technique was found in Ukhadir Palace in Iraq, which [5] In the Arab world, especially North Africa, was built around 762 AD. The technique appeared in Iran and the Khanqah is known as central Asia more than a century later but with more a zawiyah. In Turkey and areas like Albenia and sophisticated designs. The tomb of Bosnia Khanqah is named Takiyah. Khanqahs later the Samanid ruler Isma’ili in Bukhara, Uzbekistan had walls with spreaded across the of bricks that created a weaving pattern [3] [4]. Later, Khanqah54 Islamic world, from Morocco to Indone had developed. a place for spiritual retreat and reformation. sia. An example of a Khanqah is very often founded adjoined to shrines, mosques or medieval Khanqah at Isfahan, Iran. Seljuks madrasas55 [5]. were the first to establish Khanqah

54 A building designed specifically for gatherings of Sufi brotherhood practises. 55 Religious schools

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 224

P A R T I V

4.DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTS F R O M ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS T O I S L A M

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 225

4. DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTS FROM ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS TO ISLAM

4.1 Vaults in Mesopotamia

Massive structures of crude brick supported by buttresses began in Babylonian era. Later, the Assyrian Empire had imitated the Babylonian architecture and built their Palaces and Temples of bricks instead. This initiated a new construction methodologies by using both stones and bricks in buildings [1]. Bricks were the

ordinary building material in Mesopotamian. In Sassanid

architecture, the last Persian Empire before the conquest of [1] (Roman Ghirshman; Muslims massive use of mortar masonry invented vaulting Stuart Gilbert; James Emmons, 1962) methodologies in building. Although mud brick had been

developed long before and mortar constructions were known

during the Parthian era, both became crucial materials during Sassanid Architecture. Mud brick had remained most significant

buildings in the old classical antiquity period in Mesopotamia, but

later the use of stone and brick was adopted during the Sassanid time. Although Constantinople had retained the old traditional

carving on stone, but Sassanids had used rubble, baked or sun dried

bricks, not only in the brick walls but as well to build the columns,

vaults and the isolated supports. The characteristic, lightness and

solidity with mortar made it particularly proper for the settlement

of vaults. This was particularly the start of adapting bricks in

forming architectural elements on Islamic religious complexes. The

domes and vaults are prevalent in the Sassanian Architecture; a [2] (Woolley, 1961) square room domed on four niches over a central square named

according to Sassanid Architecture Chahar-taqi56 [Figure 281: ] [1] [3] (Franz Von Reber and Joseph Thacher Clarke, [2][3] . It is one of the most characteristic structural elements of 1882)

56 Four arches

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 226

Sassanid Architecture which famed historically in Persia. But later, and later was successfully adopted by Muslims and became [1][1] (Roman (Roman Ghirshman; Ghirshman; part of the Islamic Architectural tradition. It remains when the StuartStuart Gilbert; Gilbert; James James Parthians grab parts of Mesopotamia. In Ctesiphon, the founder Emmons,Emmons, 1962) 1962) of the Sassanian dynasty, had built the great vaulted Taq-e Kisra [2][2] (Woolley, (Woolley, 1961) 1961) in 224 AD. Which Later, Arabs had capture in 637AD. And used

Taq-e Kisra as prayer hall and part of their developed mosques. But by the VIII century Ctesiphon had ruined. Among these, rubble stone masonry with gypsum mortar became predominant. And Brickwork was often used for vaults and domes [1] [2].

Figure 279: Taq Kasra, 224 AD

Source: Wikipedia

227

Figure 280: Chahar Taqi locations

Figure 281: Chahar-taqi, Plan Figure 282: Chahar-taqi Section

Source: Encyclopedia Iranica

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 228

Figure 283: Mesopotamian, Babylon, Assyrian

Year Historical Event

628 BC Zoroaster’s Birth

560 BC Cyrus The Great

330 BC Alexander The Great Defeat Dariush ll

238 BC Parthian Empire Established

50 BC Mithraism Fully Developed

224 AD Sassanid Empire Established

651 AD Arabs Conquest of Persia

Table 8: Mesopotamia Timeline

229

4.1.1 Sassanid Vault Traditions

Domes were important elements of architecture in the Sassanid structures for the need of fire and fume vanishing throughout the buildings. Through history, Persians had invented squinches which can be defined as series of concentric arches forming half- cone in the corner of a room to enable the transition from the walls of a square chamber to an octagonal base to set a dome.

Previous transitions to a dome from a square chamber existed but were makeshift in quality and only attempted on small scales, not being consistent enough for large constructions. The squinch enabled domes to be widely used and became forefront

of Persian architecture building methods [1]. Squinches are [1] (Wikiwand, 2015) considered hybridization of semi-dome or cloister vault to support the domes. Dietrich H. and O’Kane had defined squinches as:

‘Adjoining semi domes occurred in the

Sassanid Buildings in Kis, Bozpar, Negar, [2] (Dietrich and Sarvestan [2]’. O’Kane ,1990)

The magnificence in which Sasanian emperors lived is well demonstrated by their surviving palaces, such as those at Firuzabad and Nishapur in Fars as well as the capital city of Ctesiphon named Iraq presently. The Parthian dynastic architecture initiated in Ctesiphon created a great Sasanian architectural characteristics. Altogether are characterised by the barrel-vaulted iwan introduced in the Parthian period [3]. [3] (Ettinghausen, 1972) The Brick masonry and its most relevant structural achievement, the barrel-vaults built without centering are the most significant Mesopotamian contributions to the ancient building technology.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 230

The oldest brick vault of this kind, found at Tell al-Rimah in Iraq, dated c.2100. Due to the scarcity of wood in many areas of the Iranian plateau, domes were an important part of vernacular architecture throughout the Persian history. The Persian invention of the squinch, a series of concentric arches forming a half-cone over the corner of a room, enabled the transition from the walls of a square chamber to an octagonal base for a dome.

Previous transitions to a dome from a square chamber existed but were makeshift in quality and only attempted on a small scale, not being reliable enough for large constructions. The squinch enabled domes to be widely used and they moved to the forefront of Persian architecture as a result [1] [2]. Here comes [1] (Oates, 1996) the start of the Squinch vault which is a hybridization of semi- [2] (Arce, xxx) dome or dome and cloister vault.

The first fully developed Cahartaq with arched or barrel-vaulted bays on the interior between the piers was Cahartaq at Ardashir Palace, which was dated to the time of Ḵosrow II in 590-628AD. The similarity in plan between excavated fire temples and Islamic shrines57 often makes it extremely difficult to determine the original function of unexcavated Cahartaqs, especially in Fars and Kerman, provinces where Zoroastrianism and Islam flourished side by side in the first centuries after the Arab conquest.

57 A holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero,martyr, saint,

231

Figure 284: Tell Al-Rimah Plan

Figure 285: Tell Al-Rimah in Iraq, c.2100.

Source: Arab Encyclopedia

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 232

4.1.2 Chahar-Taqi Vaults

Fire Temple are the most historical astronomical developed buildings through history. These buildings belongs to the late Parthian and

Sassanid era where building without walls and roof rested on four pillars [1]. Chahar-taqi58 means four directions, an Iranian terminology of Four [1] Dietrich H. and O’Kane, B. (1990). Arches defined as short barrel vaults between four corner piers, with a dome on squinches over the central square.

K.E. Eduljee has described Chahar-taqi in Zoroastrian Heritage as:

The Niasar Zoroastrian temple in Kashan is an

example. Square domed buildings with entrances at the axes, inspired the forms of early mosques after the Islamic conquest of the empire in the 7th century. Some having been converted into mosques. The later isolated

dome chambers called the "kiosk mosque" type may [2] (Eduljee, 2016) have developed from this tradition [2].’ (Eduljee, 2016) And added:

‘There is no evidence of the roof. It could even have [3] (Godard, 1965) been a dome. The massiveness of the columns suggests

a stone roof, and stones similar to the rest of the structure have been found in part of the citadel wall built during the seventh century ACE. Archaeologists surmise that the citadel stones were taken from the fire house.’

58 A rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides

233

a. Vaults of Ardashir Palace: 224–240 AD

The earliest known example for the Sasanian Empire

Architecture is Firuzabad Palace which named by its founder

Ardashir I. In 224 BC, Ardashir had defeated the Parthians and built his own Palace in Firozabad town influenced by the

Parthian Empire Architecture. The Palace is a hybridization of

Persian and Hellenistic artwork for its location. Three elliptical domes with 45 feet in diameter characterize the Palace. It is built of local stones, mortar and covered with plaster within the interiors. The central dome is designed with an opening to permit light into the Place and some openings between the squinches are added for lighting purposes as well. The main entrance is an Iwan vault structure with 44 feet size, the arched entry innovation was late Parthian Tradition [Figure 289]. A large square hall under a large dome made of baked brick located in the center of the Palace [1]. Andre Godard in his book The Art [1] (Oates, 1996) of Iran mentioned: The Parthians contributions to the development of architectural form, were the

achievement of a dome on Squinches and the development of the vaulted iwan structure initiated later. The dome was modelled on the Islamic era while, according to the French archaeologist, Andre Godard, the original

dome was egg-shaped [2]’. [2] [3] (Godard, 1965) And added : ‘The domes at the Firuzabad were not made of concrete as Roman Architecture but bricks. The Palace structure contains three domes

[3]’. (Godard, 1965)

234

George Michell in his book Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning defined that: ‘The Barrel-vaulted Iwan, a rectangular room

with the front side open, the visible shape of the vault became the dominant feature of the facade. It started in Parthian time, the Iwan became the most conspicuous element of Sasanian and later [1] [2] (Michell, 1978) Iranian architecture [1]. ‘ (Michell, 1978)

And added:

‘Alternatively, The Sassanian Iwan is usually constructed between two halls as supporting elements of the Iwan’s main hall which can be founded in Sasanian Palaces [2].’

b. Vaults of Sarvestan Palace: 420-38 AD The Sassanian Palace of Sarvestan with window openings, was built in 420 AD. The large brick dome of the Sarvestan Palace also appeared in Fars but later in date. Two centuries before Islam in

420-438 AD by Bahram V. The Squinches were used in Sarvestan Palace to support the rounded domes in addition columns were

used to support the vaulting in the Palace [Figure 287] [Figure 288]

[3]. [3] (Godard, 1965)

Idem in his research paper: Iran in the Ancient East mentioned:

‘The function and date of the Sasanian palace at

Sarvestan, which contains two Cahartaq are still being debated if [4]. (Idem, 1975) [4] (Idem, 1975) P. 158

235

Figure 286: Ardashir Palace Location, Fars Providence

Figure 287: Ardashir Palace, 224–240 AD Figure 288: : Plan of Ardashir Palace, 224–240 AD

Source: Archnet

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 236

Figure 289: The Entrance of Ardashir Palace, Sassanid Architecture

Figure 290: Squinches of Sassanid Vaults Figure 291: Ardashir Palace Vault

Source: Carlos Placios

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 237

Figure 292: Sarvestan Palace, 420-38 AD

Figure 293: Sarvestan Palace Plan Figure 294: : Sarvestan Palace 420-38 AD

Source: Archnet

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 238

Figure 295: Sarvestan Palace, 420-438 AD

Figure 296: Sarvestan Palace Vault Source: Carlos Palacios

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 239

c. Niasar Chahar Taqi Vault This temple is a simple square pavilion converted later to an

Islamic building famed as kiosk mosque with a dome carried on four heavy piers joined by arches. The arches were built by [1] (Idem, 1975) P. 158 bridging the piers, without a keystone. This technique considered a Sasanian architectural technique. Niasar Char-

Taqui Temple is 14x 14 meter building. The dome which only covers the Center of the Pavilion is raised on low square drum set on the piers [1]. It was made of stones bonded with mortar. The stones are used in the lower part of the building and those used in the arches and upper parts with square-shaped bricks. The lower parts of the building have been coated with plaster in recent years [Figure 300] [3]. Godard had mentioned :

‘The main dome of the fire temple had previously collapsed. The dome was reconstructed with the support of wooden ribs during the Islamic Period´. [4] [4] (Godard, 1965)

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 240

Figure 297: Chahar-Taqi with an opening, Iran

Source: Wikipedia

Figure 298: Chahar-Taqi with an opening

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 241

Source: Sassanids Arch

Figure 299: Zoroastrian Architecture in Sassanid Era

Figure 300: Niasar Zoroastrian temple Figure 301: Niasar Zoroastrian interor Vault

Source: Sassanids Arch

242

Figure 302: Chahar-Taqi at Niasar near Kashan, Esfahan, Sassanian Era

Figure 303: Chahar-Taqi at Naisar Source: Sassanids Arch

243

Ribbed Vaults started in Persia when introducing Chahar taqi method to the Architectural field. Although, the origins of Chahar taqi are still matters of debates, but it has been suggested that domes on squinches in mud-brick architecture are originated from Eastern Iran, where the development of simple pitched-brick dome or squinch vault had appeared. Prof. Dietrich Huff had mentioned in The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies: ‘In Iran, there is no evidence of the Čahārtāq proper earlier than the beginning of Sassanid period. (Huff, 2016) [1]. ‘ [1] (Huff, 2016)

Ernest Herzfeld defined vaulting in early centuries by stating:

‘The earliest definite archaeological evidences of pitched-brick vaulting comes from Mesopotamia in the late 3rd or early 2nd millennium b.c. (Herzfeld, [2] (Herzfeld, 1942) 1942) [2].’ Oates in his book The Excavations at Tell al-Rimah had mentioned:

‘It was fully developed in structures roofed with pendentive domes circumscribing the square, which were popular in 2nd- and early 3rd-century Roman

Syria [3].’ [3] (Oates, 1970)

John Fitchen clarified in his book Construction of Gothic Cathedrals

‘In ancient Egypt, brick vaulting was used chiefly for drains. The Chaldeans and Assyrians used vaults for the same purpose but seem also to have made

architectural use of high domes and barrel vaults.

[4]. ‘(Fitchen, 1981) The Greeks made no use of vaults [4] (Fitchen, 1981)

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 244

4.1.3 Iwan Vaults

A vaulted space that opens on one side is called Iwan. The iwan developed in pre-Islamic Mesopotamia where it was used in monumental and imperial buildings. Iwan strongly associated [1] (Woolley, 1961) with Persian architecture. It continued to be used in Sassanid era. Vaulting without centering depended on the qualities of gypsum mortar, which helps to set the vault without centering [3] [4] [5] (Huff, 2016) [1]. Professor Dietrich Huff mentioned in his Research Iranian Architecture: Sasanian Dynasty and Architecture

‘Vaulting without centering prevented the development of geometrical advanced constructions [3].’

And added:

‘Semicircular barrel vaults appear only when built on centering as a voussoir arch with, lying

courses [4] .‘

And contributed to the definition of cross vault stating:

The cross vault, resulting from the intersection

of two barrel vaults at right angles, was not developed in the Sassanid Period. There are no examples of pointed arches built by formal intention, although they occur as a result of building practice in lesser monuments [5].

‘The Architecture prevalent in Persia under the Sassanid dynasty ( 3rd to 7th century) excelled in large palace complexes with open iwan extensive use of barrel vaults and parabolic

domes on squinches of brick or rubble stone, set

in plaster mortar and constructed without centering. The massive walls in these buildings were covered with stucco decor or [6] (Encicpolepa articulated by pilasters and cornices [6].’ britanca, 2015)

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 245

4.2 Roman Vault Tradition

Before the spread of Islamic, Roman Empire was powerful. It grew to [1] (Encyclopedia, create large territorial lands around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, 2012) coastal Regions in South Western Europe until Asia and North Africa. It was the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military force in the world of its time known as the largest Empire of the classical Antiquity Period. The vaulting technique of Romans, started in the 1st century AD Casting concrete in one solid mass, the Romans created vaults of perfect rigidity, devoid of external thrust, and requiring no buttresses. Thus vaults and domes could be easily erected over vast spaces, producing impressive and complex Thermae59, Amphitheaters60, and Basilicas. Roman vaults were the basis on which more complex and varied forms were developed in middle Ages. The tunnel, or barrel vault spans between two walls, like a continuous arch. The cross, or groined, vault is formed by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults, producing a surface that has arched openings for its four sides and concentration of load at the four corner points of the square or rectangle. The semicircular arch was universally employed in Romanesque vaulting throughout Europe, and the Roman cross vault was the type used for covering square or rectangular compartments [1]. By time, The Roman Empire had been divided into two Empires: Roman Empire and East Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire

59 Roman baths 60 Place for viewing, Performance

246

included: Eastern Europe, the Roman near East, Egypt and portions of North Africa. When Islam reached Eastern Roman it introduced

Muslims to Greek thoughts and their Architecture [1]. The exposure to [1] (Fernie, 2001) the Byzantines Civilization Architecture abroad had presented new applications to the Arabian Peninsula. Vaults of Ancient Civilizations

A diaphragm arch is a transverse wall-bearing arch forming a partial wall dividing a vault or a ceiling into compartments. When used under a wooden roof, it has the advantage of providing a partial firebreak. It was first used in Roman Syria, during the 2nd century AD. In their vaulting structures, Umayyad period buildings show a mixture of ancient Roman and Persian architectural traditions. Diaphragm with lintelled ceilings made of wood or stone beams, or, alternatively, with barrel vaults, were known in the Levant since the classical and Nabatean period. They were mainly used to cover houses and cisterns. The architectural form of covering diaphragm arches with barrel vaults, however, was likely newly introduced from Iranian architecture, as similar vaulting was not known in Bilad al-Sham before the arrival of the Umayyads. However, this form was well known inIran from early Parthian times, as exemplified in the Parthian buildings of Aššur. The earliest known example for barrel vaults resting on diaphragm arches from Umayyad architecture is known from Qasr

Harane in Syria [2] [3]. [2] (Webb, 1965)

[3] (Wikiwand, 2016)

247

During the early period, the diaphragm arches are built from coarsely cut limestone slabs, without using supporting falsework, which were connected by gypsum mortar. Later-period vaults were erected using pre-formed lateral ribs modelled from gypsum, which served as a temporal formwork to guide and center the vault. These ribs, which were left in the structure afterwards, do not carry any load.

The ribs were cast in advance on strips of cloth, the impression of which can still be seen in the ribs today. Similar structures are known from Sasanian architecture, for example from the palace of Firuzabad. Umayyad-period vaults of this type were found in Amman Citadel and in Qasr Amra [1]. [1] (Hillenbrand, 1994) a. Roman Fortress of Zenobia

The river Euphrates was the shortest road from the Persian Empire to the Roman Empire. It was also one of the most accessible roads, because there was sufficient water for a big army. Halabiye was fortified in the 3rd century AD by Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, after whom the site was named in antiquity. After her revolt against the

Roman Empire in 273. Halabiye was captured by the Romans and subsequently refortified as part of the Limes Arabicus. Fortress

Zenobia was later rebuilt by the emperor Diocletian in 284-305; a second building phase took place when Anastasius I ruler of the

Byzantine Empire during 491-518 AD. The next rebuilding can be dated to the reign of Justinian in 527-565 AD, who sent his general

Belisarius to the east to fight against the Persians [2]. The site have [2] (Lauffray, 1983) P. 119 been taken over by the Persians during their epic fight against the Byzantines in the first third of the sixth century. Arabs took over the area in 637 AD, reused Zenobia, and modified the citadel. However, because both Syria and Iraq were part of Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus a public bath complex.

248

Figure 304: Roman Fortress of Zenobia

Figure 305: The Praetorium Vaults

Source: Damascus

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 249

4.3 Byzantine Vault Traditions

Byzantine architecture was of crucial importance to the development of early Islamic architecture and later the architecture of the Ottoman Empire. At the time of the Islamic conquest of Syria in the seventh century Byzantine was essentially a continuation of [1] The thinner mortar Roman architecture. There were, however, few major differences, joints smaller than the brick thickness, the the most significant of which was the massive church-building opposite of the Byzantine technique campaign of Justinian (sixth century) which made Christianity Byzantine architecture the central focus of architecture. Also noticeable in the architecture of this period was the influence of the capital Constantinople on the rest of the empire. During the ninth to eleventh centuries the Byzantines recovered from the disastrous effects of the Islamic conquests, and in this period there is evidence of Islamic influence on Byzantine architecture, particularly in descriptions of the palaces of Constantinople. During the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries Byzantine architecture was a major influence on that of the Turkish principalities in Anatolia. In particular the domed basilica church had a formative influence on early Ottoman mosques [1] [2]. [2] (Hans Buchwald, 1984) The character of Byzantine architecture, which dates from the fourth century to the present day, is determined by the novel development of the dome to cover polygonal and square plans for churches, tombs, and baptisteries. The practice of placing many domes over one building is in strong contrast to the Romanesque system of vaulted roofs Auguste Choisy and Hans Buchwald and others on this topic had [3] (Choisy, 1883) mentioned [3]: ‘Medieval European builders developed a modification, the rib vault, a skeleton of arches or ribs on which the masonry could be laid. The medieval mason used pointed arches; unlike round

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 250

arches, these could be raised as high over a short span as over a long one. To cover rectangular areas, the mason used two intersecting vaults of different widths but of the same height’.

Figure 306:Half Domical Vault, IV- V Century Figure 307: Barrel Vault, VI Century

Figure 308: Cross Groined Vault, VI Century Figure 309: Stone Domical Dome, VI century

Source: http://www.sas.upenn.edu/ancient/masons/Karydis-Limiting_Use_of_Centering.pdf

251

Figure 310: Gored Dome, X century Figure 311: Domical Vault, XIV Century

Figure 312: Ribbed Dome, XIV Century Figure 313: Domical Vault, XIV Century

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 252

4.4 Gothic Vault Tradition

Ribs to strengthen the groins and sides of a cross vault were first [1] (Stevens, 2000) employed in the Church of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan in the eleventh

Century. When the system of using ribs to form a complete organic supporting skeleton was developed, it became one of the basic principles of perfected Gothic architecture. The use of ribs in vault forms led to increasing complexity, beginning in the twelves Century in Europe. The pointed arch was dominant in medieval architecture from the thirteen century. On ward, helped to overcome the difficulties of vaulting oblong compartments exclusively with semicircular sections and to bring the various ribs of unequal spans to a crown at the same height. Some vaulting compartments or bays were divided by ribs into six segments and were known as sexpartite vaults, but the four-part vault generally prevailed. In England the multiplication of ribs for structural and decorative purposes culminated in the fifteenth century in the elaborate fan vault of the Perpendicular style61.

4.5 Armenia Vault Tradition

Damascus was the capital of the Aramaean state Aram-Damascus during the Iron Age. The greatest achievement of Armenian architecture is generally agreed to be its medieval churches, though there are different opinion precisely in which respects. The first Armenian churches were built between the 4th and 7th century, beginning when Armenia converted to Christianity, and ending with the Arab invasion of Armenia. The early churches were mostly simple basilicas, but some with side apses. By the 5th

61 Term given the final period of English Gothic architecture

253

century the typical cupola cone in the center had become widely used. By the 7th century, centrally-planned churches had been built [1] (Stevens, 2000) and a more complicated niched buttress. By the time of the Arab invasion, most of what we now know as classical Armenian architecture had formed. The first Armenian churches were built on the orders of St. Gregory the Illuminator, and were often built on top of pagan temples, and imitated some aspects of Armenian pre-Christian architecture

254

4.6 Pre -Islamic Civilization Vaults Types

Figure 314: Armenia Vault, 908-943 AD

Figure 315: Karmravank, Armena , 908-943 AD

255

Figure 316: Sassanid Vault Tradition, Ardashir

Figure 317: Sassanid Vault, Sarvestan Source: Carlos Palacios

256

4.7 Islamic Dynasties Vaults Type from VIII Until X

Figure 318: Zigzag, Abbasid Figure 319: Zigzag, Aghlabids

Source: Archnet Source: Author

Figure 320: Lobbed , Aghlabids Figure 321: Lobbed , Aghlabids

Source: Author Source: Author

257

Figure 322: Buyids Pitched Brick Vaults Figure 323: Samanid Vaults

Source: Archnet Source: Wikiwand

Figure 324: Seljuk Dome Figure 325: Seljuk Dome

Source: Wikiwand Source: Wikiwand

258

Figure 326: Pitch Brick Woven Vaults Figure 327: Woven Vaults

Figure 328: Cross Ribbed Vault Figure 329: Cross Ribbed Vault

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 259

P A R T V

5. HYBRIDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC VAULT

260

5. HYBRIDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC RIBBED VAULTS

Brick masonry and its most relevant structural achievement, the barrel-vaults built without centering are the most significant

Mesopotamian contributions to the ancient building technology

[1]. It is often very difficult to determine whether particular [1] (Oates, 1996)

structures belongs to the Sassanid or early Islamic period, as the form seems to have continued in use without interruption and

to have been widely adopted in Islamic architecture of Persia. The structure of mosques appeared in early Islamic period. Many

buildings of Sassanid era were converted into mosques. However, the rough stone masonry of the lower walls, the

parabolic profiles of the arches, and the crude squinches determine the ear of the structure if it is Sasanian or early Islamic

in date. Shokoohy had explained:

‘Areas that had been remained a stronghold of Zoroastrianism, have been converted to mosques as late as the 9th/15th century [2].’ [2] [3] (Shokoohy, 1985)

‘Pre-Islamic domes in Persia are commonly semi-elliptical, with pointed domes and those with conical outer shells being the majority of

the domes in the Islamic periods. ‘Mosques of Persia inherited the Sassanian vaulting tradition and possess a distinctive character in their pointed onion-shaped domes which appeared in several Mosques in Khorasan [3]’.

The earliest known Islamic domes in Persia have continued the rounded elliptical Sasanian form. Domed mausoleums contributed greatly to the development and spread of domes in Persian early the Islamic period. By the tenth century, domed

261

tombs had been built for Abbasid caliphs and Shitte martys. This type of building tradition was previously unknown in Islamic history. But Pilgrimage to these sites had helped to spread the form of these structures during the Islamic Empires expansions [1]. [1] (Stevens, 2000)

5.1 Islamic Ribbed Vault Structural Analysis

In construction, the arch is a rigid span curving upward between two points of support. It appeared in a variety of Islamic structures, such as fortress, mosques and mausoleums in early Islamic days.

Muslim architects developed a rich variety of pointed, scalloped, horseshoe, and ogee62 and lobbed arches for mosques and palaces during it expansions to North Africa and Islamic Iberia. Islamic ribbed vault were developed in Medieval Islamic period during IX- X century. From simple elliptical domes to cross arched shaping a vault structure set on squinches. Rib vault is any vault reinforced by masonry ribs. It can be quadripartite rib vault, which is divided into four sections by two diagonal ribs or sexpartite rib vault , which is divided into six sections by three ribs. While, Pendentives are portions of spherical vaults, or spherical triangles, placed in the corners of square or other polygonal structures to form a circular base for a dome above. More complicated vaults include ribbed vaults, in which the inner vault surface is subdivided by a number of independent supporting arches, or ribs. Architecture that was prevalent in Persia, primarily in palace complexes. It featured extensive barrel vaults and parabolic domes set on squinches and stuccoed with plaster mortar. The squinch vault is a very idiosyncratic Central Asian vault that also shares the same structural and technical concepts of the Sassanian pitched-brick

62 S-curve

262

vaults. This sort of vault is also known as ‘Khorasan’ due to the geographical area where it is more commonly founded in North

East Iran. The construction process starts with a small arched course laid in each corner of a square room, advancing with new and increasingly larger arches leaning on the previous ones, defining thus four corner half-cones that meet in the centre of each side of the room. Squinch vaults were apparently hardly ever used in early Islamic monumental structures, as no samples from this period have survived. The only surviving vaults are later: in the east in Khorasan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan complexes. The congregational mosque of Isfahan vaults are from the tenth century AD. The Dome squinches on the west are set on arches giving birth to a hybrid figure, almost spherical called: squinched spherical vault

[1]. [1] (Stevens, 2000)

5.2 Islamic Ribbed Vault Structural Development

The Birth of Ribbed Vaults started after the development of clay masonry and complex forms of stacked mud bricks which famed at the beginning in Tigris and Euphrates River during early ancient periods. The Adobe-brick was used in these areas for its superior thermal properties and lower manufacturing costs. However, Red Bricks were used for decorations in small artistic spaces involving water and monumental constructions. By time, Glazed Vitreous bricks were invented.

‘Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period [2].’ [2] (Sally, 2005) P. 266–280.

263

As defined in Oxford Dictionaries 2010:

Adobe bricks are most often made into units

weighing less than 100 pounds and small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking and subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud, to bond the individual [1] (Oxford bricks into a structure [1]. Dictionaries, 2010) However, since Rounded Bricks are not steady or stable, therefore the Mesopotamian technique have used bricklayers which lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows for strength stability. Likewise, the Plano-Convex bricks technique which speed the manufacturing process as well. The irregular surface that held the finishing plaster coat is better than a smooth surface from other brick types. However, these bricks were sun baked which eventually deteriorated, some destroyed or rebuilt on the same spot. The unusual vertical arrangement of the bricks were held together with quick-setting gypsum mortar; The span can be reduced by using overhanging horizontal brick layers, following the vault profile, and even offering an offset marking the false springing-line of the vault.

Laying bricks on their edge is one of the most defining features of ancient Mesopotamian and Parthian architecture [2]. Vaults and [2] (Spanish Word domes are self-supporting structural forms when completed, they Histories and Mysteries: English normally need support and centring while under construction. This Words that Come from usually involves first building an identical vault in wood over which Spanish Houghton the masonry vault rests, until complete and dried. In countries where Mifflin, 2007) P. 5 timber is limited, this type of vaulting is hardly advantageous. A system of building vaults and domes, without this framework, or shuttering, evolved in countries like Egypt and Iran. There for squinches had been developed in these regions where mud bricks were the initial building materials.

264

During the Islamic Period, window openings built up with dry bricks and not mortar. For this, Arches are built over the dry brick forming windows. Small vault built in same way as large ones. Then, the loose bricks are removed from window openings forming continuous course from which dome can be completed. Circular arches built over vaults to form a base for the dome. Brick courses of dome incline increasingly until the dome is finished [1]. [1] (Joanna PG, 2013)

5.3 Islamic Ribbed Vault Brick Methods until Geometry

The tradition of brick building in Iran flourished under Sassanids from

224 until 651 AD. This period was the main source of knowledge of bricks constructing methods with masons.

Habibollah Ayatollahi mentioned in his book The History of Iranian art explaining:

‘After the end of the III Century AD and the beginning of the IV Century in the mountains regions of the country the use of rough uncut stone and rocks became very popular and the Sasanian stopped using cut stone in their buildings, whereas

on the bricks were used to create the buildings and

masterpiece of this era. The New techniques of building arches and domes presented the Sasanian with new abilities and skills, which in turn brought [2] (Ayatollahi, 2003) great and long lasting fame to the builders [2].’ P. 126

The massive amount of sunshine in the Arabian Peninsula made Adobe bricks the selected choice for building. This technique was extracted from Ancient Egyptian Civilization. The Loamy Nile mud when mixed with straw result in forming strong bricks. A sun-baked mud brick without straw had strength of less than containing staw. This results for bricks three times strong in durability. And since groundwater did not dissolve the foundations and floods did not reach the Arabian Peninsula, well-tended mud brick walls had stand for generations. During Ancient Egypt, brick moulds of equal size

265

were used. The brick sizes were standardized. The mortars used for mudbrick were basically the same material as that from which the [1] (Petersen, 1996) bricks themselves were made, but generally no organic matter was P . 36-37 added. It was mixed shortly before being used and was only applied [ 2] (Encyclopædia between the horizontal layers, and not to stick the bricks together Iranica, 2015) along their vertical joints. These Basic Building Methods were the

[3] (Ehlers and initial Methods used in the Arabian Peninsula Buildings. In many Kawami) 1984 areas of Islamic world brick is the primary building material. There is a primary building material. There is an important distinction to be [ 4] (S. Lloyd, 1958) made between fired or baked brick and mud brick. Fired brick P. 462 requires fuel to heat the kilns, making it relatively expensive, although the firing makes it more durable and therefore more suitable for monumental building. Architecture of the early Islamic period drew on two distinct building traditions each of which used fired brick as a major component. In the Mediterranean area brickwork derived from Byzantine and ultimately Roman traditions whereas in former Sassanian territories it dated back to the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Iran. In Byzantine tradition, bricks were usually used for specific parts of the building such as the dome or as string courses to level off layers of rubble wall. In the area of

Syria and Jordan the availability of good quality stone meant that bricks were little used in Byzantine architecture of the area and consequently were little used in the early Islamic architecture of the area [1]. In the few examples, Al Mushatta and Qasr Al Tuba, [1] (Ayatollahi, 2003) brickwork is employed as Sassanian East Method rather than a continuation of local tradition. After the conquest of Ottoman to Anatolia, the Byzantine brickwork tradition becomes fully incorporated into Islamic architecture. In the East, Iran and Iraq, however, brick was employed in the earliest Islamic buildings as direct continuation of Sassanian practice. The techniques of decorative brickwork had developed in this area using either

266

standard bricks arranged in patterns or specially shaped bricks. Bricks could be laid vertically, sideways, flat on or in a herringbone pattern. Later, it was used to form geometrical patterns or even inscriptions late in the eleventh century. Elaborate brickworks refer to a Persian terminology: Hazarbaf. Brickwork of the Seljuk period, from the eleventh until the thirteenth century famed initially in Iran and Central Asia using specially manufactured bricks. A particularly good example is Aisha Bibi Khanum Mausoleum located on the Silk Road at Djambul, Uzbekistan. The Lime mortar is used in particular for building with fired bricks. Lime is also used in traditional external plaster, a mixture of mud and straw, in order to help preserve it. The earliest use of lime mortar in Iran is difficult to document because archaeologists did not clarify the distinction between lime mortar and gypum mortar named as Gac. Although both types tempered with variety of organic and inorganic materials which affect their appearance, setting time and adhesive qualities. Lime [1] (Ayatollahi, 2003) mortar is divided into two main categories, hydraulic, able to set under water and, non-hydraulic, and these in turn may be further [2] (Idem, 1975) subdivided. Roman engineers captured by the Sasanian 242-272 AD [3] (Marcais, 1955) [1] [2] [3]. Apparently introduced hydraulic lime into Iran, particularly for the construction of bridges. Non-hydraulic lime mortars appear earlier at the late Parthian (2nd-3rd cents. A.D.). The appearance of lime mortar in Afghanistan and Iran suggest that the use of lime mortar began before the Parthian period. The discovery of slabs and bricks of a concrete was late 4th millennium B.C. at Uruk in southern Mesopotamia demonstrates that at least some craftsmen in a neighbouring region were experimenting with a sort of lime mortar even earlier

267

5.4 Islamic Vault Development through History until Geometry

Figure 330: Sassanid Brick Illustration Figure 331: Early Sassanid Brick Methods

Source: Illustration after SassanidArch Source: Wikipedia

Figure 332: Sassanid Brick Illustration Figure 333: Late Sassanid Brick Methods Source: Illustration after Tarski Source: Outlook Traveller

268

Figure 334: Roman Mesopotamian Method

Figure 335: Abbasids, Sassanid Method

269

Figure 336: Umayyad Caliphates, Byzantine Method Photo by: Stefan Sonntag

Figure 337: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman Method Photo by: Claire Robinson, (Robinson, n.d.)

270

Figure 338: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman Methods Source: Wikipedia

Figure 339: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman Mesopotamian Methods Source: Dessert Castle

271

Figure 340: Umayyad Caliphates, Sassanid Method

Figure 341: Umayyad Caliphates, Sassanid Method

Figure 342: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman- Byzantine Method

272

Figure 343: Seljuk Pitched Vault

Figure 344: Seljuk Pitched Vault

Figure 345: Seljuk woven Pitched Vault

273

Figure 346: Pitched Brick Bujara, Uzbakestan

Figure 347: Wovean Pitched Brick Method, Iran

Figure 348: Pitched Brick Iran

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 274

Figure 349: Tahrids Flated Domes Source: Archnet

Figure 350: Three types of Seljuk Pitched Brick Method Source: Irani

275

Figure 351: Pitched-brick

Figure 352: Pitched-brick Method

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 276

5.3.1 Islamic Geometrical Ribbed Vaults

Figure 353: Seljuk Geometrical Vaults, Iran

Illustration Source: after Pugachenkova, 1954. © Figure 354: Cross Arch Dome Geometry, Ancient Merv Project Central Asia

Illustration Source: Barucartd Figure 355: Cross Arch Dome Geometry , Spain

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 277

Illustration Source: Barucartd Figure 356: Seljuk Geometrical Vaults, Iran

Illustration Source: Barucartd Figure 357: Cross Arch Dome Geometry, Central Asia

Illustration Source: Al-Qantara XXXVI 1, 2015 Figure 358:Cross Arch Dome Geometry , Spain

278

5.3.1.1 Islamic Geometrical Ribbed Vaults Layout

Geometry is a major element in Islamic Iberian architectural [1] Geometry: The Language of Symmetry decoration. It has been studied by several scholars; however, in Islamic Art: In Islamic art the geometric figure the geometry of domes is still a debate of studies. Geometry is of the circle represents the key mark of Islamic crossed-arch vaults. The Muslims the primordial symbol of unity and the Philosophy had been transferred to geometrical Patterns in ultimate source of all diversity in creation. marckable ribbed vault designs. Persian Architecture through The natural division of history made use of abundant symbolic geometries, using pure the circle into regular divisions is the ritual forms such as the circle and square. These designs were based starting point for many on symmetrical layouts. In Islamic Iberia, there is a massive traditional Islamic patterns, as range of possibilities for the design of the vaults Plans. demonstrated in the drawings below. However, Different layouts are used for each Vault. As it was (Henry, 2016) explained previously, three different layouts describe the vault of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Fifty years later, the construction of the nine vaults of Cristo de la Luz defined almost all the possible layouts and most of what was built afterwards [2] (Idem, 1975) was based in these designs. The octagon is possibly the most used figure in the layout design of these vaults. Octagons can be obtained in different ways. One of the most common methods consists in dividing the sides of a square into three parts, and placing eight ribs spanning between the internal divisions, so that two ribs arrive at each point, one rib parallel to the side of the square, and the other in the diagonal direction. According to the ratio between the divisions, the design in plan is different. The figure below shows the exterior top view of the nine vaults located in Cristo de la Luz, leaving imprints of the different cross arches and titrations in order to show a clear view of the arches access [1] [2].

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 279

5.3.1.2 Islamic Geometrical Ribbed Vaults Patterns

Figure 359: Cross Arch Dome Geometry , Cordoba Source: Illustartion Barucartd

Figure 360: Cross Arch Vault , Cordoba Source: Illustartion Barucartd

Figure 361: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

280

Figure 362: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

Figure 363: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

Figure 364: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 281

Figure 365: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

Figure 366: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

Figure 367: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 282

Figure 368: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

Figure 369: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

Figure 370: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo Illustration by the Author

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 283

5.4 Roof Vault Traditions

Byzantine Origin

Figure 371: Alhambra Court, Figure 372: Qarawiyyin Court top View

Figure 373: Alhambra Court illustration, After Figure 374: Qarawiyyin Court Illustration, After, Creswell

Figure 375: Great Mosque of Cordoba Roof Figure 376: Qarawiyyin Mosque Top Roof

284

Figure 377: Byzantine Roof Illustration Source: Illustration by the Author

Figure 378: Byzantine Roof Illustration Section

Source : Illustration by the Author

285

P A R T V I

6.ANALYSIS OF THE FIELD VISITS T O NORTH AFRICA A N D S P A I N

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 286

6. ANALYSIS OF FIELD VISITS TO NORTH AFRICA AND SPAIN

Mosques are the most obvious materialization of Islam. They had [1] (Hillenbrand , 1994) reflected the artistic elements of Islamic periods. For this, there are lots of variations in Mosque designs and elements. As a result, the research paper required field trips to historical Mosques of early Islamic Periods in order to observe The Islamic Ribbed vaults in North Africa and Spain. This was a major task of the study for better understanding of the Arched Domes since its initiate until it arrival to North Africa and Spain [1].

6.1 Development of Ribbed Vaults in North Africa

6.1.1 Tunis Vaults

6.1.1.1 Great Mosque of Kairouan Vaults The Muslims conquest of North Africa resulted into erecting the first Mosque by a leader called Uqba ibn Nafi in 670 AD. After more than twenty years Hasan ibn Al Nu'man had demolish the whole Mosque except its Mihrab. Later, in 723 AD the Umayyad Caliph, Hisham bin Abdul Malik, ordered to renew the mosque and purchase the northern part land and combine it to extend the Great Mosque of

Kairouan. Hisham also had added an ablution63 Space and a minaret in the middle of the north wall. The extension of the Mosque was added by commander, Bishr ibn Safwan. In 835 AD, Abdullah bin Al Aglab demolish parts of the mosque to expand it and add a dome decorated with paintings and marble in the Mihrab niche. He wanted to demolish the Mihrab and rebuilt it again, but the scholars of Kairouan opposed him. In 862 AD, Ahmed bin Mohammed Al Aghalibi expanded the mosque and built the dome of the chamber hall. In the year 1057 AD, some Beduin tribes defeated the people

63 A ceremonial act of washing parts of the body before praying

287

of Kairouan which resulted into evacuating the people of the City. After the end of this violent attack Hafsids64 renewed the Great

Mosque of Kairouan based on the original design done in the old days by Abraham bin Ahmed Al Aglaby. The minaret of the mosque, which lies in the wall facing the direction of Qibla consists of three square shape layers, ranging in size, and above the three-layered is lobbed Dome. In conclusion, The Great Mosque of Kairouan contains of six domes: Mihrab Dome, Chamber Hall Dome, two domes in the East and the West, Dome above the Bank set aside of the mosque and a Minaret Dome. The prayer hall is entered from the courtyard, as well as from two sheltered doorways from the sides covered by Domes. The Mosque is a hypostyle design, with arcades emphasized in T-form. The T-design is formed by the Qibla wall and the central nave access. A total of seventeen bays wide and seven bays deep. The roof is flat, with the exception of the two [1] (Al-Kaa'by M. , domes, one Dome above the Mihrab dating from 836 AD and the Beirut) other one is above the Chamber hall built in 856 AD. This Dome was reconstructed again in the nineteenth century. The Mihrab niche is [2] (Sebag, 1965) framed with marble panels from the Zirid period [1] [2] [3] [3] (Uthman, 2000)

Due to Archenet Scholars:

‘The simpler monochromatic tiles are said to be made by local Mesopotamian artist, while the more complex polychromatic tiles are said to

have been imported directly from

Mesopotamia.’ [4]

‘As the key monument of the Aghlabid period,

the Great Mosque of Kairouan has played a major role in the evolution of North African architecture, serving as basis for Tunisian mosques, including Zaytuna Mosque [4].’ [4] (Archnet Library, 2016)

64 Sunni Muslim dynasty of Berber descent

288

Figure 379: The Great Mosque of Kairouan Vaults

Photos by the Author

289

Figure 380: Minartae Zigzag Dome Source: By the Author

290

Figure 381: Entrance Zigzag Dome

Source: By the Author

291

Figure 382: Mihrab Location Figure 383: Mihrab Lobbed Dome

Figure 384: Chamber Dome Location Figure 385: Chamber Hall Zigzag Dome

Figure 386: Minaret Dome Location Figure 387: Minaret Zigzag Dome

292

Figure 388: Zigzag East Entrance Dome Location Figure 389: Zigzag East Entrance Dome

Figure 390: Zigzag West Entrance Dome Location Figure 391: Zigzag West Entrance Dome

Figure 392: Westbank Zigzag Dome Location Figure 393: Westbank Zigzag Dome

293

Figure 394: The Great Mosque of Kairouan Three type Domes

Figure 395: Lobbed Dome,836 AD Figure 396: Zigzag, Dome, 856 Figure 397: Exterior Zigzag Dome AD

294

Figure 398: Chamber Dome

Figure 399: Interior View of the Chamber Entrance Dome

Source: Photos by the Author

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 295

Figure 400: Mihrab Dome

Figure 401: Interior View of the Mihrab Dome Photos by the Author

296

Figure 402: Lobed Dome Typology Figure 403: Mihrab Lobbed Dome

Figure 404: Zigzag Dome Typology Figure 405:Chamber Hall Entrance

Figure 406: Zigzag Dome Typology Figure 407: Minaret Dome Illustrations by the Author

297

6.1.1.2 Zaytuna Mosque Vaults

[1] (Alkhury, xxx) Zaytuna Mosque is a copy tradition of The Great Mosque of

Kairouan. A vast courtyard leading to a Chamber hall that leads to the central nave reaching Al Mihrab. It is well observed that the Mosques is built from ancient material that was extracted from the ruins of Roman temples in Carthage. The central nave is wider than the others forming a T-shape hypostyle design. The Mihrab has a lobbed dome on an octagonal tambour with a square base. An inscription attributing the Mihrab to the Abbasid Caliph Al Must'in, who ruled during 862–866 AD. The entrance Chamber Hall dome is highly ornamented with of ochre stone and red bricks. The profusion of niches covering the square base and the octagonal tambour is typical of Fatimid Zirid art. The Mosque contains two domes: The Mihrab Dome and the Chamber Hall Entrance Dome.

Figure 408: Zaytuna Domes illustration

Illustration by the Author

298

Figure 409: Zaytuna Mosque Plan Figure 410: Zaytuna Mosque Top View

Source: Archnet Source: Wikipedia

Figure 411: Zaytuna Mosque

Source: http://www.discoverislamicart.org/

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 299

Figure 412: Zaytuna Mihrab Dome Location Figure 413: Zaytuna Mihrab Top View

Source: Archnet Source: http://www.discoverislamicart.org/

Figure 414: Chamber Hall Dome Location Figure 415: Zaytuna Chamber Hall Dome

Source: Archnet Source: http://www.discoverislamicart.org/

300

Figure 416: Chamber Dome

Figure 417: Interior View to the Top

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 301

Figure 418: Detailed shot of Zaytuna Entrance Dome, Aghlabids Tradition

Figure 419: Zaytuna Mosque Chamber Dome, 991 AD Aghlabid Tradition 905

Source: photos by the Author

302

Figure 420: Entrance Dome

Photos by the Author

303

Figure 421: Lobbed Dome Illustration Figure 422: Lobbed Dome with Lime Coat.

Illustrations by the Author

Figure 423: Lobbed Dome, Aghlabids Methods

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 304

6.2 Type of Vaults in Tunis: VIII – XI

Zigzag Dome Zigzag Dome

Lobed Dom Lobed Dome

Kairouan Zigzag Dome Zigzag Dome

Figure 424: Type of Vaults in North Africa

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 305

6.1.2 Fes Vaults: 857 AD

6.1.2.1 Qarawiyyin Vaults

Fez Architecture was influenced by Andalusian architecture. During the reign of Moravids and Mohads, between the years 1056

- 1269 AD new vaults were added to the Qarawiyyin Mosque. Mystics architecture had effected Fes Architecture as a respond to the high luxury Andalusian decoration in building methods [1]. The [1] The Mosque of Qarawiyyin is one of Mosque of Qarawiyyin is one of the major intellectual centres in the world's oldest the medieval Mediterranean area as it contains the first and oldest universities university, founded in 857 AD by Fatima Al Fahri, the daughter of [2] (Ali, 1996) a wealthy immigrant who left Kairouan to Fes City after a great evolution in Tunis. The mosque became the congregational mosque of the Qarawiyyin quarter. Fes was intimately linked to Islamic Spain politically, economically, and culturally particularly after 1492 AD, when Ferdinand and Isabel kicked Muslims and Jews from the Iberian Peninsula. This brought an influx of refugees into the city. However, the Qarawiyyin T-shaped plan was created by an elevated central aisle perpendicular to an aisle fronting the Qibla wall, belongs to North African mosque tradition. The Moravid ruler, Ali bin Yusuf had expanded the mosque to its present size between 1134 and 1143 AD. The courtyard with tile flooring, recall the court of the Lions at the Alhambra, which were added by the Sa'did. There is dome over the Mihrab and the entrance porch consist of seven domes which cover the north arcade of the courtyard. The domes are made of elaborate muqarnas vaulting with zig-zag ribbing on the exterior [2].

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 306

Figure 425: Qarawiyyin Mosque

Figure 426: Qarawiyyin Seven Domes cover with roof

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 307

Figure 427: Entrance Dome Figure 428: Entrance Dome

Figure 429: Muqarnas Dome [2] Location Figure 430: Muqarnas Dome [2]

Figure 431: Cross Arched Dome [3] Location Figure 432: Cross Arched Dome [3]

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 308

Figure 433: Muqarnas Dome [4] Location Figure 434: Muqarnas Dome

Figure 435: Muqarnas Dome [5] Location Figure 436: Muqarnas Dome

Figure 437: Star Dome [6] Location Figure 438: Stat Dome

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 309

Figure 439: Mihrab Dome Location Figure 440: Mihrab Muqarnas Dome Typography

Source: Archnet Source: Lima

Figure 441: Muqarnas Section

Source: Lima

310

6.3 Development of Ribbed Vaults in Spain

6.3.1 Spain Vaults

6.3.1.1 Great Mosque of Cordoba Vaults

Figure 442: Great Mosque of Cordoba Top view Source: Brigitte Hintzen-Bohlen

Figure 443: Great Mosque of Cordoba Plan Source: James

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 311

Figure 444: Section of the Great Mosque of Cordoba Domes , After Barucartd

Figure 445: Maqsura Dome Figure 446: Center Dome Figure 447: Maqsura Dome

Figure 448: Maqsura Location Figure 449: Maqsura Location Figure 450: Maqsura Location

312

The first crossed vault was built over a former Mihrab built during Abdul Rahman II period. The other three vaults were built in the

Maqsura, Area. They follow a symmetrical pattern: the central one is different in the layout pattern. These domes constitute a completely new type of vault. Later, this type spreaded to the North Africa, Iran and Central Asia. During the X century, Al-Hakam II added a massive expansion to the Great Mosque of Cordoba. An evolution in Vaulting

Methods initiated in his period after constructing the cross ribbed domes, which functioned to improve the lighting four skylights. Three Vaults in front of the Qibla and one located in the [1] Often masonry was re- pre- Maqsura area, which currently holds the Chapel of Villaviciosa. used from earlier Roman or Visigothic strudures, The Pre Maqsura consist of intersecting arches. The Mihrab in the although fine stone carving continued. One of Great Mosque of Cordoba is an open small octagonal room covered the most distindive with a dome-shaped in shell form. The Mihrab central dome is features of Spanish Islamic architecture is the use of covered with mosaics executed by Byzantine craftsmen sent by the brick which, like ashlar masonry, was a dired emperor loaded with two hundred pounds of tiles [1]. The main continuation of Roman building methods. materials used are wood, stone and baked brick, although mud brick Sometimes stone was encased in brick in the was also used. Unlike many parts of the Middle East, Spain had same manner as Byzantine fortifications. plentiful supplies of timber suitable for building including both pine (Petersen, 1996) p. 265 and oak. Wood was usually used for roofs which were normally gabled and covered with baked clay tiles, although occasionally wooden domes were also used. The pine roofs of the Great Mosque [2] (Fuentes, 2010) in Cordoba reflect the plentiful supplies of wood in medieval Spain. Stone was used for walls either in the form of ashlar masonry or in [3] (Balbas, 1935) the form of coursed rubble [2] [3].

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 313

6.3.1.1.a Great Mosque of Cordoba Cross Arches Analysis

Figure 451: Pre-Maqsura Pattern Figure 452: Close shoot of the Pre-Maqsura Dome

Figure 453: Maqsura Dome Arch illustration Figure 454: Maqsura Dome , 961- 976 AD

Source: After Barucartd

314

Figure 455: Close shoot of the Center Dome Figure 456: Maqsura Dome

Figure 457: Central Dome Arch Illustration, After Figure 458: Maqsura Dome Close Shot Barucartd

Source: After Barucartd

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 315

Figure 459: Center Dome Pattern Figure 460: Close shoot of the Center Dome

Illustration, After Barucartd

Figure 461: Central Dome Arch Figure 462: Central Maqsura Dome

Illustration, After Barucartd

316

6.3.1.2 Cristo de la Luz

Figure 463: Cristo de la Luz Figure 464: Cristo de la Luz

Toledo was the capital of the Spanish Visigothic kingdom from 554 AD until the Moorish conquest in 711 AD. For three centuries, Toledo was incorporated into the Emirate of Cordoba then regain its independence in 1012 AD. Toledo’s peak period was in the Middle Ages, when the civilisations of East and West: Moorish, Jewish, and Christian get together. The mosque of Bab Al Mardum, current Cristo de la Luz, is a nine-domed mosque rest on Visigothic columns. Bab Al Mardum is recognised with its nine vaulted design influenced by the no Gunbad method arrived to Spain through the Asian Silk Road Trips from Asia to Europe. The Mosque differentiate with its central dome raised in the Center famed as Cupula, and built in 999 AD. The Mosque is a square plan composed of nine bays, each develop a cross ribbed vault. The facade is made of brick with Kufic inscriptions written in geometric method influenced by the East. Later, Bab Al Mardum was converted into a Church after the Christian conquest, and a brick apse was added later in Mudejar tradition. The surviving Umayyad entrances have horseshoe or lobed arches, and the west facade carries blind intersecting horseshoe arches and blind arcading in two registers.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 317

Figure 465: Cristo de la Luz, Christian Vault

Figure 466: Cristo de la Luz Nine Vaults

Source: Islamic Art Org.

318

Vault Location Illustration Photo

Vault 1

Vault 2

Vault 3

Vault 4

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 319

Vault 5

Vault 6

Vault 7

Vault 8

Vault 9

320

V A U L T 1 ILLUSTRATION

Table 9: Vault 1 Typology , Cristo de la Luz

V A U L T 2 ILLUSTRATION

Table 10: Vault 2 Typology , Cristo de la Lu

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 321

V A U L T 3 ILLUSTRATION

Table 11: Vault 3 Typology, Cristo de la luz

V A U L T 4 ILLUSTRATION

Table 12: Vault 4 Typology, Cristo de la luz

322

V A U L T 5 ILLUSTRATION

Table 13: Vault 5 Typology, Cristo de la luz

V A U L T 6 ILLUSTRATION

Table 14: Vault 6 Typology, Cristo De La Luz

323

V A U L T 7 ILLUSTRATION

Table 15: Vault 7 Typology, Cristo De La Luz

V A U L T 8 ILLUSTRATION

Table 16: Vault 8 Typology, Cristo De La Luz

324

V A U L T 9 ILLUSTRATION

Table 17: Vault 9 Typology, Cristo De La Luz

Figure 467 Outlines exterior top view of the nine vaults, Cristo de la Luz

325

P A R T V I I

7.CONCLUSION

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 326

7. CONCLUSION

After the comprehensive historical analysis of pre-civilizations, Islamic dynasties and regional once. The research conclude a strong potential of the challenging research study question in investigating the origin of the Islamic Ribbed vaults, located in North Africa and Spain. There were various characteristics and construction methodologies that reflected different Islamic dynasties, and constructed in the same century. Starting from the night century the Islamic domes had boomed from East to West with different patterns and Methodologies, which made the necessity of investigating on the vaults origin since pre-civilizations a major approach in my study. The theoretical part of the study was important in order to create a base for deep understanding of the ancient domes developments until the spread and arrival of Islam to North Africa and Spain to have a base conclusion. For this conclusion, the need for old studies of different languages: French, German, Spanish and Arabic since the initial birth of vaults until the arrival of Islam was important. There were difficulties to understand some Monuments of the past for the addition and renovation of their structures and changes that occurred under the successive dynasties. Some structures had been redesigned by time, while others, remained relatively untouched and big number had been reserved. At last, it makes it possible to outline in detail the architectural characteristics of the Islamic vaults and reach to an answer that lays on the historical comprehensive study and site observation. Proportion is a common characteristic of traditional Islamic patterns everywhere. Geometric proportions form the Islamic patterns which are initially based on mathematical ratios. There are philosophies that influenced these forms and patterns, which are related to the universe, human, nature and religions meanings and thoughts. Geometric proportion is strongly linked to Islamic cosmology, philosophy and metaphysical dimensions. It brings meanings and spiritual thoughts for the viewer. The geometrical rhythm as well as illustrates an infinity, which is align with the Islamic religion philosophy. These geometrical patterns were developed with geometric equations, relating to the understanding of natural forms based on geometric ratios. The geometrical science had been developed in the medieval time, which famed in the Islamic History as the golden Islamic age for its science, economic development, cultural art works, and construction flourish.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 327

This period traditionally dated from the eight century to the thirteenth century, the art of Islam at that time had reached its peak and spread all over the Islamic regions. And the development of geometrical since had flourished and the use of geometrical philosophy had expanded. After the comprehensive analysis of the historical pre-civilizations, Islamic and regional vaults. The study conclude, that the first Islamic structure that contains geometrical ribbed vaults is located in the Great Mosque of Cordoba; however, vaults on squinches were early inventions of the Mesopotamian traditions. The study clarifies that cross arched ribbed vaults were not built during Byzantines nor Roman times or Central Asia. It also proof that the initial start of Cross Vaults was during the Umayyad Period in Damascus, but the cross arched vaults on squinches were an Andalusian origin, and this make it the initial start of the birth of the Islamic ribbed vaults on squinches that spreaded all over from Spain reaching the East. Ibn Khaldun, an Islamic Philosopher in his Introduction Al Muqaddima had discussed the factors of flourishing science, professions and the factors of their decline. The Professions are Perfected and Become Plenty when the Demand for them Increase. Ibn Khaldun says that if a profession is in great demand, people will learn it. When a region becomes weakened, loses its affluence, and its population decreases the professions and it will diminish.

328

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE HISTORY

Hillenbrand, R. (1999). Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning. New York:

Columbia University Press. (English)

K. A. C. Creswell and James W. Allan. (1989). A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture .

Cairo: The American Universty of Cairo Press.

Creswell, K. A. C. A. (1989). Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture. 2d ed. Aldershot,

U.K.: Scholar Press. (English)

Abdin, T. (2010). A Historic Perspective of the Architecture of the Islamic World with Special

Reference to Cairo. Cairo. (English)

Abu Lughod, J. (1987). The Islamic City: Historical Myth, Islamic Essence, and Contemporary

Relevance. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 19: P.155-176.

(English)

Blair, S. and Bloom, J. (2003). The Mirage of Islamic Art: Reflections on the Study of an

Unwieldy Field. Art Bulletin 85: P.152-184. (English)

Blair, S. The Octagonal Pavilion at Natanz. A Reexamination of Early Islamic Architecture in

Iran,” Muqurnas 1, 1983, P. 69-94. (English)

Bloom, J. (1989). Minaret: Symbol of Islam. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. (English)

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 329

Frishman, M. and Hasan U. (1994) The Mosque: History, Architectural Development &

Regional Diversity. Khan, eds. London: Thames and Hudson. (English)

Grabar, O. (1987). The Formation of Islamic Art. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

(English)

Hoag, John D. (1977). Islamic Architecture. New York: Abrams. (English)

Michell, G. (1984). Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning. New

York: Thames and Hudson. (English)

Wazeri, Y. (1998) Encyclopedia of Islamic Architectural Elements. Cairo: Madbouli. (Arabic).

Dennis, S. (1991). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture. New York:

Whitney Library of Design. P. 204. (English)

Al-Haddad, M. (1993) Domes in Egyptian Islamic Architecture. Al-Thakafa alDainia, Cairo

(Arabic)

Khalil, Y. (1992). Research in the Architectural Philosophy. Cairo: Dar Al-Mustakbal AlArabi.

(Arabic)

Mikdashi, G. (1995). Unit of Islamic Arts, Architecture, Handwritings and Music. Lebanon: Al-

Matbuaat. (Arabic)

Salem, A. (1993) Studies in the Form and the Architectural Development. Amman: Technical

University of Jordon. (Arabic)

Smith, S. (1995) The Dome; a study in the history of ideas. New Jersey: Princeton. (English)

Konash, F. (1978). Religion Impact on Islamic Architecture. Ph.D. diss, Columbia University.

(English)

330

Peters, F. (1996). The Greek and Syriac Background, in S.H. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) History

of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. ch. 3. P. 40-51. (English)

Badawi, A.-R. (1987) La transmission de la philosophie grecque au monde arabe (The

Transmission of Greek Philosophy into the Arab World), Paris: Vrin. (French)

Ettinghausen, R. and O. Grabar. 1991. The Art and Architecture of Islam 650-1250. London.

P.356. (English)

Art, D. O. (2001). Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art . Retrieved from Heilbrunn Timeline of Art

History: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/vege/hd_vege.htm. (English)

Berkey, J. (2003). The Formation of Islam. Cambridge University Press. (English)

Bloom, S. S. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. New York: Yale University

Press. (English)

Bosco, R. V. (1894). Discurso de recepción del Excmo. . Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San

Fernando. (Spanish)

Bosworth, C. E. (1967). The Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook.

Edinburgh University Press. (English)

Clifford Edmund, B. (1996). The New Islamic Dynasties. New York: Columbia University

Press. (English)

Buhlfaia, S. A. (2006). In Architecture . (English)

Archnet Digital Library. (English)

Cejka, J. (1978). Art of Islam. Buckle Technology and Form.

Ettinghausen, R.; Grabar, O.; Jenkins, M. (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture: 650-1250.

New York: Yale University Press. (English)

Farrar, R. (2016). Islamic Art & Architecture.

331

Grabar, O. (1966). The earliest . Freer Gallery of Art: University of Michigan. (English)

Grabar, O. (1966). The Earliest Islamic Commemorative Structures. Ars Orientalis IV .

(English)

Grabar, O. (1987). The Formation of Islamic Art. New Haven. Yale University Press. (English)

Heritage, M. (2016). Architecture. Retrieved from Muslim Heritage:

http://muslimheritage.com/article/mshatta-palace-jordan-743-744-ce#_edn8.

(English)

Heymanb, J. (1982). The Masonry Arch. Ellis Horwood.

Hill, D. (1964). Islamic Architecture and Its Decoration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

(English)

Hillenbrand, R. (1994). Islamic Architecture. Form, function and meaning. Edinburgh

University Press. (English)

Hoag, J. D. (1985). Islamic Architecture. New York: Electa/Rizzoli. (English)

James Stevens Curl, Susan Wilson. (1999). A dictionary of Architecture. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. (English)

Kennedy, H. (2001). The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State.

Routledge. (English)

Lima, M. (1 December, 2011). Isamic art and Architecture . Retrieved from Marcelo

Guimaraes Lima, PhD: http://islamicartandarchitecture.blogspot.com.es/.

Ashkan, M. and Ahmad, Yahaya. (2009). Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural

Research. 3(3). (English)

Michell, G. (1978). The Architecture of the Islamic World. London: Thames & Hudson.

(English)

332

MIT Libraries. (2016, March 3). Dome. Retrieved from MIT Libraries:

http://dome.mit.edu/handle/1721.3/50223. (English)

Stearns, P. N. (1992). Islam From The Beginning To 1300. Retrieved from International World

History Project : http://history-world.org/islam.htm. (English)

Stearns, P. N. (1992). Islam From The Beginning To 1300. Retrieved from International World

History Project : http://history-world.org/islam.htm. (English)

Yeomans, R. (1999). The story of Islamic architecture. UK: Garnet Publishing. (English)

Stearns, P. N. (1992). Islam From The Beginning To 1300. Retrieved from International World

History Project : http://history-world.org/islam.htm. (English)

Yeomans, R. (1999) The Story of Islamic architecture. Reading: Garnet P. 141-144. (English)

Martín, Alfonso Jiménez. Artes decorativas: Arte Islámico. el arte maldito. (Spanish)

DESSERT CASTLES

Hitti, P. K. (1956 ). History of the Arabs: From the Earliest Times to the Present. MacMillan,

6th edition. (English)

Petersen, A. (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 0-

415-06084-2. Retrieved 26 December 2015. (English)

Elisabeth Beazley and Michael. Howerson. (1982). Living with the Desert: Working Buildings

of the Iranian Plateau, . Warminster. (English)

Lammens, H. (1915). La Badia. Journal Asiatique, P.108.

Harrison, P. (2004). Castles of God: Fortified Religious Buildings of the World. Pochester: B

ydell Press. (English)

Sauvaget, J. (2010). Desert Castles: Trip to Jordan. TTJ. (English)

333

Hussein, K. (2016). East of Amman: The Desert Castle. Retrieved from Jordan:

http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/tourism5.html. (English)

Robinson, C. (2016). Visit to the Desert Castles in Jordan. Retrieved from ZigZag on Earth:

http://www.zigzagonearth.com/jordan-desert-castles/. (English)

Guides, R. (2016). JORDAN: THE EASTERN DESERT. Retrieved from Rough Guides:

http://www.roughguides.com/destinations/middle-east/jordan/eastern-

desert/desert-castles-loop/qasr-kharana/#ixzz3tNsNlcHI. (English)

Antiquities, M. o. (2001). Qasr Al-Mushatta. Retrieved from UNESCO:

http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1555/. (English)

Hillenbrand, R. (1999).Islamic Art and Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson. (English)

Sicker, M. (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of

Vienna. Praeger. (English)

Robinson, C. (n.d.). Visit to the Desert Castles in Jordan. Retrieved from ZigZag on Earth:

http://www.zigzagonearth.com/jordan-desert-castles/. (English)

Mshatta Palace, Jordan; 743-744 CE. MuslimHeritage.com. The Foundation for Science,

Technology and Civilisation (FSTC). Retrieved 26 December 2015. (English)

Mshatta Palace. www.qantara-med.org/. Qantara Mediterranean Heritage. Retrieved 26

December 2015. (English)

Betini, S. (1972). Castello di Mshatta,. Jairazbhoy. (English)

Mushatta. Archnet Digital Library. (English)

Urice, S. K. (1987). Qasr Kharana in the Transjordan. Durham. North Carolina: American

Schools of Oriental Research. (English)

334

Urice, S. K. (1987). Qasr Kharana in the Transjordan. Durham. North Carolina: American.

(English)

Qasr al-Kharana. (3 March ,2016). Retrieved from Archnet: http://archnet.org/sites/3544

Qasr Azraq. Rough Guides. Retrieved June 12, 2009. (English)

Falls, C. (1964). Armageddon: 1918. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 104.

(English)

Azraq, Archnet Digital Library. (English)

Ettinghausen, R.; Grabar, O.; Jenkins, M. Islamic Art and Architecture, 650–1250. New

Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. P. 39

Petersen, A. (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge. p. 139.

Ilayan, J.S.A. The Development of Structural Concept and Architectural Form in Qasr

Kharana. UNESCO. World Heritage .PDF.

Kharana, Archnet Digital Library

Urice, S. K. (1987) Qasr Kharana in the Transjordan. Durham. N.C.: American Schools of

Oriental Research. (English)

Qasr al-Kharana. (2016) from Archnet: http://archnet.org/sites/3544.

Retrieved 3, March. (English)

Sahner, C. (2010), Snapshot of a Civilization in the Making," The Wall Street Journal, 27

November. (English)

UNESCO, Qusayr 'Amra, World Heritage Site listing. (English)

335

Qusayr 'Amra, Archnet Digital Library. (English)

Almagro, M. ;Caballero, L.;Zozaya, J. and Almagro, A. (2002) Qusayr Amra: Residencia y

Baños Omeyas en el desierto de Jordania, Ed. Fundación El Legado Andalusí.

(Spanish)

Garth Fowden. (2004), Qusayr 'Amra : Art and the Umayyad Elite In Late Antique Syria.

Ed. University of California Press. (English)

Taragan, H. (2008), Constructing a Visual Rhetoric: Images of Craftsmen and Builders in the

Umayyad Palace at Qusayr ‘Amra," Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval

Mediterranean. P. 141-160. (English)

UNESCO, Al Qastal - UNESCO World Heritage Center. (English)

UMAYYADS

Arce, I. (2003). From the diaphragm arches to the ribbed vaults. Proceedings of the First

International Congress on Construction History. Madrid.

Arce, I. (XXX). Umayyad Arches, Vaults & Domes: Merging and Re-creation.

Herzfeld, E. (1942). Damascus. Studies in Architecture.

Petersen, A. (1996). Dictionary of Islamic architecture. New York: Routledge.

Petersen, A. (2011). Damascus History: Art and Architecture . Retrieved from Islamic Art and

Architecture : http://islamic-arts.org/2011/damascus-history-arts-and-architecture/

Sanjoy and Shampa Mazumdar. (1997). Religious traditions and Domestic Architecture .

(English)

336

The Great Mosque, Damascus. (2016). Retrieved from Places ofPeace and Power:

https://sacredsites.com/middle_east/syria/damascus.html. (English)

Yalman, S. (1999). Based on original work by Linda Komaroff : The Art of the Umayyad

Period (661–750). New York: In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . (English)

Yeomans, R. (1999). The story of Islamic architecture. UK: Garnet Publishing.

. (n.d.). A Global History of Architecture. (English)

ABBASIDS

Fattah, H. M. (2009). A Brief History Of Iraq. Infobase Publishing. (English)

Hoag, J. (1987). Abbasid Architecture: Islamic Architecture. New York: Rizzoli. (English)

Allen, T. (1983). The Tombs of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad: BSOAS 46/3 .P.421- 32.

(English)

El-Hibri, T. (1999). Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun Al-Rashid and the Narrative

of the Abbasid Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. (English)

Anisi, A. (2006). The Friday Mosque at Simnan. Iran XLIV. P.207-28. (English)

Blair, S. (1983) The Octagonal Pavilion at Naṭanz. A Re-examination of Early Islamic

Architecture in Iran. Muqarnas I, P. 69-94. (English)

Blair, S. and J. Bloom. Iraq, Iran and Egypt: The Abbasid, IAA, P.88-127. (English)

Blair, S. and Bloom J. and Wardwell, E. (1992).Revaluating the Date of the “Buyid” Silks by

Epigraphic and Radiocarbon Analysis. AO XXII, P. 1-41. (English)

The New Islamic Dynasties (1996). Edinburgh. (English)

Busse, H. Iran under Būyids. CHI, vol. IV, P. 250-304.

337

Choksy, J.K. (1997). Conflict and Cooperation, Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in

Medieval Iranian Society. New York.

Creswell, K.A.C and J.W.Allan. (1989). A short Account of Early Muslim Architecture, revised

ed. Aldershot. (English)

Creswell, K.A.C. (1979). Early Muslim Architecture, 2 vols. New York. (English)

Ettinghausen, R. 1952. The Beveled Style in the Post-Samarra Perio , Archaeologica

Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld, ed. G. C. Miles. Locust Valley. P.72-83.

Kennedy, H. (2004). The True Caliph of the Arabian Nights: Hugh Kennedy Examines the Life

of One of the Most Powerful Men in the World in the Eighth Century. History Today.

Vol. 54. No. (English)

Grabar, O. (1989). Iwan. EIr IV. London& New York. P. 153-55. 357. (English)

The earliest Islamic commemorative structures, notes and documents. (1966). AO IV.

P.7-46. (English)

Northedge, P. A. (2003). The Samarra Archaeological Survey. France . (Frensh)

Robinson, C. F. (2000). Empire and Elites after the Muslim Conquest: The Transformation of

Northern Mesopotamia. Cambridge University Press. (English)

Grohman, A. (1957) The Origin and Early Development of Floriated Kufic. AO II. P. 183-214

Idem (1987), Abbasid Mosques in Iran, Rivista degli studi orientali 59. P. 175-212. (English)

338

SASSANID

Dietrich H. and O’Kane, B. (1990). ČAHĀRṬĀQ. Retrieved from Encyclopaedia iranica:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cahartaq. (English)

Eduljee, K. E. (2016). Early Chahar-Taqi Fire Houses and Temples. Retrieved from Zoroastrian

Heritage: http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/temples/

Allen, T. (1988), Five Essays on Islamic Art. Sebastopol. Calif

Daneshvari, A. (1986), Medieval Tomb Towers of Iran. An Iconographical Study. Lexington.

Rawlinson, G. (2005). George Rawlinson "The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient

Eastern World: The Seventh Monarchy: History of the Sassanian or New Persian

Empire.

Ettinghausen. R. (1969) Some Comments on Medieval Iranian Art. Artibus Asiae 31.

P. 276-300.

Godard, A. (1965) Les anciennes mosquées de l’Īrān,” Āthār-é Īrān 1. P. 187-210. Idem, The

Art of Iran, London.

Grabar, O. (1975) The Visual Arts. in Camb. Hist. Iran IV. P. 329-51. (English)

Hillenbrand, R. (1972), Seljuk Monuments in Iran. I, Oriental Art N.S. 18/2. P. 64-77. (English)

Idem (1973), Mosques and Mausolea in Khurāsān and Central Iran,” Iran 9. P. 160-62.

(English)

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 339

Idem (1976), Seljuk Dome Chambers in North-West Iran. Iran 14. P. 93-102. (English)

O’Kane, B. (1987) Timurid Architecture in Khurasan, Costa Mesa, Calif. (English)

Shokoohy, M. (1983) The Monuments at the Kuhandiž of Herat, Afghanistan,” JRAS. P. 7-31.

Idem (1985), Two Fire Temples Converted to Mosques in Central Iran. Papers in Honour of

Professor Mary Boyce II, Acta Iranica 25, Leiden. P. 545-72. (English)

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

Risebero, B. (1979) the Story of Western Architecture, Cambridge: MIT press. (English)

Baltrusaitis, J. (1936). Forme Et Style: Le probléme de l'ogive et l'Arménie. Librairie Ernest

Leroux. (English)

Barker, P. A. (2001). Techniques of Archaeological Excavation. Un Published. British. (English)

Rosenwein, B. H. (2004). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Ontario. (English)

Smith, E. B. (1950). The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas . Princeton : Princeton

University Press . (English)

Wright, G. (2009). Ancient Building Technology (Vols. 2-3). BRILL. (English)

Wulff, H. E. (1966). The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development, Technology, and

Influence on Eastern and Western Civilizations. Cambridge: Massachusetts and

London . (English)

Choisy, A. (1883 ). L'art de bâtir chez les Byzantins . (French)

Dodds, J. D.; Menocal M.R. , and Balbale, A.K. (2008). The arts of intimacy: Christians, Jews,

and Muslims in the making of Castilian culture . New Haven: Yale University Press.

340

Encyclopedia. (2012). History of Vaults. Retrieved from The Columbia Electronic

Encyclopedia: http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/vault-history-

vaults.html. (English)

Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Ancient Iran. Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica:

www.britannica.com. (English)

Ettinghausen, R. (1972). From Byzantium to Sassanian Iran and the Islamic World. London.

(English)

Fernie, E. C. (2001). Technical Terms and the Understanding of English Medieval

Architecture. SAHGB Publications Limited.

Fitchen, J. (1981). Construction of Gothic Cathedrals. University of Chicago.

Roman Ghirshman; Stuart Gilbert; James Emmons. (1962). Persian Art, Parthian and

Sassanian Dynasties, 249 B.C.- A.D. 651. Golden Press.

Franz Von Reber; Joseph Thacher Clarke. (1882). History of Ancient Art. Harper & Brothers.

Hourihane, C. P. (2012). The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture. Oxford :

Oxford University Press.

Huerta, S. (2009). The Debate about the Structural Behaviour of Gothic Vaults: From Viollet-

le-Duc to Heyman. Proc. Third Int. Congress on Construction History, P.837-844.

Cottbus.

Huff, P. D. (2016). Encyclopaedia Iranica: ANCIENT IRANIAN ARCHITECTURE. Retrieved from

The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies: http://www.cais-

soas.com/CAIS/Architecture/chartaq.htm

Karydis, N. (2009). Limiting the Use of Centering in Vaulted Construction: The Early

Byzantine Churches of West Asia Minor. University of Pennsylvania.

341

Lancaster, L. C. (2015). Innovative Vaulting in the Architecture of the Roman Empire: 1st to

4th centuries. Cambridge University Press. (English)

Marciak, M. The Cultural Enviroment of Adiabene in the Hellenistic, Parthian, and Sasanian

Periods. Parthica: Incontri di culture nel mondo antico.

Petralla, S. (2013). Historical vaulted constructions of the Iranian heritage. 2nd International

Balkans Conference on Challenges of Civil Engineering (p. 1). Epoka University.

Rawlinson, G. (2005). George Rawlinson "The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient

Eastern World: The Seventh Monarchy: History of the Sassanian or New Persian

Empire.

Riegl, A. (1992). The Arabesque: In Problems of Style . Princeton University Press.

The Influence of the Roman Arch. (n.d.). Houghton Mifflin Company.

Ward-Perkins, B. (2005). The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Webb, G. (1965). Architecture in Britain: The Middle Ages. (English)

Woolley, L. (1961). The Art of the Middle East Including Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine.

Crown Publishers. (English)

Wright, G. (2009). Ancient Building Technology (Vols. 2-3). BRILL. (English)

Wulff, H. E. (1966). The Traditional Crafts of Persia: Their Development, Technology, and

Influence on Eastern and Western Civilizations. Cambridge: Massachusetts and

London . (English)

Stevens, J. (2000). Vault. A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture.

Retrieved April 19, 2016 from

Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O1-vault.html

342

Sally, D. (2005). Ancient Near Eastern architecture. In Daniel Snell. A Companion to the

Ancient Near East. Oxford: Blackwell. P. 266–280. (English)

Ayatollahi, H. (2003) The Book of Iran: The Histry of Iranina Art. Center of International

Culture Studies. Iran. P. 126. (English)

Cassanelli, R, David, M, De Albentis, E., Jacques, A. (2002). Ruins of Ancient Rome. The

Drawings of French Architects Who Won the Prix the Rome, 1786-1924, Los Angeles:

Getty Publications.

Dunn, W. (1908) The Dome of St. Pauls, by W. Dunn. RIBA Journal, vol. XV, 1908 (nov 1907-

oct 1908), P. 72-74

Girón, F. J. (2003). Drawing, reasoning and prejudice in Choisy’s Histoire de l’Architecture.

Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid:

Instituto Juan de Herrera, vol. I, pp.1007-22, 2003, Drawing, reasoning and prejudice

in Choisy’s Histoire de l’Architecture, Proceedings of the First International Congress

on Construction History, Madrid: Instituto Juan de Herrera, vol. I, P.1007-22.

Girón, F. J. (2005). El análisis de la construcción romana según Piranesi: ¿Fantasía o ciencia?

Actas del Cuarto Congreso Nacional de Historia de la construcción, Cadiz: Instituto

Juan de Herrera, vol. 1, pp. 479-87 Guadet, J, 1878, Etude sur la construction et la

disposition du Colisée Amphithéatre Flavien, Paris: Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts.

343

AFRICA George, M. (1926). Manuel d´art musulman. L´architecture Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc, Espagne

et Sicilie. Paris: Auguste Picard.

Entelis, J.P. Algeria: The Revolution Institutionalized. P.14

Ruth Cyr. (2001). Twentieth Century Africa. P.345

Hodgson, M. (1961) Venture of Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, P. 262

Etheredge, L. Islamic History . P. 73

Terrasse H. (1943). La grande mosquée de Taza. Paris: Les Éditions d ́Art et d ́Histoire.

(French)

Almohad. The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Ed. Jonathan M. Bloom

and Sheila S. Blair. © Oxford University Press 2009. The Grove Encyclopedia of

Islamic Art and Architecture: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). 21 September

2009 http://www.oxford-islamicart.com/entry?entry=t276.e70. (English)

Architecture. The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Ed. Jonathan M.

Bloom and Sheila S. Blair. © Oxford University Press 2009. The Grove Encyclopedia of

Islamic Art and Architecture: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). 21 September

2009 http://www.oxford-islamicart.com/entry?entry=t276.e89. (English)

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 344

Fez Hillenbrand, R. (1994). Islamic Architecture. New Yor : Columbia. P.240-25. (English).

Hoag, J. (1987). Islamic Architecture. New Yourk: Rizzoli. P. 57-59. (English)

Marcais, G. (1955). L'Architecture Musulmane d'Occident. (The Muslim Architecture of the

West). Paris: Arts et Métiers Graphiques.P. 197-200. (French).

Michell, G. (1996). Architecture of the Islamic World. London: Thames & Hudson. P.216.

(English).

Marrakesh Tabbaa, Y. (2008). Andalusian Roots and Abbasid Homage in the Qubbat al-Barudiyyin in

Marrakech. In Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World XXV.

P. 133-146. (English)

Joël Meunié and Terrasse Henry. (1957). Nouvelles recherches archéologiques à Marrakech.

Paris.

Jonathan, B. Toufiq, A. , Carboni,S. Soultanian, J. Antoine M., Mark D. Minor, Zawacki, A. ,

and Hbibi, E.M. (1998). The Minbar from the Kutubiyya Mosque. New York: The

Metropolitan Museum of Art. P. 31-38, 46-57.

Bonine, M. E. (1990). Sacred Direction and City Structure. Muqarnas VII: 52. (English)

Deverdun, G. (2004). Marrakech, des origines à 1912. Casablanca: Editions Frontispice. P.

98-106.

Hillenbrand, R. (1994). Islamic Architecture. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 86, P.

139-140, 475. (English)

Hoag, J. D. (2004). Islamic Architecture. Milan: Electa. P. 47-49. (English)

345

Yeomans, R. (1999). The Story of Islamic Architecture. Reading: Garnet Publishing. P. 90-92.

(English)

Marrakesh. The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Ed. Jonathan M. Bloom

and Sheila S. Blair. © Oxford University Press 2009. The Grove Encyclopedia of

Islamic Art and Architecture: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). 21 September

2009 http://www.oxford-islamicart.com/entry?entry=t276.e568.

Moravids

Scales, P. (1994). The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict (Vol.

II). Brill. (English)

Guides, R. (2016). THE ALMORAVID KOUBBA. (English)

Swaan, Enrique Sordo and Wim. (1963). Mooris/l Spain: COrdoba, Seville and Granada, Eng.

trans. I. Michael,. London: Elek Books. (English)

Tabba, Y. (2008). Andalusian Roots And Abbasid Homage In The Qubbat Al-Barudiyyin In

Marrakech (Vol. 25). Muqarnas, Harvard University. (English)

Almoravid. The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Ed. Jonathan M. Bloom

and Sheila S. Blair. © Oxford University Press 2009. The Grove Encyclopedia of

Islamic Art and Architecture: (e-reference edition). Oxford University Press.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). 21 September

2009 http://www.oxford-islamicart.com/entry?entry=t276.e71. (English)

346

Tunis Marcais. G. (1954). Ifriqiya: Thirteen centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia . (Frensh)

Marcais, G. (1883). The Musulman Art. Catedra Ediciones. (Frensh)

Reese, S. S. (2004). The Transmission of Learning in Islamic Africa. Boston. (English)

Research Group . (2007). The Islamic World to 1600 . University of Calgary.

Rammah, M. (2002). Kairouan. Museum with no Frontiers, Islamic Art in the Mediterranean,

Ifriqiya. Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia . Vienna: Electa.

Kairouan Mosque

Sebag, P. (1965). The Great Mosque of Kairouan. New York: Macmillan.

Al-Kaa'by, M. 1.-K.-G.-I. (1965). The Great Mosque of Kairouan. New York: Macmillan.

Al-Kaa'by, M. (Beirut). Al-Kairouan Beirut: Dar Al-Gharb Al-Islam. P. 84-85

Apelian, D. C. (2014). The Great Mosque of Kairouan. Retrieved from khan Academy:

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam/islamic-art-early/a/the-great-

mosque-of-kairouan

Rammah, M. (2002). Kairouan, Museum with no Frontiers, Islamic Art in the Mediterranean,

Ifriqiya. Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia . Vienna: Electa.

Al-Kaa'by, M. (1990). Al-Kairouan. Beirut: Dar Al-Gharb Al-Islamy, P. 84-85.

347

Zaytuna Mosque

Achour, M. E. (1991). Jami’ Al-Zaytunah: Al-ma’lam wa-rijaluh. Tunis: Dar Saras lil Nashr.

Mami, M. B. (2011, February 7). Discover Islamic Art. Retrieved from Great Mosque of

Zaytuna:http://www.discoverislamicart.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;tn

;Mon01;1;en

Uthman, N. (2000). Masajid al-Qayrawan. Halab: Yutlabu min N. Uthman. Schools of

Oriental Research.

Rammah, M. (2002). Kairouan. Museum with no Frontiers, Islamic Art in the Mediterranean,

Ifriqiya. Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia . Vienna: Electa.

CAIRO Behrens-Abouseif, D. (1989). In Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction. New York: E.J.

Brill.

Brass, M. (2003). The nature of urbanism in Ancient Egypt, Essay for Degree: MA in

Archaeology. London: University College London.

Fernandes, L. E. (1998). The Evolution of a Sufi Institution in Mamluk Egypt: The Khanqah.

Berlin: Klaus Schwarz.

Vigus, T. M. (n.d.). Building in ancient Egypt. Retrieved from

http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/building/

Williams, C. (2002). Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide. Cairo: American

University of Cairo Press. P.46-49

Uthman, N. (2000). Masajid al-Qayrawan. Halab: Yutlabu min N. 'Uthman.

Abulafia, D. (2011). The Mediterranean in History. P. 170. (Englsih)

348

Haag, M.(2012). The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States.

(Englsih)

Bacharach, J. L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K. index. P. 382. (Englsih)

C.E. Bosworth (1996). The New Islamic Dynasties. Columbia University Press. P. 62.

Tulunid Swelim, M. Tarek. (1994) The Mosque of Ibn Tulun: A New Perspective. Ph.D. diss. Harvard

University.

Wahhab, H. A. (1940). Al-Jami' Al-Tuluni. Majallat al-'Imara, 105-112.

Ikhshidid

Berchem, Max van (1978). Notes d'archéologie arabe II. Toulounides et Fatimites. In Opera

Minora I, . Geneva: Editions Slatkine. P. 203-233

Karnouk, Gloria. (1981). Form and Ornament of the Cairene Bahri Minbar. Annales

Islamologiques 17. P. 113-139.

Riegl, Alois. (1992). The Arabesque: In Problems of Style. Princeton University Press.

P.229-305

Fatimids Al-Amin, H. (n.d.). Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt. Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia.

Canard, M. (1888). Fatimids. Paris.

Halm, H. (1996). The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids.: Michael Bonner trans.

349

Helm, H. (1997). The Fatimids and their traditions of learning. London: The Institute of

Ismaili Studies and I.B. Tauris.

Michael BrettJ. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver. (2002). The Fatimid Revolution (861-973)

and its aftermath in North Africa (Vol. Vol 2). Cambridge University Press.

Yalman, S. (2001). Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Department of Education, The

Metropolitan Museum of Art.

SPAIN

Hintzen-Bohlen, B. (2008). Andalusia: Art & Architecture.

Lapunzina, A. (2005). Architecture of Spain. Westport: Conn: Greenwood Press.

Gómez Moreno M. (1951). El arte árabe español hasta los almohades. Arte mozárabe.

Madrid: Plus Ultra. (Spanish)

Merla, L. F. (2000). Bóvedas nervadas en el Castillo de Villena: Alicante. Actas del Tercer

Congreso Nacional de Historia de la Construcción. Sevilla.

Huerta, S. (2009). The Debate about the Structural Behaviour of Gothic Vaults: From

Viollet-le-Duc to Heyman. Proc. Third Int. Congress on Construction History.

Cottbus. P.837-844

Lampérez V. (1899). Segovia, Toro y Burgos: observaciones sobre algunos de sus

monumentos arquitectónicos de la Edad Media. Madrid: Hijos de M. G. Hernández.

Marçais G. (1983). El arte musulmán. Madrid: Cátedra.

Pavón Maldonado, B. (1975). La decoración geométrica hispanomusulmana y los cimborrios

aragoneses de tradición islámica. Actas del I Simposio Internacional de Mudejarismo

(Teruel). (Spanish)

350

Pavón Maldonado B. 2009. Tratado de arquitectura hispanomusulmana. 4 vols.

Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. (Spanish)

Terrasse H. (1932). L ́art hispano-mauresque des origines au XIII siécle. Paris: G. Van Oest.

(French).

Torres Balbás L. (1935). La progenie hispano-musulmana de las primeras bóvedas

nervadas francesas y los orígenes de las ojivas. Al-Andalus 3, P.398-410. (Spanish)

Torres Balbás L., 1940. La bóveda gótico-morisca de la capilla de Talavera de la

Catedral Vieja de Salamanca. Al-Andalus 5:1 (Crónicas Arqueológicas de la España

musulmana, VI), p.174-178.

Torres Balbas L., 1949. Arte almohade, arte nazarí, arte mudéjar. Madrid: Plus Ultra.

William Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia . (2001). A History of Islamic Spain. Edinburgh

University Press.

Almagro, A. (2001). Un aspecto constructivo de la bóvedas en al-Andalus. Al Qantara 22, 1:

147-170.

Basset, H.; Terrasse, H. (1932). Sanctuaires et Forteresses Almohades. Paris: Inst.

Hautes-Etudes Marocaines. Casinello, F. (1969). Bóvedas y cúpulas de ladrillo. Madrid:

Manuales y normas del Instituto Eduardo Torroja de la construcción y del cemento.

Luis Ferre de Merlo. (2000) Bóvedas nervadas en el Castillo de Villena, Alicante: Actas del

Tercer Congreso Nacional de Historia de la Construcción, Sevilla, 26-28 octubre

2000, eds.

Graciani, A.; Huerta, S.; Rabasa. E., Tabales, M. I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, U. Sevilla, Junta

Andalucía, COAAT Granada. CEHOPU. Madrid

351

Moreno, G. (1951). El arte árabe español hasta los almohades. Arte mozárabe. Madrid: Plus

Ultra.

Huerta, S. (2009). The Debate about the Structural Behaviour of Gothic Vaults: From Viollet-

le-Duc to Heyman. Proc. Third Int. Congress on Construction History, Cottbus. P. 837-

844

Lambert, E. (1928). Les voûtes nervées hispano-musulmanes et leur influence posible sur l'art

chrétien. Hesperis 8, P.147-175.

Lambert, E. (1939). La croisée d´ogives dans l´architecture islamique. Recherche 1, p.57-71.

Lamperez, V. (1899). Segovia, Toro y Burgos: observaciones sobre algunos de sus

monumentos arquitectónicos de la Edad Media. Madrid: Hijos de M. G. Hernández

Marcais, G. (1926). Manuel d´art musulman. L´architecture Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc, Espagne

et Sicilie. 2 vols. Paris: Auguste Picard.

Meunie J. and Terrasse H., (1957). Nouvelles recherches archéologiques à Marrakech.

Edited by I. d. h. é. marocaines, Publications de l'Institut des hautes études

marocaines. Paris.

Lambert. (1928). Les voûtes nervées hispano-musulmanes et leur influence posible sur l'art

chrétien.

Lambert, E. (1928). Les voûtes nervées hispano-musulmanes et leur influence posible sur

l'art chrétien. (pp. p.147-175.). Hesperis 8.

Lambert, E. (1939). La croisée d´ogives dans l´architecture islamique. (pp. P.57-71).

Recherche 1.

352

Martos, D. R. (2010 ). Primary Elements in Andalusian Architecture. USA: University of Notre

Dame.

Moreno, M. G. (1951). El arte árabe español hasta los almohades. Arte mozárabe . Madrid.

Sebastian, F. V. (2012). La Importancia del Catalogo Monumental para la Investigacion del

Arte Medieval en Espana. Centro de Estudios del Románico. Elementos primarios de

la arquitectura andalusí y mudéjar

Austin, R.W.J. (1988) Sufis of Andalusia, Gloustershire: Beshara Publications.

Heyman J. (1968). On the Rubber Vaults of the Middle Ages. Gazette des Beaux-Arts 71,

P.177-188.

Heyman J. (1995). The Stone Skeleton. Structural Engineering of Masonry Architecture.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (English)

Heyman J. (2008). Basic Structural Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Great Mosque of Cordoba

Creswell, K.A.C. (1989). A short account of early Muslim architecture. Revised edition by

James W. Allan. Aldershot: Scolar Press.

Dodds, J. (1992). Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain. Edited by Jerrilynn D. Dodds. New

York: Abrams,P. 11-26.

Ettinghausen, R. and Oleg Grabar. (1987). The Art and Architecture of Islam: 650-1250.

London and N.Y.: Penguin. P.127-140.

Khoury, N. (1996). "The meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the tenth

century.” Muqarnas 13, 80-98.

353

Fuentes, P. and Huerta, S. (2010). Islamic domes of crossed-arches: Origin, geometry and

structural. 6th International Conference on Arch Bridges (pp. 11-13). SECON-HDGK.

Romanesque architecture in Spain. (2016). Retrieved from Wikiwand: Romanesque

architecture in Spain

Vicente Lampérez y Romea. (1899). Segovia, Toro y Burgos: observaciones sobre algunos de

sus monumentos arquitectónicos de la Edad Media. Madrid: Hijos de M. G.

Hernández.

William Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia (2001). A History of Islamic Spain. Edinburgh

University Press.

Swaan, Enrique Sordo and Wim. (1963). Mooris/l Spain: COrdoba, Seville and Granada, Eng.

trans. I. Michael,. London: Elek Books.

Harris, Julie A. (1997. Mosque to Church Conversions in the Spanish Reconquest. Medieval

Encounters.

Cummins, J. History's Greatest Wars: The Epic Conflicts That Shaped the Modern World.

Beverly, Mass: Fair Winds, 2011. (English)

Dodds, Jerrilynn Denise. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New York: Metropolitan

Museum of Art, 1992. (English)

Khoury, N. (1996) The Meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century.

Mugarnas 13. (English)

Lovat, T. (2015). Reconciling Islam, Christianity and Judaism: Islams Special Role in Restoring

Convivencia. New York: Springer. (English)

354

Safran, Janina M. (2000) The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal

Legitimacy in Al-Andalus. Cambridge, MA: Distributed for the Center for Middle

Eastern Studies of Harvard University by Harvard UP. (English)

Watt, William Montgomery and Pierre Cachia (2008) . A History of Islamic Spain. New

Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction. (English)

Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index. New

York: Routledge. (English)

Fairchild Ruggles, D. (2011) The Stratigraphy of Forgetting: The Great Mosque of Cordoba

and Its Contested Legacy. In Contested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism,

Erasure, and Exclusion in a Global World, ed. Helaine Silverman. New York: Springer.

Ecker, H. (2003) The Great Mosque of Córdoba in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.

Muqarnas 20.1. (English)

Borrás Gualis, G. (1991). La Ciudad Islámica. Guillermo Fatás (Dir.) Guía Histórico-Artística De

Zaragoza. Zaragoza City Council. P. 71–100. 3rd Ed.

Biel Ibáñez, M. P. (2008). Nuevas Noticias Sobre El Palacio De La Aljafería. Guillermo Fatás

(Dir.) Guía Histórico-Artística De Zaragoza. Zaragoza City Council. P. 711–727. 4th Ed.

(Spanish)

Cabañero Subiza, B. (1998), La Aljafería. I. Zaragoza: Cortes De Aragón. 1998. (Spanish)

Expósito Sebastián Et Al. (2006). La Aljafería De Zaragoza. Zaragoza: Cortes De Aragón. (6ª

Ed.) (Spanish)

355

Fuentes, P. (2013) Bóvedas de arcos entrecruzados entre los siglos X y XVI.

Geometría, construcción y estabilidad. PhD dissertation. UPM. Madrid

Fuentes, P. Huerta, S. (2013) Crossed-Arch Vaults In Late-Gothic And Early

Renaissance Vaulting: A Problem In Building Technology Transfer. 5th

International Congress on Construction History. Madrid.

356

Cristo de la Luz

Creswell, K.A.C. (1989). A Short Account of early Muslim Architecture. rev. ed. by James W.

Allan. Aldershot: Scolar Press. P.349-351. (English)

Marcais, G. (1954) L'architecture musulmane d'occident : Tunisie, Algerie, Maroc, Espagne et

Sicile. (The Western Muslim architecture: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Spain and Sicily.)

Paris: Arts et metiers graphiques,. P. 151-152. (French)

Jurado, F. (2001) Memoria del proyecto modificado de cubiertas del Cristo de la Luz.

Tulaytula, Nº. 7. P. 15-22. (Spanish)

Jurado, F. (2000). Estudios previos a la restaurción de la Ermita del Cristo de la Luz antes

Mezquita de Bab al-Mardum” Tulaytula, Nº. 6. P. 15-51. (Spanish)

Jean Passini. (2002). La antigua iglesia de San Ginés en Toledo. Tulaytula, Nº. 10. P. 69-78.

(Spanish)

Rius, M. (1999). Orientación de las mezquitas en Toledo. Tulaytula, Nº. 4. P. 67-75. (Spanish)

Geoffrey R.D. Klng . (1999) The Mosque of Bab al-Mardum and the Islamic building

tradition. Toledo: Actas del Congreso Internacional: Mil años del Cristo de la Luz. P.

269-286. (Spanish)

Mezquita del Cristo de la Luz. Turismo. Castilla-La Mancha.

http://www.turismocastillalamancha.es/patrimonio/mezquita-del-cristo-de-la-luz-

14664/visita/ [Accessed January 13, 2014]

Pareja, A. ( 1999). Mezquita de Bab al Mardum, Cristo de la Luz, Toledo 999-1999. Fundacíon

Cultura y Deporte Castilla-La Mancha. Spain : Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La

Mancha .

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 357

The Mediation of Islamic Ornament (1989). Princeton.

Gye, D.H. (1988), Arches and Domes in Iranian Islamic Buildings: An Engineer’s Perspective.

Iran XXVI P.129-44.

Hakimov, A.A., E. Novgorodova and A. H. Dani. (1992) Arts and Crafts: History of Civilization

of Central Asia: A.D.750 to the end of the fifteenth century, achievements vol. IV,

pt.2 Paris.P.411-447.

Ḥakimi, A. Shahdad (1997) Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze Age Centre in Iran.

Rome: Eng. trans.

Herrmann, G. (1999) Monuments of Merv. Traditional Buildings of the Karakum. London.

Hillenbrand, R. (1987). Abbasid Mosques in Iran. Rivista degli Studi Orientali LIX. Rome.

P.175-212.

Saljuq Monuments in Iran: I. (1972) Oriental Art XVIII. P.64-77.

Ferrier, R.W. (1989) The Islamic Architecture of Persia. Arts of Persia, ed. New Haven. P. 81-

107.

Kimball, F. The Sasanian Building at Damghan. SPA, vol.II. P.579-83.

Kraemer, J.L. (1993) Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam. The Cultural Revival during the

Buyid Age. Leiden. 2nd Ed.

Madelung, W. The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran. CHI, vol. IV, P.198-250.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 358

IRAN Godard, A. (1949). Voûtes Iraniennes. Athar-E-Iran, Ann. Service Archéologique de l'Iran 4,

P.187-345. (Frensh)

Anisi, A. (2007). Ph.D. Thesis: Early Islaic Architecture in Iran (637-1059). The University Of

Edinburgh.

Beckwith, C. I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze

Age to the Present.

Berkey, J. P. (2003). The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800.

Cambridge University Press .

Besenval, R. (1984). Technology of the vault in Anceint East. Paris : Editions Recherche sur

les civilisations

Bier, L. (1986). Sarvistan: A Study in Early Iranian Architecture. London: University Park .

Blair, S. S. (1991). The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana, :

Studies in Islamic Art and Architecture . Muqarnas.

Daftary, F. (1990). The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines.

Daniel, E. L. (1997). Arabs, Persians, and the Advent of the Abbasids Reconsidered. The

Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 117. No. 3.

Farahani, M. and A. Quchani (2001). Masjid-i Jami -yi Sava. Tehran.

Finster, B. (1994). Frühe Iranische Moscheen. Berlin.

Frye, R. N. The Samanids. CHI, vol. IV, P. 136-61

The Golden Age of Persia (1976). London. Ed.

Cambridge History of Iran from Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. (1975). vol. IV. Cambridge.

M. Heron, ed. J.M. Rogers (1965). The Art of Iran. Eng. Trans. London

359

Golombek, L. and D. N. Wilber. (1988). The Timurid Architecture in Iran and Turan. 2 vols.

Princeton.

Golombek, L. (1969). Abbasid Mosque at Balkh, Oriental Art XV. P.173-89.

Frye, R. N. (1999). The Tahirids and Saffarids (Vol. IV). Cambridge University Press.

Ghirshman, R. (1954). Iran from the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest. Penguin Books.

Gibb, H. A. (1923). The Arab Conquests in Central Asia. London: The Royal Asiatic Society.

Golombek, L. (1969). Abbasid Mosque at Balkht . Oriental Ar.

Golombek, L. a. (1988). The Timurid Architecture of Iran and Turan. Princeton: Princeton

University Press.

Godard, A. (1965). The Art of Iran.

Yeomans, R. (1999). The story of Islamic architecture. An Introduction to Persian Art since

the Seventh Century A. D. Charles Scribner's Sons . UK: Garnet Publishing.

Pope, A. U. (1977). Architectural Ornament. In A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times

to the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis Ackerman (assistant editor),

Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans. Gardens. 3rd ed. 1258-1364. , Tehran:

Soroush Press.

Bosworth, C.E. (1963). The Ghaznavids 994–1040. Edinburgh University Press.

Prakash, M. M. A Global History of Architecture.

Ramin. (2009). In Historical Iranian sites and people .

Cavendish M. (2006). Peoples of Western Asia. p. 364.

Hutt, Anthony and Leonard Harrow. (1978). Iran: Islamic Architecture. London: Scorpion

Publishers.

Oxford Islamic Studies Online: Sufism

360

Bosworth, C.E. (1991). Mahmud bin Sebuktigin. Encyclopedia of Islam.

Daftary, F.(2005). Ismailis in Medieval Muslim societies. I B Taurus and company.

Habib, M. (1965). Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznin. S. Chand & Co.

Qassem, A. S. (2009). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate

Publishing.

Ramachandran, S. (3 September, 2005). Asia's missiles strike at the heart. Asia Times

Online.

Pope A.U. (1963). Possible Iranian contributions to the beginning of gothic architecture. In:

Beiträge zur Kunstgeschichte Asiens. In Memoriam Ernst Diez, ed. by O. Aslanapa.

Istanbull. P.1-29

Ritter, H. (2003). Handbook of Oriental studies: Near and Middle East 69. Brill.

Virani, S. N. (2007). The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for

Salvation. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bosworth, C. E. (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. p. 280.

Schroeder, E. (1977). The Seljuk Period. In A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to

the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis Ackerman (assistant editor),

Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans, Gardens, 3rd ed., 986-988. Tehran:

Soroush Press, 1977.

Idem. (1975). Iran in the Ancient East. Oxford.

Idem. (1987). The Gunbad in Islamic: Iranian Architecture . Tehran.

361

Karnouk, G. (1981). Form and Ornament of the Cairene Bahri Minbar . Annales

Islamologiques.

Liu, X. (2010). The Silk Road: A New History.

Petrallain, S. (2012). Arches and Ribbed Vaults of the Iranian Tradition describing. Retrieved

from University of Pennsylvania.

Pope, A. U. (1931). An Introduction to Persian Art since the Seventh Century A. D. Charles

Scribner's Sons .

Pope, A. U. (1977). Architectural Ornament. In A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times

to the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis Ackerman (assistant editor),

Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans. Gardens. 3rd ed. 1258-1364. , Tehran:

Soroush Press,.

Petrallain, S. (2012). Arches and Ribbed Vaults of the Iranian Tradition describing. Retrieved

from University of Pennsylvania.

Pope, A. U. (1931). An Introduction to Persian Art since the Seventh Century A. D. Charles

Scribner's Sons .

Pope, A. U. (1977). Architectural Ornament. In A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times

to the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis Ackerman (assistant editor),

Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans. Gardens. 3rd ed. 1258-1364. , Tehran:

Soroush Press,.

Prakash, M. M. A Global History of Architecture.

Hanifi, M. A. (1964). A Short History of Muslim rule in Indo-Pakistan. Ideal Library.

362

Kumar, R. (2008). History of the Chamar Dynasty: (From 6Th Century A.D. To 12Th Century

A.D.). Kalpaz Publications.

Ramin. (2009). In Historical Iranian sites and people .

Schroeder. (1939). a Survey of Persian Art , the architecture of Saljuq period, A.Pope.

Campbell, G. (2006). The Grove encyclopedia of decorative arts, Volume 1. New York:

Oxford University Press. p.474.

Potter, G. (2012). Square Kufic.

Chopra, R M. (1999) Great Sufi Poets of The Punjab. Iran Society. Calcutta.

Chopra, R M. (2007) Rumi: His Teachings and Philosophy, Iran Society, Calcutta.

Kana'an, R. (2008). Helaine Selin, ed. Architectural decoration in Islam: History and

techniques. in Encyclopedia of Science and technology and Medicine in Non-Western

Cultures. New York: Kluver Academic Publishers. P. 193.

ArchNet. Arslan Jadhib Mausoleum and Minaret. Retrieved 06- 01- 2016.

ArchNet. Friday Mosque of Damghan. Retrieved 06- 01- 2016.

The Courtauld Institute of Art. Funerary tower of Pir-e Alamdar. Retrieved 06- 01- 2016.

Heeney, G (2003). Brickworks. University of Pennsylvania Press. P. 10.

Pope, A. U. (1977). Architectural Ornament. In A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric

Times to the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis Ackerman (assistant

363

editor), Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans, Gardens, 3rd ed., 1275-1277.

Tehran: Soroush Press.

Nizami, K. (1957). Some Aspects of KhAnqah Life in Medieval India. Studia Islamica 8 .

P. 51–69.

Fernandes, L. E. (1998). The Evolution of a Sufi Institution in Mamluk Egypt: The Khanqah.

Berlin: Klaus Schwarz.

Hattstein, M. and P. Delius (2000) Islam: Art and Architecture

Berkey, J. (2003 ) The Formation of Islam, Cambridge University Press.

Abrahamov, B., (2014) Philosophical Mysticism, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and

Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A.

Walker: Santa Barbara.

Abun-Nasr, J. (2007) Muslim Communities of Grace: The Sufi Brotherhoods in Islamic

Religious Life. London: Hurst

Al-Badawi, M. (2005) Sufi Sage of Arabia. Louisville: Fons Vitae.

Algan, R. & Camille, A. H. (2008). The Teachings of Shams of Tabriz. Sandpoint.

ID: Morning Light Press.

Azeemi, K. Sh. Muraqaba: Art and Science of Sufi Meditation, Houston: Plato Publishing.

Ali-Shah, O. (1992). The Rules or Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order. Tractus Publishers.

Angha, N. (2002) Sufism: A Bridge between Religions. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications.

Angha, N. (1997). Sufism: The Lecture Series. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications.

364

Angha, N. (1994). Peace. MTO Shahmaghsoudi Publications.

Arberry, A.J. (1991). Mystical Poems of Rumi, Vols. 1&2. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

Burckhardt, T. (1963) An Introduction to Sufi Doctrine. Lahore

Colby, F. (2006) The Subtleties of the Ascension: Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on

Muhammad's Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae.

Dahlén, A. (2008) Sufi Islam, The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations, ed.

Peter B. Clarke & Peter Beyer, New York.

Dahlén, A. (2008) Female Sufi Saints and Disciples: Women in the life of Jalal al-din

Rumi, Orientalia Suecana, vol. 57, Uppsala

Emin Er, M. (2008). Laws of the Heart: A Practical Introduction to the Sufi Path, Shifâ

Publishers

Emin Er, M. (2008). The Soul of Islam: Essential Doctrines and Beliefs, Shifa Publishers.

Ernst, C. (1999). The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. HarperOne.

Fadiman, J. and Frager, R. (1997) Essential Sufism. Boulder: Shambhala.

Farzan, M. (1974) The Tale of the Reed Pipe. New York: Dutton.

Gowins, P. Sufism—A Path for Today: The Sovereign Soul. New Delhi: Readworthy

Publications.

365

Khan, I. Sufism. The Sufi message, Volume IX—The Unity of Religious Ideals

Koc, D. (2008). Gulen's Interpretation of Sufism, Second International Conference on Islam in

the Contemporary World: The Fethullah Gülen Movement in Thought and Practice,

December

Lewinsohn (ed.). The Heritage of Sufism, Volume I: Classical Persian Sufism from its Origins

to Rumi (700–1300).

Nurbakhsh, J. (2003). What is Sufism? Electronic text derived from The Path, Khaniqahi

Nimatullahi Publications. London.

Rahimi, S. (2007). Intimate Exteriority: Sufi Space as Sanctuary for Injured Subjectivities in

Turkey., Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 46, No. 3, September 2007. P. 409–422

Schimmel, A. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Schmidle, N. (2008) Pakistan's Sufis Preach Faith and Ecstasy, Smithsonian magazine. Sells,

Michael (ed.), Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological

Writings.

Shah, I. (1971) The Sufis. New York: Anchor Books.

Shah, S. I. A. (1922). The General Principles of Sufism. The Hibbert Journal, Vol. XX, October

1921/ July 1922.

Shaikh S. M. (2010) Letters from a Sufi Teacher. Mountain View, CA: Golden Elixir Press.

366

Seker, N. (2010). Jewish and Muslim Mysticism: Jewish Mystics on the Sufi Path. Qantara.

The Great Mosque of Isfahan

Grabar, O. (1990). The Great Mosque of Isfahan . New York: New York University Press. P. 13

Hossain, Z. M. Iranian Architecture in Isfahan. Retrieved from Homafaran Tour and Travel

Agency. (Englsih)

Encyclopædia Britannica. (2016). Ghaznavid dynasty. from Encyclopædia Britannica:

http://global.britannica.com/topic/Ghaznavid-dynasty

Blair, Sheila S. and Jonathan M. Bloom (1994). The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250-

1800. New Haven: Yale University Press. P.53.

Byron, R. (1982) The Road to Oxiana. New York: Oxford University Press. P. 196

Galdieri, E. Esfahan: Masgid-i Gum'a. Rome: IsMeo, 1984.

Hoag, J. (2004) Islamic architecture. Milano: Electa Architecture. Phaidon Press. P. 94-95.

Byron, R. (1982). The Road to Oxiana. New York: Oxford University Press. P. 196

Yeomans, R. (1999) The Story of Islamic architecture. Reading: Garnet. P. 141-144.

Galdieri, E. (1984) Esfahan: Masgid-i Gum'a. Rome: IsMeo.

Pourjavady, N. (ed.), E. Booth-Clibborn (originator). The Splendour of Iran. London: Booth-

Clibborn Editions, 2001. 111-113.

367

World Heritage List. World Monuments Fund

Panographies. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1397. [Accessed August 9, 2013]

Naian Mosque

O'Kane, B. (1995), Iran and Central Asia. In Studies in Persian Art and Architecture, 119-

139. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.

Pope, A. U. (1977) Architectural Ornament. In A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric

Times to the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis Ackerman (assistant

editor), Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans, Gardens, 3rd ed., 1258-1364.

Tehran: Soroush Press.

Schroeder, E. (1977) Standing Monuments of the First Period. In A Survey of Persian Art

from Prehistoric Times to the Present, edited by Pope, Arthur Upham and Phyllis

Ackerman (assistant editor), Vol. 3 Architecture, Its Ornament, City Plans, Gardens,

3rd ed., 931-966. Tehran: Soroush Press.

CENTRAL ASIA

Knobloch, E. (2001). Monuments of Central Asia. New York: I.B. Tauris.

Knobloch, E. (2002). The Architecture and Archaeology of Afghanistan. UK: Tempus

Publishing.

Marcais, G. (1955). L'Architecture Musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et Metiers Graphiques.

Marcais, G. (1983). Muslems Art: Catedra Ediciones.

O'Kane, B. (1995). "Iran and Central Asia." In Studies in Persian Art and Architecture. Cairo:

The American University in Cairo Press. P.10

368

O'Kane, B. (1995). Iran and Central Asia. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press: In

Studies in Persian Art and Architecture, 119-139.

Golombek, Lisa (1969). Abbasid Mosque at Balkh. Oriental Art 15: P. 173-189.

Hillenbrand, Robert (1994). Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning, P. 78, 104,

290, 410, 488. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Knobloch, Edgar. The Architecture and Archaeology of Afghanistan, 58, 65, 104, 107. UK:

Tempus Publishing, 2002.

Melikian-Chirvani, A. S. (1969). La Plus Ancienne Mosquée de Balkh. Arts Asiatiques

P. 3-20

Masjid-i-No Gumbad. Balkh. Society for the Protection of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage.

http://spach.info/ephotosbalkhnogumbad.htm. [Accessed July 17, 2006; inaccessible

September 27, 2013]

Fischer, K. (1978) From the Rise of Islam to the Mongol Invasion. In The Archaeology of

Afghanistan: From Earliest Times to the Timurid Period, edited by F. R. Allchin and N.

Hammond. P. 305-307, 413. London: Academic Press.

Hopkirk, P. (1992) The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. Kodansha International. P. 565.

Meyer, K. (2001) Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Asia. Shareen Brysac.

Glenn E., C (1996). Turkmenistan: A Country Study. Library of Congress Country Studies. Washington: United States Government Printing Office.

369

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Filed Visit to Tunis ...... 27 Figure 2: The Great Mosque of Kairouan View...... 28 Figure 3: The Great Mosque of Kairouan Court...... 28 Figure 4: Mihrab Dome...... 29 Figure 5: Mihrab Dome Exterior View ...... 29 Figure 6: Chamber Hall Dome...... 30 Figure 7: Chamber Hall Dome...... 30 Figure 8: Minaret Dome...... 31 Figure 9: Minaret Dome Exterior View...... 31 Figure 10: Entrance Dome ...... 32 Figure 11: Hafsid Entrance Dome ...... 32 Figure 12: Zaytuna Court with Chamber Hall View...... 33 Figure 13: Zaytuna Chamber Hall...... 33 Figure 14: Trip to Spain ...... 34 Figure 15: The Great Mosque of Cordoba Top View...... 35 Figure 16: The Center Dome in The Great Mosque of Cordoba...... 35 Figure 17: Al Maqsura Cross Vault ...... 36 Figure 18: Pre-Maqsura Cross Vault...... 36 Figure 19: Pre-Maqsura Cross Vault...... 37 Figure 20: Royal Chapel Cross Vault ...... 37 Figure 21: Almeria Great Mosque...... 38 Figure 22: Close shot of Al Maria Great Mosque Mihrab...... 38 Figure 23: Maqsura Dome...... 39 Figure 24: Mihrab Dome...... 39 Figure 25: Mihrab Dome ...... 39 Figure 26: Field Trip to Morocco ...... 40 Figure 27: Qarawiyyin Mosque Court ...... 41 Figure 28: Qarawiyyin Mosque Top View ...... 41

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 370

Figure 29: Cross Ribbed Vault ...... 42 Figure 30: Cross Ribbed Vault ...... 42 Figure 31: Muqarnas Vault...... 42 Figure 32: Muqarnas Vault...... 42 Figure 33: Prophet Mohammed’s Mosque, Built in 622 AD ...... 61 Figure 34: Prophet Mohammed’s Mosque Plan ...... 61 Figure 35: Prophet Mohammed’s Mosque view...... 61 Figure 36: Dome of the Rock Location, Jerusalem ...... 65 Figure 37: Dome of the Rock Plan, 692 AD ...... 65 Figure 38: The Dome of the Rock, 692 AD ...... 65 Figure 39: Nomads Road Trips ...... 69 Figure 40: Umayyad Dessert Castles Locations ...... 69 Figure 41: Qasr Ibn Wardan Location ...... 71 Figure 42: Qasr Ibn Wardan Plan ...... 71 Figure 43: Qasr Ibn Wardan Section ...... 71 Figure 44: Qasr Ibn Wardan Mixed Brick and Stone Masonry of Byzantine Tradition...... 72 Figure 45: Qasr Ibn Wardan Mixed Brick and Stone Masonry of Byzantine Tradition ...... 72 Figure 46: Qasr Al-Azraq Location ...... 74 Figure 47: Qasr Al-Azraq Court ...... 74 Figure 48: Qasr Al-Azraq, Interior of the mosque...... 75 Figure 49: Qasr Al-Azraq, Interior ...... 75 Figure 50: Qasr Haranah Location. 710 AD ...... 79 Figure 51: Qasr Haranah Plan, ...... 79 Figure 52: Qasr Haranah Top View, ...... 79 Figure 53: Qasr Harranah, Built 710 AD, ...... 80 Figure 54: Qasr Harranah Entrance Brick Method, 710 AD ...... 80 Figure 55: Barrel Vaults, Qasr Harranah ...... 81 Figure 56: Barrel Vaults, Qasr Harranah ...... 81 Figure 57: Barrel Vaults, Qasr Harranah ...... 81 Figure 58: Flatted domes in Qasr Harranah, Source: Travelnas.com ...... 82 Figure 59: Cross Arches before restoration work...... 82

371

Figure 60: Cross Arches, After restoration work...... 82 Figure 61: Qusayr Amra Location in Jordan , built during 711-715 AD ...... 84 Figure 62: Plan of Qusayr Amra Bath House...... 84 Figure 63: Qusayr Amra Vaults, Roman-Byzantine Tradition ...... 85 Figure 64: Qusayr Amra brick method ...... 85 Figure 65: Qusayr Amra Brick Method ...... 85 Figure 66: Qusayr Amra Vault, Dome of the sky or horoscope Dome...... 86 Figure 67: Qusayr Amra Vault, ...... 86 Figure 68: Close Shot Of Qusayr Amra Hot Room...... 87 Figure 69: Qusayr Amra horoscope Dome or Sky Dome...... 87 Figure 70: Qusayr Amra warm room, Source: by ...... 88 Figure 71: Qusayr Amra hall roof with three parallel barrel vaults ...... 88 Figure 72: Qasr Al Mashtta Location ...... 91 Figure 73: Qasr Al Mshatta Plan, 744 AD ...... 91 Figure 74: Qasr Al Mshatta, Sassanid Influence, 744AD ...... 91 Figure 75: Qasr Tuba Location ...... 92 Figure 76: Qasr Tuba Vault, source: Belal Natoor ...... 92 Figure 77: Hallabat Complex and Hammam AlSarah Location ...... 94 Figure 78: Hallabat Complex Plan, Mosque and Hammam ...... 94 Figure 79: Hammam Al Sarah Plan ...... 95 Figure 80: Hammam Al Sarah while restoration ...... 95 Figure 81: Hammam Al Sarah, after restoration...... 95 Figure 82: Khirbat Al Mafjar Location, Built 734 – 744 AD ...... 97 Figure 83: Khirbat Al Mafjar Plan ...... 97 Figure 84: Khirbat Al Mafjar ...... 97 Figure 85: Byzantine Tradition ...... 100 Figure 86: Umayyad Tradition ...... 100 Figure 87 :Byzantine Tradition ...... 100 Figure 88: Roman Mesopotamian Tradition ...... 100 Figure 89: Umayyads Tradition ...... 100 Figure 90: Roman Tradition ...... 100

372

Figure 91: Visigoths Location ...... 105 Figure 92: Great Mosque of Cordoba, in 572AD ...... 106 Figure 93: Basilica of San Vicente Martyr Plan ...... 106 Figure 94: Basilica of San Vicente Martyr Section ...... 106 Figure 95: Cordoba Mosque in IX century, 833AD ...... 107 Figure 96: Cordoba Mosque Plan , 833AD ...... 107 Figure 97: Cordoba Mosque in X century, 945- 961AD ...... 107 Figure 98: Cordoba Mosque Plan, 945- 961AD...... 107 Figure 99: Cordoba Mosque Plan, 1492- 1523AD ...... 108 Figure 100: Section trough The Great Mosque of Cordoba ...... 108 Figure 101: Great Mosque of Almeria Location, Built during 912–961 AD ...... 112 Figure 102: The Great Mosque of Almeria Vault Plan ...... 112 Figure 103: Mihrab Almeria Section ...... 112 Figure 104: Bab Al Mardum Location, Spain...... 113 Figure 105: Bab Al Mardum Plan ...... 113 Figure 106: Section of Cristo de la Luz ...... 113 Figure 107: Zaragoza Mosque Location, Spain ...... 115 Figure 108: Aljaferia Palace Plan , 1065-1081 AD ...... 115 Figure 109: Aljaferia Palace and Mosque, 1065-1081 AD ...... 115 Figure 110: Maqsura Cross Arch Vault in Zaragoza Mosque ...... 116 Figure 111: Close shot of Al Mihrab Dome ...... 116 Figure 112: Al Mihrab, Zaragoza ...... 116 Figure 113: Tlemcen Mosque Location, Algeria ...... 118 Figure 114: Tlemcen Mosque Plan, 1082AD, ...... 118 Figure 115: Tlemcen Mihrab Section ...... 118 Figure 116: Mihrab Dome Plan, 1082AD ...... 119 Figure 117: Mihrab Section, 1082AD ...... 119 Figure 118: Tlemcen Domes Plan ...... 119 Figure 119: Tlemcen Mosque Section...... 119 Figure 120: Al Maqsura Dome, 1082AD ...... 120 Figure 121: Al Maqsura Dome, 1082AD ...... 120

373

Figure 122: Tlemcen Mosque exterior dome, 1082AD- 1136AD...... 120 Figure 123: Moravids Dynasty ...... 122 Figure 124: Qubbat Albarudiyyin Plan ...... 122 Figure 125: Qubbat Albarudiyyin Perspective ...... 122 Figure 126: Qubbat Albarudiyyin, 1120 AD ...... 123 Figure 127: Albarudiyyin View ...... 123 Figure 128: Albarudiyyin Exterior View ...... 123 Figure 129: Mohads Dynasty ...... 124 Figure 130: Kutubia Mosque Plan Bult 1184 AD ...... 124 Figure 131: Kutubia Mosque Minartite, ...... 124 Figure 132: Kutubia Minarte Bult 1184 AD ...... 125 Figure 133: Kutubia Minarite Dome...... 125 Figure 134: Ukhadir Fortress, Karbala in 775 AD ...... 129 Figure 135: Ukhadir Entrance ...... 129 Figure 136: Ukhadir barrel Vault ...... 129 Figure 137: Ukhadir Fortress...... 130 Figure 138: Ukhadir Fortress Plan, 775 AD, Source: Archnet ...... 130 Figure 139: Ukhadir Zigzag Dome ...... 130 Figure 140: Qubbat Al Sulaibiya Location, Iraq ...... 132 Figure 141: Qubbat Al Sulaibiya Plan , 862 AD ...... 132 Figure 142: Qubbat Al Sulaibiya, 862 AD ...... 132 Figure 143: Qubbat Al Sulaibiya, 862 AD ...... 132 Figure 144: Islamic Dynasties, Abbasid Era ...... 133 Figure 145: Islamic Dynasties during, 9th- 10th Centuries ...... 135 Figure 146: Idrisid Dynasty, 788–791AD ...... 138 Figure 147: Andalus Quarter ...... 139 Figure 148: Al Andalus Mosque ...... 139 Figure 149: Al Andalus Mosque top view ...... 139 Figure 150: Al Qarawiyyin Quarters in Fes ...... 140 Figure 151: Qarawiyyin Mosque Plan, After Archnet ...... 140 Figure 152: Qarawiyyin Mosque, 859 AD ...... 140

374

Figure 153: Kashan Vault ...... 141 Figure 154: Cross Ribbed Vaults ...... 141 Figure 155: Cress Cross Vault ...... 141 Figure 156: Muqarnad Dome ...... 141 Figure 157: Aghlabids Dynasty during the IX: 817- 836AD ...... 144 Figure 158: Great Mosque of Kairouan Plan...... 144 Figure 159: The Great Mosque of Kairouan ...... 144 Figure 160: Aghlabids Domes ...... 145 Figure 161: Zrids Dome ...... 145 Figure 162: Zaytuna Mosque Location, Tunis ...... 148 Figure 163: Zaytuna Mosque Plan, Tunis ...... 148 Figure 164: Zaytuna Mosque Section ...... 148 Figure 165: Susa, Location ...... 149 Figure 166: Susa Plan, 859AD ...... 149 Figure 167: Susa, 859 and extended in the Zirid era AD 988...... 149 Figure 168: Susa, 859 and extended in the Zirid era AD 988...... 150 Figure 169: Susa, 859 and extended in the Zirid era AD 988...... 150 Figure 170: Great Mosque at Sfax, 849AD ...... 151 Figure 171: Great Mosque of Kairouan ...... 151 Figure 172: Great Mosque of Susa tower Dome, 851AD...... 151 Figure 173: Great Mosque of Susa Tower Dome, 851AD ...... 151 Figure 174: Zaytuna Mosque Chamber Dome ...... 152 Figure 175: Great Mosque of Kairouan Minaret Dome ...... 152 Figure 176: Great Mosque of Kairouan ...... 152 Figure 177: Great Mosque of Sfax ...... 152 Figure 178: Rustamid Dynasty: 776-909 AD ...... 154 Figure 179: Atique Mosque or Al Kabir Mosque, Libya ...... 154 Figure 180: Brick Method in Libya, Atique Mosque ...... 155 Figure 181: The Great Mosque of Kilwa ...... 157 Figure 182: The Great Mosque of Kilwa Dome ...... 157 Figure 183: The Great Mosque of Kilwa in Tanzania ...... 157

375

Figure 184: Tulunid Dynasty, 868-906 AD ...... 159 Figure 185: Ibn Tulun, 876 AD ...... 159 Figure 186: Ibn Tulun, 876 AD ...... 159 Figure 187: Interior of Sabil ablution fountain in Ibn Tulun courtyard...... 160 Figure 188: Ablution Fountain Dome, at the center of Ibn Tulun courtyard, 867 AD...... 160 Figure 189: Mihrab Dome, Ibn Tulun ...... 161 Figure 190: Barrel Vaults in Ibn Tulun Mosque ...... 161 Figure 191: Mahdiya Mosque Plan, 912AD ...... 164 Figure 192: Mahdiya Mosque, 912AD ...... 164 Figure 193: Mahdiya Mosque Plan, 912AD ...... 164 Figure 194: Mahdiya Mosque, 912AD ...... 164 Figure 195: Location of Fatimid Dynasty ...... 166 Figure 196: Azhar Mosque Plan, 972 AD ...... 166 Figure 197: Azhar Mosque Mihrab Dome, 972 AD ...... 166 Figure 198: Al Azhar Mihab Dome ...... 167 Figure 199: Azhar Dome ...... 167 Figure 200: Stucco of Al Mihab Dome ...... 167 Figure 201: Stucco Dome close shot ...... 167 Figure 202:Al Hakim Mosque Plan, 989AD ...... 168 Figure 203: Al Hakim Mosque, 989AD ...... 168 Figure 204: Al Hakim Mosque , 989AD ...... 168 Figure 205: Al Hakim Mosque Section ...... 168 Figure 206: Great Mosque at Sfax, 849AD ...... 169 Figure 207: Great Mosque of Kairouan ...... 169 Figure 208: Great Mosque of Susa tower Dome, 851AD...... 169 Figure 209: Great Mosque of Susa Tower Dome, 851AD ...... 169 Figure 210: Zaytuna Mosque Chamber Dome ...... 170 Figure 211: Great Mosque of Kairouan Minaret Dome ...... 170 Figure 212: Great Mosque of Kairouan ...... 170 Figure 213: Great Mosque of Sfax ...... 170 Figure 214: Great Mosque at Sfax, Location ...... 172

376

Figure 215: Great Mosque at Sfax, 849AD ...... 172 Figure 216: Great Mosque at Sfax, 849 and extended in the Zirid era AD 988 ...... 172 Figure 217: Great Mosque at Sfax, 849AD ...... 173 Figure 218: Sfax Chamber corridor vaults ...... 173 Figure 219: Sub-Dynasties...... 177 Figure 220: The center of Zoroastrian Architecture during Sassanid Era ...... 181 Figure 221: Vaults before Islam vaults ...... 181 Figure 222: Vaults in Sassanid Era ...... 181 Figure 223: Fahraj Mosque, Yazd, Iran ...... 183 Figure 224: Fahraj Mosque, simple Arab Plan ...... 183 Figure 225: Fahraj Mosque, 750-789AD ...... 183 Figure 226: Fahraj Mosque, 750-789AD ...... 184 Figure 227: Barrel Vaults in Fahraj Mosque, 750-789AD ...... 184 Figure 228: Tarik Khana Mosque, Damghan, Iran ...... 186 Figure 229: Tarik Khana Mosque simple Arab Plan ...... 186 Figure 230: Tarik Khana, 750-789AD ...... 186 Figure 231: Pitched-brick Vaulting in Tarik Khana ...... 187 Figure 232: Tarik Khana brick Method ...... 187 Figure 233: Pitched-brick Vaulting in Tarik Khana, 750-789AD ...... 187 Figure 234: Mosque of Na’in Location Isfahan ...... 189 Figure 235: Mosque of Na'in Plan ...... 189 Figure 236: Na'in Pitched Brick Vaults...... 190 Figure 237: Na´in Pitched Brick Vaults ...... 190 Figure 238: Nain flatted pitched Domes ...... 190 Figure 239: Mosque of Na'in Chamber Hall Dome ...... 191 Figure 240: Chamber Hall Vault ...... 191 Figure 241: Nain Mihrab Dome ...... 191 Figure 242: Masjid-e Haji Piyada, No Gumad, Balkh, Afghanistan, 849 AD ...... 195 Figure 243: Masjid-e Haji Piyada Plan ...... 195 Figure 244: Masjid-e Haji Piyada Prospectiva ...... 195 Figure 245: No-Gumad, Balkh, Afghanistan, 849AD ...... 196

377

Figure 246: No Gumad, Balkh, Afghanistan, 849AD ...... 196 Figure 247: No Gumad prototype ...... 197 Figure 248: Tarik Khana Vaults , 750-789 AD...... 197 Figure 249: The Great Mosque of Isfahan ...... 197 Figure 250: No Gumad, Afghanistan, 849AD ...... 197 Figure 251: Samanid Dynasty...... 202 Figure 252: Plan of Samanid Mausoleum ...... 202 Figure 253: Isma'il Samanid mausoleum Section ...... 202 Figure 254: Isma'il Samani mausoleum Bukhara, Uzbekistan ...... 203 Figure 255: Isma'il Samani mausoleum interior dome Birth Method ...... 203 Figure 256: Ghaznavid Mausoleums ...... 205 Figure 257: Arslan Jadhib of Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud Dome ...... 205 Figure 258: Mane Mausoleum, 892 AD ...... 207 Figure 259: Kashan style with eight-pointed tiles...... 207 Figure 260: Friday Mosque of Isfahan Location...... 212 Figure 261: Friday Mosque of Isfahan Plan ...... 212 Figure 262: Friday Mosque of Isfahan ...... 212 Figure 263: South-West Dome, Tag Al Mulk Dome, 1086-1087AD ...... 213 Figure 264: Taj Al Mulk Dome, 1086-1087AD ...... 213 Figure 265: North-East Dome, Nizam Al Mulk ...... 214 Figure 266: North-East Dome, 1088 AD ...... 214 Figure 267: North-East Dome, 1088 AD ...... 214 Figure 268:Nizam Al Mulk Dome ...... 215 Figure 269: Three Type of Pitched Brick Methods in The Fridy Mosque of Isfahan ...... 215 Figure 270: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum in Merv, Turkmenistan ...... 217 Figure 271: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum Plan ...... 217 Figure 272: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum Section ...... 217 Figure 273: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum. Source: after Creswell ...... 218 Figure 274: Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar. External elevation...... 218 Figure 275: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum, Built 1096–1157 AD...... 219 Figure 276: Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum, Merv: Turkmenistan in 1157AD ...... 219

378

Figure 279: Silk Road Stations ...... 221 Figure 278: Scholor Gematrical studies ...... 222 Figure 279: Taq Kasra, 224 AD ...... 226 Figure 280: Chahar Taqi locations ...... 227 Figure 281: Chahar-taqi, Plan ...... 227 Figure 282: Chahar-taqi Section ...... 227 Figure 283: Mesopotamian, Babylon, Assyrian ...... 228 Figure 284: Tell Al-Rimah Plan ...... 231 Figure 285: Tell Al-Rimah in Iraq, c.2100...... 231 Figure 286: Ardashir Palace Location, Fars Providence ...... 235 Figure 287: Ardashir Palace, 224–240 AD ...... 235 Figure 288: : Plan of Ardashir Palace, 224–240 AD ...... 235 Figure 289: The Entrance of Ardashir Palace, Sassanid Architecture ...... 236 Figure 290: Squinches of Sassanid Vaults ...... 236 Figure 291: Ardashir Palace Vault ...... 236 Figure 292: Sarvestan Palace, 420-38 AD ...... 237 Figure 293: Sarvestan Palace Plan ...... 237 Figure 294: : Sarvestan Palace 420-38 AD ...... 237 Figure 295: Sarvestan Palace, 420-438 AD ...... 238 Figure 296: Sarvestan Palace Vault ...... 238 Figure 297: Chahar-Taqi with an opening, Iran ...... 240 Figure 298: Chahar-Taqi with an opening ...... 240 Figure 299: Zoroastrian Architecture in Sassanid Era ...... 241 Figure 300: Niasar Zoroastrian temple ...... 241 Figure 301: Niasar Zoroastrian interor Vault ...... 241 Figure 302: Chahar-Taqi at Niasar near Kashan, Esfahan, Sassanian Era ...... 242 Figure 303: Chahar-Taqi at Naisar ...... 242 Figure 304: Roman Fortress of Zenobia ...... 248 Figure 305: The Praetorium Vaults ...... 248 Figure 306:Half Domical Vault, IV- V Century ...... 250 Figure 307: Barrel Vault, VI Century ...... 250

379

Figure 308: Cross Groined Vault, VI Century ...... 250 Figure 309: Stone Domical Dome, VI century ...... 250 Figure 310: Gored Dome, X century ...... 251 Figure 311: Domical Vault, XIV Century ...... 251 Figure 312: Ribbed Dome, XIV Century ...... 251 Figure 313: Domical Vault, XIV Century ...... 251 Figure 314: Armenia Vault, 908-943 AD ...... 254 Figure 315: Karmravank, Armena , 908-943 AD ...... 254 Figure 316: Sassanid Vault Tradition, Ardashir ...... 255 Figure 317: Sassanid Vault, Sarvestan ...... 255 Figure 318: Zigzag, Abbasid ...... 256 Figure 319: Zigzag, Aghlabids ...... 256 Figure 320: Lobbed , Aghlabids ...... 256 Figure 321: Lobbed , Aghlabids ...... 256 Figure 322: Buyids Pitched Brick Vaults ...... 257 Figure 323: Samanid Vaults ...... 257 Figure 324: Seljuk Dome ...... 257 Figure 325: Seljuk Dome ...... 257 Figure 326: Pitch Brick Woven Vaults ...... 258 Figure 327: Woven Vaults ...... 258 Figure 328: Cross Ribbed Vault ...... 258 Figure 329: Cross Ribbed Vault ...... 258 Figure 330: Sassanid Brick Illustration ...... 267 Figure 331: Early Sassanid Brick Methods ...... 267 Figure 332: Sassanid Brick Illustration ...... 267 Figure 333: Late Sassanid Brick Methods ...... 267 Figure 334: Roman Mesopotamian Method ...... 268 Figure 335: Abbasids, Sassanid Method ...... 268 Figure 336: Umayyad Caliphates, Byzantine Method ...... 269 Figure 337: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman Method ...... 269 Figure 338: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman Methods ...... 270

380

Figure 339: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman Mesopotamian Methods ...... 270 Figure 340: Umayyad Caliphates, Sassanid Method ...... 271 Figure 341: Umayyad Caliphates, Sassanid Method ...... 271 Figure 342: Umayyad Caliphates, Roman- Byzantine Method ...... 271 Figure 343: Seljuk Pitched Vault ...... 272 Figure 344: Seljuk Pitched Vault ...... 272 Figure 345: Seljuk woven Pitched Vault ...... 272 Figure 346: Pitched Brick Bujara, Uzbakestan ...... 273 Figure 347: Wovean Pitched Brick Method, Iran ...... 273 Figure 348: Pitched Brick Iran ...... 273 Figure 349: Tahrids Flated Domes ...... 274 Figure 350: Three types of Seljuk Pitched Brick Method ...... 274 Figure 351: Pitched-brick ...... 275 Figure 352: Pitched-brick Method ...... 275 Figure 353: Seljuk Geometrical Vaults, Iran ...... 276 Figure 354: Cross Arch Dome Geometry, Central Asia ...... 276 Figure 355: Cross Arch Dome Geometry , Spain ...... 276 Figure 356: Seljuk Geometrical Vaults, Iran ...... 277 Figure 357: Cross Arch Dome Geometry, Central Asia ...... 277 Figure 358:Cross Arch Dome Geometry , Spain ...... 277 Figure 359: Cross Arch Dome Geometry , Cordoba ...... 279 Figure 360: Cross Arch Vault , Cordoba ...... 279 Figure 361: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 279 Figure 362: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 280 Figure 363: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 280 Figure 364: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 280 Figure 365: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 281 Figure 366: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 281 Figure 367: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 281 Figure 368: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 282 Figure 369: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 282

381

Figure 370: Cross Arch Vault , Toledo ...... 282 Figure 371: Alhambra Court, ...... 283 Figure 372: Qarawiyyin Court top View ...... 283 Figure 373: Alhambra Court illustration, After ...... 283 Figure 374: Qarawiyyin Court Illustration, After, Creswell ...... 283 Figure 375: Great Mosque of Cordoba Roof ...... 283 Figure 376: Qarawiyyin Mosque Top Roof ...... 283 Figure 377: Byzantine Roof Illustration ...... 284 Figure 378: Byzantine Roof Illustration Section ...... 284 Figure 379: The Great Mosque of Kairouan Vaults ...... 288 Figure 380: Minartae Zigzag Dome ...... 289 Figure 381: Entrance Zigzag Dome ...... 290 Figure 382: Mihrab Location ...... 291 Figure 383: Mihrab Lobbed Dome ...... 291 Figure 384: Chamber Dome Location ...... 291 Figure 385: Chamber Hall Zigzag Dome ...... 291 Figure 386: Minaret Dome Location ...... 291 Figure 387: Minaret Zigzag Dome ...... 291 Figure 388: Zigzag East Entrance Dome Location ...... 292 Figure 389: Zigzag East Entrance Dome ...... 292 Figure 390: Zigzag West Entrance Dome Location ...... 292 Figure 391: Zigzag West Entrance Dome ...... 292 Figure 392: Westbank Zigzag Dome Location ...... 292 Figure 393: Westbank Zigzag Dome ...... 292 Figure 394: The Great Mosque of Kairouan Three type Domes ...... 293 Figure 395: Lobbed Dome,836 AD ...... 293 Figure 396: Zigzag, Dome, 856 AD ...... 293 Figure 397: Exterior Zigzag Dome ...... 293 Figure 398: Chamber Dome ...... 294 Figure 399: Interior View of the Chamber Entrance Dome ...... 294 Figure 400: Mihrab Dome ...... 295

382

Figure 401: Interior View of the Mihrab Dome ...... 295 Figure 402: Lobed Dome Typology ...... 296 Figure 403: Mihrab Lobbed Dome ...... 296 Figure 404: Zigzag Dome Typology ...... 296 Figure 405:Chamber Hall Entrance ...... 296 Figure 406: Zigzag Dome Typology ...... 296 Figure 407: Minaret Dome ...... 296 Figure 408: Zaytuna Domes illustration ...... 297 Figure 409: Zaytuna Mosque Plan ...... 298 Figure 410: Zaytuna Mosque Top View ...... 298 Figure 411: Zaytuna Mosque ...... 298 Figure 412: Zaytuna Mihrab Dome Location ...... 299 Figure 413: Zaytuna Mihrab Top View ...... 299 Figure 414: Chamber Hall Dome Location ...... 299 Figure 415: Zaytuna Chamber Hall Dome ...... 299 Figure 416: Chamber Dome ...... 300 Figure 417: Interior View to the Top ...... 300 Figure 418: Detailed shot of Zaytuna Entrance Dome, Aghlabids Tradition ...... 301 Figure 419: Zaytuna Mosque Chamber Dome, 991 AD Aghlabid Tradition 905...... 301 Figure 420: Entrance Dome ...... 302 Figure 421: Lobbed Dome Illustration ...... 303 Figure 422: Lobbed Dome with Lime Coat...... 303 Figure 423: Lobbed Dome, Aghlabids Methods ...... 303 Figure 424: Type of Vaults in North Africa ...... 304 Figure 425: Qarawiyyin Mosque ...... 306 Figure 426: Qarawiyyin Seven Domes cover with roof ...... 306 Figure 427: Entrance Dome ...... 307 Figure 428: Entrance Dome ...... 307 Figure 429: Muqarnas Dome [2] Location ...... 307 Figure 430: Muqarnas Dome [2] ...... 307 Figure 431: Cross Arched Dome [3] Location ...... 307

383

Figure 432: Cross Arched Dome [3] ...... 307 Figure 433: Muqarnas Dome [4] Location ...... 308 Figure 434: Muqarnas Dome ...... 308 Figure 435: Muqarnas Dome [5] Location ...... 308 Figure 436: Muqarnas Dome ...... 308 Figure 437: Star Dome [6] Location ...... 308 Figure 438: Stat Dome ...... 308 Figure 439: Mihrab Dome Location ...... 309 Figure 440: Mihrab Muqarnas Dome Typography ...... 309 Figure 441: Muqarnas Section ...... 309 Figure 442: Great Mosque of Cordoba Top view ...... 310 Figure 443: Great Mosque of Cordoba Plan ...... 310 Figure 444: Section of the Great Mosque of Cordoba Domes , After Barucartd ...... 311 Figure 445: Maqsura Dome ...... 311 Figure 446: Center Dome ...... 311 Figure 447: Maqsura Dome ...... 311 Figure 448: Maqsura Location ...... 311 Figure 449: Maqsura Location ...... 311 Figure 450: Maqsura Location ...... 311 Figure 451: Pre-Maqsura Pattern ...... 313 Figure 452: Close shoot of the Pre-Maqsura Dome ...... 313 Figure 453: Maqsura Dome Arch illustration...... 313 Figure 454: Maqsura Dome , 961- 976 AD ...... 313 Figure 455: Close shoot of the Center Dome ...... 314 Figure 456: Maqsura Dome ...... 314 Figure 457: Central Dome Arch Illustration, After Barucartd ...... 314 Figure 458: Maqsura Dome Close Shot ...... 314 Figure 459: Center Dome Pattern ...... 315 Figure 460: Close shoot of the Center Dome ...... 315 Figure 461: Central Dome Arch ...... 315 Figure 462: Central Maqsura Dome ...... 315

384

Figure 463: Cristo de la Luz ...... 316 Figure 464: Cristo de la Luz ...... 316 Figure 465: Cristo de la Luz, Christian Vault ...... 317 Figure 466: Cristo de la Luz Nine Vaults ...... 317 Figure 466 Outlines exterior top view of the nine vaults, Cristo de la Luz ...... 324 Figure 467: Abbasid Dynasty, 750-1259 AD, Wikipedia ...... 395 Figure 468: Muhallabids, 771- 793 AD, Wikipedia ...... 395 Figure 469: Tahirids 821- 873 AD, Wikipedia ...... 396 Figure 470: Samanid Empire 819–999, Wikipedia ...... 396 Figure 471: Samanid Dynasty 819–999AD, Wikipedia ...... 397 Figure 472: Tulunid 868- 905AD, Wikipedia ...... 397 Figure 473: Ziyarid Dynasty, 931-1090AD, Wikipedia ...... 398 Figure 474: Safavids, 1501- 1736 AD, Wikipedia ...... 398 Figure 475: Ghaznavid Dynasty, 977–1186AD, Wikipedia ...... 399 Figure 476: Moravids Dynasty, 1073-1147 AD, Wikipedia ...... 399 Figure 477: Mohad Dynasty, 1147-1269 AD, Wikipedia ...... 400 Figure 478: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1171-1246 AD, Wikipedia ...... 400

385

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Islamic Dynasties Periods in Islamic Iberia and North Africa ...... 62 Table 2: Umayyad Dessert Castle Plans ...... 99 Table 3: North Africa and Spain Domes during VIII –X Centuries ...... 110 Table 4: Previous civilizations in North Africa ...... 134 Table 5: West and East Islamic Dynasties in North Africa ...... 135 Table 6: Dynasties during, 9th- 10th Centuries in Egypt ...... 135 Table 7: Islamic Dynasties in North Africa ...... 174 Table 8: Mesopotamia Timeline ...... 228 Table 9: Vault 1 Typology , Cristo de la Luz ...... 320 Table 10: Vault 2 Typology , Cristo de la Lu ...... 320 Table 11: Vault 3 Typology, Cristo de la luz ...... 321 Table 12: Vault 4 Typology, Cristo de la luz ...... 321 Table 13: Vault 5 Typology, Cristo de la luz ...... 322 Table 14: Vault 6 Typology, Cristo De La Luz ...... 322 Table 15: Vault 7 Typology, Cristo De La Luz ...... 323 Table 16: Vault 8 Typology, Cristo De La Luz ...... 323 Table 17: Vault 9 Typology, Cristo De La Luz ...... 324 Table 18: Timeline of the Ruling Dynasties in Spain and North Africa ...... 394 Table 19: Umayyads Complexes Plans ...... 405 Table 20: List of Historical Mosques in Egypt, VII ...... 410

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 386

APPENDICES

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 387

Islamic Events TimeLine

Date Event

570 AD Mohammad, The Prophet of Islam was born.

622 AD Mohammad and his followers’ emigrated to the nearby town of Medina, where the people there accepted Islam. This marks the "Hijra" or "emigration," and the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad establishes an Islamic state.

630 AD Mohammad returns to Mecca with a large number followers. He enters the city peacefully, and eventually all its citizens accept Islam. The prophet clears the statues and images out of the Kaaba and rededicates it to the worship of God alone.

633 AD Mohammad dies after a prolonged illness. The Muslim community elects his father-in-law and close associate, Abu Bakr, as caliph, or successor.

638 AD Muslims enter the area north of Arabia, known as Sham, including Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Iraq.

641 AD Muslims enter Egypt and rout the Byzantine army.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 388

Date Event

655 AD Islam begins to spread throughout North Africa.

661 AD Imam Ali, the fourth Calipha was killed, bringing to an end the rule of the four "Righteous Caliphs": Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. This also marks the beginning of the Umayyad rule.

711 AD Muslims enter Spain in the West and India in the East. Eventually almost the entire Iberian Peninsula became under Islamic control.

750 AD The Abbasids take over rule from the Umayyads, shifting the Capital of power to Baghdad.

1000 AD Islam continues to spread through the continent of Africa, including Nigeria, which served as a trading liaison between the northern and central regions of Africa.

1099 AD European Crusaders take Jerusalem from the Muslims. Eventually Muslims defeat the Crusaders and regain control of the holy land.

1299 AD The earliest Ottoman state is formed in Anatolia, Turkey.

389

Terminology

Glossary of Arabic Terminologies

Most of terms defined below are Arabic words that are mentioned in more than one chapter of this thesis. The definitions are derived from A Dictionary of Architecture and

Landscape Architecture and The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture:

Word Brief Definition

Mecca The holy city of Muslims in which the holy Kaaba located

Ka’aba Muslims are expected to face the Kaaba when performing prayers

Hajj Is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca

Mohammad The Prophet of Islam

Muslim Follower of the religion of Islam

Calipha a leader of the entire Muslim community

Emir A Muslim military commander or local chief.

Caliphate In Islamic history and was founded after Muhammad's death

Rashidun Is a term refers to the four caliphs following the death of the Islamic prophet

Hijra The emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina

Qasr A castle in Middle Eastern countries

Masjid A place of worship for followers of Islam

Sharia law of Islam

Qibla Is the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays

Mihrab The niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the Qibla

Maqsura An enclosure in a mosque, situated near the Mihrab and Minbar

Pre Maqsura An enclosure before the Maqsura

Qubbat An architectural element that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 390

Glossary of Muslim Branches Terminologies:

Muslims believes that there is one God and Mohammed is the Islamic prophet. There are groups in Islam that believes in the same perception but with additional contexts that grew during history to lead to other branches such as Shia and Khawarij.

Branch Brief Definition

Shi’a Shia represents the second largest denomination of Islam. Shi'a is the short form of the historic phrase Shiʻat Ali meaning followers of Muhammad's son-in-law and Cousin Ali. Shia Muslims constitute 10–20% of the world's Muslim population and 38% of the Middle East's entire population

Sunni Is a denomination of Islam, which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad's first Caliph was his father-in-law Abu Bakr. Sunni denomination primarily contrasts with Shi'a, which holds that Mohammad's son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, not Abu Bakr, was his first caliph. The Sunni is by far the largest denomination of Islam.

Khawarij A group that appeared in the first century of Islam during the First Fitna, the crisis of leadership after the death of Mohammad broke into revolt against the authority of the Rashidun Caliph Ali after he agreed to arbitration with his rival, Muawiyah I. The Khawarij were a source of insurrection against the Caliphate. Descendants of the moderate Khawarij, the Ibadi survive today principally in Oman and Zanzibar in small numbers.

Zaidiyyah A branch of the Shia denomination, named after Zayd ibn Ali, the grandson of Husayn ibn Ali. Is an early brach that appeared in the VIII century out of Shi’a. The Followers of the Zaydi Islamic jurisprudence are called Zaydi Shi'a. They make up about 35-40% of Muslims in Yemen. The Zaydis were the oldest branch of the Shia and the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty.

391

Glossary of Muslim States Terminologies:

The Terminologies are derived from A Dictionary of Islamic Branches

(الخلفاء :Caliphates (Arabic Caliphate is an Islamic state led by a supreme religious and political leader known as Caliph or in another words successor to Prophet Mohammad. The successions of Muslim empires that have existed in the Muslim world are usually described as Caliphates. Conceptually, a caliphate represents an independent State of the entire Muslim faithful, ruled by a Caliph under Islamic law which is called Sharia. The Islamic religious branches in the Islamic History caused lots of wars and killing for the reason of who is eligible for the Caliphate.

(الخلفاء الراشدون :Rashidun Caliphates (Arabic Is the collective term comprising the first four caliphs named as the “Rightly Guided" or Rashidun caliphs in Islamic history and was founded after Mohammad's death. At its height, the Caliphate controlled a vast empire from the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant, to the Caucasus in the north, North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west, and the Iranian plateau to Central Asia in the east. The Caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Ali himself.

(ألدارسة :Idrisid (Arabic The Idrisid Dynasty was the first independent Dynasty during the Abbasid Period. An Arab origin who are the founders of the Moroccan state. Originally, they belonged to the Zaydi branch of Shi’a Islam. The founder of the Idrisid dynasty was, Idris ibn Abdallah, whose origin is back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, the daughter of the Muslim Prophet, Mohammad.

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 392

(صفوية :Safavid dynasty (Arabic One of the most significant ruling dynasties of Persia after the fall of the Sasanian Empire - following the Muslim conquest of Persia in the VII century A.D. and established the Twelver school of Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in Muslim history. The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 AD. They controlled all of modern Iran, Azerbaijan, Bahrain and Armenia, most of Georgia, the North Caucasus, Iraq, Kuwait and Afghanistan, as well as part pf Turkey, Syria, Pakistan Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

(حفصية :Hafsids (Arabic Were Sunni Muslim dynasty of Berber descent who ruled western Libya, Tunisia, and eastern Algeria from 1229 to 1574 AD.

(أباضية :Ibadi (Arabic Historians and a majority of Muslim believers indicate that the denomination is a reformed أsector of the Khawarij or Kharijite movement; Ibadis, however, deny anything more than a passing relation to the Khawarij and point out that they merely developed out of the same precursor group.

(غزنوية :Ghaznavid Dynasty (Arabic A Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic Mamluk origin at their greatest extent ruling large parts of Iran, much of Transoxiana, and North India from 977–1186. They declared independence from the Samanid Empire and strated to expanded the Ghaznavid Empire afterwards.

( الجقة :Seljuk Dynasty (Arabic A Turkic Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually adopted Persian culture and contributed to the Turko-Persian tradition in the medieval West and Central Asia. The Seljuks established both the Seljuq Empire and Sultanate of Rum, which at their total height stretched from Anatolia through Persia, and were targets of the First Crusade.

393

(طاهرية :Tahirid dynasty (Arabic A dynasty Persian origin that governed the Abbasid province of Khorasan from 821 to 873 AD, and the city of Baghdad from 820 until 891. The dynasty was leading the Abbasid Caliph, Al Ma'mun. Their Capital were in Khorasan at Merv, then later moved to Nishapur. The Tahirids enjoyed a high degree of autonomy in their governance of Khorasan, although they remained subject to the Abbasid Caliphate and were not independent rulers.

(آل بويه :The Buyid dynasty (Arabic A Shia Muslim dynasty which represents the period in Iranian history famed as the 'Iranian Intermezzo' since, after the Islamic invasion of Persia, it was an interlude between the rule of Abbasid Arabs and Seljuq Turks.

( ّالمهلب :The Muhallabids (Arabic

Were an Arab family who ruled Basra and Ifriqiya. The founders of the family's fortunes were Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah during 632 – 702 AD and his son Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, who ruled in 672–720 AD, governor of Khorasan and Iraq, who led an unsuccessful anti- Umayyad rebellion in Basra in 720.

(سامانية :Samanid dynasty (Arabic

A Sunni Iranian empire ruling from 819 to 999AD. The empire was mostly centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana during its existence, but at its greatest extent, the empire encompassed all of today's Afghanistan, and large parts of Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Pakistan.

394

Timeline of the Ruling Empires in Spain and North Africa:

North North West C. Tunisia East Libya Egypt Spain AD Morocco Algeria Libya

7th Byzantine Byzantine Byzantine Byzantine Roman Roman Goth 1st

8th Umayyad Umayyad Umayyad Umayyad Umayyad Umayyad Goth 2nd

9th Adarisa Adarisa Abbasid Abbasid Abbasid Abbasid Umayyad 3rd

10th Adarisa Adarisa Galib Galib Tulunids Tulunids Umayyad 4th

11th Barbr Barbr Fatmid Fatmid Fatmid Fatmid Umayyad 5th

Bani 12th Moravids Bano Ziri Bano Ziri Fatmid Fatmid Moravids 6th Hamad

Mwahido 13th Mwahidon Mwahidon Mwahidon Mwahidon Ayobien Ayobien 7th n

Bano 14th Mareen Zian Hafsion Hafsion Mamlok Mamluk 8th Nasor

Bano 15th Mareen Zian Hafsion Hafsion Mamlok Mamluk 9th Nasor

Wtas Zian Hafsion Hafsion 16th Mamlok Mamlok Espain saadion Ottman Ottman Ottman

Table 18: Timeline of the Ruling Dynasties in Spain and North Africa

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 395

Islamic Dynasties Maps

Figure 468: Abbasid Dynasty, 750-1259 AD, Wikipedia

Figure 469: Muhallabids, 771- 793 AD, Wikipedia

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 396

Figure 470: Tahirids 821- 873 AD, Wikipedia

Figure 471: Samanid Empire 819–999, Wikipedia

397

Figure 472: Samanid Dynasty 819–999AD, Wikipedia

Figure 473: Tulunid 868- 905AD, Wikipedia

398

Figure 474: Ziyarid Dynasty, 931-1090AD, Wikipedia

Figure 475: Safavids, 1501- 1736 AD, Wikipedia

399

Figure 476: Ghaznavid Dynasty, 977–1186AD, Wikipedia

Figure 477: Moravids Dynasty, 1073-1147 AD, Wikipedia

400

Figure 478: Mohad Dynasty, 1147-1269 AD, Wikipedia

Figure 479: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1171-1246 AD, Wikipedia

401

Historical Complexes Glossary

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 402

Historical Complexes Glossary List of Umayyads Historical Complexes

Monument Location Year AD Plan

Amr Ibn AlAs Mosque Fustat65 641–642

Uqba Mosque or Great Kairouan, Tunis 670 Mosque of Kairouan

Sidi Uqba Mosque Biskra, Algerie 683

Dome of the Rock Jerusalem 685–691

Dome of the Chain Jerusalem 691

65 Old Cairo

403

Qasr AlHallabat_ Hammam As Sarah North Western 691 – 743 Jordan

Al-Aqsa Mosque Jerusalem 705

Qasr Kharana Eastern Jordan 710

City of Anjar Lebanon 714

Great Mosque of Aleppo Aleppo 715

404

Great Mosque of Hama Hama, Sirya 700s

Khirbat Al-Mafjar or West Bank, Byzantine Hisham Palace Palestine Tradition

Khirbat Al-Minya_ Palistine 705-715 Umayyad Palace Roman Tradition

Mubarak AlNaqah Bosra, Mosque_ Jami Al southern Syria X Mubarak

Umayyad Mosque Damascus 715

White Mosque Ramla 720 Al Masjid Al Abyad

405

Al Omari Mosque Bosra, southern 721 Syria

Qasr Amra Eastern Jordan 723 - 743

Qasr AlHayr AlGharbi Syrian Dessert 724- 727

Qasr Jabal AlQal'a Amman, Jordan 724- 743

Qasr AlHayr AlSharqi Syrian Dessert 728- 729

Qasr AlMshatta Amman, Jordan 743-744

Table 19: Umayyads Complexes Plans

406

List of Historical Mosques in Tunis, VII-X

Mosque Location AD Plan

Uqba bin Nafi Kauiran 670

698 Al Zaytuna Tunis

849 Great Mosque of Sfax Sfax

851 Susa Susa

912 - 916 AlMahdiya

Table 2.8: List of Historical Mosques in Tunis, VII-X

407

Location Year AD Plan Monument

Iran 750 Tarik Khana

Karbara’, Iraq 775 Al Ukhadir Fortress and Mosque

Kairaoun, Tunis 670 _ Great Mosque of Kairaoun Dome Added:

835 Sammra, Iraq 836 X Jawsaq Al Khaqani

Balk, Afghanistan 848 Masjid-e Haji Piyada

Sammra , Iraq The Great Mosque of Sammra 847- 852AD

Fez, in Morocco 859 Al Qarawiyyin Mosque

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 408

Location Year AD Plan Monument Plan of Abu Dulaf 860

Qubbat Al Sulaibiya 862

Al Zaytuna Tunis, Tunis 731 AD Dome Added: 862–866 AD

Mosque of Ibn Tulun Fustat 879

Tariq Khan Mosque

The Samanid Bukhara, Uzbekistan 905 Mausoleum

409

Location Year AD Plan Monument Jami' AlKabir, the Great 916 Mahdiya, Tunis Mosque of Mahdiya

Mosque of AlAzhar Cairo, Eygpt 970

Mosque of AlHakam Cairo, Eygpt 990

AlAqmar Cairo 1125

410

List of Historical Mosques in Egypt, VII-X

Mosque Location Periods AD Plan

Fatimids 698 Al Azhar Cairo

Ibn Tulun Ibn Tulun 876

Fatimids 989 Al Hakam Mosque Cairo

Fatimids 1125 Al Aqmar Mosque Cairo

Table 20: List of Historical Mosques in Egypt, VII

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi 411

The origin of the Islamic Ribbed Vault located in North Africa and Spain Rana AlKadi