ROMAN CATHOLIC CRUSADING IN TEN YEARS OF TRIUMPH, 1966-1976: A HISTORY OF A LAY- DIRECTED, RADICAL CATHOLIC JOURNAL By MARK DAVID POPOWSKI Bachelor of Science in History Minnesota State University, Mankato Mankato, Minnesota 2001 Master of Arts in History Emporia State University Emporia, Kansas 2003 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December, 2008 ROMAN CATHOLIC CRUSADING IN TEN YEARS OF TRIUMPH, 1966-1976: A HISTORY OF A LAY- DIRECTED, RADICAL CATHOLIC JOURNAL Dissertation Approved: Dr. Ronald A. Petrin Dissertation Adviser Dr. Laura A. Belmonte Dr. Joseph F. Byrnes Dr. Patricia Hipsher Dr. Michael M. Smith Dr. A. Gordon Emslie Dean of the Graduate College ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my committee members—Dr. Ronald A. Petrin, Dr. Laura A. Belmonte, Dr. Joseph F. Byrnes, Dr. Patricia Hipsher, and Dr. Michael M. Smith—for reading, editing, and commenting on my dissertation and for providing insightful suggestions on how to improve my study. I especially would like to thank Dr. Petrin, my adviser and mentor, whose extensive knowledge on Catholic social thought has improved my own understanding of it; and Dr. Byrnes and Dr. Smith, along with Dr. Petrin, for providing models of professionalism and excellence in the professoriate. I also would like to thank my wife, Amber, and father, David—another academic model—for reading and editing first drafts. I also would like to thank Dr. Patrick N. Allitt, Goodrich C. White Professor of History at Emory University, who was kind enough to give me transcripts of interviews he conducted with L. Brent Bozell, Patricia Bozell, Michael Lawrence, Gary K. Potter, and Charles Rice. I would like to acknowledge the help of Mrs. Doris Miller, whose kind donation to the Oklahoma State University Foundation supports the graduate fellowship that allowed me to finish my research and writing. I also would like to acknowledge the OSU history department for its financial support, in the forms of departmental scholarships and a position as a graduate teaching associate—both of which allowed me to complete my graduate studies. iii I also would like to thank my family for their support, including my parents, Dave and Sharon, my in-laws, Tim and Cathy, and especially my wife, Amber. Her constant support, in innumerable ways, has made not only the completion of my dissertation, but many long years of graduate study, possible. To her I owe my degree and dedicate this dissertation. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. THE LAST ROAR OF THE CHURCH MILITANT IN AMERICA? .................1 Triumph......................................................................................................3 Roman Catholic Radicals...........................................................................7 Historiography ..........................................................................................12 II. ORIGINS OF TRIUMPH, PART I...............................................................23 L. Brent Bozell and Frederick D. Wilhelmsen...........................................26 Post-World War II Anticommunist and Anti-liberal Revolt ........................30 Disaffection with American Conservatism ................................................58 III. ORIGINS OF TRIUMPH, PART II.............................................................84 Liberal Catholics and the Second Vatican Council...................................84 Spain and Carlism....................................................................................99 Founding ................................................................................................112 IV. CHURCH AFFAIRS ...............................................................................134 The Catholic Church in America.............................................................141 Protestants and Jews.............................................................................146 Pauline Mass..........................................................................................154 Priests and Nuns....................................................................................174 V. THE SOVEREIGNTY OF CHRIST OR CHAOS......................................202 Secular Liberalism (and Conservatism) .................................................203 Confessional Tribe .................................................................................213 Confessional State .................................................................................221 Politics....................................................................................................231 Economics..............................................................................................237 Racial Strife............................................................................................243 Education ...............................................................................................247 v Chapter Page VI. TO MAKE CHRISTENDOM ...........................................................…….287 Cold War ................................................................................................288 Vietnam War ..........................................................................................294 Nuclear Weapons...................................................................................311 The Solution...........................................................................................320 Mirrors of Christendom...........................................................................323 Global South ..........................................................................................332 VII. REDEEMED TO HIS LIKENESS ..........................................................364 Contraception.........................................................................................366 Abortion..................................................................................................388 Feminism................................................................................................411 VIII. CONCLUSION .....................................................................................443 BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................449 vi CHAPTER I THE LAST ROAR OF THE CHURCH MILITANT IN AMERICA? We will make America Catholic as the conquistadores made half the world Catholic. —Frederick D. Wilhelmsen1 On the morning of June 6, 1970, approximately three hundred people gathered for a pro-life demonstration across the street from George Washington University Clinic in Washington, D.C. Many of them carried either processional crucifixes or self-made wooden crosses, while others held banners and placards—one read: “If killing babies is legal, what isn’t?”2 The most striking visual was a contingent of young men dressed in khaki pants and shirts. They wore red berets, rosaries around their necks, and patches of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on their breast pockets. Many of them clutched the yellow and white papal flag, adorned with crossed keys and the ornate papal crown. The crowd had congregated around an equestrian statue of George Washington. At its base stood a middle-aged man with thick, curly dark hair; his face personified fury. He spoke to the crowd: There is a judgment passed on the nations by the Lord of time. And when America faces its God on that awesome day and when He asks America ‘What did you do for these the least of My little ones?’ America will answer ‘Lord, we killed them while they were indeed the least of Thy little ones so that they could not be a nuisance to us.’ And then the Lord 1 God, our Incarnate King, Christ, will answer: ‘Go you, America, into outer darkness where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. I and all my angels vomit you out because you have done this to Me and to My Mother, your Queen.’ America, you have become a nuisance to God.3 At the conclusion of his speech he held out a silver cross and exclaimed: And therefore we take upon ourselves this morning, and we swear not to lay it down in our lifetime, the Holy Cross of crusade against the enemies of life and its Creator . Dear God—give us the grace to embrace this Cross. Christus vivit. Christus regnat. Christus imperat. Long live Christ the King! Viva Cristo Rey!4 The uniformed men answered, “Viva Cristo Rey,” which the crowd then repeated.5 Next, a tall, lanky redhead stood at the base of the Washington statue and addressed the crowd as he pointed to the clinic across the street: Christians will go to that building this morning in the name of their King . A delegation of them will go inside the walls to receive from the executioners a promise that the King’s reign will be honored in that place. They will seek enforcement of His command, Thou shalt not murder; they will seek to baptize and to bury in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost. They will not leave willingly until the King’s rule has returned.6 He pulled on a red beret, grabbed a large wooden cross, and led the crowd across the street toward the clinic. Five of the demonstrators, including the lanky redhead, entered the clinic and scuffled with police officers. Outside, the uniformed men prayed the rosary on their knees. The five men who had infiltrated the clinic were arrested; they shouted “Viva Cristo Rey” as they were led outside to a police wagon—the crowd roared