Ghent University

Faculty of Arts and Philosophy

The Herodotos Project (OSU-UGent): Studies in Ancient Ethnography.

Barbarians in Strabo’s ‘Geography’ (Isseans - Zygi).

With a case-study: the Britons.

Promotor: Paper submitted in partial Prof. M. Janse fulfilment of the requirements

Co-promotors: for the degree of Prof. Brian D. Joseph (Ohio State University) “Master in de taal- en letterkunde: Dr. Christopher Brown (Ohio State University) Grieks- Latijn” by Anke De Naegel

2014-2015

2

Nederlandse samenvatting

In deze thesis wordt eerst een inleiding gegeven die meer informatie geeft over het Herodotos project. Deze inleiding is samen geschreven met Julie Boeten. In deze inleiding komt naar voren wat dit project juist is en wat ons aandeel daarin was, dat is: we hebben alle volkeren die in Strabo’s Geografie voorkomen in tweeën gedeeld en alle informatie die Strabo over ons deel van deze volkeren schrijft verzameld. Deze informatie is terug te vinden achteraan deze thesis in de appendix.

Het eerste deel van deze masterproef bestaat uit een casestudy. Op dezelfde manier waarop we de volkeren van Strabo behandeld hebben, bekeken we ons studieobject. Bij mij is het onderwerp van deze casestudy ‘the Britons’, dit zijn de oorspronkelijke inwoners van Groot-Brittannië. Aangezien het om een casestudy gaat hebben we alle teksten van de schrijvers uit de antieke oudheid bekeken waarin ons gekozen volk aan bod kwam.

De nomenclatuur van het eiland en de bewoners wordt onderzocht. Blijkbaar was de naam van het eiland afgeleid van de naam van het volk. Men denkt dat beide namen afkomstig zijn uit de taal die de inwoners van Groot-Brittannië toen spraken, namelijk het Brittonic.

Daarna wordt de genealogie behandeld. Zowel de oorsprong van de Britons als hun onderverdeling in stammen komt aan bod. Blijkbaar dachten de Byzantijnse auteurs dat de Britons afstamden van een zekere Celto, de dochter van ene Brettanos. Dit lijkt erop te wijzen dat ze meenden dat de Kelten en de Britons verwant waren, hoewel de klassieke auteurs dit nooit zeggen. Hun onderverdeling in stammen wordt uitgelegd aan de hand van Ptolemaeus, die de meeste bekende stammen opnoemt. Een kaartje is toegevoegd om het duidelijker te maken, want zijn tekst is niet altijd even helder.

Daarna volgen de geografische opmerkingen. Groot-Brittannië werd gezien als een eiland dat buiten de Pilaren van Heracles lag en dat dus ofwel de grens van Europa vormde in het westen, ofwel buiten Europa lag. Groot-Brittannië lag (en ligt nog steeds) tegenover Frankrijk, en de afstand tussen deze twee gebieden is op sommige plaatsen erg klein. De zee waarin Groot-Brittannië lag had verschillende namen naargelang de ligging ten opzicht van het eiland. De vorm van het eiland is driehoekig, maar over de afmetingen bestaan zeer verschillende opvattingen.

Dan wordt het uiterlijk van de Briton behandeld, zowel in het dagelijkse leven, als in gevechtskledij en wapenrusting. Ze waren groot en hun haar was blijkbaar minder blond dan dat van de Kelten. Ze lijken niet veel kleding te hebben gedragen en tatoeëerden zichzelf. Ze stonden bekend als een wild en vrijheidslievend volk. Ook wanneer ze vochten waren ze naakt aangezien borstplaten en

3 dergelijke meer last zouden veroorzaken wanneer ze door de moerassen moesten dan dat ze nuttig zouden zijn. De mogelijke wapens die genoemd worden zijn zwaarden, messen en speren. Ze hadden ook een schild. Opvallend was dat ze strijdwagens gebruikten.

Vervolgens worden hun levensomstandigheden bekeken. Ze woonden meestal in eenvoudige hutten die ze bouwden op een open plek in het bos. Aangezien hun vee tussen hun hutten graasde waren ze genoodzaakt verder te trekken wanneer het groen opraakte. Er zijn verschillende opvattingen over hun politieke organisatie; volgens sommigen zijn ze democratisch terwijl anderen zeggen dat elke stam een eigen koning of prins had. Vandaag de dag wordt meestal gedacht dat ze vooral hiërarchisch waren en dat ‘familie’ een erg belangrijke rol speelde.

De goederen die ze uitvoerden waren voornamelijk metalen. Er werd goud en zilver gevonden, maar het was vooral het tin waarvoor Groot-Brittannië bekend was. Ook parels werden gevonden in de zee rond het eiland, en deze waren zelfs van behoorlijke kwaliteit. De Britons waren oorspronkelijk niet monogaam, want het was meerdere mannen toegestaan om met dezelfde vrouw te slapen. Het lijkt erop dat ook de vrouwen redelijk vrij waren in het kiezen van hun bedgenoot.

Slechts weinige goden of godinnen worden expliciet genoemd in Griekse bronnen, maar Andata en Andrasta worden vernoemd. Aan deze (en andere) goden werden regelmatig mensenoffers gebracht. De druiden waren degenen die een oog hielden op de religieuze zaken. Eenmaal de Romeinen in Groot-Brittannië aanwezig zijn, verschijnen er voorwerpen die aan de Romeinse goden zijn opgedragen. Deze goden worden dus deels overgenomen. Wanneer het christendom zich begint te verspreiden raakt ook Groot-Brittannië daarvan onder de invloed. Verbonden met het geloof is ook hun manier om met de doden om te gaan. Gezien de weinige bronnen die daarover spreken en het weinige archeologische bewijs is het moeilijk om te zeggen wat de normatieve vorm van begraven was. Er zijn verschillende mogelijkheden tot de Romeinen arriveren, dan begint het cremeren aan popularteit te winnen. Het christendom zorgt er dan weer voor dat er meer mensen begraven worden in plaats van gecremeerd.

De gemeenschappelijke oertaal van de Britons wordt ook wel het Brittonic genoemd. Deze taal ontwikkelde zich later tot o.a. het Welsh, het Iers, het Schots-Gaelisch, het Manx, het Bretoens, en het Cornisch. Deze talen behoren tot de Indo-Europeses talen en kunnen onderverdeeld worden in ofwel de Eiland/Vastelandhypothese, met de eilandtalen als de talen die in Groot-Brittannië worden gesproken, ofwel in de P-/Q- hypothese, waar het om bepaalde klankwetten gaat.

De geschiedenis van de Britons is behoorlijk bewogen. Caesar was de eerte die een veldtocht ondernam om Groot-Brittannië te veroveren. Na twee pogingen, die niet veel opleverden, hield hij er mee op. Ondanks het gebrek aan overtuigend succes verkreeg hij toch veel prestige door zijn poging.

4

De volgende keizer die zich met Groot-Brittannië bezig hield was Claudius. Hij probeerde om Groot- Brittannië deze keer echt te onderwerpen, maar kreeg af te rekenen met de opstand van Caratacus. Ook zijn opvolger Nero moest een opstand neerslaand, deze keer die van Boudica.

In de jaren na Nero zijn er verschillende keizers geweest die zich soms eens met Groot-Brittannië bemoeiden, maar niet heel veel. Hadrianus en Antoninus Pius zijn de opvallendste, omdat zij beiden een muur bouwden om de Britons te verdelen. Septimius Severus is de volgende keizer die zich echt nog eens met Groot-Brittannië ging bezighouden. Hij wilde het eiland voor eens en voor altijd onder keizerlijk gezag brengen, maar dat lukte maar matig. Tijdens de late oudheid stond Groot-Brittannië vooral bekend om de vele usurpators die het voortbracht. Dit bleef duren tot Honorius de Britten een brief schreef om te melden dat ze onafhankelijk waren (oftewel dat ze zelf voor hun verdediging moesten zorgen). Na de onafhankelijkheid zijn er nog maar weinig meldingen van Groot-Brittannië in Griekse bronnen.

Nadat al deze eigenschappen van de Britons bekeken zijn kan er besloten worden dat ze door de schrijvers van de Griekse werken initieel als barbaren werden gezien, maar later hun label van ‘barbaar’ verloren. Gebruik makend van een hypothese van James Redfield1, die stelt dat er ‘harde’ en ‘zachte’ barbaren zijn, wordt duidelijk dat de Britons een ‘hard’ volk waren.

1 Redfield, J., ‘Herodotus the Tourist’, in: Harrison, T., Greeks and Barbarians. Edinburgh 2002, 24-49 5

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Table of Contents

Word of thanks………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

General introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10

The Britons……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Introduction ...... 13

Nomenclature ...... 14

Genealogy ...... 16

Ancestors ...... 16

Tribes ...... 17

Geographical notes...... 25

Britain as part of the world ...... 25

Britain as part of the British Isles ...... 26

Britain itself ...... 28

Physical information ...... 30

In everyday life ...... 30

In battle ...... 31

Conditions of life ...... 33

Settlement ...... 33

Political organisation ...... 33

Economy (food) ...... 34

Sexual mores ...... 36

Religion/Mores ...... 37

Burial ...... 41

Language ...... 42

History ...... 44

Caesar (100 – 44 BC) ...... 44

First Intermezzo ...... 47

7

Claudius (41 – 54) ...... 47

Nero (54 – 68) ...... 49

Second Intermezzo ...... 51

Septimius Severus (193 – 211) ...... 52

Third intermezzo (or Crisis of the Third Century) ...... 54

Late Antiquity (284 – 410) ...... 55

After the divorce ...... 58

Conclusion: The Greek and Roman view upon the Britons ...... 59

Biblography ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 63

Abbreviations ...... 63

Corpora ...... 64

Primary literature ...... 64

Secondary Literature ...... 68

Websites ...... 70

Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71

Strabo’s index: peoples of the Mediterranean (Isseans – Zygi) ...... 71

24143 words

8

Word of Thanks

Without the help of the people around me I never would have succeeded in completing this master thesis. Therefor I want to thank them here:

First of all I want to thank my parents. They have given me the chance to study at the University of Ghent and always supported me. I also want to thank them and my siblings because of their patience every time I came home and said: “Did you know that the Britons…” Special thanks go to my father who took hours to correct my English. Any mistakes still in this paper are my own.

I also want to thank prof. Janse, prof. Brian Joseph and dr. Christopher Brown for giving me the chance to take part in the Herodotos project. I have learned a lot by writing this paper. I also want to thank them for the freedom I had in choosing my case-study for it was something I was really interested in. Thanks to this paper I now have some basic background information for next year, when I’m going to study Celtic Languages and Culture.

Last, but not least I give my thanks to my friends, who helped me with the lay-out and other computer-related issues, and who cheered me up whenever I needed it.

9

General Introduction

Ethnography is very much a topic nowadays. We live in a multicultural, global society, where ethnicity has become very important for one’s identity. But even in ancient times there already were authors who were interested in the peoples of their world. The question asked by ethnography is of course a very vital one: ‘what does it mean to be a human’?2 We must therefore not be very surprised when we see the vast production of ancient geographies, histories and ethnographies. However, all writers of whatever kind of ethnography use their own society as a starting point for understanding and representing the ‘other’3, and the ancient Greek and Roman authors were no different, as the existence of the term ‘barbarians’ indicates.

Albeit writers like Herodotus, Strabo, Pausanias, Polybius and Cassius Dio lived in a society that had a polyvalent attitude towards ‘barbarians’, they still give us a lot of information about their manners and customs. It even seems like some of these ‘savages’ earned their grudging respect. The opposition of Greeks versus barbarians has fascinated many scholars, although the opinions about its exact meaning vary. Most of the time, the antithesis is seen as a way to contrast West and East, whereby the West stood for democracy, science and other good things, while the East stood for despotism, theocracy and effeminate men. However, in Roman times, all kinds of ‘barbarians’ were discovered in the north, west and south, so this opposition was no longer valid. For a long time the predominant opinion was that the barbarians were the ‘other’ who formed a mirror which reflected the Greeks (and later the Romans) themselves. For in seeing the manners of the barbarians, they could establish their own identity in opposition to these peoples4. Recently, a new view has risen, taking into account the many interactions and exchanges between the ancients and their neighbours who were seen as ‘barbarians’.5

Vlassopoulos, who tries to bring these two views together - the one who stresses the polarity and conflict between the Greeks and the barbarians, as well as the one who accentuates the interaction, mutual dependence and exchange - emphasizes the importance to remark that the word ‘barbarian’ originates from the Greek word ‘βαρβαρόφωνος’. Though it is not altogether clear what exactly is meant by this, it is obvious that it has to do with the language of the people, whether it meant that they spoke a non-Greek language or that they just spoke Greek badly. However, even if the first were

2 Gay y Blasco, P. – Wardle, H., How to read ethnography. London 2007, 1 3 Gay y Blasco – Wardle, op. cit., 17 4 Hartog, F., The Mirror of Herodotus: The Representation of the Other in the Writing of History. Berkeley 1988 5 Vlassopoulos, K., Greeks and Barbarians. Cambridge 2013, 2-3 10 the case, it still couldn’t be seen as evidence for the existence of a view of a Greek-speaking people versus the not Greek-speaking peoples. There were so many Greek dialects that it is not easy to determine where exactly the Greek language stopped and where a new one began. In the end, it was their shared literature (for each genre had its own dialect) and their shared mythology that made them one unity, and not so much their language6.

The concept ‘barbarian’ seems to have evolved through the ages. In the Archaic Period there was no distinct opposition between them and the Greeks. It is only in the Classical Period that the opposition began to show. Some present the Persian Wars as a cause, others only as a catalyst for a movement that had already begun. Whatever the cause may have been, in this period the opposition was prominent and sometimes even bordered on racism. After Alexander’s campaigns had changed the Mediterranean countries, the Greek identity became a synonym of the Greek culture; it was possible to become a Greek if one was willing to adopt their customs, language and institutions7. With the coming of the Roman times and the subsequent conquering of all kinds of barbarian countries, the meaning of the concept ‘barbarian’ shifted, from a rather language-centred meaning to a more general cultural meaning. This is the meaning that comes closest to our word ‘barbarian’. Even without being able to pinpoint exactly what the opposition between Greeks and barbarians encompassed, it is clear that the Greeks were fascinated by these peoples. As already mentioned, this shows in the large amount of geographies and histories concerning peoples that were written in this time, some of which survived the ages, while others didn’t.

Modern people are all the more fascinated by these ‘barbaric’ peoples, since these can often tell them where they came from and thus establish part of their identity. We only need to look to the great interest of some American citizens in their roots and their ancestors, or the pride of the Belgians when they read Caesar’s ‘horum omnium Belgae fortissimi sunt’ to understand this. Since the interest in ethnic identity has grown so much, the Herodotos Project is an endeavour that wants to anticipate this demand and establish a database about the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean. As of today, there is no single source yet that brings all this information together. All ethnography is shaped by an inevitable gap between the text and reality8 and the long history that separates us from antiquity widens this gap even more. The Herodotos Project therefore tries to bridge this gap and bring the network between the different ethnic groups in the ancient world back to life. The audience that is targeted with this endeavour is thus a very wide one: classicists, historians, linguists,

6 Vlassopoulos, op. cit., 4 and 37 7 Vlassopoulos, op. cit., 8 8 Gay y Blasco – Wardle, op. cit. 11 anthropologists, ets. The project is named after Herodotus, since he is often called the ‘father of history’9, by which the history of peoples is designated. The project is based at the Ohio State University and works in association with the University of Ghent. Both universities want to focus on the peoples themselves, with particular interest in their language, mores, ties to other groups, religion, geographical location etc. In order not to get too preoccupied with merely the ancient texts or the archaeological remains, this project seeks to work in an interdisciplinary dialogue.

This paper focusses on Strabo’s contribution to this database. In his Geography (Γεωγραφικά) he describes the countries that lie around the Mediterranean Sea and were known in his time. Despite the title ‘Geography’, he only portrays places that were inhabited by people and he displays a distinct interest in the ethnic groups that lived there. The prime reason and starting point for describing a certain region was the civilisation that was situated there10. Strabo of Amaseia was born in Pontus, around 64-63 B.C. in a family of nobles. He was wealthy enough to travel a lot and visit many of the peoples he describes in his work. Even though he was perhaps not the most critical ethnographer to our modern standards, he still gives us a lot of concrete and usable information. Next to the Geography, he also wrote a historiographical work, the Ἱστωριακὰ Ὑπομνήματα, but sadly nothing of this work remains to this day. He himself was never actively involved in politics, but his family had ties with the royal court of Mithridates VI of Pontus. He stayed in Rome for a period of his life, and eventually he died in A.D. 24. His life thus encompasses a turbulent and dynamic part of history11.

Next to the appendix to this paper, where we each have collected all the data about the peoples in the Geography12, this paper will contain a case-study of one of the peoples in Strabo’s Geography (the Britons or the Cappadocians). Not only will we research all records of these populations in ancient literature (using the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae), but we will also look into epigraphic, papyrological and archaeological remains in order to create a complete image of this particular people.

9 Myres, J.L., Herodotus: father of history. Oxford 1966 10 Clarke, K., Between geography and history. Oxford 2001, 210-228 11 for Strabo’s biography: Dueck, D., Strabo of Amasia: a Greek man of letters in Augustan Rome. London 2000 12 Julie Boeten: Abii-Ionians, Anke De Naegel: Isseans-Zygi 12

The Britons

Introduction

The Britons have always been a people who captured the imagination. They were the people who lived in Britain before the Angles and the Saxons conquered it and the first people who are known to have lived there. Stonehenge, Hadrian’s Wall and other buildings remain in the landscape as reminders of the past which was rather turbulent. Not only had they their own rebellions with Boudica and Caratactus as their leaders, but a lot of usurpers originated as well from British soil. Aside from their intriguing history, there are the mysterious Druids, their fascinating stories from their mythology and their language which was totally different from the Greek or the Roman language, and of which some derivations still exist. It is because of all these things I have chosen the Britons as a topic.

Since the Britons were the people who lived in formerly Britain, Ireland is not treated in this paper – except sometimes it is slightly – for they were a rather different people to the Britons and their history differs greatly. So, the people I’m going to talk about will have lived in Great-Britain, consisting of nowadays England, Wales and – since Scotland is not (yet) independent – Scotland. However, because Scotland was situated in the northern part of Britain, and because the climate and environment were rather wild and harsh, there are few writers who really knew anything for certain about them. Still, there are few mentions about the northern part, but most will have to imagined.

In this paper – like in the Herodotos-project – I have tried to collect all data which can be found on the Britons in all sources written in Greek. This doesn’t necessarily mean the authors had to be Greeks, they could have been Romans as well, who wrote in Greek for some reason. A lot of the writers however, were indeed of Greek nationality, but held offices in Rome. All aspects of the Britons which are to be found in Greek literature will be discussed.

The nomenclature of the Britons will be examined, treating the different names of their island and the origins of the name of this people. Hereafter the genealogy of this people will be analysed; who the Greek authors saw as their ancestor and which tribes were part of the Britons. Their geographical position will be assessed, how they were seen relating to the world, the fact that they were part of the British Isles and at last the geography of Britain itself. Then I will move to the Britons themselves, what they looked like, how they dressed and what equipment for combat was used. To investigate the conditions of life, I will look into their settlements, their political organisation and their economy, their sexual and religious mores and how they treated their dead. A short paragraph will be reserved

13 for their language after which a long exposition on their troublesome history will be revealed. At the end – since the main title of this paper reads ‘barbarians in Strabo’, there will be a conclusion in which the notion of barbarian applied to the Britons will be examined. Were they seen as barbarians and did they remain known as barbarians throughout Roman history or did they change? Although I have tried to mostly use the antique sources13, sometimes it was necessary to correct their view when the modern opinion deviated from the antique one.

Nomenclature

In antiquity both Ireland and Britain were part of the so-called Βρεττανίδες νῆσοι, i.e. the British isles. An alternative version of this name was Βρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι14. Both names could be written with a ‘pi’ instead of a ‘beta’, as Marcianus and Ptolemaeus did15. Both islands also had their own specific names. Ireland was called Ἰέρνη or Ἰουερνία, which is most of the time translated respectively into ‘Ierne’ and ‘Hibernia’, while Britain too had two specific names, i.e. Ἀλβίων or Ἀλουίων. Both names were translated as ‘Albion’, a name that is still in use today. The inhabitants of these islands were often referred to as the ‘people of’ or the ‘inhabitants of’ these names. Βρεττανία was still another name for Britain, which was used the most by Greek writers. It is clear there is a connection between this name and the name of the inhabitants of this island, who were called Βρεττανοί. Depending on the metre that was used and the conditions these dictated, both island and inhabitants could be written with one ‘tau’ or alternatively with two. The version written with a double ‘tau’ is however said to be the right one in a scholium in Dionysius Periegetas16. Eustathius says the name of the island was derived from the name of the people17. So the question is: where did their name come from?

There are three etymologica which mention the Britons and give an explanation that can be used to see what the Byzantine scholars thought to be the etymology of the word. The oldest of them is the Etymologicum Genuinum, which was probably collected and written in the mid ninth century. In this it is stated the Britons were a people who descended from Celto, who herself was a daughter of Brettanus (Βρέττανος)18. It is assumable that they imagined Βρεττανοί was derived from Βρέττανος. The same explanation is given in the other two works, which were in all likelihood based upon the

13 See bibliography for an explanation about the references referring to antique writers. 14 Eustatathius, Commentarium in Dionysii periegetae orbis descriptionem, 492 15 Herodianus et Ps-Herodianus, Περὶ ὀρθογραφίας, 3,2.484 & Eustat. ibid. 16 GGM, Scholia in Dionysii periegetae orbis descriptionem (scholia vetera), 283sqq.1-9 17 Eustat. 284 18 Etymologicum Genuinum (ἀνάβλησις—βώτορες), beta.248 (s.v. Βρεττανοί) 14 aforementioned Etymologicum. They were called the Etymologicum Magnum19 and the Etymologicum Symeonis20. The Romans derived their names for Britain and its inhabitants from the Greeks, for they called the island ‘Britannia’ and its people ‘the Britanni’.

Nowadays scholars are quite convinced all the names for the island and its inhabitants were derived from words in the language of the Britons. They seemed to have called themselves ‘*Pritani’ or ‘*Priteni’. These words are probably both linked to words with the meaning of ‘cutting’ or ‘scratching’, maybe used to describe their custom of tattooing themselves. Even nowadays these words still survive, for in Cymraeg – the Welsh name for the Welsh language – Britain is called ‘Prydain’ and its former inhabitants in the north, i.e. in northern Scotland, are called ‘Prydyn’, referring to the Picts21. ‘Albion’, the other name of Britain, is probably derived from ‘*albio’- which means ‘world’ or ‘land’. Former scientists thought the word ‘Albion’ was related to a word for ‘white’ – maybe related to the Latin word ‘albus’ – and thus referring to the white cliffs which was the first sight of Britain as one arrived by ship. However, since there is no prove, people in present day lean more towards the first explanation22.

There are two other peoples whose names may cause some confusion with the Britons. The first one is a people with the name Βρεττηνοί23, for one could think the use of an ‘eta’ instead of an ‘alpha’ was due to a different dialect. This people however, who is only mentioned once in the whole of Greek literature, is said to have lived in Italy. The second people is called Βρέττιοι24. Their name means ‘barbarous’ and they lived on a little isle called Βρεττία, which was situated in the Adriatic Sea. In English this name is translated as ‘the Bruttii’.

19 Etymologicum Magnum, 212 (s.v. Βρεττανοί) 20 Etymologicum Symeonis (ἀνακωχῆς—βώτορες), 1.196), (s.v. Βρεττανοί) 21 Maier, B., Kleines Lexikon der Namen und Wörter keltischen Ursprungs (2003) s.v. Britannien, 40 22 Maier, B., Kleines Lexikon der Namen und Wörter keltischen Ursprungs (2003) s.v. Albion, 21-22 23 AG, Glossae rhetoricae (e cod. Coislin. 345), 223 (s.v. Βρεττηνοί) 24 Hdn et Ps-Hdn, De prosodia catholica, 3,1.287 15

Genealogy

Ancestors As said before, in de mid ninth century, it seemed like the people thought – or wanted to think – the Britons were descendants of Celto, who was the daughter of Brettanus. So, Brettanus was seen as the progenitor of the Britons. Since his daughter was named Celto it may be allowed to assume that the Byzantine writers saw the Britons as Celts. On the other hand, there is classical author Pytheas25, who talks about the people in Masalia – now called Marseilles – and says he thinks that they were Britons, while Hipparchus thought they were Celts. Said like this it seems as if he saw the Celts and the Britons as two different peoples and not as one of them descending from the other. This is the first attestation of the term ‘Celts’ and, like him, no other author will ever say they are connected with the Britons in whatever kind of relationship. The origins of the Britons aren’t mentioned by anybody else in Greek literature.

In the present time it’s a complete different case. If anyone talks about Celts, most people immediately think of the people who lived in England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales – the so-called Celtic fringe, and with some luck even Brittany is included. It has become common knowledge that the inhabitants of Britain were Celts, although it is still difficult to determine who belonged to this civilisation and moreover, who they really were. Today, the term ‘Celts’ is connected to the Hallstatt and the La Tène culture, two cultural styles ascribed to the Celts. But even this is now uncertain26. The only certain connection which is still accepted nowadays is the one between the Celts and their languages. Most of the time, Celtic people are seen as the people who spoke one of the Celtic languages27. However, even if these peoples are seen as Celts, this absolutely doesn’t mean they were one unity. It is in the present day accepted that most Celtic peoples cared more about their tribe and family than about a unity which is in reality a fabrication by modern people. In modern times it’s mostly the descendants of these peoples – proud of their heritage – who want to see them as a powerful, united people, but this is mere fiction.

25 Mette, H.J. (ed.), Pytheas von Massalia, De Gruyter. Berlin 1952, 6b 26 Snyder, The Britons. Oxford 2003, 13-16 27 Haywood, De Kelten. Amsterdam 2005, 1 16

Tribes

Map of the tribes living in Britain28.

Remark 1: Since Ptolemy’s description is not always clear, there are different maps to be found. However, this one agrees the most with the following paragraphs, that’s why I’ve chosen it. Remark 2: The Deceangli and the Gangani are written on the map, but were not mentioned by Ptolemy or any other Greek writer.

28 Images and text copyright ©P L Kessler (http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishMapAD10.htm) 17

As mentioned before, the inhabitants of Britain were more concerned with their own tribe and family than a non-existent unity. This means there were different tribes of which the Britons existed. And indeed, there are a lot of different peoples who are assembled under the name ‘Britons’. The first, and most extensive, to write about them was Claudius Ptolemy in his Geographia29. He mentions thirty three tribes, i.e. the Κορναούιοι (Cornavii), the Λοῦγοι (Lugi), the Σμέρται (Smertae), the Καιρηνοί (Caerini), the Δεκάνται (Decantae), the Καρνονάκαι (Carnonacae), the Κρέωνες (Creones), the Ἐπίδιοι (Epidii), the Καληδόνιοι (Caledonii), the Οὐακομάγοι (Vacomagi), the Οὐενίκωνες (Venicones) and the Ταίζαλοι (Taezali). These were the tribes who lived north of the wall of Antonine. The Δαμνόνιοι (Damnonii), the Νοουάνται (Novantae), the Σελγοοῦαι (Selgovae) and the Ὠταλινοί (Otalini, or more frequently the Votadini) lived between the two walls, i.e. the Antonine Wall and Hadrian’s Wall. All the aforementioned peoples thus lived in nowadays Scotland. The Βρίγαντες (Brigantes), the Πάρισοι (Parisi), the Ὀρδοούικες (Ordovices), the Κορναούιοι (Cornavii), the Κοριτανοί (Coritani), the Κατουελλαυνοί (Catuvellauni), the Ἰκενοί (Iceni), the Τρινοούαντες (Trinovantes), the Δημῆται (Demetae), the Σίλυρες (Silures), the Δοβοῦνοι (Dobuni), the Ἀτρεβάτιοι (Atrebatii), the Κάντιοι (Cantii), the Ῥῆγνοι (Regni), the Βέλγαι (Belgae), the Δουρότριγες (Durotriges) and the Δουμνόνιοι (Dumnonii) lived south of the wall of Hadrian. He also mentions a harbour which is named after the Γαβραντουϊκοι (Gabrantovici), though this people is not mentioned in the aforementioned list of people. In the same way he mentions a Σεταντίων λιμήν, although he never writes about a people called Setantii.

The Caledonians also appear in Cassius Dio’s Roman History30. According to him there are two principal races living in Britain, the Caledonians and the Maeatae. This last tribe appears nowhere else, except in Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, also connected with the Caledonians. The problem is, what does he mean with ‘principal’? Are these the two largest tribes or are they some sort of congregation of different tribes? At least the Caledonians are nowadays mostly seen as a confederation of tribes from the Scottish Highlands31. In the same way it is quite possible that the Maeatae also were a confederation, maybe from the Scottish Lowlands or Northern England.

About most of this tribes the only thing written down is where they lived – however vague – and with some luck which cities they inhabited. It is a clear sign of how unknown they really were to the Greek-writing people. Even with Caesar’s expedition to Britain, there isn’t much known about the tribes individually. Probably because few writers had actually gone there and most of them weren’t familiar or maybe even interested in their grouping of tribes. However, in the following pages an

29 Ptolemaeus, Geographia, 2.3.1-14 30 Dio Cassius, Historiae Romanae, 76.12.1 31 Snyder, op. cit., 44 & Haywood, op. cit., 85 18 attempt will be made to take a closer look at these different tribes, going mainly from the north of Britain to the south. If an author is mentioned to say something it means he wrote something more than Ptolemy; if no name is mentioned, it means the information came from Ptolemy’s Geographia32.

The tribes who lived north of the Antonine Wall will be handled first. Since the Cornavii lived most to the north, they will be the starting point. Although their name in Greek was Κορναούιοι, the English translation is most of the time Cornovii instead of Cornavii. They lived in all likelihood in what is now called Caethness33, in Scotland. Since they are only mentioned by Ptolemy and he doesn’t provide any extra information, but their territory, there is not much to be said about them.

Next to the Cornovii the Lugi or Logi lived, about whom even less can be said, aside from the fact that there also existed a tribe with this name in Great Germania – though their name is most of the time translated as Lugii. The territory of the Lugi was situated possibly on the western coast of the firth called the Moray Firth and north of them lived the Smertae. These Smertae lived possibly further inland in what is now called Sutherland – and if so, were also neighbours of the Cornovii.

West of the Smertae, and probably also more to the north, lived the Caerini, also situated in modern Sutherland, but possibly more to the west coast. This people is, like the Lugi and the Smertae, only mentioned by Ptolemy. South of the Lugi and east of the Caledonii, who will be described later, lived the Decantae. Since it is said that they lived south of the Lugi, their territory was likely also situated alongside the western coast of the Moray Firth.

North of the Decantae lived the Carnonacae, possibly in what is now called Ross-shire. South of them lived the Creones, on the western coast of Scotland, if Ptolemy’s account may be taken for true. South of these Creones lived a tribe called Epidii. Ptolemy gives a bit more information on their territory, which stretched from a promontory called Epidion to the east. Epidion might have been the mull of Kintyre34 and their territory was situated in nowadays Argyll and Bute.

Next are the Caledonians. Although they seemed a confederation, Ptolemy describes them just like any other tribe, so maybe before they became a confederation, one of the tribes already had this name. According to Ptolemy they lived west of the Decantae, with their territory stretching from the Lemmanonius Bay – it is not clear which place is meant by this – to the estuary of the Varar – now the Beauly River35. North of the Caledonians a δρυμός was situated, which was called the Caledonian drumos. A drumos could be either a fortress or a forest. Since there is no sign of a fortress having

32 Ptol. ibid. 33 Snyder, op. cit. 161 34 Haywood – Cunliffe, op. cit., 81-83 35 Richmond, I.A., RE VIIIA.16 (1958) s.v. Varar, 2391-2932 19 been situated there during Ptolemy’s time, a forest is probably the most logical explanation. Another argument to choose for this translation is Pliny the Elder, who mentions a silva Caledonia36.

When seen as a confederation Cassius Dio37 calls them a race of Britons. Like most authors after him he places them behind Hadrian’s Wall, so all people living closely behind the Wall were called Caledonians for Caledonia was the name given to that region. This region was mountainous, but also with plains. The mountains were rather dry, while the plains were swampy and desolate. This was certainly noticed by Severus when he wanted to subdue the Britons behind the Wall in 208 or 209 A.D38. for he had a lot of trouble travelling through this regions. Aside from the trouble in the swamps which caused some deaths, many Roman soldiers were tricked by the Caledonians and killed. Sometimes it was because they followed some sheep which were placed there by the Caledonians to trick them and lead them astray, or just because they scattered when searching for food and thus were vulnerable. According to Cassius Dio, they did not have cities or walls – so the drumos was in all likelihood a forest indeed – but lived in tents. They did not cultivate fields, but lived from their cattle, hunted for wild animals or ate certain fruits or even bark and roots in the forests. Even though there were fish in the rivers and waters, people did not eat them. A special kind of food – the name of it is not known – was made by them; it was enough to feed one person for a day, even if its size was similar to a bean39.

Despite the rather cold climate, it is said that they lived with not much clothes on, or even without any, and what’s more, they didn’t wore shoes. Accepting this it is not a surprise that they were able to endure cold, hunger and all kinds of hardship. When they were attacked they could live in the swamps for days with only their heads above the surface of the water. While it seemed as if they didn’t possess a lot, they were used to share their women and take care of all children. For the children it meant that they were raised not only by their parents, but by all the people in the tribe. Politically there was some kind of democracy, with leaders who were chosen for being the boldest men of the tribe. Boldness was shown in plundering and in battle, where they fought on foot or used chariots pulled by swift, but little horses. They protected themselves with a shield and used a dagger or a short spear to which a bronze apple was attached. This way they could hit it against their shield and frighten the enemy by the noise40.

36 Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 4.30 37 D.C. 76.12.1-5 38 Snyder, op. cit., 55 39 D.C. 76.12.1-5 40 D.C. ibid. 20

South of the Caledonians lived the Vacomagi, possibly in what is now called Strathspey41. Ptolemy mentions a few cities which belonged to them, i.e. Bannatia, Tamia, Camp Pterotum and Tuesis. It is not certain which places these are today. More to the south were the Venicones. A town named Orrea42 belonged to them. This might have been the city named Horrea by the Romans, which was situated somewhere in the middle of Scotland. More to the east the Taezali (or Taexali) dwelled, who founded a town called Devana. Their territory was probably situated on the eastern coast of Scotland, north of the Venicones. There also was a promontory named after them, i.e. the ‘Ταιζάλων ἄκρον’.

These aforementioned peoples were all tribes living behind the Antonine Wall as seen by the Greek writers. Maybe some of them were also the peoples who in the end were known as Caledonians, but this is more a guess than a certainty. Since it is said by Cassius Dio that the Maeatae – which was probably also a confederation of tribes – lived close to the Antonine Wall, it might be acceptable to assume some of the aforementioned peoples who lived more to the south, were part of this confederation. Their ways of life were closely related to these of the Caledonians, for they also lived in swamps and mountains, held wives and children in community and fought in the same way43. The tribes who will follow now are the ones who lived in the region between the Antonine Wall and Hadrian’s Wall.

The Damnonii lived the most to the north of the following tribes, and they occupied a lot of towns. For example, Colanica, Vandogara, Coria, Alauna, Lindum and Victoria were their property. None of these towns are described in enough detail to give the matching names of today, but they were all situated in the southern part of Scotland. There also was a promontory named after them, but since it was also called Ocrium, and a promontory with that name was situated in another part of Britain, it is assumable this was not a part of their territory. The Novantae lived south of the Damnonii, and more to the west, under a peninsula which had the same name and is now called the Rhinns of Galloway44. A promontory with their name is probably the Mull of Galloway45. Their territory was thus clearly situated in what is now called Galloway. Their towns were called Lucopibia and Rherigonium, but there isn’t enough information to match them to towns today.

41 Haywood – Cunliffe, op. cit., 83 42 Macdonald, G., RE XVIII.36.1 (1942) s.v. Ὄρρεα, 1417 43 D.C. 76.12.1-5 44 Macdonald, G., RE XVII.33 (1936) s.v. Novantarum Chersonesus, 1135 45 Macdonald, G., RE XVII.33 (1936) s.v. Novantarum Promontorium, 1135 21

South of the Novantae the Selgovae were situated with their towns Carbantorigum, Uxellum, Corda and Trimontium. Although it is not possible to find which places these were, it is accepted that the Selgovae lived close to Solway Firth46 or a bit more to the east. South of the Damnonii lived the Otalini, though it seems that they were mostly named Votadini by the Romans. They occupied three cities, i.e. Bremenium, Coria and Alauna. The last two towns have the same names as two towns of the Damnonii, but they were probably not the same places, since Ptolemy gives different coordinates.

Those peoples mentioned before lived between the two walls, next comes the last part of tribes, i.e. the ones who lived in the southern part of Britain, before the Hadrian Wall. They lived in the region most controlled by the Romans throughout history, and thus were more Romanised than the northern tribes.

South of the Selgovae and the Otalini dwelled the Brigantes. This is a tribe which was much more known throughout antiquity than most others. They are mentioned as being a British people by Aelius Herodianus in Stephanus Byzantius’ Ethnica47. According to Ptolemy their territory stretched out from one sea to another and included the towns Vinovium, Caturactonium, Isurium, Rhigodunum, Olicana, Eboracum – where the Legio VI Victrix was situated –, Camulodunum, Epiacum and Calagum. These towns are respectively, Binchester48, Catterick49, Aldborough50, a city close to the western coast51, maybe Ilkley52, the City of York53, a city close to Colchester54 and two unidentified cities. This means they lived in Northern England, and most likely in what is now called Lancashire, Durham, Westmoreland, Cumberland and the southern parts of Northumberland55, so from the Irish Sea to the North Sea. He also tells about a tribe with the same name but living in Ireland. Whether they were the same people, living in different places or whether they were a different people with the same name is not clear. Pausanias also mentions the Brigantes where he says that Antonine cut off a large part of their territory as retribution because they had marched against Gegunia which was in Roman hands56. The Etymologicum Symeonis57 also mentions a people

46 Keune, J. B., RE IIA.3 (1921) s.v. Selgovae, 1258 47 Stephanus Byzantius., Ethnica (Libri Α-Γ), 2.171 48 Richmond, I.A., RE IXA.17 (1961) s.v. Vinovia, 153 49 Haywood – Cunliffe, op. cit., 89 50 Haverfield, F.J., RE IX.18 (1916) s.v. Isurium Brigantum, 2282-2283 51 Haverfield, F.J., RE IA.1 (1914) s.v. Ῥιγόδουνον, 804 52 Macdonald, G., RE XVII.34 (1937) s.v. Olicana, 2476 53 Haywood – Cunliffe, op. cit., 85 54 Hübner, E., RE III.6 (1899) s.v. Camulodunum, 1448-1450 55 Hübner, E., RE III.5 (1897) s.v. Brigantes, 843-844 56 Pausanias, Graeciae descriptio, 8.43.4 57 Etymologicum Symeonis (ἀνακωχῆς—βώτορες), 1.527 (s.v. Βρίγαντες) 22 with the same name, but this is a Thracian people and seems to have nothing to do with the Brigantes in Britain.

Close to the Brigantes and near a promontory called Eulimenos – which literally means ‘with good harbours’ – the Parisi lived. They governed a town called Petuaria, nowadays Brough-on-Humber58. They probably lived in current York59, close to the sea – since their headland was called Eulimenos. South of them and of the Brigantes the Ordovices lived, more to the west. Two towns are said to have been under their ruling, i.e. Mediolanium and Brannogenium. Their territory was situated in modern northwest Wales60.

East of the Ordovices the Cornovii were situated. They occupied Deva, which was where the Legio XX Victrix was situated, and Viroconium. Their territory probably was situated around the boundary between Wales and England. Behind them, as Ptolemy says, so probably further to the east, the Coritani lived who were most of the time called Corieltauvi. They likely were found in the East Midlands in England around the towns of Lindum and Ratae. Next to them were the Catuvellauni, who lived in what is now called Cambridge, Northampton, Huntingdon and Redford61. Salinae and Urolanium (St Albans62) were their towns. According to Cassius Dio63 they ruled a part of the Dobunni.

The Iceni lived in parts of what is in present day called Norfolk and Suffolk. Their town, then called Venta, is now called Caister-by-Norwich64. East of them the Trinovantes dwelled. They lived close to the estuary of the river called Tamesa, which is now known as the river Thames65. Their town was called Camulodunum (nowadays Colchester66), so they lived in Essex, and parts of Middlesex and Suffolk67. Part of them must have lived near the sea, for Ptolemy says that two islets, called Toliatis and Counos were situated close to them.

According to Ptolemy, the Demetae lived more to the west and probably south of the peoples who were mentioned before, i.e. the Ordovices and the Cornovii. The Demetae owned Luventinum and Maridunum (Ca(e)rmarthen68). Their territory was situated in southwest Wales69. East to the

58 Macdonald, G., RE XIX.38 (1938) s.v. Petuaria, 1381-1382 59 Macdonald, G., RE XVIII.36.3 (1949) s.v. Parisii, 1538-1539 60 Macdonald, G., RE XVIII.35 (1939) s.v. Ordovices, 936 61 Hübner, E. RE III.6 (1899) s.v. Catuvellauni, 1798-1799 62 Haywood, op. cit., XIV 63 D.C. 60.20.2 64 Haverfield, F.J., RE IX.17 (1914) s.v. Iceni, 820-821 65 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Tamesa (online: 12/05/’15) 66 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Camulodunum (online: 12/05/’15) 67 Macdonald, G., RE VIIA.13 (1939) s.v. Trinovantes, 160 68 Macdonald, G., RE XIV.28 (1928) s.v. Maridunum, 1756 69 Hübner, E., RE IV.8 (1901) s.v. Demetae, 2713 23

Demetae the Silures dwelled. The only thing mentioned about them is that they owned one town called Bullaeum, but which present-day city that could be is not clear. Their territory was situated around Monmouth, Brecknock and Glamorgan in Wales70.

Going further to the east, to modern south-east England, the Dobuni – mostly written as Dobunni – could be found. They had a town called Corinium, which is nowadays Cirencester71. As mentioned before, part of them was subjected to the Catuvellauni72. Their neighbours were the Atrebatii, who are most of the time called Atrebates and who lived around their town called Calleva (although the Greek name was Καλκοῦα) , which is now named Silchester73. There was also another tribe with this name, living in Gaul, in a forest called Arduenna74, in modern Artois. This tribe was probably the ancestral tribe of the Atrebates in Britain75.

The Cantii inhabited the place east of the Atrebates, in what is now called Kent. They were the owners of Londinium, Daruvernum and Rutupiae. These towns are respectively London76, Canterbury77 and Richborough Castle78. South of the Atrebates and the Cantii lived the Regni , who are most of the time called Regenses. Their only town was called Noviomagus, which is now known as Chichester79. Their territory was situated in modern West Sussex80.

South of the Dobunni dwelled the Belgae and they seem to have inhabited the region of Somerset, with their towns Iscalis, Hydata Therma – which indicates a warm water source – and Venta. The first two towns are difficult to place in modern England, but the last one is probably Caerwent81. There was also another tribe with the name of Dobunni, which lived in Celtica near the Rhine, according to Cassius Dio82, and are also mentioned by Eustathius and Plutarch83. West of them and more to the south the Durotriges dwelled in present-day Dorset shire and the western part of Somerset84. Their town Dunium was situated in what is now called Dorset85 . More to the west of them, in what is now called Devon and Cornwall, lived the Dumnonii. Their towns were called Voliba, Uxella, Tamara and

70 Macdonald, G., RE IIIA.5 (1927) s.v. Silures, 114-115 71 Busse, W., DNP s.v. United Kingdom (online: 12/05/’15) 72 D.C. 60.20.2 73 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Calleva Atrebatum (online: 12/05/’15) 74 Strabo, Geographica, 4.3.5 75 Hübner, E., RE II.4 (1896) s.v. Atrebates, 2138 76 Macdonald, G., RE XIII.26 (1926) s.v. Londinium, 1396-1399 77 Haywood – Cunliffe, op. cit., 85 78 Haverfield, F.J., RE IA.1 (1914) s.v. Rutupiae, 1284 79 Haverfield, F.J., RE IA.1 (1914) s.v. Regni, 509 80 Ibid. 81 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Venta Silurum (online: 12/05/’15) 82 D.C. 39.2.1 83 Eustat. 378 & Plutarchus, Caesar, 20.4 84 Hübner, E., RE V.9-10 (1905) s.v. Durotriges, 1865 85 Hübner, E., RE V.9-10 (1905) s.v. Dunium, 1793 24

Isca (Exeter86), which was where the second Legio II Augusta was situated. These towns are difficult to match with towns today. The peninsula of Cornwall was also named after them, and had the alternative name of Ocrium. Today it is called the Lizard.

There are two other tribes who probably lived in Britain. Neither of them is mentioned in Ptolemy’s list of people, but there are places which refer to them. The first one is the Setantii, who had a harbour named after them87. This appears to have been situated at the west coast of Britain, possibly in Lancashire88. The other tribe is the Gabrantovici, for a bay ‘with good harbours’ is named after them89. This was possibly Filey Bay90. It is possible that there were other tribes who lived in Britain, but since no other Greek author has mentioned another people, these two tribes will be the last ones described in this paper.

Geographical notes

Since many of the Greek writers presumably hadn’t gone to Britain themselves, but used other sources to collect information to describe Britain, it is no surprise that there are different descriptions of the geography of the residence of the Britons. Even the fact that Britain is an island was arguable. It is important to know that Britain was part of a group of islands, which were all called the British Isles. Not only Britain, but Ireland too, and some other small islets belonged to this group. I’ll start with an extensive description of Britain, which slowly zooms in – but some other isles will also be mentioned shortly if the authors deemed them worthy enough to be brought up.

Britain as part of the world Firstly, the place of Britain in the world will be examined. What most writers mentioned when describing Britain, was that it was situated beyond the Pillars of Heracles91. Since it was outside the Pillars, the British Isles were sometimes seen as being no part of Europe92, while according to others, they functioned as a boundary of it93. There were tales about another island being behind it, i.e.

86 Haywood – Cunliffe, op. cit., 85 87 Ptol. Geog. 2.3.2 88 Macdonald, G., RE IIA.4 (1923) s.v. Σετάντιοι, 1896 89 Ptol. Geog. 2.3.4 90 Phillips, J., The Rivers, Mountains and Seacoast of Yorkshire. London 1855, 130 91 E.g.: Procopopius, De bellis, 3.1.18 & Loenertz, R.-J., Démétrius Cydonès, Correspondance [Studi e Testi], Vatican 1956, 31 (to Georgius the philosopher) & Str. 2.5.30 92 Str. 2.5.30 93 Eustat. 331 25

Thule, but as will be shown later on, this notion causes some difficulties. As long as the Britannic Isles were part of the Roman Empire, they belonged to the western part of it94.

There is a consensus that Britain was situated in the west and in the Ocean. Most of the authors also claimed that it was an island, but apparently there were some who doubted this. Cassius Dio mentions that some only accepted the fact that it was an island – and not a continent – during the time of Severus and Agricola95. Apart from Appian96, the fact that it was an isle appears in almost every work handling the British Isles. Most even make it their first notion97. The ocean in which it was situated had a different name depending on the writer. Some said it was the Western Ocean98, but sometimes it was called the Northern Ocean99. Most of the time however it was just known as the ocean or a different name was given to some parts of that ocean, depending on where that part of the ocean was situated compared to Britain.

Britain as part of the British Isles The position of Britain and the mainland will now be handled. Britain was stretched parallel to that part of the coast of Celtica which is now more or less France. The distance between Britain and the mainland was not very large – according to Strabo100 at the smallest point it was 320 stadia101 – and setting out from there it was less than a day. Especially in the east – in Cantium for example – it was possible to see the country at the other side of the water. In front of Britain were the estuaries of the Rhenus (the Rhine) and the Sequana (the Seine). From both these rivers and from the estuaries of the Liger (the Loire) and the Garumna (the Garonne) there were passages to Britain. Sometimes, but less frequently, it was possible to start out from the land of the people called Morini, but this crossing was somewhat longer in distance, i.e. 450 stadia102. According to Diodorus Siculus103 the smallest distance, i.e. from Cantium to the mainland, was 100 stadia, while the largest, i.e. from Belerium, was 4 days. Even though the length of the stadia could differentiate depending on from which city one came from, these two lengths are too diverse to claim either of them was correct.

As said before, Britain was a part of a group of islands called the British Isles. Britain was the largest one of them and according to some writers it was the second biggest island in the by then known

94 Procop. De bellis. 3.1.18 95 D.C. 39.50.1 96 Appianus, Praefatio, 18 97 E.g.: Hesychius, Lexicon A-O, beta.1111 & ΠκΠ, Epistula ad imeratorum Romanorum Constantinum translata de voce Laina in vocem Graecem Theodoro Gazae, 59 & D.S. 5.21.1-2 98 Aelianus, De natura animalium, 15.8 and App. BC. 2.21.150 99 App. Praef. 18 100 Str. 4.5.2 101 This is 40 miles according to Henderson. 102 This is 60 miles according to Henderson. 103 Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 5.21.3 26 world. Tarpobane (Ceylon) was the one known to be larger104. According to Ptolemy105 the parts of the ocean around Britain had their own names. North of Britain, the sea was sometimes called Δουηκαλεδόνιος. It possibly had something to do with the Caledonians who lived in the northern part of Britain. East of them the German (Γερμανικός) Sea was situated. The Πρεττανικός or British Sea was situated in the south, and west of Britain, the sea was called Οὐερνικός or Οὐεργιόνιος, which probably referred to Ireland. Ireland itself was situated west of Britain and was the fourth greatest island106. Apart from Ireland there were some small islands also belonging to this group. Close to the promontory called Orcas, there were Scitis and Dumna, with nearly thirty islands called the Orcades (the Orkney islands107) situated north of them. Even more to the north – almost six days sailing away from Britain – was Thule according to Pytheas, but most later writers don’t believe that this isle existed. Some seem to have believed it, but Strabo108 declares it nonsense. The last isles mentioned by Ptolemy were the ones close to the Trinovantes, called Toliatis and Counus and an island called Vectis (now the Isle of Wight109). The Cattiterides were some islands which even now are difficult to identify, but since some say they were the Scilly Islands110, Cornwall itself or some other isles close to Britain111, they are mentioned here. Ictis was another isle which was mentioned when talking about tin, for this was the isle to which they brought it112. The present name is not certain for there is no possibility to know with certainty which island is meant. In any case, it has to be an island which was situated close to Devon or Cornwall where tin was mined. Some possibilities are St. Michael’s Mount, Mount Batten, Portland Bill or Hengistbury Head113. Not only Thule was an island with an uncertain existence, Ogygia114 was too. This island, which according to Plutarch115 was situated five days sailing westwards from Britain, is mentioned in the Odyssey as the residence of the nymph Calypso.

104 Marcianus. Periplus maris exteri, 1.8 & GGM, Scholia in Dionysii periegetae orbis descriptionem (scholia vetera), 1.109-111 105 Ptol. Geog. 2.3 106 GGM, Scholia in Dionysii periegetae orbis descriptionem (scholia vetera), 1.109-111 107 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Orcades (online: 21/05/’15) 108 Str. 2.4.1 109 Richmond, I.A., RE XVIIIA.16 (1958) s.v. Vecta, 2395-2396 110 According to Henderson in Str. 2.5.15: footnote, book 1-2, p. 461 111 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Cattiterides (online: 14/05/’15) 112 Timaeus, Fragmenta (Jacoby), 3b,566,F.164 113 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Ictis (online: 14/05/’15) 114 Käppel, L., DNP s.v. Ogygia (online: 14/05/’15) 115 Plu., De faciie in orbe lunae, 941. A 27

Britain itself Britain itself was shaped as a triangle with unequal sides. Its form is about the only thing writers agree on. The length of each side or the circumference depends on the writer. Here follows a column with the different possibilities in stadia. It gives the authors, the sides (if the author gives the three sides), the length and the breadth (when he gives these instead of the sides) and the circumference.

author Side 1 Side 2 Side3 length breadth circumference Pytheas 20 000 40 000 Timaeus 40 5000 Scymnos of 40 000 or 30 Chios 000 Diodorus 7 500 15 000 20 000 42 500 Siculus Strabo 4 3000 4 400 5 000 Cassius Dio 7 132 2310 / 300 Marcianus 5 225 3 083 Joannes 7 132 230 Zonaras Geographica 39 000 Adespota Remark: there are only fragments of Scymnus preserved in other authors, and they give two different circumferences. The two numbers for the breadth in Cassius Dio stand for the longest and the shortest, depending on where one measures.

Since the length of a stadium depended on where one came from, it is useless to convert the lengths to miles. The table serves to show the greatly differing lengths authors fancied to be true. The problem is also that there is no way to know how they have calculated these figures. Did they use a map to measure it or did they calculate it using the duration of the voyage around Britain and the average distance a ship covered? Did they reduce the island to a triangular form to measure it or not? Anyway, their measurements are certainly not the ones we use nowadays for almost all of them are too long.

In Britain there were three capes or promontories. Cantium (Kent) was the one who was situated most to the east, and closest to the mainland. Belerium was another, and Orcan was the last one.

28

According to Strabo116 the island was rather flat but with some hills. There were a lot of forests and Clemens Alexandrinus117 says that when the wind rustled the leaves it sounded like the song of birds. It was possible to cultivate the soil so grain was produced. The weather was rather cold and wet – snow was infrequent, but frost not – since it was situated that far to the north, but even so the island was rather populous. Since it was a rainy and foggy country the land was fairly grassy and a lot of cattle was kept. The metals which were found in Britain were inter alia gold, silver and iron. If the Cattiterides were to be identified as the Scilly Islands or Cornwall they also produced tin for these places are known for this metal. On Britain there is said118 to have been a special cave, which was situated under a mountain. This cave had a chasm on its summit and when the wind blew through it the cave made a sound resembling the clashing of two cymbals. Where this cave was is not specified. Another special feature of Britain concerns the trees growing there, or in any case the trees that produced stone fruit, only according to Apollonius Paradoxus119, the fruits on this island didn’t have any stones. He mentions grapes and olives, which would be rather strange because the climate doesn’t seem to be ideal for this kind of fruit. The wind blowing over Britain was said to be the Thrascias, which was the name of the north-northwestern wind120 or the Zephyrus, i.e. the western wind121. There is a mention of the Britons crossing the sea and warring in Celtica122, which may be a reference to Amorica, which is now called Brittany. In the fifth century, after the separation from the Roman Empire, some of the Britons started to travel to this place and to settle there. They even called it Britannia Minor123. In this region there is still a Celtic language in use nowadays, i.e. the Breton language.

116 Str. 4.5.2 117 Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromata,6.3.33 118 Clem.Al. ibid. 119 Apollonius Paradaxos, Historiae mirabiles, 15.1 120 Michael Psellus, Poemata, 59 121 Joannes Tzetzes, Chiliades, 8.215 122 Nicephorus Gregoras, Historia Romana, 2.689 123 Snyder, op. cit., 156 29

Physical information

Physical information is too small a description of what will follow. Not only physical traits, but also the temper of the Britons will be described as far as the Greek writers have written about it. It is interesting to see what they thought the Britons looked like or acted, while most of them had never been there. It is a good way to see how prejudices lived in the minds of the writers as they handled some far-away living barbarians. The physical information will be split up in their everyday life and battle, where a little more information will be given on the way they fought.

In everyday life According to Strabo124, the Britons were rather tall. Even though he gives no sizes, he mentions they were taller than the Celts125. Their hair is said to have been less yellow than the Celts, so the Britons were not blond, or at least less blond. His last report on this case is that they were also of looser built than the Celts. As said before, Cassius Dio126 mentioned that the Britons lived naked and without shoes. Given the fact that it was rather cold this is quite impressive – or he was wrong, but Herodian127 also claims that they lived naked. In his work it seems as if the one reason why they did this was to be more comfortable when walking through the marches, for these were rather deep and in this way no clothing could hinder them.

Another possible reason why they wore no clothes was because they are said to have tattooed themselves with drawing of animals and coloured patterns. Because of this they wouldn’t wear clothing for their tattoos wouldn’t be visible. Living naked and in the cold must have been very healthy, for both Asclepiades128 and Pseudo-Galenus tell us that they could live till one hundred twenty years of age. Their explanation is that the Britons contained a fiery element inside their bodies and that the cold climate caused their solidness and their longevity. Their nakedness did not mean they were total savages or primitives, for they did wear some kind of ornaments, made of iron for they valued this metal very much. These ornaments were worn around their waist or neck129.

According to Claudius Ptolemy130 their temperament was influenced by the fact that they lived under the constellations of Aries (the ram), Leo (the lion) and Sagittarius (the archer) and under the planets Jupiter and Mars. He claims that the Britons were impatient, and didn’t deal well with coercion. Since they didn’t like force put on them, it comes as no surprise that he also describes them as loving their

124 Str. 4.5.2 125 Remark the differentiation between Britons and Celts. 126 D.C. 76.12.1-5 & Joannes Zonaras said the same in his Epitome Historiarum, 3.105 127 Herodianus, Ab excessu divi Marci, 3.14.6 128 In Ps-Plutarchus, Placita philosophorum, 311.B 129 This ornament may have been a torque, for this was one adornment for which the Celts were known. 130 Ptol. Tetr. 2.3.13-15 30 freedom, and as a people who were warlike and imperious. Some good characteristics of them were their industriousness, their braveness and their faithfulness, and they were also seen as clean and high-minded. A less attractive treat was that they were said to regard women with indifference and even scorn. This seems rather unlikely since they once had a women as their leader, i.e. Boudica. According to Ptolemy they were also focused on their community and their family, and were rather affectionate towards them. It is said that they performed good and kind actions as well. Seeing these characteristics they were a lot like some other peoples, who also lived under the same signs, in the north-western part of the first quadrant. But as they were of these peoples the most familiar with Aries and Mars, the inhabitants of Britain are said to have been the most wild, bold and ferocious of them all. It is clear that Ptolemy was not averse to a bit of astrology.

In battle The reason why their appearance in battle and some information on the way they fought is catalogued under physical information is mainly because it is possible that paintings and other forms of art presented them as warriors. If that is the case, it could be interesting to have an idea what they looked like when fighting and what weapons they used.

Apparently even in battle they were naked. They didn’t use breastplates or helmets, for they would only be a hindrance when they had to cross the marches. So it seemed they were rather in tune with nature around them. The only thing they wore was a kind of belt from which their sword hung. All these facts are told by Herodian131 for no other author mentioned swords. However they all write about their shield, which was narrow if one can believe Herodian; no other author132 gives any description of it. Other weapons they used varied according to the writer, but there are mentions of daggers and a short spear. This spear is further described by Cassius Dio133 where he is talking about the Caledonians and the Maeatae134, for he tells this spear sometimes had a bronze apple attached to it so they could use it to hit their shields in order to scare the enemy with the noise.

There were two manner in which they fought according to these Greek writers, i.e. on foot or using horses. If they fought on foot, they were standing firm or moving swift according to Cassius Dio and they were able to slip away and attack suddenly because of their knowledge of the surroundings. When they used horses, they used them mostly to pull the chariots and not to ride them. According to Arrian of Nicomedia135, they were the only barbarians who used chariots in battle and this is a

131 Hdn. 3.14 132 D.C. 76.12.3 & Ptol. Tetr. 2.3.13-15 133 D.C. 76.12.1-5; also mentioned supra (see Genealogy: tribes) 134 See also Genealogy: tribes 135 Flavius Arrianus, Tactica, 19.2 31 custom that repeatedly appears in a lot of written works. Since their country was rather rugged and difficult to travel, their chariots had to be strong and able to endure a lot. The same could be said about their horses. Like said before, they used a breed which was small but swift and according to Arrian of a low quality. But, on the other hand, as they were said to be able to pull their chariots, they had to be strong and able to endure some difficulties.

A special case in this description of Britons in battle was Boudica, for she was a warrior, but also a woman. She is described by Cassius Dio136 as being very tall – which is conform the description of the average Briton according to Strabo – and rather masculine. Her eyes were fierce and she had a rough voice. Her hair is described as being a shade of blonde, which most people seem to interpret as red, which is quite possible for Cassius Dio uses the word ξανθοτάτην137, which has different meanings. It is said to have fallen to her hips, so it was long. She had a golden adornment, which was described by the word στρεπτός, which means a collar of twisted metal. It seems likely this could have been a torque, for she wore it around her throat. Her clothing consisted of a tunic in different colours and a thick mantle she wore over her tunic and was fastened with a brooch. The difficulty is that she was out of the ordinary, so it is not possible to deduce a lot of her description. There is no possibility to say whether she wore the regular clothing for women or whether it was different. Maybe the only thing we can derive from this description is that she wore long hair and this may have been the case for most women, for one would think that long hair would only be more hindering in war than short hair. So, if it was not the custom why would she have had long hair?

136 D.C. 62.2.2-4 137 D.C. 62.2.4 32

Conditions of life

Settlement Since Britain is full of forests, the Britons had to find a way to live in them. Strabo138 describes how they resided in these woods. They chose a place in the forests, where they felled the trees till an open circular space was created. In the middle of the circle they constructed huts which they inhabited, and sometimes they used the trees they had felled to make a fence around their huts. Inside this fence, between the huts, they let their cattle graze. They used these places for a period of time until there wasn’t anything left for the animals to eat and then moved on and built a new one. Diodorus Siculus139 named their residences cottages, and said that they were for the biggest part covered with reed or wood. Because their houses were basic and their settlements – the collection of their houses – rather small, these were not seen as cities or even towns. Since the fence was more to keep the animals in than to keep the enemies out, it was also not really regarded as a wall. Because of this Cassius Dio140 says that they had no cities or walls. As said before he claims they lived in tents. These two visions don’t have to contradict one another, for there was a variety of settlements and residences in Britain141. Later their settlements must have become more permanent since they built storages142 to stock their food.

Political organisation Not a lot is said about the political organisation of the Britons. This is not that strange, since the majority of the writers had never visited Britain. And even if they had, it is difficult to tell if they had a good insight in their organisation. For every writer had to be influenced by their own background and since their understanding consisted mostly of the political organisation of Greece and most of all the Roman Empire – with its emperor – it was entirely different from their own. It is therefore not possible to predict if they even would have been able to really understand the organisation of a people so different from theirs.

According to Cassius Dio143 they were rather democratic: they had leaders who were chosen by the people after they had distinguished themselves by their bravery. Whether these people consisted only of the men who were of age, or also of women is not clear. Strabo144 mentions they had

138 Str. 4.5.2 139 D.S. 5.21.5 140 D.C. 76.12.1 141 Snyder, op. cit., 49 142 D.S. 5.21.5 143 D.C. 76.12.2 144 Str. 4.5.2 33 chieftains who led them and who were powerful. Diodorus Siculus145 however wrote they were governed by kings and other rulers, and that for most of time these groups were at peace with each other. Over whom these kings and rulers reigned – just one tribe or a confederation of tribes – is not said. Likewise there is no record on how the relationship between tribe and family has to be perceived.

Nowadays it is commonly accepted that their political and social organisation was strongly hierarchic146 and based upon tribes of which family was an important part147. There were indeed kings or higher chieftains who were masters of the lesser chiefs, but it is not clear if they were chosen or acquired their position by force. These tribes could form alliances, but they also battled each other – and so contradicted Diodorus Siculus’ opinion. If the second expedition of Caesar into Britain shows one thing for certain, it is that the British tribes were no unity, for they were divided with some surrendering to him while others kept fighting him.

All these aforementioned organisations were of course only valid for the time before the Romans came. After Caesar arrived, tribal kingdoms arose in the south-eastern part of Britain148. This meant that some tribes gained a lot of power and started to rule over others. Another new factor in the political landscape was that the Roman emperor appointed a governor to keep an eye on that part of Britain which was more or less conquered. During the ruling of Severus this became two governors149. After the loss of Britain as part of the Roman Empire, the local elite who had begun to build some patron-client relationships arose and started to rule their own district150.

Economy (food) Not only the import and export will be mentioned in this part, but also the customs of the Britons concerning food. This because food has always been a something that was cultivated and sold or traded. One can assume it was the same in Britain. The first two paragraphs will concentrate on the food which was to be found in Britain, the last two will handle the producing of metals and other exportable things.

Strabo151 mentions in his work that, though Britain bore grain, the Britons had no experience in cultivating crops or other agricultural pursuits. Cassius Dio152 agrees on this concept, for he also says

145 D.S. 5.21.6 - 22.1 146 Cunliffe, B., The Ancient Celts. Oxford 1997, 107 147 Laing, L., Celtic Britain. London 1979, 19 148 Haywood, op. cit., 77 149 EHCP, De insidiis, 92 150 Snyder, op. cit., 71 151 Str. 4.5.2 152 D.C. 76.12.1 34 they didn’t till their fields. It seems that – after the arrival of the Romans – they did learn how to cultivate the fields, for it seems they even transported some of it to the mainland. Zosimus153 writes Caesar established an export of corn supply from Britain to Germania. This export was disrupted during the reign of Julian, because the Chamaboi people revolted against him154. Another sign of cultivation is hinted at in the work of Diodorus Siculus155. He mentions the Britons storing their corn in roofed houses after cutting the ears from the stalk. Each day they would take only what they needed for that day and leave the rest for times of need. This corn they bruised and used to make bread of.

As mentioned before, they kept cattle, and in that way had milk at their disposal. Still, according to Strabo, some of them did not use it to make cheese which was a sign of barbarism for most Greeks. Since he just says ‘some of them’, others would have made cheese, and it is assumable to expect they also used their cattle for meat. Since their cattle had to meet other needs than just the meat for food, they also hunted wild animals. There was fish to be found where they lived, but they didn’t catch and eat them for some unknown reason. Other food they consumed were certain fruits that were found on the island, Apollonius Paradoxus mentions olives and grapes156. When no such things were available they were also able to survive on bark and roots when they were in the forests. As mentioned before, they also had some kind of food that was very nutritious, though not much bigger than a bean in size. Posidonius157 writes they ate iris (presumably the flower) in Britain. A certain drink is mentioned by Dioscorides158 which was made in Britain from wheat, resembling another drink called κοῦρμι. This κοῦρμι was made of barley and according to him caused headaches, ill fluids and pain to the tendons. It is not clear whether he meant the drink from Britain had the same body reaction or not.

The metals found in Britain were gold, silver, iron and of course tin. The tin-trade was a very important part of the export of Britain. One of their partners was Massalia (Marseille)159, and the tin was brought there on horseback after it had arrived from Britain in Galatia160. Most tin was found at the promontory called Belerium. According to Diodorus Siculus161, its inhabitants mined it and purified it while they melted it. After that they moulded it in some form and brought them to the isle

153 Zosimus, Historia nova, 3.5.2 154 Eunapius, Fragmenta historica, 1.218 & EHCP. De legationibus. 591 155 D.S. 5.21.5 & Timae. 3b,566,F.164 156 See supra Geographical notes: Britain itself 157 Posidonius, Fragmenta (Jacoby), 2a,87,F.116, also mentioned in D.S. 5.32.3 158 Wellmann, M. (ed.), Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei de materia medica libri quinque. Weidmann. Berlin 1906- 1914, 2.88.1 159 Str. 3.2.9 & Posidon. 2a,87,F.47 160 D.S. 5.38.5 161 D.S. 5.22.1-4 35 called Ictis which was situated near Britain. Because of the trade and therefore their contact with other peoples, the inhabitants of Belerium were seen as more civilised than the other peoples who lived in Britain. Stephanus Alexandrinus162 claims that the metals from Britain were of a great quality.

Other trading products that were mentioned by Strabo163 were hides, slaves and dogs which were cultivated for the chase. Apart from this there were also gems that were exported, a part of these consisted of pearls which were found in the ocean. They were rather good concerning quality, for Origen164 says they were the second best pearls to be found in the water. The description of these pearls given by him165 is short, but similar to other descriptions166. These pearls are said to have been gold-coloured, but a bit misty and rather dim. Still, they were clearer than the ones found near the Bosporus. The colour is described as pale-yellow or orange by John Tzetzes167 and he also adds they were rather ill-rounded. Another gem found in Britain was apparently the amethyst, though this is only written in Heliodorus’ Aethiopica168 in comparison to the Aethiopic amethyst and it is not likely he knew a lot about Britain. It is rather unlikely that amethyst would have been found in Britain, for Britain is not a region where this mineral is known to be found169.

Sexual mores This paragraph examines how the Britons dealt with marriage and sexual mores. It was a topic that many writers were interested in – though not many wrote on it – but also one susceptible to exaggerations. Of course, their customs were different, but some writers seem to go a little too far in their description by writing things that are highly doubtful.

It is interesting to see that the Britons apparently weren’t monogamous. It is said multiple times170 that women were held in common. Different men were thus allowed to sleep with one woman without trespassing. (Maybe related to this came the custom to raise their children together – it is possible that this was a result of their non-monogamy, for there was no way to know whose child a particular kid was). They also mentioned that it was the same case for women, so that they themselves were also allowed to sleep with any man and they were free to have intercourse with the

162 Stephanus, De magna et sacra arte (sub nomine Stephani Alexandrini philosophi), 2.206 163 Str. 4.5.2 164 Origenes, Commentarium in evangelium Matthaei, 10.7 165 Origenes, ibid. 166 Like Ael. NA. 15.8 & Juba II Rex Mauretaniae, Fragmenta, 66 167 Tz. H. 11.375 168 Heliodorus, Aethiopica, 5.13.3 169 Kourĭ mský, J., Encyclopedie van Mineralen en Gesteenten. Lisse 1997, 92-93 170 D.C. 76.12.2 & Georgius Cedrenus, Compendium Historiarum, 1.270 & Zon. 3.105 & Pk, Recognitiones (ex Eusebio) [Sp.], 9.24 & Eusebius, Praeparatio evangelica, 6.10.28 & MPG, Georgius Monachus, Chronicon, 38-39 & Bekker, I. (ed.), Michaelis annales [CSHB], Weber. Bonn 1836, 270 36 men they wanted171. If this statement is to believed they seem to have seen women and men as equals with the same rights. There even is a tale172 about a Briton woman – the wife of Argentocoxus, a Caledonian – who told Julia, the wife of emperor Augustus, that they were better off than the Roman women, for they could openly sleep with good men, while Roman women had to sleep in secret with the vilest men. A custom mentioned by Clemens Romanus173 seems rather exaggerated, for he said that the Briton men slept with their own mothers, sisters and daughters, but incest is a taboo which is found almost everywhere, so probably with the Britons too.

Religion/Mores Not many writers tell us about the religion which was eminent in Britain. There is no ordered summary about which gods and/or goddesses they worshipped. Only small remarks on this matter are found. These can be used to deduce some information, but still not much. A lot remains mysterious, for even though many names of their gods are found, it is not always clear what they stood for. Not just religion itself will be treated in this paragraph – which gods are mentioned in literature or epigraphical sources – but also some superstitions and legends about Britain or the islands belonging to the British Isles.

Cassius Dio174 mentions one goddess in his writing as he describes the cruel actions of Boudica and her supporters for he says they pledged offers and celebrated their victory in the grove of Andata. This goddess was comparable to the Roman goddess Victory or the Greek goddess Nike, and was apparently of great importance to the Icenians. A second goddess is mentioned by Cassius Dio175, for he says Boudica made a prayer to Andrasta during her speech to rouse her soldiers. Since both seem to have been goddesses connected with battle, the possibility remains they were one and the same.

Most people, when asked about the religion of the Britons, think immediately of druids. When looking into a lexicon made by Ps-Zonaras176, they are described as the ‘philosophers’ of the Galatae (a word which is sometimes used to indicate the Celts). Diogenes Laertius177 mentions them, for he says some people think philosophy has to begin with the wisdom of the barbarians. He then gives a short list of peoples and how their wise men were called, and for the Celts and the Gauls, these were called ‘the druids’. So, he holds them in some esteem. Strabo might be talking about the druids when he says people were living on the Cattiterides who were clothed in black cloaks, with long tunics, a

171 D.C. 77.16.5 172 D.C. ibid. 173 Pk, Homiliae, 19.19.7 174 D.C. 62.7.3 175 D.C. 62.6.2 176 Zonar., Lexicon, delta.569.13 177 Diogenes Laertius, Vitae philosophorum, 1.1.1 37 girt around their breast and most of the time holding a stave in their hand178. He speaks also about the druids in general – so not specifically about the Briton ones. He tells they were one part out of the three sets of men who were kept in honour by the Celts, the other two being the bards and the vates. The Druids were the ones who studied natural and moral philosophy and spoke justice whenever needed179. They were also versed in prophecy and wisdom180. According to Hippolytus, the Druids used magical rites which originated from the Pythagorean philosophy, for a servant of Pythagoras had come to them and taught them these181. Another name for them – though sometimes it seems to be an adjective instead of a name – is σεμνόθεοι182, constructed from σεμνός (revered, worthy of respect) and θεοί (gods).

Connected to both the druids and the religious mores are the human sacrifices. Not one of the Greek writers tells us about these – except for Cassius Dio where he talks about the women Boudica hung after she had beaten the Romans183. In Roman sources there is much more written about this, for it was a practise that appalled both the Greeks and the Romans, who had broken with these practises. Archaeological evidence also indicates human sacrifices in Britain, for example the well-known Lindow Man who was found in Cheshire in a peat bog. There were a lot of different ways in which people were sacrificed: some were drowned, some were burned, but the practise which is most known today is the three-fold death, because it is a shocking example of overkill. The three-fold death is aptly named, for it consisted most of the time of three acts of which each on its own was lethal. Mostly the victims had head wounds, were strangled and had their throats cut184. This is indeed what happened to the Lindow Man.

Another practise which was connected not only with the Britons, but with most of the Celts, was their cult associated with heads. Because the Celts believed the souls were seated in the heads, it is no surprise they tried to decapitate their enemies. Some of these heads were held as trophies and, as a skull, even passed on through the family185, while other were offered to the gods186. The fascination of the Celts with heads is also visible in their art, in both sculptures and literature. For example, in the second branch of the Mabinogion187 – some of the greatest medieval Welsh literature, a collection of stories, although written at a rather late date, i.e. the 12th - 13th century,

178 Str. 3.5.39 179 Str. 4.4.4 180 Dio Chrysostomus, Orationes, 49.8 181 Hippolytus, Refutatio omnium haeresium, 1.25.1 182 Adler, A. (ed.), Suidae lexicon [Lexicographi Graeci] Teubner. Leipzig 1928-1935, delta.1542 183 See under History: Nero 184 Haywood, op. cit., 44 185 Haywood, op. cit., 45 186 Dunning, R., ‘De Kelten’, in:Cotterell, A. (ed.), Enceclopedie van de wereldmythologie. Bath 2004, 84 187 Davies, S., The Mabinogion. Oxford. 2007, 32 38 originating from a long time before and orally passed on – Bendigeidfran, also called Brân the Blessed, ordered to cut his head off and bury it for protection. Other mentions of decapitations are also found in the Irish tales and even in the tales about King Arthur188.

Artemidorus189 mentions an isle near Britain where certain rites were performed. According to him these were similar to the rites performed in Samothrace in honour of Demeter and Core. He does not state whether these rites were also in honour of these or other gods, but similar rites were performed. Since he lived around 100 BC, it is assumable these rites were not honouring Demeter and Core, for it would be some years before Caesar made his expedition to Britain. And even though there was already some contact because of the trade, it seems there was too little to assume they had adopted the Roman gods.

After Caesar’s expedition it appeared more Roman gods started to be honoured by the Britons. In any case their stories were spread. Plutarch190 tells how someone called Demetrius visited one of the smaller isles around Britain. Which one is not specified. Some of these islands were named after heroes or divinities and most of them were rather sparsely populated. The inhabitants of that island Demetrius set foot on, believed a storm to be the passing of a great soul. And close to theirs – they said –was an isle on which Cronus was confined with Briareus as his guard and some demigods as servants and attendants. This shows stories on Roman gods started to integrate into the world of the Britons.

This is also visible in some Greek inscriptions which have been found in Britain. There is one191 dedicated to the Saviour Gods, but since it is not specified which gods were meant by this, there is no way to know if it was their old gods or the Roman ones. No such problems with another inscription192 dedicated to Oceanos and Tethys, clearly two Roman gods. Asclepius too was honoured in Britain according to some inscriptions193 and of course Zeus couldn’t be lacking194. Some heroes were also honoured here, such as Heracles195 and Actaeon196 – though it is just his name and nothing more, so it could also be the name of the dedicator. Even though there were many mentions of Roman gods,

188 i.e. in the tale of Gawain and the Green Knight. 189 Str. 4.4.6 190 Plu. De defectu oraculorum, 419.E-F, the same is said in Eus. PE. 5.17.10-11 which quotes Plutarchus, and in Proclus, In Platonis Timaeum commentaria, 1.112 which also quotes Plutarch 191 IG XIV 2547 192 IG XIV 2548 193 IG XIV 2551 and IG XIV 2552 and SEG 37 : 840 194 IG XIV 2573,2 195 IG XIV 2554 196 IG XIV 2576,4 39 the original gods of the Britons didn’t cease to exist. For example, there was still an altar dedicated to the Celtic goddess Astarte197.

When Christianity began to grow, it also affected Britain. The part of Britain under control of the Britons was Christianised first, but later on it spread over the rest of the island. No doubt some paganism or parts of it remained, especially in the rural regions, and those influences are still visible. According to Eusebius198 Britain was partly Christian during Constantine’s reign (306-337) and he declared it a legal religion199. During the reign of his son, Constantius (II), it is said Britain already was in majority Christian according to Sozomen200. Even before all of this there were remarks about Britain being Christian201 and there is even a reference202 to the first episkopos, i.e. bishop, of Britain named Aristobulus who was said to have been appointed by Saint Paul himself. It is also said that Jacob203, the brother of Jesus, Simon the Zealot204 and Saint Matthew205 – one of the twelve apostles – visited Britain and were crucified there. Saint Peter is also said to have travelled to Britain206. The British Church was one of the Churches to agree on the true faith the way it was confirmed in Nicaea207 and they are said to have honoured Easter in the right way, meaning in conformity with the decision approved at the Council of Nicaea208. In the same way some inscriptions showed the dedication to Celtic and Roman gods, there is also one showing a Christian belief, for it mentions the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost209.

A legendary tale210 is described in a book from the 12th century in which Britain or an isle nearby is looked at as the Isle of the Blest211. The Isle or Isles of the Blest was a place which was sometimes seen as the residence of heroes and half gods by the Greeks, but in this story it was presented as a

197 IG XIV 2554 198 Eus., Vita Constantini, 3.19.1 199 Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, 1.8.2 200 Sozom. HE. 1.6.3 201 Origenes, Homiliae in Lucam, 6.39 202 AS, Synaxarium mensis Martii, 15.3 & AHG, Canones Martii, 15.20.syn & AS, Synaxarium mensis Junii, 30.1 203 Finck, F.N. (ed.), Des Nilos Doxopatres Τάξις τῶν πατριαρχικῶν θρόνων (armenisch und griechisch). N.G. Elwerfs Verlag. Marburg 1902, 5 204 PVF, Index apostolorum, 112& AHG, Canones Junii, 30.20.syn & AS, Synaxarium mensis Junii, 30.1 205 PVF, Index apostolorum discipulorumque Domini, 56 206 Simotas, P.N. (ed.), Νικήτα Σεΐδου Σύνοψις τῆς Ἁγίας Γραφῆς [Analecta Vlatadon], Thessalonica 1984, 23.278-279 207 Brennecke, H.C. – Stockhausen, A. von (edd.), Athanasius: Werke, Zweiter Band. Die “Apologien”. De Gruyter. Berlin-New York 2006, Athanasius, Ep. 1.2 & Flavius Justinianus Imperator, Contra monophysitas, 87 & Parmentier, L. – Scheidweiler, F. (edd.), Theodoret. Kirchengeschichte [GCS], Akademie Verlag. Berlin 1954, 214 & MPG, Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopulus, Historia ecclesiastica, 10.42 208 Parmentier, L. – Scheidweiler, F. (edd.), op. cit., 45 209 SEG 34 : 1040 210 Scheer, E. (ed.), Lycophronis Alexandra. Weidmann. Berlin 1958, scholion 1199 211 An island where the dead or other blessed people live is a recurring theme in a lot of mythologies, e.g. the isle named Tír na nÓg in Celtic mythology. 40 place where the dead lived on. This interpretation is clearly influenced by the Christian belief in heaven. The tale itself describes how some fishermen living by the coast are called out to work at night by rattling doors and a voice. When these people go outside, still sleeping, they see some boats ready to set off. These are not their boats and they seem to be totally empty, but the souls of the dead are on board. The fishermen enter those boats and sail to the Isle of the Blest, where a voice greets their invisible passengers by calling their name and those of their parents. After this the fishermen return to their homes.

Burial There are few mentions in Greek literature on the practices of the Britons concerning the dead. The sole mention specifically on the inhabitants of Britain is made by Cassius Dio212 whereas he tells how Boudica received a great and costly burial. So it seems as if they practised, at least in his time, inhumation rather than cremation. Diodorus Siculus213 mentions the Celts believed in the immortality of the soul and talks about a burial, while also mentioning a pyre on which letters to the dead were cast upon. Maybe he describes the dead being at first cremated and after that their ashes being buried. Archaeological evidence shows there were different practises in use in Britain at the time before the Romans came. One way was the Pit-Tradition, whereas bodies – or sometimes parts of bodies – were buried in empty pits which were formerly used for grain or something else to be stored. These graves were situated on hills or river terraces. Problem with these Pit-Tradition is the possibility that this was a divergent form of burial, more used for people who were excluded from normal life, than for the majority of the people214.

A more normative form of burial might have been the burial rites whereby the dead were buried in the ground, sometimes lined with stones to form a cist. These graves seem to have been placed together in some form of cemetery and were mostly found in Dorset. Some gifts were planted in them215. According to Wait there are again too few examples of this kind of burial to conclude this was the norm. Another one of those was a form of cremation mostly known in Kent and north Chiltern. The bodies were cremated and their ashes and other relics were collected and placed in a ceramic pot or some other kind of bucket. These pots were then buried in some kind of grave, with gifts and mostly in something akin to a cemetery216. In Yorkshire there were also burials but again these were not normative for the whole of Britain. The people were buried and then a tumulus was

212 D.C. 62.12.6 213 D.S. 5.28.6 214 Wait, G.A., ‘Burial and the Other World’, in: Green, M.J. (ed.), The Celtic World. London 1995, 492-495 215 Wait, op. cit., 496-497 216 Wait, op. cit., 497-498 41 formed on top of the bodies. A ditch was dug around these barrows which formed a square. These graves also contained gifts217.

Looking at all these practises, it is impossible to say which was the more common practise, and if there are no more archaeological findings it might remain a mystery for ever. On the other hand, maybe there was no common practise in Britain, it might be possible that each tribe had a different manner for treating their dead before the Romans arrived. After they came to the island their practises influenced the Britons, and cremation became more common218. Later on, when Christianity spread in Britain, cremations were vacated and burials in cemeteries became the normative way to treat the dead.

Language

There was no real interest in the language of the Britons from the side of the writers who themselves wrote in Greek. It was of no use to their politics to assimilate the Britons who, they did know had a different language, for it was listed in a work called Chronicon Paschale219 in which a list of peoples was given who had their own language. It is interesting to see they were not listed in an inventory of peoples who knew a kind of alphabet220. It is true they were a people that relied almost solely on oral lore, and because of that they started using the alphabet quite late. It seems some of the Britons were able to speak Greek, for Michael Psellus221 says that if a Greek went to live in Britain, and after many years wanted to talk to someone from Attica, he would sound strange and be unable to talk Greek properly, for Britain was hardly Hellenised and the Britons who spoke Greek couldn’t do it the right way. So, it seems living in Britain had some influence on the manner of speaking of people.

217 Wait; op. cit., 499-500 218 Wait, op. cit., 496 219 Dindorf, L. (ed.), Chronicon paschale [CSHB], Weber. Bonn 1832, 57 220 Hippol., Chronicon, 80 221 Psellos, Epistulae, 1 42

The modern opinion on the origins of the Celtic Languages looks as follows:

Indo-European

Greek Italic Common Celtic Germanic Slavic, Anatolian, etc.

Celtiberian Lepontic Goidelic Gallo-Brittonic (Q-Celtic) (P-Celtic)

Irish Scots Gaelic Manx Gaulish Pictish? British

Romano British Early British (British words written in Greek and Latin) (LPRIA tot 5th cent.)

W. British ad S.W. British Late British (dialects) (5th and 6th cent.)

Late 6th cent. “the Neo-Brittonic tongues” Cumbric Welsh Cornish Breton

Primitive Cumbric Primitive Welsh Primitive Cornish Primitive Breton (late 6th cent.)

Old Welsh Old Cornish Old Breton (8th-12th cents.) (9th-13th cents.) (9th-11th cents.)

Middle Welsh Middle Cornish Middle Breton (12th-15th cents.) (14th-16th cents.) (11th-16th cents.)

Modern Welsh Modern Cornish Modern Breton (15th cent.-) (17th and 18th cents.) (17th cent.-)

Snyder, op. cit., 252-253: The Celtic language tree, with the Brittonic languages given in detail. (LPRIA means Late Pre-Roman Iron Age).

There is still a lot of uncertainty when talking about the language which was spoken by the original Britons (meaning their common language which later on became the different Celtic languages). A consensus is reached in so far that most people agree that their language, mostly called Brittonic, belonged to the Indo-European languages. The branch to which it belonged became then known as the Celtic languages. Disagreements have risen when attempting to divide these languages in different branches. Some split them up in Insular Celtic (spoken in Britain and Ireland) on the one hand and Continental Celtic (spoken on the mainland) on the other, but this would set Breton a

43

Continental Celtic language, while most of the scholars nowadays think it belongs more to the family of languages spoken in Britain222. Other scholars – such as Snyder – divide them in P-Celtic (Gallo- Brittonic) and Q-Celtic (Goidelic) where P-Celtic became in the end the modern languages called Modern Breton (spoken in Brittany), Cornish (spoken in Cornwall, but has been extinct, though an attempt is made to revive it) and Welsh (in Wales). Q-Celtic became Irish (in Ireland), Scots Gaelic (in Scotland) and Manx (of the Isle of Man)223. All these languages are in danger of extinction, but nowadays efforts are made to prevent this.

History

Since the contact between Britain and the Roman Empire was ignorable before Caesar undertook his expedition, the history of the Britons written in Greek is only accounted for starting after this expedition. There are a few allusions of Britain before Caesar’s time, but mostly to say this island was unknown to the Romans and the Greeks224. It is also mentioned by some writers225 as the land from which a mission came to Cato, who was then praetor of Rome – bringing gifts made of gold – for they wanted to befriend him. According to John Tzetzes Cato even visited Britain226. It also features in histories written later on and referring back to the past. These were mostly Christian inspired works. According to biblical tradition Britain was given by Noah to his third son – called Japeth – along with the other British Isles and some more countries227. The history of the Britons starting from the expedition of Caesar till the last mentions of them in Greek literature will follow hereafter.

Caesar (100 – 44 BC) In 55 BC Caesar embarked upon an expedition to conquer Britain, or at least part of it. The reason he did this were twofold. The first was the fact that the druids in Gaul were causing rebellions all over their country. Since the druids were originally from Britain – or in any case, this was what Caesar thought – he hoped gaining control over the druids in Britain might give him some leverage against

222 Evans, D.E., ‘The early Celts’, in: Green, M.J., ‘The Celtic World. London 1995, 8-13 223 Snyder, op. cit., 250-255 224 Flavius Josephus, De bello Judaico libri vii, 2.364 225 Hunger, H. – Sevcenko, I. (edd.), Des Nikephoros Blemmydes Βασιλικὸς Ἀνδριάς und dessen Metaphrase von Georgios Galesiotes und Georgios Oinaiotes: Ein weiterer Beitrag zum Verständnis der byzantinischen Schrift- Koine [WBS] Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vienna 1986, Metaphrasis “Regiae statuae”, 83 & Tz. H. 10.347 226 Tz. H. 10.347 227 Cedr. 1.24 and 1.25 & Holl, K. (ed.), Epiphanius, Band 1: Ancoratus und Panarion [GCS], Hinrichs. Leipzig 1915, Ancoratus, 113.6 & LGC, Chronicon, 17 & MPG, Georgius Monachus, op. cit., 56 & Joannes Malalas, Chronologica (fort. auctore anonymo excerptorum chronologicorum), 15 & Mosshammer, A.A. (ed.), Georgius Syncellus. Ecloga chronographica, Teubner. Leipzig 1984, 47 and 55 44 the druids in Gaul. On the other hand, conquering an island, or a part of an island, which was seen as the edge of the known world and veiled in mystery, would look good as an achievement. And that he could use to gain some influence while he was one of the First Triumvirate228. After his first attempt another one followed the next year.

According to Strabo229 none of these expeditions accomplished anything great, nor did Caesar conquer a large part of the island. Returning in great haste both times and only winning two or three battles, they were not an overwhelming success.

The first time Caesar made an expedition against the Britons he set off from the coast of Gaul, where the Morini lived. He made a safe crossing, according to Athenaeus230 with one thousand ships, but this seems to be a slight exaggeration; it is commonly accepted he crossed with just about one hundred ships231. However, when he arrived near the coasts of Britain, he saw the Britons – knowing he was coming – had secured all places where he would have been able to go ashore. He was obliged to sail on and debark further up. There he was attacked by the inhabitants, who had the advantage since they used chariots while the Romans were still waiting for their cavalry. In the end the Morini were asked to act as mediators and a treaty was agreed upon by both through which Caesar obtained some hostages. All seemed well till a storm arrived, endangering the Roman ships. While the Romans were busy saving their ships, some Britons took their chance and attacked the camp and some of the Romans who were wandering around in search of food. Caesar had to overcome them many times before they agreed to make up terms. Despite the fact that Caesar wasn’t very happy to set for peace, he was kind of obligated since winter was coming and his forces were too small to totally subdue them. Normally there would have been more men, but a second convoy had encountered such difficulties it didn’t reach Britain. As if this wasn’t enough reason to try and make peace, the Gauls provided him with an extra one for they had started a new rebellion. So that’s why Caesar had to make a grudging truce and return to Rome. The truce was not that beneficial, for he obtained fewer hostages than he had hoped for232.

All in all this expedition was not very successful. Still, he returned the next year under the guise of wanting more hostages, since the Britons had given him too few and by doing so had broken their part of the agreement. Again he landed at the same place as the last time, but now with a greater force. In fact, it was so large no Briton dared to oppose it and he acquired the harbour. The Britons

228 Snyder, op. cit., 22 229 Str. 4.5.3 230 Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, 6.105 231 Snyder, op. cit., 22 232 D.C. 39.51-52 45 withdrew into the woods and moved on to guerrilla techniques. Instead of attacking them as a whole, they started to assault the Romans who were sent to search for food. They also used other shrewd techniques, e.g. pretending to flee from battle in order that the Romans would chase them and then killing them in an ambush. During this time the Romans suffered once more from the British weather, for a storm succeeded again in bringing trouble for their ships. The Britons – feeling like they held the advantage – started to attack them with their chariots led by Cassivellaunus, an important chief, and gained the upper hand. Their success, however, was short-lived for the Romans made a rather cunning plan. They let the Britons pass through their ranks on their chariots and then attacked them from the side. Seeing they were starting to lose the Britons withdrew behind the Thames and tried to prevent the Romans from crossing by placing stakes in the river233. Still, Caesar compelled them to leave – according to Polyanus234 by letting an elephant cross the river, an animal the Britons had never seen before – and after some Britons were driven away who had attacked the ships, Caesar succeeded in making terms and receiving hostages and a yearly tribute from them. Since Britain wasn’t very rich, he succeeded more in damaging its inhabitants than gaining wealth for himself and his men235. He then departed without stationing troops since they would only live in danger, especially because winter was coming236.

After Britain became a part of the Roman Empire – according to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus237 the whole of Britain was mastered by Caesar, but in reality just a small part was conquered by the Romans – Caesar organised the import of grain238 from Britain to the Germanic peoples who he had subdued. Although his campaign was not the great success he had hoped for, the news of his attempt spread out and he received a lot of admiration. Some writers such as Appian239 criticized his attempt less than Cassius Dio or Strabo did and described his exploits as brilliant. He lets his imagination run away with him for a bit where he writes that Caesar ordered the captains of the fleet to break the ships into pieces upon the rocks. He says the loss of the ships was a deliberate order and not an accident which happened due to a storm240.

233 D.C. 40.1-4 234 Polyaenus, Strategemata, 8.23.5 235 Plu. Caes. 23.2 236 D.C. 40.1-4 237 EHCP. De virtutibus et vitiis, 2.292 238 Zosim. 3.2 239 App. BC. 2.3.17 240 App. BC. 2.21.150 46

First Intermezzo When Caesar was murdered and Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) became emperor, the Romans stayed away from Britain for a while, but on the island itself some things had changed. For example, some Britons started to make their own coins and a sort of market system seemed to arise241. Although Augustus wanted to campaign against the Britons and started to prepare for it, he was held up by the revolt of the Salassi and troubles with the Cantabri and the Astures people. So, instead of going to Britain he went to Spain242. His planned campaign was never realised, but even so, some of the chieftains of the Britons sent him embassies and paid court to gain his friendship. Seen like this, one could say the whole of Britain was not an actual part of the Roman Empire, but it was in a virtual way243. His successor Tiberius didn’t feel a need to even try to campaign against the Britons so he just held onto diplomatic relationships with them. After him, Caligula is said to have received the name ‘Britannicus244’, even though he never went to Britain or made some substantial changes, despite the fact he wanted to do so.

Claudius (41 – 54) It was only during Claudius’ reign, which started in 41 AD and lasted till 54 AD, that the Romans invaded Britain again. In 43 Claudius started his campaign against the Britons. His generals were Gnaeus Sentius and Aulus Plautius, the latter would become the first governor of Britain. Claudius re- invaded Britain and he also added the Orcades (the Orkney Islands) to the Roman Empire245. There were different reasons why he started this campaign. As always, the gain in itself was one of them, but he was also urged by Bericus (Βέρικος, but mostly translated as Verica). This man was driven out of Britain when an uprising of anti-Roman forces took place. Though the troops first rebelled and refused to go to Britain, they were convinced after a while and three divisions were sent to Britain. Since the Britons had thought the Romans wouldn’t come, they weren’t on guard for them, so the Romans landed safely in Britain. The Britons, when they heard the Romans had indeed invaded, fled into the country where they hid in swamps and forests hoping the Romans would leave them alone and return home, but this was not the case246.

Plautius – for Gnaeus Sentius is only mentioned by Eutropius, and not by any other authors – searched for the Britons which took some time. When he had found them he defeated the leaders of

241 Snyder, op. cit., 32 242 D.C. 53.22.25 243 Str. 4.5.3 244 EHCP. De virtutibus et vitiis. 1.179 & FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta, 82 245 Lampros, S.P. (ed.), Παιανίου μετάφρασις εἰς τὴν τοῦ Εὐτροπίου Ῥωμαϊκὴν ἱστορίαν [Νέος Ἑλληνομνήμων] Athens 1912, Eutropius 7.13 246 D.C. 60.19 47 the rebellion, Caratacus and Togodumnus, though they were able to escape. They were two of the sons of Cunobelinus, who had been king of the Catuvellauni and was fiercely anti-Roman. After Plautius had managed to subdue a part of the Bodunni, he left a garrison over there and hunted down the Britons. These had crossed a river named the Medway and felt safe there, but Plautius ordered some Germanic soldiers who were part of his force to cross and mutilate the horses. After that, while the commotion because of the horses was in full swing, he sent Flavius Vespasian and Sabinus who slaughtered a lot of Britons. The next day both parties fiercely fought one another till Gnaeus Hosidius Geta overcame the Britons. They fled a second time, now behind the Thames, for they were familiar with this region. Again the Germanic soldiers swam over and the army managed to build a bridge so the whole force could cross the river. They succeeded in killing a lot of Britons, but since they were unaccustomed to the swamps, they also lost many of their fellow soldiers247.

Togodumnus seems to have died at that time, although it is not clear whether it was during this battle or from wounds caused in an earlier battle. The Britons, having found a new case to fight for, namely to avenge their fallen leader, began to attack the Romans again. According to Cassius Dio248 Plautius was scared because of their fierceness and sent a plea to Claudius to come and help him. While waiting for his arrival he defended the land he had conquered but refrained from advancing and trying to obtain more land. After some time Claudius arrived – accompanied by elephants – and took charge of the troops. He succeeded in defeating the Britons who defended the city of Camulodunum (which is now called Colchester) and conquered it. The taking over of the city was an important success, for it was the capital city of Cunobelinus. Roused by this event, Claudius gained control over other cities of which some capitulated, while others had to be taken by force. The weapons of the defeated soldiers he gave to Plautius who could use them to conquer the rest of the districts. Plautius was praised with an ovation by Claudius and then appointed governor of Britain. Claudius himself returned to Rome where the Senate honoured him by the name ‘Britannicus’ and organised a festival to celebrate the “defeat” of Britain249. In the end Caratacus himself was handed over to the Romans by Cartimandua, a woman who ruled the Brigantes, and after he had held a moving speech he was allowed to stay unharmed in Rome for the rest of his life250.

247 D.C. 60.20 248 D.C. 60.21-22 and 60.30 249 D.C. ibid. 250 Snyder, op. cit., 38 48

Nero (54 – 68) The rebellion of Caratacus was not the only famous rebellion. The revolt of Boudica – an Icenian queen – was maybe even more notorious, not in the least because she was a woman. It was during the reign of Nero that this rebellion arose and since he lost two cities and eighty thousand men – both Romans and allies – this didn’t exactly contribute to his popularity . The fact that all of this happened because of a woman made it all the more shameful. According to Cassius Dio251 there were omens who predicted this event, for he writes that people were speaking strange unknown languages and laughing was heard coming from the Senate, while the theatres were filled with lamentations and outcries though there were no people in these buildings. To make it even more ghastly, houses were seen sunken into the water of the Thames and Gaul became blood-red as the high tide covered the land.

The cause of this rebellion originated in the fact that some money had been lent to the Britons by the Romans, i.e. 40 000 000 sesteres. Together with some severe taxes, this money was suddenly reclaimed by the Romans, and when the Britons failed in paying back, Seneca used some harsh methods to get it. Though this is the only reason mentioned by Cassius Dio252, nowadays scholars also name the death of Prasutagus as a cause. This king, who was the husband of Boudica, left half of his kingdom to the Romans, the other half to his daughters. Nero however, wanted the whole and sent troops to conquer it. When Boudica resisted, it is said she was flogged and her daughters were raped while she had to watch. This was undoubtedly enough to provoke her hatred towards Rome. Apparently the Britons accepted her as their leader and she succeeded in assembling an army of 120 000 men253.

Cassius Dio’s report on her is quite inspiring. He depicts her as a descendant from a royal family and rather smart – which is a necessity if one wants to command an army. Her appearance is said to be terrifying and rather masculine. She was tall and her eyes were fierce. She had a harsh voice and her long hair was kind of blond or red. She wore a tunic of different colours and a thick mantle, fastened with a brooch. She also had a golden adornment around her throat which might have been a torque254. She gave a rousing speech while holding a spear in her hand. This speech was possibly invented by Cassius Dio himself, for it is rather illogical to imagine he would have been able to hear her speech and antique writers didn’t see anything wrong with making up speeches, as long as these confirmed the opinions of the speakers. In this speech she described the Britons as skilled in war,

251 D.C. 62.1 252 D.C 62.2 253 Snyder, op. cit., 39 254 D.C. ibid. and see supra: Physical information: in battle 49 rather than in agriculture and also mentioned the idea that children and women were held in common, which is mentioned by many authors. However she also stated that the women were seen as equal to the men. Since this speech was possibly invented by Cassius Dio it shows the believes of the Romans rather than the facts of the life of the Britons. To make it even more inspiring she is said to have released a hare after her speech which ran to the auspicious side while praying to Andrasta255.

When she began attacking the Romans she succeeded in destroying two cities. The people they took captive were treated very badly. A rather unpleasant manner to deal with these captives was this: her army hung up the women descending form noble families after they had stripped them of their clothes. They cut off their breasts and placed those in their mouths as if they were eating them. To make sure their breasts stayed like this, they were sewed to their mouths. Impaled on sharp skewers they were shown as an example to the other people. Not in the least deterred by this horror they celebrated their victory by holding banquets, making sacrifices and giving themselves over to wanton behaviour. This was mostly done in a grove dedicated to Andata, who – as said before – was their goddess comparable with the Roman goddess Victory and who was very important to the Icenians, which is not surprising being said to be so fond of war256.

Paulinus (58-62), the new governor of Britain, was at this moment out on a mission to clear the island of Mona – now called Anglesey257 – from its Druids and fugitives who sought safety there. Since this island was situated north of Wales and Boudica started her revolt in her home place – which was in the east of England – it was tactically well done, and Paulinus had to return in a hurry. Since the season was not really suited to war, he wanted to wait for better times, but a shortage of food forced his hand and he had to attack. Although Cassius Dio258 first said she had an army of 120 000 men, later on he claims Boudica’s army consisted of 230 000 men. Even though it is possible she recruited some more men, this number is rather unrealistic and mostly estimated around 100 000 men. They fought again using chariots. The Romans were outnumbered and so Paulinus strategically divided his army into three parts. The Britons were optimistic – after all they had won a few battles and their number was favourable to them – and sang their battle songs. Apparently they were so convinced of their victory they even had brought their wives and children with them to watch the battle and positioned them near their supply wagons259. The battle lasted a long time, but in the end the Romans won since the Britons were trapped between them and their own wagons when they tried to

255 D.C. 62.3-6 256 D.C. 62.7 257 Todd, M., DNP s.v. Mona (online: 22/05/’15) 258 D.C. 62.8 and 62.12 259 Snyder, op. cit., 43 50 flee. Some of them escaped and wanted to try for a new attack, but then Boudica felt ill and died260. The Britons mourned her greatly and gave her a costly burial. After this they scattered and returned home which cleared the way for Paulinus to indulge in his revenge. He destroyed innumerable homes and farms which caused a famine that led to countless of dead261.

Second Intermezzo Before Vespasian (69 – 79) became emperor he was part of the army which went to Britain during the reign of Claudius, as mentioned before. During this time he encountered some dangerous events, for at one moment he was surrounded by the Britons. It was his son Titus who broke through and rescued him. Despite this trouble he succeeded in adding the Isle of Wight, then called ἡ Βέκτη, to the Roman Empire262. Later on, when he became emperor, he appointed Quintus Petillius Cerialis as governor of Britain according to Flavius Josephus263.

During the reign of his successor and son, Titus (79 – 81), a war once more had broken out in Britain as reported by Cassius Dio264. Gnaeus Julius Agricola – mostly known through the work of Tacitus, his son-in-law – was governor of Britain at this time. If one may believe Dio’s words, Agricola succeeded in overrunning the whole territory of “the enemies” and by doing so discovered that Britain was entirely surrounded by water. Agricola remained governor for a long time, but when Domitian (81 – 96) became emperor it is said265 Agricola had grown too famous in the eyes of the emperor. He had to return to Rome and is said to have lived there quietly and in want for the rest of his life. There even was rumour that he was murdered. Cassius Dio claims Agricola conquered the whole of Britain, but this seems to be an exaggeration. He never hunted down the fleeing Caledonians into the highlands and so never subdued them266. And even though the rest of Britain may have been submitted to Rome, it was only in the south-east the Romanisation really took place. In the more northern and western parts of the island rebellions and revolts often arose. However, Titus became known as a good emperor, also in reigning over Britain267.

The emperors in between Titus and Hadrian didn’t seem to have done much concerning Britain, for there are no records on them. Hadrian (117 – 138) is the first emperor after Titus who appears in Greek literature. Apparently he named someone called Julius Severus governor of Britain.

260 According to Tacitus (as said in Snyder, op. cit., 43) Boudica took poison to escape captivity by the Romans. 261 Snyder, op. cit., 43 262 Lampros, S.P. (ed.), Παιανίου μετάφρασις εἰς τὴν τοῦ Εὐτροπίου Ῥωμαϊκὴν ἱστορίαν [Νέος Ἑλληνομνήμων] Athens 1912, Eutropius 7.19 263 J. BJ. 7.82-83 264 D.C. 66.20 265 D.C. ibid. 266 Snyder, op. cit., 45 267 Mosshammer, A.A. (ed.), Georgius Syncellus. Ecloga chronographica, Teubner. Leipzig 1984, 416 51

Surprisingly enough there is no mention of the making of Hadrian’s Wall to be found in the writings of Greek authors. Of course it appears, but only in works from a later date, where it is used to situate the Caledonians and the Maeatae.

His successor Antoninus Pius (138 – 161) came to terms with the Britons and established peace. He did however place garrisons throughout the country. The former governor Papianus was removed by him268. Together with Verus, his adoptive son, he wanted to make the subjection of the Britons more permanent269 and in 175 he sent 5 500 horses (and riders presumably) of the 8 000270 he had received from the Iazyges to the Legio VI Victrix to help the soldiers over there. In the same way no recordings of the building of Hadrian’s Wall are found, till now no records from the construction of the Antonine Wall seem to exist. The cause may be that this Wall was only in use for some years271. After this the Wall was abandoned272.

None of these former emperors were mentioned by Cassius Dio273. He continues his account of Britain with a short naming of Marcus Aurelius (141 – 180) for he sent someone called Tiridates into exile to Britain as a punishment. This Tiridates seems to have been a satrap from Armenia who had roused a rebellion there. In this rebellion he had killed the king of the Heniochi and the Roman legate named Verus Martius was very badly treated by him274. The next emperor, Commodus (180 – 192), again suffered from rebellion in Britain. Some Britons crossed the Wall – it is not specified which Wall, but since the Antonine Wall was abandoned after ten years, it is assumable it is Hadrian’s Wall which is meant – and even were so daring as to kill a general and his troops. Commodus in retaliation sent Ulpius Marcellus over there who subdued them brutally. Afterwards it is said the troops in Britain chose a lieutenant called Priscus, as emperor, but he declined. Pertinax (193) – who had stopped the rebellion in Britain – became the next emperor and Clodius Albinus became the governor of Britain275.

Septimius Severus (193 – 211) When Pertinax died there were two men, Albinus and Severus, suitable (or they thought themselves so) to take over the throne. Severus became the emperor and appointed Albinus to the position of

268 Zon. 3.110 269 Polyaen. 6.Pro.1 270 EHCP. De legationibus, 433 271 According to Snyder (op. cit., 47) the Wall was abandoned after 10 years, according to Haywood – Cunliffe (op. cit., 84) it was abandoned after 21 years. 272 Both this Wall and the one of Hadrian were no expression of the limits of the Roman power, but an attempt to divide the power of the Britons who lived there and make controlling them easier: Snyder, op. cit., 46-47 273 D.C. 72.14 274 EHCP. De virtutibus et vitiis. 1.371 275 D. C. 74.14 52 caesar. Doing this he hoped to prevent Albinus from becoming jealous and rebelling against him or overthrowing him for the throne. Unfortunately, this was not enough for Albinus, and after some time – while Severus was on campaign in the east – he went to Rome to pronounce himself emperor, apparently because he was asked by some Romans to do so. In retaliation, Severus sent some messengers to Albinus who were ordered to poison him. Albinus however, not a naïve beginner, suspected something was wrong, took the messengers prisoner and tortured them till the plan was revealed276.

Since this plan had failed, Severus was obligated to fight Albinus, who had left Britain to make camp in Gaul. The battle took place near Lugdunum, nowadays Lyon and while Albinus’ army tried to overcome the enemy soldiers, their leader had shut himself inside the city. For some time both armies held out against each other, but then Albinus’ Britons started to gain ground. When it seemed the battle would end in favour of the Britons, Severus’ army started to flee, but suddenly Laetus – probably a general of Severus – appeared with his troops and roused new vigour into the men who drove the Britons back to Lugdunum. This would not save them however, for Severus’ troops took Lugdunum and burned it to the ground. Herodian says Albinus was killed by these troops and decapitated, and his head was sent to Severus277. In order to end the troubles in Britain Severus then went to the island and divided it in two provinces, each receiving a governor. In Gaul his revenge was harsher for he murdered all the friends of Albinus and confiscated their properties278.

After some years – in 208 – when Severus had become rather old, the Britons revolted again. To help, the emperor was asked to send more troops and to come himself. The emperor did exactly so, despite his old age and his suffering from arthritis, hoping to conquer Caledonia once and for all. Since he was convinced his sons were spoiled by the luxury which was found in Rome, he took them with him hoping to remedy this. He sent his youngest son Geta to the region of Britain which was under Roman control, while the other son, Caracala, accompanied his father. When Severus arrived in Britain he recruited soldiers there and raised an army. In an attempt to pacify the emperor the Britons sent messengers to talk about a truce, but Severus denied their plea279.

According to Cassius Dio he arrived in Caledonia and came to regret this decision rather severely. Since the Romans were not used to swamps and forests – or in any case less used to them than the Britons – it was hard travelling the country. Again lots of them died because of trouble with the swamps or because the Britons saw a chance to kill the ones who were on their own. Some were

276 Hdn, Ab excessu divi Marci, 3.5.1-8 277 Hdn. 3.7.1-7 278 Hdn. 3.8.2 & EHCP. De insidiis. 92.29 & FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, op. cit. 128 279 Hdn. 3.14.1-10 53 even killed by their own colleges, for the Romans rather killed their wounded than take the chance they might fall in the hands of the enemy. They lost almost 50 000 men during this campaign280. Realizing he wouldn’t be able to bring the most northern part under his command, Severus fortified a wall281 – which one is not specified – and travelled back to the south which was under Roman control. Quoting John Zonaras282 in reality the Romans ruled less than half the island, so in the end Severus came to an agreement with the Britons283.

This agreement lasted only for about two years. After this time the Maeatae revolted and the Caledonians were ready to give their support to them. It seemed as if Severus wanted to start a new campaign284, but before he could start preparing he fell ill285 and died in Britain286, in a town called Eboracum (York), in the eighteenth year and forth month of his reign. His sons burned his body and put his ashes – mixed with perfumes – into an alabaster urn they took to Rome when they returned287. In London there has been found an inscription mentioning the name of Severus (but nothing more)288.

Third intermezzo (or Crisis of the Third Century) Not much information can be found on events occurring in Britain during the period between the reign of Septimius Severus and Diocletian. Just a few emperors or would-be-emperors are mentioned by some Greek writers. Partially this may be due to the foundation of the Gallic Empire in 260 AD. Britain became part of this together with some provinces in the north-west of the Empire and so escaped any imperial control for some thirteen years289.

The person who is mentioned the most by writers when talking about this period, is Probus. Although he himself had never visited Britain, some of his actions and some events happening when he was emperor influenced the island. For example, when he and Florianus fought to become emperor, Britain supported Florianus290. Probus was the one who won, but during his reign he had to deal with yet another rebellion in Britain. Since someone called Victorinus was the one who had recommended

280 D.C. 76.13.1-4 281 Cedr. 1.442 & MPG, Georgius Monachus, op. cit., 452 & Chronicon breve 110.533 & LGC, Symeon Logothetes, op. cit., 72 282 Zonar. 3.105 283 Zonar. 3.106 284 Snyder, op. cit., 56 285 FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta ex historica chronica, 213 286 EHCP. De insidiis 94.7 & Mosshammer, A.A. (ed.), op. cit., 435 & Lampros, S.P. (ed.), Παιανίου μετάφρασις εἰς τὴν τοῦ Εὐτροπίου Ῥωμαϊκὴν ἱστορίαν [Νέος Ἑλληνομνήμων] Athens 1912, Eutropius 8.19 287 Hdn. 3.15 288 SEG 42:980 289 Snyder, op. cit., 56 290 Zos. 1.64.1 54 to give this rebelling governor his office, Probus wanted him to deal with it, which he did for the governor was killed291. To prevent any more rebellions from breaking out, he sent barbarians to Britain to help when and where necessary. These barbarians had in their homeland secretly held back some prisoners and plunder instead of handing over to the emperor whatever they had taken. If they had done so, like a lot of other barbarians, Probus would have let go. Since this was not the case, they were exiled and sent to Britain so they would be useful if a revolt there threatened the empire292.

Late Antiquity (284 – 410) None of the other emperors reigning during the crisis of the third century are mentioned. Only from the beginning of the Late Antiquity records on Britain can be found again, starting with the ruling of Diocletian. During this period a very important event occurred, for in 410 Britain became independent from the Roman Empire. But before this happened a lot of other historic events took place, for many usurpers originated from Britain.

When Diocletian was emperor (284 – 305), his caesar and later fellow emperor was Maximian – who according to Georgius Cedrenus was also called Herculius293. The first usurper they had to deal with was Carausius. This man had been appointed governor of Britain by Maximian Herculius294, but after some time declared himself emperor and began to rule Britain295. In the end both parties managed to agree on a peace treaty, but at the end of the seventh year of Carausius’ rule, one of his followers – a man named Allectus – killed him and took over. For three years Allectus held Britain till a praefect of the praetorian guard – named Asclepiodotus – killed him. After a separation of ten or eleven years Britain became again a part of the Roman Empire296. John Zonaras and Theophanes Confessor297 also mention someone called Aslepiodotus who killed someone after three years, but they call this man Crassus. Maybe this was another name for Allectus, for both writers name three years of ruling which seems to indicate they were writing on the same person. At last, in the twelfth year of Diocletian’s reign, Maximian Herculius mastered Britain again after all the usurpers were killed298.

291 Zos. 1.66.2 & LGC, Symeon Logothetes, op. cit., 80 & EHCP. De insidiis 112.16-21 & FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta 158 & FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta ex historica chronica 241 292 Zos. 1.68.3 293 Cedr. 1.470 294 EHCP. De insidiis. 113.22 295 Lampros, S.P. (ed.), op. cit, 9.21 & FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta, 164 296 Lampros, S.P. (ed.), op. cit, 9.22 297 Zon. 3.160 & Theophanes Confessor, Chronographia, 8 298 Cedr. 1.470 55

It is said by Socrates that during their reign – the reign of Diocletian and Maximian – Constantine I, the son of Constantius Chlorus was made emperor in Britain299, but there were some emperors who preceded him. From 305 Galerius (305 – 307) was the emperor in the east while Constantius I Chlorus was the western emperor. In 306, in the thirteenth year of his reign Constantius died in Eboracum, which is now York300. Galerius had appointed Maximin (in the east) and Severus (in the west) as his caesars, but in Britain the soldiers chose Constantine emperor. Constantine was the son of Constantius, but given birth by his wife of obscure lineage301. So Constantine (306 – 340) who would become known as ‘the Great’ was in reality an usurper who also ruled a part of Gaul302.

Anyway, in 306 Constantine the Great was chosen emperor by the soldiers in Britain and he immediately had to deal with a rival named Maxentius. He was the son of Maximian and wanted to become the emperor, although he had no legitimate claim. He began to rule Rome, while Constantine was in Britain303, so when Constantine came to know what Maxentius had done he left Britain to fight him and won the battle304. As the emperor, Constantine brought Christianity to Britain and reduced the Britons to submission305, his empire stretched out from the British Isles to Persis (a region near the Persian Gulf)306. He made some changes concerning the offices of the praefects which had to deal with the corn distribution, for he installed four offices instead of two. One of these praefects had to take charge of Britain307. As his caesar in Britain he appointed his nephew Dalmatius308.

After Constantine the Great died, the British Isles went to his eldest son Constantine II309 (337 – 340). Though none of the literature tell us anything on the disputes between him and his youngest brother Constans, it is rather important, for the resulting battle led to the death of Constantine II whereas Constans (337 – 350) received Britain310, which was also the place where he would die311. Their brother Constatius II is only mentioned by one writer concerning Britain, which is no surprise since he

299 Maraval, P. – Périchon, P. (edd.), Socrate de Constantinople, histoire ecclésiastique, Éditions du Cerf. Paris 2004-2007, 1.2 300 Lampros, S.P. (ed.), op. cit, 10.1 301 Lampros, S.P. (ed.), op. cit, 10.2 302 Bekker, I. (ed.), Ioelis chronographia compendiaria [CSHB], Weber. Bonn 1836, 36 & MPG, Georgius Monachus, Chronicon, 482 303 MPG, Georgius Monachus, Chronicon breve. 110.576 304 AS. Synaxarium mensis Maii. 21.1 305 Eus., Vita Constantini. 1.25.2 and 3.19.1 306 Theoph. 33 307 Zos. 2.33.2 308 MPG, Georgius Monachus, Chronicon. 499 309 Philostorgius, Historia ecclesiastica (fragmenta e passion Artemii) 3.1a & Kotter, P.B. (ed.), Die Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos [PTS], De Gruyter. Berlin - New York 1988, Passio magni martyris Artemii, 8 310 Zon. 3.164 311 Zon. 3.167 56 ruled the eastern part of their late father’s empire. Still, he is mentioned for banishing someone called Athanasius to Britain in the fifteenth year of his rule312. In Britain Constans was murdered and again another usurper arose by the name of Magnentius and nothing is said on him but that his father was a Briton313.

Even though he never visited Britain, there are some mentions of Julian the Apostate (361-363) of whom is said he had some ships from the fleet of Britain under his command when he campaigned against the Germanic peoples in Gaul314. The only other note about him was to say that the import of corn from Britain was impossible during his reign because the Chamavi refused to let them pass315. After him Jovian (363 – 364) became emperor, though there are no records on him. Then Valentinian (364 – 375) became emperor of the western part316 of the Roman Empire, and by this of Britain. He almost lost some parts of the empire, including Britain, but he managed to regain them317. When he died his two sons – both by then too young to reign themselves – had to divide his empire and Britain became a part of Gratian’s empire318.

Apparently during Gratian’s reign (367 – 375) Britain suffered from an earthquake319. Some years later Theodosius (379-392) became emperor of the eastern part of the empire. Because of this Maximus – who had once been a fellow-soldier of Theodosius – became envious and started to rebel in Britain against Gratian. It was not difficult for him to rouse the soldiers to help him, because Gratian had made some Alani soldiers and bestowed honour on them, which did not go down well by his other soldiers320. Maximus went to Gaul – to Lugdunum321 – where Gratian was killed322 by using a ruse. For Maximus sent Andragathion to Gratian to spread the rumour his wife was coming back from Britain. Since Gratian loved his wife very much, he wanted to know if the rumour was true so he went to speak with the messenger. This man killed him with an arrow after which he was buried on orders by Theodosius who gave him a burial befitting an emperor323.

When Theodosius was consul for the second time and Honorius for the seventh time, the troops in Britain rebelled once again and chose their own emperor, i.e. Marcus. It seemed however he didn’t

312 Cedr. 1.524 313 Zon. 31.9 314 Jul. Ἀθηναίων τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ. 8 315 EHCP. De legationibus. 591 & Eun. Hist. 1.218 316 Zos. 4.3.1 317 MPG, Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopulus, Historia ecclesiastica. 14.56 318 Zos. 4.19.2 319 MPG, Georgius Monachus, Chronicon. 561 320 Zos. 4.35.3 321 FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta ex historica chronica. 279 322 FHG, Joannes Antiochenus, Fragmenta 186 323 Cedr. 1.551 & LGC, Symeon Logothetes, Chronicon. 100 57 satisfy them for some time later they killed him. After that they elected someone named Gratian, but they were apparently rather picky, for after four months they killed him too. Constantine III (407 – 411) who was chosen then seemed to have been more to their fancy for he lived longer and even succeeded in leaving Britain to subdue some regions between Bononia and the Alps324. His two most important generals were Edobinchus – born in Britain, though he was Frankish – and Gerontius – who was a real Briton and later rebelled against Constantine III. These two generals received their office after their predecessors – named Justinian and Nevigastes – had died, and were well versed in military tactics325. Since Constantine had taken most of his troops to the mainland, Britain was unprotected and the barbarians were quick to attack. The Britons saw no other way than to take up the arms themselves and try to keep their country safe326. In 409 an ambassador – named Jovius – from Constantine III came to Honorius to discuss a peace treaty. An agreement was reached and Jovius went to assemble some troops in Celtica, Spain and Britain to help Honorius327. Since the Britons had already taken up their arms – not entirely to the liking of the emperor – and in doing so had taken up the responsibility for the safety for their country, Honorius – who had enough trouble of his own and no desire to weaken his troops by helping Britain against the invading Saxons, Picts and Scots – wrote a letter to them to declare they were on their own from that moment. So, starting from 410, Britain was no longer part of the Roman Empire328.

After the divorce After the separation not many records on Britain are found in Greek texts, which is logical since they had nothing to do with Britain anymore. Trade continued to exist between Britain and the Roman Empire, but they were no longer an imperial region and this shows in the decrease of mentions on Britons in Greek literature. They are mentioned once by Procopius in the sixth century for he says that Belisarius – a general of the Byzantine Empire – gave Britain to the Goths in exchange for Sicily, even though Britain is far larger than Sicily. Since it is after the separation of Britain, that general – or rather the emperor in whose name he acted, i.e. Justinian I (527 – 565) – in reality had no claim on the country, though he may have believed he had or used it to mislead the Goths329. Procopius also mentions Justinian giving money to the Britons330.

324 Zos. 6.2.1 (during this time Arcadius was emperor in the east.) & Photius, Bibliotheca, 80.57b 325 Zos. 6.2.4 326 Zos. 6.5.2-3 327 Zos. 6.1.2 328 Zos. 6.10.2 329 Procopius, De bellis, 6.6.58 330 Procop. Arc. 19.13 58

The Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologus (1391 – 1425) visited Britain searching for help against the barbarians331. He was the only emperor – not counting the usurpers originating from Britain – who did this after the last campaigns against Britain had stopped. The last mention of the Britons in a work written in Greek is a short note in the Chronica Byzantina breviora332 to tell how, on December 25th, 1522, Rhodes was attacked by the Turks. The inhabitants came to an agreement with the Turks and surrendered both the city and the isle to them. The knights – some of them were British – who had protected the island were allowed to leave unharmed and to carry their treasures with them.

Conclusion: The Greek and Roman view upon the Britons

The relation between Greeks and non-Greeks, or barbarians, has always been difficult to investigate. An extra difficulty when talking about the Britons is the fact that they became known from mostly after the invasion of Caesar, which means: after the time Britain became more or less a part of the Roman Empire. The authors who talked about them were most of the time Greek people who held Roman offices, but still wrote in their mother tongue. As said before333, the Greek concept of ‘barbarians’ originally came from βαρβαρόφωνος and was used to describe people who didn’t speak Greek or spoke it unintelligible334. Later this meaning was altered a little to ‘all the people who were different from the Greeks’ and who were mostly experienced as less civilised335. This concept of ‘barbarian’ originated from after the Persian Wars which caused the Greeks to become more unified336. This meaning the Romans continued to use when they adopted the term ‘barbarians’. So, it is in this meaning the writers on the Britons would see this expression.

There are two writers – out of the total of authors who wrote in Greek on the Britons – who used the word ‘barbarians’ to describe the Britons. They are named barbarians by Flavius Arrian337 where he tells us that not one of the barbarian people used chariots, except for the Britons. Cassius Dio338 also

331 Chrysostomides, J. (ed.), Manuel II Palaeologus, Funeral Oration on his Brother Theodore [CFHB. Series Thessalonicensis], Association for Byzantine Research. Thessalonica 1985, 163 & ΠκΠ, Demetrius Chrysoloras, Comparatio veterum imperatorum et nunc imperatoris Manuelis Palaeologi, 239 332 Schreiner, P., Die byzantinischen Kleinchroniken [CFHB. Series Vindobonensis], Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Vienna 1975, Chronica Byzantina breviora 39,2.12 333 See introduction 334 Praet, D., ‘Barbaarse Wijsheid, Universalisme en superioriteitsdenken in de filosofische en religieuze debatten van Herakleitos tot de komst van de Islam’, in: De Ley, H. – Praet, D. (edd.), Us and them: essays over filosofie, politiek, religie en cultuur van de Klasssieke Oudheid tot Islam in Europa ter ere van Herman De Ley. 2008, 54 335 Losemann, V., DNP s.v. barbarians (online: 17/05/’15) 336 Praet, op. cit., 60 - 61 337 Arr. Tact. 19.2 338 D.C. 60.20 ff 59 names them barbarians in his Roman History, and he does it many times. None of the other authors call them barbarians, and it is striking to see that when talking about the last years of the Roman influence in Britain they are no longer regarded as barbarians. Or, in any case, it seems possible to make this assumption when reading a part of Zosimus’ work339. In this paragraph Zosimus is talking about the time Constantine III crossed the sea and went to Celtica, which was seen for a lot of peoples as the perfect opportunity to attack Britain. It is notable he names the inhabitants of Britain ‘the Britons’, while he calls the invading peoples – probably the Scots, the Picts, or the Saxons – ‘barbarians’. It seems as if the Britons by then had lost their total strangeness, which had defined them barbarians at the time the Romans met them for the first time. The Constitutio Antoniniana of Caracalla may also have helped, for it turned all free men in the Roman Empire Roman into citizens. The Britons became in this way fellow citizens and seemed to have lost their label of ‘barbarians’.

However, before this happened, they were seen as barbarians. Most of the time when talking about barbarians from the point of view from the Greeks, most people think of the eastern people, with their despotism and their slavery. This was indeed the most notable distinction made by the Greeks themselves. They’d put these eastern people, who were often seen as effeminate and decadent due to their luxurious possessions, opposite to themselves. When looking at the Britons – who lived in the north-west and were regarded as a harsh and wild people which possed almost nothing, or in any case nothing worth to the Romans – it seems they couldn’t be more different from the eastern peoples who were known as barbarians.

To be able to link the idea of barbarians to the Britons I use the distinction made by James Redfield in his essay Herodotus the Tourist340. A useful distinction between the barbarians described by Herodotus is made by him to show there were also barbarians who weren’t decadent. He divides all barbarians into hard peoples and soft peoples. He uses the Scythians and the Egyptians as examples respectively of these hard and soft peoples. Though he writes about the peoples in Herodotus and about a time in which Britain was yet a faraway dream, this division is adaptable to apply to the Britons.

Because of the fact the Egyptians have cultivated nature, were sedentary and were ruled by pharaohs – a regime which was strictly organised – etcetera, they were regarded as a soft people; the Scythians however were seen as a hard people341. Keeping in mind all that has been said before about the customs of the Britons and their way of life, it seems logical to say they were also a hard people. Not all of the notions attributed to the Scythians are the same as those to the Britons, but

339 Zos. 6.5.2-3 340 Redfield, J., ‘Herodotus the Tourist’, in: Harrison, T., Greeks and Barbarians. Edinburgh 2002, 24-49 341 Redfield, op. cit., 35-39 60 there are lot of similarities which will be explained in the next paragraphs and thereby will show it was indeed possible to see them as barbarians of the hard kind before the Romans threaded their country. From the moment the Romans arrived, a part of the Britons – in the south-east – started to assimilate and lose their former characteristics. So, we have to look at them in the period before the Romans arrived.

Since Redfield uses the Scythians – who lived in the most southern region of the world known to the Greeks – and the Egyptians – who lived the most to the north, it is fitting that the Britons were seen as living at the most western part of the known world. We will show whether this is of any importance when looking at their customs. The first difference between the two peoples he states is the weather, which in both places is considered pleasant. This is not the case with the British weather, for most of the time it is cold and rainy in the eyes of the Greeks and Romans who were used to the Mediterranean climate. Linked to this he takes a look at the rivers, which were artificial in Egypt, but of natural origin in Scythia. In Britain the rivers were also natural, so here is a similarity. But one of the most eye-catching parallels is the fact that both the Scythians and the Britons used chariots pulled by horses and lived in wagons. The ‘living in wagons’ needs to be nuanced, for the Britons didn’t really live in their wagons, but used them to travel from place to place where they set camp. Still, both people employed wagons.

Redfield again places the artificiality of Egypt opposite the natural state of the environment in Scythia. This seems to have been the same in Britain, for there are no mentions of any big artificial construction or anything like it. They did build houses, but not even real cities or walls. Speaking of walls, there is of course Hadrian’s Wall and the Antonine Wall, but these are constructions built by the Romans, and not the Britons, and they were built after the Romans ‘conquered’ the Britons. When speaking of being the youngest (the Scythians)or the eldest (the Egyptians) the Britons stake no claim to either one of these. Possibly because they lived on an island, and focused more inwards than outwards to other peoples, which is necessary to be able to say whether you are a young or an old people. The political organisation of Britain is most similar to that of the Scythians, for both were ruled by an amalgam of leaders. It is difficult to determine what kind of leaders they had in Britain – in Scythia they were called kings – but the Britons are said to have been leaded by kings, princes or chieftains. It isn’t a real issue we can’t specify those in command, for it is absolutely clear each tribe was reigned by its own leader and there was in no way a central authority. The Scythians are said to have given great burials to their kings, but their graves are up to now impossible to find. The Britons

61 had such a diversity of practises concerning their dead it is difficult to conclude anything concerning the similarities or differences342.

The element of ‘wonders’ is not really applicable to Britain, since there are no words on any wonderful buildings or so – one would think Stonehenge would be mentioned somewhere, but it isn’t. There are no mentions of great inventions by the Britons, but they seem to have been quite similar to the Scythians, since their (= the Scythians) greatest invention was the art of not being conquered. Even though the Romans say they conquered Britain, the northern part has never really been subdued. This matches the thesis that hard people could never be conquered343. The Britons were – like the Scythians – economically and politically divided, but it is doubtful this means they were unified in their religious practices as the Scythians were. As seen in the paragraphs on the religion there are some gods known to have been worshipped by the Britons, but it is not clear if those were the same in every place. Since their religious practises were mostly concentrated near a sacred place344 – a spring or a grove – it seems likely to conclude their practises were diverse, depending on the differences of the place itself.

There is no description in the works of things the Britons weren’t allowed to eat – the way it was forbidden for the Scythians to eat pigs – nor of their bathing customs or of their priests, though everyone has heard about the druids, but it is difficult to say if they were comparable with the Scythian priests345. The Scythians are said to have practiced human sacrifices, a thought which can also be applied to the Britons who were known for their human sacrifices and their fascination with beheading346.

So, even though there are some differences between the Scythians and the Britons – which is logical for no people is completely equal to another – it seems acceptable to place the Britons in the category of the hard barbarian peoples. They were rather wild and lived in a harsh country to which they had to adapt. There is no trace of softness to be found, in any case not in the works of the Greek writers. So, all in all, they were seen as barbarians before they became part of the Roman Empire, and even then it would take a while before they lost this reputation. But, even though they were referred to as barbarians, this didn’t mean they were looked at as a less developed people. As Diogenes Laerius said: some people believed that even the Romans could still learn something from the peoples they called barbarians.

342 See Conditions of life: burial 343 Redfield, op. cit., 43 344 Webster, J., ‘Sanctuaries and sacred places’, in: Green, M.J., The Celtic World. London 1995, 448-452 345 See conditions of life: Religion/Mores 346 See conditions of life: Religion/Mores 62

Bibliography

The abbreviations of the authors and their works which are used throughout the paper are those of the Liddell-Scott-Jones for the classical writers and those of the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium for the Byzantine writers. When there was no abbreviation to be found I make a reference to the edition of the work. The numbers, however, are still those found on the TLG.

Abbreviations

AHG = Analectica Hymnica Graeca

AS = Acta Sanctorum

AG = Anecdota Graeca

CFHB = Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae

CSHB = Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae

EHCP = Excerpta historica iussi imp. Constantini Porphyrogeniti confecta

GCS = Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller

GGM = Geographi Graeci Minores

LGC = Leonis Grammatici chronographia

MPG = Patrologiae cursus completus (series Graeca)

Pk = die Pseudoklementinen

ΠκΠ = Παλαιολόγεια καὶ Πελοποννησιακά

PTS = Patristische Texte und Studien

PVF = Prophetarum vitae fabulosae

TU = Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Altchristlichen Literatur

WBS = Wiener Byzantinische Studien

63

Corpora

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Appendix

Strabo’s index: peoples of the Mediterranean (Isseans – Zygi)

I.

1. Isseans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for the Isseans is Ἰσσέοι, hence the Latin name Issaei or Issenses. In English this people is normally referred to as the Isseans.

Geographical notes

Regarding they are called the Isseaens the connection with Issa, an island in the Adriactic Sea, is not hard to see. Issa is nowadays called Vis and belongs to Croatia. Apart from Issa they also founded Tragurium (now Trau or Trogir), an island near the coast of what is now called Croatia.

Citation

VII.5.5

2. Istrians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ἴστριοι, the Latin name could be Istri or Istriani, but the most used names were Histri or Histriani. The English version is Istrians.

Geographical notes

They are said to have been the first people to live at the Illyrian coast, in Istria, while their territory is the continuation of Italy. The length of the coast of Istria was 1300 stadia. They were in possession of Pola and were neighbours of the Carni.

Citation

VII.5.3 V.1.9

71

3. Italians

The Italians consisted of the Rhaeti, the Lepontii and the Camuni.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Ἰταλοί, the Latin version is Itali. The standard English name is Italians. An alternative name for them is Oenotrians

Geographical notes

This name was used to indicate the people who lived south of the isthmus of Italy in the region that was situated above the Sicilian Strait.

History

The Italians are said to have sometimes overrun their neighbours.

Citations

IV.6.8 VI.1.4

4. Italiotes

This name is not only used for the Italiotes themselves, but also for the Cisalpine Galatae and the Heneti after they received the same rights as the Italiotes had received from the Romans. Sometimes they were also called Romans.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ἰταλιώται. The Latin version is Italiotae, while the standard English version is Italiotes.

Geographical notes

The Italiotes lived in Italy.

History

They were sometimes attacked by certain tribes of the Vindelici and the Rhaeti, who were very savage in their attack. In fact they were so savage they murdered all the males when they conquered cities, even the male infants. Their savagery didn’t stop there, since they also are said to have killed the women who were said by their seers to be pregnant of male children.

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Constitution

This people has received the ‘Latin right’ from the Romans, which meant they were autonomous and had the same civic rights as the Romans. According to Strabo they have taken the constitutions of the Achaeans in use. Because of this they are comparable with the Ligures.

Citations

IV.6.4 IV.6.8 V.1.1 VIII.7.1

5. Ithacans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Ἰθακήσιοι, the Latin version was Ithaci. The standard English term is Ithacans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Acarnania together with the Taphians. It is possible the Taphians gave their territory voluntarily to them for Homer claims that there was friendship between these two peoples.

Citations

X.2.24

6. Ituraeans

The Ituraeans are mentioned as ‘barbarians’ by Strabo.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Ἰτουραῖοι. The Latin term was Ituraei, while in standard English they are called Ituraeans.

Geographical notes

Strabo writes they lived in the mountainous parts of the Massyas Plain where they inhabited some mountains with deep caves which were very difficult to pass.

History

These people was subjected to Ptolemaeus, the son of Mennaeus.

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Conditions of life

They were robbers who use strongholds as bases for their operations.

Citations

XVI.2.10 XVI.2.18 XVI.2.20

J.

1. Jews

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ἰουδαῖοι and the Latin name is Iudaei. In standard English they are either called Judaeans or Jews365.

Genealogy

They are said to be descendants from the Egyptians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Syria, which was divided into two major parts according to some writers, the Coelo- Syrians on the one hand, and the Syrians and the Phoenicians on the other. According to the same writers there were four tribes there that tended to be mixed up with these peoples, namely the Judaeans, the Idumaeans, the Gazaeans and the Azotians. They possessed the city Gadaris. It is said that they were joined by the Idumaeans – after these were driven away from their original territory – whose customs aligned with the ones of the Judaeans.

Conditions of life

Some of the Judaeans were merchants, others were farmers, resembling respectively the Phoenicians and the Syrians and Coelo-Syrians. The palm tree (mostly the Caryota palm) and the balsam tree were

365Mason S., ‘Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History’, Journal for the Study of Judaism, 38 (2007), 457-512

74 cultivated by them only on a few places so they could set a higher price for it. The same practise could be found by the Egyptians concerning the Byblus plant.

It was their custom to circumcise their male children and to excise the female children, a custom which was also found with the Egyptians.

History

Five hundred of the Judaeans were allies of the Romans when these joined Aelius Gallus in his expedition against the Arabians. This expedition was sent by Augustus during Strabo’s time.

Citation

XVI.4.23 XVI.2.2 XVI.2.29 XVI.2.34 XVII.1.15 XVII.2.5

L.

1. Lacedaemonians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λακεδαιμόνιοι, the Latin name is Lacedaemonii and the standard English name is Lacedaemonians.

Geographical notes

The Lacedaemonians lived in Greece and had a lot of territory, some of which they gave to some fugitives who fled to them. They made the city of Selgê and founded Thera as their colony. A part of them, the Partheniae (infra) who were sent away, founded Taras.

Conditions of life

Since the Lacedaemonians were quite known, especially because of their warfare, it’s not a surprise that rumour went they didn’t like to read nor write. A unique condition of their life were the Helots, a name given to their state-slaves. These slaves were people who, according to Antiochus, didn’t join the expedition during the Messenian War, and therefore were made slaves. Another term for some people with the Lacedaemonians were the Partheniae. Because most of the Lacedaemonians went to war against the Messenians, the women who were left behind sent a complaint because they couldn’t have children when the men were gone. To solve this situation the Lacedaemonians sent their youngest men back home and the children who were conceived during this time were called

75

Partheniae. Although most of these children were born as from citizens, these Partheniae didn’t receive civic rights.

The Lacedaemonians were autonomic and based their laws upon the laws of the Cretans.

History

Their legendary lawgiver Lycurgus is said to often have consulted the Pythian priestess to ask which ordinances he had to give to her. Since they were an important people, they were involved in a lot of political events. They had a long lasting disagreement with the Messenians, which resulted in the Messenian Wars. One of the causes was the fact that the Messenians had killed the king of the Lacedaemonians, named Teleclus, and another reason was that some of them had violated some maidens in Limnae and then killed the people who came to help these maidens. Because of this war the Helots originated and during it, the Partheniae were born. Since these didn’t receive civic rights they revolted together with the Helots. The Lacedaemonians, who were afraid of their numbers, sent them away to found a city, which became Taras. During the second Messenian War, they appointed Tyrtaeus as their general, possibly on insistence of an oracle according to which they would conquer Messenê. True or not, they ruined Messenê.

The Lacedaemonians allied themselves with the Eleians during the battle against the Messenians, the Arcadians and the offspring of Nestor. Because of this and because they worked so well together, the name Eleia was given to the whole country as far as Messenê. These two people also joined forces to fight Pheidon whom they destroyed. The Lacedaemonians then gave Pisatis and Triphylia to the Eleians to rule. As much as they made alliances with some people, they also had a lot of disagreements with other peoples. They argued with the Messenians about Leucrum during the reign of Philip, and before that they fought against the Argives on Thyrea. They won with Othryadas as their general.

They meddled in a lot of political affairs, such as transferring the inhabitants of Asinê to Messenê or paying the due for the sacrifice to Poseidon in name of the Prasians. They also conquered Aegina and returned it over to the original settlers. They roused the Delphians to revolt against the Phocians and gave them permission to found a state of their own. One of their more cultural tasks was the supervision of the Actian Games.

Since they were an important city it was not surprising they clashed with the Athenians sometimes. Fro example three hundred of them were captured by the Athenians on Sphagia. But they were also victorious sometimes, such as when they destroyed the wall between Athens and the Peiraeus and when they appointed thirty tyrants to rule Athens. During the Persian Wars they missed the battle at

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Marathon because they were waiting for the full moon. After the battle at Thermopylae, they erected a pillar for Leonidas and his men, inscribed with these words: ‘Stranger, report to the Lacedaemonians that we lie here in obedience to their laws’.

The end of their rule came when they were defeated by Epameinondas. They lost again in the second battle near Mantineia. Still, they remained autonomous until the Romans conquered them. Despite some small offence against them, they were held in great honour.

Citations

I.4.7 II.3.7 VI.1.6 VI.3.2 VI.3.3 VII.1.6 X.4.9 X.5.1 XII.7.3 VIII.3.30 VIII.3.33 VIII.4.2 VIII.4.6 VIII.4.8 VIII.4.10 VIII.5.4 VIII.5.5 VIII.6.11 VIII.6.14 VIII.6.16 VIII.6.17 VIII.6.18 IX.1.15 IX.1.20 IX.1.22 IX.2.39 IX.3.15 IX.4.16 XIV.2.9 XVI.2.38

Laconians Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Λάκωνοι, in Latin they are called Lacones. The standard English word is Laconians.

Genealogy

A colony of the Laconians joined the Samnitae and influenced them so they became philhellenes.

Geographical notes

They lived in Laconia, in Greece. They attacked and took possession of a part of Cantabria according to Asclepiades and other writers. Together with Praxander they founded the city Lapathus.

Conditions of life

Some of their customs were comparable with those of the peoples who lived near the Durius River. They used the anointing-rooms two times a day and they also used of a kind of saunas. They took baths in cold water and ate only once a day. This meal was eaten in a simple and tidy way.

A part of them, called the Eleuthero-Lacones (Ἐλευθερολάκωνες) received some sort of republican constitution, hence the name.

Citations

ΙΙΙ.3.6 III.4.3 V.4.12 VIII.5.5 XIV.6.3

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2. Laestrygonians

The Laestrygonians are a mythic people of giants.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Λαιστρυγόνες, the Latin form was Laestrygones and the standard English form is Laestrygonians.

Geographical notes

They are said to have lived in Sicily around the Aetna and Leontine, where they ruled together with the Cyclopes.

Conditions of life

They were not very hospitable according to the myths on them.

Citations

I.2.9

3. Lamians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for the Lamians is Λαμιεῖς, the English name is Lamians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Lamia which was situated fifty stadia from the sea and above Phalara in Greece.

History

A lot of their buildings were once destroyed because of an earthquake which hit their country.

Citations

I.3.20 IX.5.13

4. Lampians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Λαμπεῖς, the English equivalent is Lampians.

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Geographical notes

They were in possession of Phoenix, which was situated on the isthmus of Crete, on the southern sea.

Citations

X.4.3

5. Landi

Nomenclature

The Greek term is Λανδοί, the English Landi.

History

Some of them were captured by the Romans and then led in a procession to show the triumph of Germanicus.

Citations

VII.1.4

6. Langobardi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Λαγκόβαρδοι, their Latin name Langobardi, which is the same in English.

Genealogy

The Langobardi were a tribe of the Suevi.

Geographical notes

They lived on the far side of the Albis in nowadays Switzerland after they were expelled from their original territory.

Conditions of life

They were nearly nomadic for they lived in small temporary huts feeding of their herd. They almost never stored their food, and when they migrated to another place, they loaded their possessions on carts to transport them.

Citations

VII.1.3

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7. Laodiceians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λαοδικεῖς, the Latin name is Laodiceni. In English they are called Laodiceians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Laodiceia, Greece.

Conditions of life

The Laodiceians are known for their production of soft, black wool.

History

They were attacked by Mithridates Eupator, but in the time of Strabo they grew rather powerful. Their city was destroyed by an earthquake, but was rebuilt on demand of the emperor Tiberius.

Some Laodiceians who are known through history are Hieron, Zeno the rhetorician and his son Polemon.

Citations

XII.8.16 XII.8.18

8. Lapiths

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λαπίθαι, the Latin equivalent is Lapithes, while the English term is Lapiths.

Genealogy

According to Simonides they were part of the Pelasgiotes.

Geographical notes

Simonides uses the name of their tribe and the name of Perrhaebians for all the Pelasgiotes who lived in Thessaly, more specifically in Gyrton, the outlets of the Peneius and Mount Ossa, also Mount Pelio and the region of Demetrias and Larisa. Other places were Larisa, Crannon, Scotussa, Mopsium, Atrax and the region about Lake Nessonis and Lake Boebeïs. They were said to live intermingled with

80 the Perrhaebians, but some of these they forced to emigrate. Therefore they also possessed the Perrhaebian plains. The Peneius flowed through their territory after it passed through Thessaly.

History

Known Lapiths were Ixion and Peirithoüs. Both of them were said to have subdued the Perrhaebians and to have taken possession of their territory after they had driven them back into the river-country. Peirithoüs was also said to have thrust out the Centaurs.

It is also said that the Lapiths drove the Pelasgians out of Italy.

Citations

VII.fr.14 ΙΧ.5.19 IX.5.20 IX.5.22

9. Larisaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λαρισαῖοι, the Latin name is Larisaei or Larisenses. The English form is Larisaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Thessaly, near the Peneius, and were neighbours of the Perrhaebians.

History

They have conquered the territory of the Perrhaebians.

Citations

IX.5.19

10. Lartolaeëtans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Λαρτολαιῆται, the English equivalent is Lartolaeëtans.

Geographical notes

They lived by the coast from Tarraco to Emporium (nowadays Spain). They had a few good harbours and their country is said to have been fertile. Their neighbours were the Leëtanians.

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Citations

III.4.8

11. Latini

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Λατῖνοι, their Latin name is Latini, which is the same in English. It is said that Aeneas was the one who gave this name to his subjects. The name can be used for two groups, one the people who lived in Latium and it was also used for the people who had received the ‘Latin rights of citizenship’, such as the Turdetanians.

Geographical notes

The Latini, as the name implies, lived in Latium, in Italy. Their territory stretched from the coastline – more specifically from Ostia to Sinuessa – to the territory of the Sabini. On this side their country stretched as far as Campania and the hills of the Samnitae. They possessed Ostia and Antium, both of which had no harbour and Lavinium and Laurentium.

Conditions of life

In Lavinium they had a temple of Aphrodite, which all the Latini used, though the Ardeatae tended to it. They also honoured Zeus, to whom they offered on Mount Albanus together with the Romans. They held their festivals near Ardea, near a temple of Aphrodite.

History

When the Romans first began to expand, they became their partners, but later on the Latini were subdued and made subjects to them.

Citations

III.2.15 V.2.1 V.3.2 V.3.5 VI.4.2

12. Leëtanians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Λεητανοί. The English form is Leëtanians.

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Geographical notes

They lived in nowadays Spain, at the coast from Tarraco to Emporium. They possessed of some good harbours and a fertile country. They lived next to the Lartolaeëtans.

Citations

III.4.8

13. Legae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Λῆγαι. The English name is Legae.

Genealogy

They were a tribe of the Scythians.

Geographical notes

Their territory was situated between the territories of the Amazons and the Albanians. The Mermadalis River ran through their country.

Citations

XI.5.1

14. Leleges

The Leleges were seen by the Greek as barbaric.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λέλεγες, the Latin equivalent is Leleges, as is the English name. According to Aristotle, Leleges was their former name, for they were called Locri in his time. Some writers say they were the same as the Carians, but were called Leleges in the time when they were ruled by Minos, others say that the Carians drove them away and so were a different people. The etymology of this name is, according to Hesiod, the root λεγ- , in the meaning of to pick or a collection. In his eyes this meant this was a people ’picked out of the earth’.

Genealogy

According to some writers they were the same people as the Carians, although to others they were only fellow-inhabitants of them. Another legend says that they were closely related to the Trojans.

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Geographical notes

It is said that the Leleges originally came from the country around Mount Ida, near Pedasus and the Satnioïs River. With the help of the Cretans they settled on the mainland. They used to live in Ionia together with the Carians, but were driven out by the Ionians. Likewise they possessed Phocaea, Chios and Samos, but were subdued by the Ionians. They migrated to Caria. Since they had lived mingled with the Carians, there are settlements, tombs and forts to be found in the territory of the Carians that are said to have been from the Leleges. Another people they possibly were intermingled with, were the Pisidians. It is also said they lived in Boeotia and in the territory inside the Greek isthmus, and Homer placed most of them in the Gulf of Adramyttium. They once possessed the country opposite Lesbos in the region of Thebe, Lyrnessus and Pedasus, before these were sacked by Achilles. They were also said to have inhabited Ephesus until they were driven out by Androclus. They founded a place called Pedasa (later Pedasis) which consisted of eight cities. Other cities they ruled were Scepsis, Andeira, Pioniae, Miletus and the Gargaris. According to Homer they also ruled Assus, Gargara and Lamponia. They were a very numerous people, but later on they were scattered and disappeared. Still there are remains (tombs, fortifications etc.) to be found were they have lived.

Conditions of life

They were seen as nomads, or in any case as partly nomadic.

History

Part of their history is probably mythical, such as the rumour they had been ruled by Minos and the legend that they were the third dynasty of Troy. Their people already existed before the Trojan War. According to Homer they once had a chieftain called Locrus. Another ruler they once had was their king Altes.

Citations

VII.7.1 VII.7.2 ΙΧ.2.3 XII.7.3 XII.8.4 XII.8.5 XIV.2.27 XIII.1.7 XIII.1.49 XIII.1.7 XIII.3.1 XIII.1.59 XIII.1.50 XIII.1.56 XIII.1.58 XIV.1.3 XIV.1.6 XIV.1. 21

15. Lemovices

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λεμοουίκες. The Latin and the English name are the same, namely Lemovices.

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Genealogy

They were a part of the Aquitani.

Geographical notes

The Lemovices lived in the country between the Garumna (the Garonne) and the Liger (Loire), in nowadays France.

Citations

IV.2.2

16. Leontines

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Λεοντῖνοι, the Latin equivalent is Leontini, while the English form is Leontines.

Geographical notes

They were said to have founded Euboea.

Citations

VI.2.6

17. Lepontii

Nomenclature

In Greek this people is called Ληπόντιοι, in Latin and English the term is Lepontii.

Geographical notes

The Lepontii lived in what is now called Italy, which they ruled before they had been subdued. They lived beyond Comum, which was situated near the foot of the Alps, on the side that stretched towards the west. Next to them lived the Tridentini and the Stoni.

Conditions of life

They were said to be brigandish and without resources.

Citations

IV.6.8 IV.6.6

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18. Lepreatae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λεπρεᾶται. The English name is Lepreatae.

Geographical notes

The Lepreatae, as their name implies, lived near Lepreum, which was situated close to Messenê. Their neighbouring tribes were the Cyparissians and the Macistii. Their country was fairly fertile.

History

The Lepreatae had won a – not further described – war, and the inhabitants of ‘Sandy Pylus’ were moved to Lepreum by the Eleians to gratify the Lepratae. They were conquered by the Cauconians.

Citations

VIII.3.16 VIII.3.30 VIII.5.6

19. Lerians

According to Phocylides the Lerians were a bad people. He made however one exception, Procles.

Nomenclature

The name by the Greeks for them was Λέριοι, the English name is Lerians.

Geographical notes

They were said to have lived on Leros, one of the Sporades.

Citations

X.5.12

20. Lesbians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λέσβιοι and the English name is Lesbians.

Genealogy

The Methymnaeans were part of them.

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Geographical notes

They lived on Lesbos, but also possessed a great deal of the Troad and had many colonies there but also on the Thracian Chersonese, such as Sestus and Madytus.

Citations

VII.fr.55b XIII.1.38 XIII.2.2

21. Leucanians

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Λευκανοί. The English name is Leucanians.

Genealogy

The Leucanians were descendants of the Samnitae.

Geographical notes

As their name implies they lived in Leucania, a territory which is six hundred and fifty stadia. They also possessed a part of Italy. Another place they occupied was the territory which borders on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Some of them also possessed the inland above the Gulf of Tarentum. They ruled Laüs and later Paestus, which they took from the Sybaritae, but lost it again to the Romans. The Leucanians conquered the cities of the Poseidoniatae.

Conditions of live

The Leucanians were most of the time a democratic people, but when a war arose they selected a king to lead them. In earlier times there were differences between them and the Brettii and the Samnitae, concerning language, armour, dress and the like, but in later times these differences were as good as gone.

History

They arose after the Greeks took control of the Gulf of Tarentum. During their existence they warred against Dionysius and against peoples who tried to invade their country. They made slaves of the Thurii. Once a rather strong people, they decayed because of the loss of a common organisation and almost disappeared. It is still difficult to see which settlements were theirs. The Romans conquered them and made Romans of them. They also appointed them as couriers and letter-carriers to do service to the state instead of doing military service. The same happened to the Brettii and the Picentes.

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Citations

V.1.3 V.4.13 VI.1.1 VI.1.2 VI.1.3 VI.1.10 VI.1.13

22. Leuci

Nomenclature

The Greeks name for this people is Λεῦκοι, the Latin and English name are the same, Leuci.

Geographical notes

They lived between the Liger and the Sequana Rivers (Seine), and were neighbours of the Mediomatrici, beyond whom they lived, and the Lingones.

Citations

IV.3.4

23. Leuctri

Nomenclature

In Greek their name was Λεῦκτροι, in Latin and English it was Leuctri.

Geographical notes

They lived in Leuctrum, a colony they founded in Boeotia.

Citations

VIII.4.4

24. Lexovii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Ληξόβιοι, the Latin name Lexovii. In English it is normally also found as Lexovii, though there are questions about the possibility of Lexobii in some literature (Strabo)366.

366 According to Henderson: Strabo, book 8 (XVII & general index), p. 380: see table of contents

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Geographical notes

They lived in what is now called France, south the estuary of the Sequana (Seine), near the ocean.

Citations

IV.1.14 IV.3.5

25. Libo-Phoenicians

Nomenclature

They are called Λιβοφοίνικες in Greek and Libo-Phoenicians in English. In Latin their name is Libyphoenices.

Geographical notes

The Libo-Phoenicians lived in the land above the coastline stretching from Carthage to Cephaelae and to the territory of the Masaesylians. Their territory extended to the country of the Gaetulians. They lived somewhere in nowadays Tunisia.

Citations

XVII.3.19

26. Liburnians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Λιβυρνικοί, the Latin name was Liburni, the English Liburnians.

Geographical notes

They lived on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, in modern Croatia. They were neighbours of the Iapodes and their territory was five hundred stadia longer than the land of the Iapodes. They possessed a city called Scardo and had a river flowing through their country.

Citations

VII.5.4

27. Libyans

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Λίβυες, in Latin it is Libyi and in English Libyans.

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Genealogy

They consisted of the Marmaridae.

Physical information

They dressed the same way the Maurusians and the Masaesylians did, wearing ungirded tunics with a wide lining or skins, mostly as mantle.

Conditions of life

They had many habits in common with the Maurusians and the Masaesylians concerning their clothing and other habits. They all rode small, swift horses that were easy to manage and they used small shields made of rawhide and small spears with broad heads as an armour.

Citations

XVII.3.7

28. Licatii

The Licatii were said to be the bravest of the Vindelici.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λικάττιοι, the Latin name is Licates and in English it is Licatii.

Genealogy

They were part of the Vindelici.

Geographical notes

They possessed Damasia as their acropolis. This city was situated in nowadays Germany.

Citations

IV.6.8

29. Ligures Ingauni

Nomenclature

The Greek word for this people is Λίγυες Ἴγγαυνοι, in Latin it is Ligures Ingauni and in English it is the same.

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Geographical notes

They lived in the city called Albingaunum, in what is now called Italy.

Citations

IV.6.1

30. Ligurians

The Ligurians are mentioned by Aeschylus in the Prometheus and by Eratosthenes. They were seen as a bad people.

Nomenclature

In Greek this people is named Λιγύες, in Latin Ligures and in English Ligurians or Ligures. The Greeks gave this name also to the Sallyes sometimes.

Genealogy

The Ligures consisted of different smaller peoples, the Ingauni, the Intemelii and some added by Polybius, i.e. the Oxybii and Decietae. None of these peoples were Celtic, so the Ligures weren’t Celtic.

Geographical notes

The Ligures lived in the place where the Alps and the Apennines meets, their territory is next to Italy, south of Narbonitis. Some lived between the Varus River and Genua, while a part of them lived at sea. They occupied a pass over the Alps, near the Tyrrhenian Sea and also part of the land encircled by the Apennine Mountains as far as the Alps towards Genua and Sabata. Genua was used by them as their emporium. They also occupied Transpadana together with some Celtic tribes, inhabiting the mountains and the plains. A neighbouring people of them were the Pisatae.

Physical information

They were known for a sort of tunic which was named after them and for ‘sagi’, a coarse cloak.

Conditions of life

Their habits were comparable with the habits of the Celts. They let their sheep graze near the sea and are fed on them, their milk and a drink made of barley. Another product was timber to make ships. They produced ‘ginni’, a sort of horse or mule, Ligurian tunics and ‘sagi’, a sort of cloak. A part of them lived near the sea and these were autonomous.

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History

Some of them lived in the Alps and formed a threat together with the Sallyes for the Massioliotes. Because of this the Massiliotes built Tauroentium, Olbia, Antipolis and Nicaea as a stronghold against both these peoples. Both warred against the Romans for at least eighty years. They were submitted by Gaius Flaminius and subjected to the praetors from Narbonitis, though a part of them remained free.

Citations

II.5.28 IV.1.3 IV.1.9 IV.1.5 IV.1.7 IV.6.2 IV.6.2 IV.6.3 IV.6.4 IV.6.12 V.1.10 V.1.3 V.1.4 V.1.11 V.2.5 VII.3.7

31. Ligurisci: see Taurisci

32. Lingones

Nomenclature

This people is called Λίγγονες in Greek, and in Latin and English they are called Lingones.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond the Elvetii and the Sequani, towards the west. They were separated from these Sequani and the Aedui by the river Arar (now the Saône).

Citations

IV.1.11 IV.3.4

33. Locrians

The Locrians were divided into two groups by Parnassus; the eastern Locrians and the western Locrians, also called the Hesperian Locrians. Each group also consisted of two peoples, the eastern were the Opuntians and the Epicnemidians, while the western Locrians were just called Locrians and Ozolae. There was also another people with the name of Epyzephyrian Locrians, who were colonists of the Locrians. According to Aristotle this was the people which was called Leleges in earlier times.

They were mentioned on a pillar near Thermopylae as being righteous concerning their laws.

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Nomenclature

Their name is Λοκροί in Greek, Locri in Latin and Locrians or Locri in English. The western Locrians are called Λοκροί Ἑσπέριοι in Greek, Hesperian Locrians in English, while the subcategories are the Ozolian Locrians, Λοκροὶ Ὀζόλαι in Greek, the Opuntian Locrians, or Λοκροὶ Ὀπούντιοι in Greek and the Epicnemidian Locrians, Λοκροὶ Ἐπικνημίδοι in Greek. The Epyzephyrian Locrians are called Λοκροὶ Ἐπιζεφύριοι in Greek. The Ozolian Locrians are said to have derived their name from the malodorous water which runs through their country, from the verb ὄζω. The Epicnemidian Locrians derived their name from the mountain Cnemis. The Opuntian Locrians were named after their metropolis, which was situated next to Phocis and Boeotia.

Genealogy

As said before, the Locrians consisted of the Locrians and the Ozolian Locrians in the western part of their territory and of the Epinemidian Locrians and the Opuntian Locrians in the eastern part, while their colonists were called the Epizephyrian Locrians. The Ozolian Locrians were part of the Greeks.

Geographical notes

They lived in Locris, which was divided into two parts as mentioned before by Parnassus and they are said to have originated from Phricium. They founded different cities, such as Hipponium – which they then lost to the Brettii – and Cymê, which they filled with survivors from Larisa. They possessed Medma and a nearby harbour called Emporium and they built Neon Teichos. On a pillar near Thermopylae is written that they lived in Opöeis. Homer did not mention the western Locrians, but he did mention some Locrians who lived opposite Euboea.

The eastern Locrians consisted of the Epicnemidian Locrians and the Opuntian Locrians. They were separated by Daphnus, a city of Phocis.

The ‘western Locrians’ or the ‘Hesperian Locrians’ are a name for the Locrians and the Ozolian Locrians. The Ozolian Locrians lived near the Acarnanians and the Aetolians. Their territory was the slope of the Parnassus towards the west. They were the colonists of the Epicnemidian Locrians, who sent their own colonists, now called the Epizephyrian Locrians.

These Epizephyrian Locrians left the Crisaean Gulf after the founding of Croton and Syracus. They were led by Evanthes. After a stay in Zephyrium for three or four years, they moved to their later residence called Locri Epizephyrii.

Conditions of life

The Ozolian Locrians had the image of the star Hesperus as their public seal.

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History

The Epizephyrian Locrians are said to be the first people to write down their laws. They were ill- treated by Dionysius, when he was banished from Syracuse. He forced himself on girls on their wedding night, or made naked girls chase doves on a high and a low sandal, so they appeared indecent. When he went to Sicily, the Locrians attacked his garrison and came in possession of his wife and two daughters, whom they made prostitutes and then killed them after which they threw their bones into the sea.

Citations VIII.1.1 IX.3.1 IX.3.3 IX.4.1 IX.4.8 IX.4.8 VI.1.5 VII.7.2 IX.4.2 IX.3.1 IX.4.7 XIII.3.3 IX.3.17 IX.4.11 IX.3.1 IX.3.17 VI.1.7 VI.1.8 IX.3.1

34. Lotus-eaters

The Lotus-eaters were a mythical people who were best known for their presence in Homer’s Odyssey.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λωτοφάγοι, derived from λωτός (most of the time translated as lotus, though it can mean a lot of other plants) and φαγεῖν, meaning ‘to eat’, so they are literally called Lotus-eaters, as they are in English. In Latin they are called Lotophagi, a transposition of the Greek name. Their name is said to be given to them by the merchants of Gades.

Geographical notes

They are said to have come to Maurusia and later to have lived beyond it, in Libya. They lived as far as the place above Cyrenê, though the people who lived there ate normal food according to Artemidorus. They were neighbours of the Western Ethiopians. Some people say they used to inhabit Meninx, an island in the Lesser Syrtis. Said like this, proof of this declaration is the altar placed there by Odysseus himself and the fact that the lotus grows there.

Conditions of life

As their name implies the Lotus-eaters ate lotus. The most surprising thing about this is that they didn’t need to drink when they ate this plant or eat any other food. The lotus in itself was enough.

Citations

III.4.3 III.4.4 XVII.3.8 XVII.3.17

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35. Lugii

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Λύγιοι, in Latin and English it is Lugii, though there are different forms possible, such as Lugi, Lygii, Ligii and some others.

History

They were a large tribe, which became subjected to Marabodus, leader of the Marcomanni.

Citations

VII.1.3

36. Lusitanians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λυσιτανοί, in Latin it is Lusitani, while the English equivalent is Lusitanians. Another name for the majority of them is Callaicans (see also there).

Geographical notes

Some of them lived in a part of Iberia, in the interfluvial region of the Anas (now Guadiana) after they had been relocated there by the Romans. Others lived in the territory stretching from alongside Baetica to the Durius River (now Douro). This place became a province of the Roman Empire and was property of the emperor. These were the people who were also called Callaicans.

Physical information

The men of the Lusitanians grew their hair long like women, but when they went to war, they bound it about the forehead. They wore coarse, black mantles which they also used to sleep in. The women on the other hand dressed in long, gay-coloured mantles and gowns.

Conditions of life

The Lusitanians are often described as wild and living rather remote. The description of wildness may have been derived from the fact that they were brigands. They were known for their surprise attacks, their skills in spying out and for deploying troops. Their armour was rather light, such as the most inhabitants of Iberia wore, and because of this they were nimble and swift. Their shields were small, two feet diametrical, while the front was hollow. These hung from their shoulders using thongs, for there were no handles nor arm-rings. Their weaponry consisted mostly of butcher’s-knifes and dirks.

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Their cuirasses were mostly made of linen, but some of them wore chain-wrought cuirasses with three-crested helmets. The helmets of the majority were however made of sinews. The soldiers who went on foot wore greaves and they all had more than one javelin. A few of them used spears with bronze heads.

In their daily life they resembled the Laconians, for they used the anointing-rooms two times a day and took saunas, while they used cold water for the bath and ate only once a day. This they did in a tidy and simple way. They offered sacrifices and analysed the vitals of the offerings without cutting them out. The veins on the flank were also used for divination, as the tokens of touch were. Another mean by which they predicted the future were human sacrifices, most of these sacrifices were prisoners of war. When they offered humans, they first clothed them with a coarse cloak and then cut them down. The first readings they drew from the manner in which the victim fell. The right hand of those victims was chopped of and placed as an offering to the gods.

The ones who lived in the mountains led a rather primitive life. They drank water, slept on the floor, or on beds of litter, and ate the meat of goat most of the time. Bread of dried acorns was also eaten by them during the most of the year. They were no strangers to beer, but wine was very uncommon. They had butter instead of oil. When they ate, they sat on stationary seats placed against the walls. They themselves sat according to their rank and age. In the manner of the Celts they used waxen vessels. They honoured Ares by sacrificing he-goats, horses and prisoners to him. Other offerings they made were hecatombs of any kind such as the Greeks did. They held competitions and sometimes danced to music made by flutes and trumpets. The dancing was done in chorus or in a manner that looked a lot like crouching low and then leaping up. In Bastetania there were dances that were done by women and men together while they were holding each other’s hands. This was seen as promiscuously. For certain the ones who lived more to the interior and maybe some others too, used pieces of silver or barter instead of coins. Some of their customs were comparable with those of other peoples; their marriages took place the same way as the Greeks did, while they laid their sick in the streets just as the Egyptians did in earlier times. This way experienced people could take a look at them and help them. They made boats of tanned leather until the time of Brutus. Their laws were rather severe; when someone was sentenced to death, he was thrown from a precipice and when someone had killed his father, he was stoned to death. They had rock-salt in their country which was coloured red, but when it was crushed it became white.

History

They warred a long time against the Romans, but in the end Brutus Callaicus subjected them.

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Citations

III.1.6 III.3.1 III.3.2 III.3.3 III.3.6 III.3.7 III.3.8 III.4.15 III.4.20

37. Lusonians

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Λούσωνες. The English word is Lusonians.

Genealogy

They were part of the Celtiberians

Geographical notes

They lived in the east, where their country joined the sources of the Tagus.

Citations

IIII.4.13

38. Lycaonians

The only information Strabo gives on them is the fact that they are not mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λυκάονες, the Latin name is Lycaonii and the English Lycaonians.

Citations

XII.3.27

39. Lycians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λύκιοι, the Latin name is Lycii and the English name is Lycians. Their name is derived from Lycus, the son of Pandion. Throughout history they have had a lot of names, most writer believe they were first called Solymi, then Milyae and then Termilae before they were called Lycians, though Homer mentioned the Solymi and the Lycians as two different peoples. Sometimes they are confused with the Carians.

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Genealogy

According to Homer they were a part of the Trojans. Because of this he sometimes called the Trojans Lycians or Aphneii, but he never called them Solymi though. They seem to have consisted of two groups, one of them was Trojan, while the other lived near Caria.

Geographical notes

They are said to have lived in Lycia, though a part of them lived near Caria. According to Ephorus they lived on the coast. They had Telmessus and Telmessis in possession, but lost the last one for a while to Eumenes before they got it back. They also conquered Sardeis. The six greatest cities they occupied were Xanthus, Tlos, Patara, Olympus, Pinara and Myra.

Conditions of life

The Lycians are said to have been a civilised and decent people. Their political constitution was called the ‘Lycian League’. This league worked as follows: the twenty-three cities who had a vote, came together in congress. The sum of votes differed according to the seize of the city. The largest cites had three votes, the smaller ones had two while the smallest ones had only one vote. The contributions and other services were handled in the same way. During this assembly they chose their Lyciarch and some other officials while they also appointed magistrates, judges and courts of justice. Before the Roman Empire they also would have talked about alliances and peace, but during the Empire there was no use in that, except when they had permission from the Romans.

History

They stayed autonomous during the Roman Empire, because they had such a good constitution.

Citations

X.2.10 XII.3.27 XII.8.4 XII.8.5 XII.8.7 XIII.1.9 XIV.3.10 XIV.5.23 XIV.3.3 XIV.3.4 XIII.4.8

40. Lyctians

Nomenclature

The Greeks named this people Λύκτιοι. The English name is Lyctians.

Geographical notes

They had possession of Minoa.

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Conditions of life

Some writers say that the Lyctians based their institutions on those of the Laconians.

Citations

X.4.3 X.4.17

41. Lydians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Λυδοί, the Latin equivalent is Lydi, while the English one is Lydians.

Genealogy

Sometimes it is said that they consisted of the Mysians, but in other mentions they seem to be the same people, or there is further confusion with the Phrygians and the Maeonians. Because of this they are sometimes identified with the Meïonians or the Maeonians, and received their name then. It is possible that they were the ancestors of the Cibyratae.

Geographical notes

They once inhabited the plain of the Maeander River, also called the Caÿster Plain, together with some Carians, Milesians, Myesians and Aeolians. The region near the road from Ephesus to Antiocheia above the Ionian coast, in the interior was also inhabited by them, together with Carians and Greeks. They ruled the domain around Adramyttium, Cabalis, Sardeis and a part of the mountain Mesogis.

History

After the Trojan War the Lydians had their onset and became rulers. Legend has it that they were once ruled by king Gyges. At the time of Croesus and Alyattes they ruled over the Greeks and a small part of Asia. They destroyed old Smyrna and drove the Ionians out. A temple of the Carian Zeus was shared by the Lydians, the Carians and the Mysians. A known person from their people was Xanthus the Lydian. They were conquered by the Persians and in the end there was not even a trace of their language preserved in Lydia.

Citations

VI.1.14 XII.4.6 XII.8.3 XII.8.7 XIII.4.5 XIV.3.3 XIII.1.22 XIII.4.17 XIII.1.65 XIV.1.37 XIII.4.12 XIV.1.42 XIV.2.38 XIV.2.23 XIII.4.5 XV.3.23

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42. Lyncestae

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Λυγκησταί, while the Latin and English translation is Lyncestae.

Geographical notes

They lived in a country through which the Egnatian Road led.

History

They became the subjects to Arrabaeus.

Citations

VII.7.4 VII.7.8

M.

1. Macedonians

Nomenclature

The Greek word for this people is Μακεδόνες, Macedonis is the Latin form and Macedonians is the standard English form.

Geographical notes

They lived in the Macedonia, in the country between the Paeonian mountains and the Strymon River, somewhere around the Caÿster Plain. The Egnatian Road led through their territory. They once ruled almost the whole of Europe and possessed Armenia. A colony of them was Stratoniceia. They held their winter residence in Ecbatana and were neighbours of the Thracians.

Conditions of life

They had some particular vocabulary, e.g. they called old women ‘peliai’ and old men ‘pelioi, in the same way as the Thesprotians and the Molossians did. People of high standing they called ‘peligones’. They introduced the grapevine to Susis and Bablon, although they had a different manner of planting them, for they did not make trenches to plant them, but thrust a stake of iron in the ground which they then replaced with the plants. The temple of Poseidon on Calauria stood under their protection and when some fugitives hid there, they didn’t dare to enter. They had some critical approach toward

100 stories, and especially concerning the places in which different stories were claimed to have taken place, for they believed that the pillars of Heracles or the ones of Dionysus could only be in the places where there were signs of these stories. Some proof was wanted before they were ready to accept the pillars as for real. On the other hand, they were not averse to embellish some events, for they said that the battle against Darius took place in Arbela, because the real place, Gaugamela, was too small in their opinion.

History

They had their onset after the ones of the Cimmerians and the Lydians. At one time they had an empire and possessed a large territory, some say even as far as Corcyra. They subdued the Boii, the Scordistae (Galatae), the Autariatae, the Ardiaei, the Dardanii (all Illyrians) and the Triballi (Thracians) and reduced Ambracia and other Epeirotic cities by their wars. They conquered and ruled Laconia, whose inhabitants continued to struggle against them. At one point they were so strong they dissolved the Achaean League. In the Lamian War they fought against the Athenians, while they were led by Antipater. They also fought against the Aetolians. They ruled over different places and different peoples, such as the Parthians and the Hyrcanians of whom they received tribute. They ruled over a large place after the reign of the Aetolians and the Ionians, during the rule of the Persians, whom they ultimately conquered so they became rulers over Syria. They also conquered Cappadocia and turned it into two kingdoms instead of two satrapies. The Macedonians gave Ariana to the Indians. Another conquest of them was Cyrenê, which they subdued, led by Thibron and his friends after they had subjected Egypt. They also conquered the Aradians. They used Cyinda as a treasury and named some rivers, such as Polytimetus and some mountains, for they named all the mountains after the territory of the Arians and the extremities of the Taurus ‘Caucasus’. In the end they were subjected by the Romans, after they were defeated in the plain before Pydna. Aemilius Paullus Macedonius was the one who was in command of the Roman troops. Together with Crete they became one province. Before all this they once revolted against the Romans with the Greeks, the Carthagians and the Asian people who lived this side of the Taurus Mountain and the Halys River. One of their known kings was Philip.

Citations

II.5.26 VI.4.2 VII.5.6 VII.7.3 VII.7.4 VII.7.4 VII.7.6 VII.7.8 VII.fr.22 VIII.7.1 IX.4.11 IX.5.10 X.2.23 XI.7.2 XI.8.1 XI.9.1 XI.11.5 XI.13.5 XI.14.15 XII.1.4 XII.4.6 XII.8.7 XIII.4.5 XIV.2.25 XIV.5.10 XV.1.10 XV.1.11 XV.3.3 XV.3.23 III.5.6 VII.fr.2 VIII.5.5 VIII.6.14 XV.3.11 XVI.1.3

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XVI.2.14 XVII.3.21

2. Macistians

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Μακίστιοι, the English word is Macistians.

Conditions of life

They honoured the Samian Poseidon, they were even in charge of his temple and its sacred precinct. In this precinct many wild olive-trees grew. Another precinct honoured by them was devoted to Hades

Citations

VIII.3.13 VIII.3.14

3. Macrones

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μάκρονες, the English name is Macrones. It is an old name for the Sanni.

Citations

XI.3.18

4. Macropogones

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Μακροπώγωνες, the standard English form is Macropogones.

Geographical notes

The only reference to the Macropogones in Strabo’s work is the fact that they lived behind the Sindic territory.

Citations

XI.2.1

102

5. Maeonians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαίονες. In standard English they are called Maeonians. There is some confusion on which people is meant by this name. Some say Maeonians is an older name for the Lydians, and that these are also sometimes called Meïones (or Meïonians) or Mysians. Others think they are two different people who are then also confused with some other peoples such as the Mysians and the Phrygians. Homer called them Meïones.

Geographical notes

They might have possessed a city called Larisa which later may have been occupied by the Ephesians.

Citations

XII.3.20 XII.8.3 XIII.4.5 XIII.3.2

7. Maeotae

Nomenclature

In Greek this people is called Μαιῶται, in Latin and English Maeotae.

Genealogy

They consisted of some smaller tribes, such as the Sindi, the Dandarii, the Toreatae, the Agri, the Arrechi, the Tarpets, the Obidiaceni, the Sittacenini, the Dosci, the Aspurgiani and some more.

Geographical notes

They lived around Lake Maeotis, as their name implies, and also alongside the coast of the Lesser Rhombites.

Conditions of life

They fished in the Lesser Rhombites and were rather warlike, although they were farmers and not nomadic.

History

Some of them, the Asiatic Maeotae, were subjects to the people who possessed the emporium on the Tanaïs, others were subjects to the Bosporians.

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Citations

XI.2.1 XI.2.4 XI.2.11

8. Magnesians

There were two groups of Magnesians, one who lived in Caria, and another who lived in Thessaly.

Nomenclature

The name of both peoples are Μάγνητες in Greek, Magnetes in Latin and Magnesians in English.

Genealogy

Both groups are said to have been descendants from the Delphians who settled in Thessaly.

Geographical notes

The Magnesians who lived in Caria settled near het Maeander River and founded Antiocheia (near Pisidia). The ones who lived in Thessaly possessed the territory near Pelion, part of their land was added to Macedonia by Philip. According to Homer they lived inside Tempê while they occupied Homolium (or Homolê). They had settlements in Magnesia on the Maeander.

History

Both groups were destroyed by the Treres. But the Magnesians in Thessaly were once ruled by Eumelus, while the ones in Caria gave their country to the Romans and in exchange were freed from their kings by them.

Citations

Caria: XII.8.14 XIV.1.40

Thessaly: IX.5.1 IX.5.16 IX.5.21 IX.5.22 XIV.1.40 XIV.1.11

9. Malians

There were two groups of Malians, the Arabian Malians and the Thessalian Malians.

Nomenclature

Both groups have the same name in Greek, i.e. Μαλιεῖς, Malii in Latin and Malians in English. Some say the name from the Arabian Malians is an ancient name for the Scenitae.

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Geographical notes

The Arabian Malians lived in a place where the road from Syria to Seleuceia ran through their territory. The ones in Thessaly possessed a place near Euboea and Thermopylae together with the Achaean Phthiotae, and living in this Phthiotic domain they were said to be subjects to Achilles. They lost a part of their territory to the Aenianians.

Citations

XVI.1.27 IX.5.1 IX.5.10 IX.5.22

10. Malli

The Malli were a large tribe. It is in their territory that Alexander the Great almost died.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαλλοί, in English they are called Malli.

Geographical notes

They are said to have lived under the territory between the Indus and the Hydaspes, next to the Sibae and the Sydracae.

Citations

XV.1.33

11. Mamertini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαμερτῖνοι, the Latin name is Mamertini, just liike the English name.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Campani.

Geographical notes

They migrated to Messsenê at one point and became so numerous that they got control over the city. They changed the names of its inhabitants from Messenii to Mamertini.

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Conditions of life

They produced wine, called Mamertine wine, which was of high quality.

Citations

VI.2.3

12. Mandubii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μανδούβιοι, the Latin name is Mandubii being the same as the standard English name.

Geographical notes

They occupied the city called Alesia. Their territory had boundaries with the Arverni of whom they were the neighbours

Citations

IV.2.3

13. Mardi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μάρδοι, the Latin and English name is Mardi. It is possible that they were the same as the Amardi.

Geographical notes

They lived alongside the coast of the Caspian Sea. Their neighbours were on the one side the Persians, while the Uxii and the Elymaei lived on the other side.

Conditions of life

They were one of the four hunting tribes there. They were mountaineers for the most part, while some of them were brigands and others farmers.

Citations

XI.6.1 XI.13.3 XI.13.6 XV.3.1

106

14. Marcomanni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Μαρκομάννοι, in Latin and English it was Marcomanni.

Geographical notes

They lived in Boihaemum (Bohemen) and were led by Marabodus.

Citations

VII.1.3

15. Margiani

The Margiani were a rather powerful tribe.

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek was Μαργιανοί. In English they are called the Margiani.

Geographical notes

They lived in Margiana, which was a plain that was partly surrounded by mountains and by deserts. Their territory however was fertile and had a nice climate. Their neighbours were the Parthians and the Arians.

Citations

II.1.14 XI.8.1 XI.10.1 XI.10.2

16. Mariandyni

The Mariandyni were not mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

Their name is Μαριανδυνοί in Greek, in English they are called the Mariandyni.

Genealogy

They were possibly Brigians (Thracians) who left Europe. Others say it was a different name for the Caucones.

107

Geographical notes

They lived on the coast of the peninsula belonging to Asia Minor, west of Themiscyra. They possessed Chalcedon and Heracleia was situated in their territory.

History

They became Helots to the Milesians.

Citations

VII.3.2 XII.3.2 XIV.5.23 XII.3.4 XII.3.9 XII.3.27

17. Marmaridae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαρμαρίδαι, in Latin they are called the Marmarides and in English they are the Marmaridae.

Genealogy

They were part of the Libyans.

Geographical notes

They lived next to Catabathmus with the Egyptians as their neighbours. Close to them Cyrenaea was situated. Their territory stretched as far as Ammon and is barren and dry.

Citations

XVII.1.13 XVII.3.23 XVII.3.1

18. Marrucini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαρρουκῖνοι. The name is Marrucini in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond the Picentine land, above the Peligni. Their country was full of mountains and barely touched the sea. They inhabited villages, but had also a few cities, such as Teate, their capital city. Together with the Peligni they used Aternum as their harbour, though it was in the hands of the Vestini.

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Conditions of life

Although they were a small tribe, they were very brave for they warred against the Romans. Later on they allied themselves with the Romans till they revolted in the Marsic War, wanting political rights and freedom. After two years of war they received it.

Citations

V.4.2

19. Marsi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαρσοί, their name in Latin and English is Marsi.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond the Picentine land, above the Peligni. Their country was full of mountains and barely touched the sea. They inhabited villages, but had also a few cities. They lived alongside the Rhenus first, but withdrew later deep into the country when they fled the Romans. They also occupied a part of the Apennines.

Conditions of life

Although they were a small tribe, they were very braved for they warred against the Romans. Later on they allied themselves with them till they revolted in the Marsic War, wanting political rights and freedom. After two years of war they received it.

Citations

V.2.1 V.4.2 VII.1.3

20. Masaesylians

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Μασαισύλιοι, in Latin their name is Masaesyli and in English Masaesylians.

Geographical notes

They lived in the place stretching from the Molochath River to the promontory Tretum. They lived beyond the Carthaginians and were neighbours of the Masylians. Since they were nomadic, they travelled through their country.

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Conditions of life

They had many habits in common with the Libyans and the Maurusians concerning clothing and other habits (see Libyans).

Citations

II.5.33 XVII.3.7 XVII.3.15 XVII.3.9

21. Masiani

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μασιανοί. The English name is Masiani.

Geographical notes

They lived between the Cophes (Kabul River) and the Indus.

Citations

XV.1.27

22. Massagetae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μασαγέται. In English they are called Masagetae.

Genealogy

They were a Scythian tribe. Together with the Sacae they consisted of the Attasii and the Chorasmii.

Geographical notes

They lived across the Caspian Sea. The Däae were their neighbours to the west. Their country consisted of mountain, plains, marshes and some islands and all of these places were inhabited by them. The Araxes Rover flowed through their territory. Next to them lived the Bactrians.

Physical information

Their weaponry consisted of short swords, breastplates, bows and sagares, a sort of single-edged weapons made of brass. When they went to battle, they wore golden head-bands and belts. The people of the mountains wore coloured clothes made of wool, the ones in the marshes made clothing from seal-skin and the ones on the islands made clothing of bark.

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Conditions of life

The Massagetae were monotheistic for they only sacrificed to Helius, sacrifices mostly consisting of horses. They were generally monogamous, but were allowed to bed women who were married. In order not to be disturbed the man had to hang his quiver on the wagon in which they laid. Instead of hoping to fall in battle as so many ancient people, they hoped to die from old age. After their death they were chopped up and mixed with the meat of animals and then eaten by their people. When this was not possible because they had died from an illness, they were given to wild animals to be eaten. They were known to be good horsemen and foot-soldiers. The bits and girths of the horses were made of gold for they had a lot of gold in their country. They also had brass and a little iron, but no silver. The ones who inhabited the islands, ate roots and wild fruit. Since they had no cattle, they drank juices of fruit instead of milk. The ones who inhabited the marshes, fished. The part of them which lived in the mountains, ate wild fruit, but they did have sheep for milk and wool. Lastly, the ones who inhabited the plains were nomadic and fed on sheep and fish. Though they all had their differences, most of their customs were similar, such as burials and how they lived. All of them were known as being uncouth, warlike, self-assertive and rather wild, but also as straightforward.

History

They fought a war against Cyrus (the Elder), who marched against them, in which they were very courageous.

Citations

XI.6.2 XI.8.2 XI.8.6 XI.8.7 XI.8.8 XV.1.6

23. Massaliotes

Nomenclature

In Greek this people was called Μασσαλιῶται. In English their name is Massaliotes.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the coast after Massalia together with the Sallyes. The Ligures were their neighbours. Their land was called Ligustica by early Greek writers. They received the channel from Marius, who had constructed it as he saw that the delta of the Rhodanus was silting. It was a reward for their courage in the war against the Toygeni and the Ambrones. After they succeeded in capturing some other countries, they founded some cities, such as Rhoë Agathe, Olbia, Antipolis, Tauroentium and Nicaea and some in Iberia. From Sextius they received some harbours.

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Conditions of life

They had an aristocratic government, which was in a very good order. They created an Assembly, which counted six hundred men, who were called ‘Tomouchoi’. This office was held for life. Fifteen men presided over the Assembly while they were placed under three men who held the chief power. For a timouchoi to become one of these three, he had to be the third generation of a family who had been citizens or he had to have children who were of the third generation. They published their laws, which were Ionic. Out of necessity they had become a sea-travelling people for their country produced no grain, only olives and grapes. They had their own armoury and dry-docks. After a while they became less war-loving and a lot of them became farmers. A group of people arose who engaged themselves in philosophy and the art of speech. They were seen as self-restraining and an example of this is their maximum dowry; the most this could rise was one hundred and ten golden pieces of which five were for the dress and five for the golden ornaments. Because of them the Galatae were said to be Celts, though the Greeks have also had a hand in this.

History

The Massaliotes became allies of the Romans, because they were useful to them, seeing that they were a sea-faring people who owned ships and were skilled in working with naval instruments. They remained autonomous from the Romans.

Citations

IV.1.3 IV.1.5 IV.1.8 IV.1.14 IV. 6.3

24. Masylians

The Masylians were a rather known people.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μασυλιεῖς, the English name is Masylians.

Genealogy

They were said to be part of the Nomads.

Geographical notes

They lived in the land after the Carthaginians, which their territory resembled. Another boundary was the promontory Tretum which separates their country from that of the Masaesylians. The land around them was prosperous and nice even if the Carthaginian Wars and the war against Jugurtha

112 had occurred there.

Citations

II.5.33 XVII.3.9 XVII.3.12 XVII.3.13

25. Matiani

Nomenclature

Their name was Ματιανοί in Greek and Matiani in English.

Geographical notes

Their territory was situated next to the Cadusii, through which the river Araxas flowed.

Citations

XI.8.8 XI.4.13

26. Maurusians

The Maurusians were a large and prosperous tribe, who were sometimes seen as Indians who had accompanied Heracles.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Μαυρούσιοι, in Latin they were called Maurusii or Mauri. In English their name is Maurusians. In Strabo’s time they were called Maurusians by the Greek but Mauri by the Romans.

Genealogy

They were a Libyan tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived in the western part of Libya, on the side of the strait which was situated opposite Iberia. The Atlas was also inhabited by them. They were the neighbours of the Masaesylians.

Physical information

They gave a lot of care to their appearances by growing beards, wearing decorations, braiding their hair, keeping their nails short and cleansing their teeth. Their riders fought with javelins, while they rode their horses without a saddle. They did use a bridle, made of rush. They used daggers to fight and the soldiers on foot had shields made of elephant-skin. The clothing of the soldiers was mostly

113 made of the skins of wild animals such as lions, bears and leopards. Sometimes they slept in these skins.

Conditions of life

As said before, they took great care in their appearances and because of this they rarely touched one another so as not to disturb their adorned hair. Although their land was very fertile they still lived as nomads. They produced wooden tables made in one piece and traded these with the Romans. A lot of their customs were comparable with those of the Masaesylians and the Libyans (see there). They hardly mingled with the Pharusians.

History

They were once ruled by a king Bogus, but he was put to death during the Actian War on command of Agrippa. After him they were ruled by kings ascending from him and Bocchus, but when the last of them died, the power was given to Juba by the Romans and his son Ptolemy succeeded him.

Citations

VIII.4.3 XVII.3.2 XVII.3.5 XVII.3.6 XVII.3.7

27. Mazaceni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μαζακηνοί. The English equivalent is Mazaceni.

Geographical notes

They lived in Mazaca which was situated eight hundred stadia south of Pontus. The distance to the Euphrates was slightly less than sixteen hundred stadia and to the camp of Cyrus and the Cicilian Gates a journey of six days. They lived near the river Melas. Their territory was had to inhabit, but produced a lot of timber and stones.

Conditions of life

They used stones and timber to construct buildings. They used the laws of Charondas and elected a Nomodus; this was a person who explained these laws. They were a kingdom and bred cattle.

Citations

XII.2.8 XII.2.9

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28. Mazaei

Nomenclature

In Greek these people are called Μαζαῖοι, in English Mazaei.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Pannonii.

Citations

VII.5.3

29. Medes

The Medes were seen as barbarians.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μῆδοι and the English name Medes.

Genealogy

Legend has it that they were descendants of Jason and Media and so are related to the Armenians and the Thessalians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Media as neighbours of the Cadusii. Some of them lived in the mountains. Another people which lived next to them, were the Sarapae (Thracians). They lived north of the Babylonians.

Physical information

They had a lot in common with the Persians concerning their clothing, such as the ‘Persian’ stolê, the tiara, the adornments, citaris, a sort of head-dress, the pilus, which was a headgear resembling a fez, the trousers and the tunics which had long sleeves

Conditions of life

Looking at their customs these seemed very alike to those of the Armenians. Indeed, the Medes were the originators of these customs and of some customs of the Persians. An example of this was their horsemanship, archery and the court they paid to their kings who were almost divine. As their king they elected the bravest of the mountaineers. They were not monogamous, they were even allowed, or almost obligated, to have more than five wives. According to the manuscripts their wives were also

115 allowed to have multiple husbands. Their land was rather fertile, but the people who lived in the mountains had to live from fruits, bread made of almond and cakes. For drinks they had wine. These people did not breed animals, but they hunted for wild ones to eat. Many of their customs were in common with those of the Persians and the Carmanians, and most of their sacred rites with those of the Persians and the Armenians. Their cavalry was their pride.

History

Strabo warns that their history is not always to be trusted. They were a large tribe and had ruled over a large area, for example the Hyrcanians. They conquered the Syrians, but were conquered by the Persians, when Cyrus was king. They fought and reconciled in turns with the Armenians and the Babylonians, till the Parthians subdued them and the Babylonians.

Citations

II.5.32 XI.6.2 XI.7.2 XI.8.8 XI.13.9 XI.14.9 XI.14.14 XI.14.16 XV.2.14 XV.3.2 XVI.1.2 XVI.1.8 XVI.1.19

30. Medi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μέδοι, in English they are called Medi.

Genealogy

They were a Thracian tribe.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the country close to the Haemon Mountain, in the east. Next to them lived the Thunatae. The Strymon flowed through their territory.

Conditions of life

They were rather brigandish.

Citations

VII.5.7 VII.5.12 VII.fr.36

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31. Mediomatrici

Nomenclature

Their name is Μεδιοματρικοί in Greek, and Mediomatrici in Latin as well as in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Gaul, in the land before the territory of the Leuci and some of the Lingones. Their land was situated after the country of the Elvetii, next to the Rhenus. The Tribocchi also inhabited their territory.

Citations

IV.3.4

32. Medoaci

The Medoaci were enemies of Rome.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μεδόακοι. The English name is Medoaci.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the Transpadane districts.

Citations

V.1.9

33. Medulii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μέδουλλοι. In English they are called Medulii.

Geographical notes

They lived in the most beautiful mountain-tops above the place where the Isar and the Rhodanus merged, where the Cavari lived. Their territory was situated after those of the Vocontii, the Iconii and the Tricorii.

117

Citations

IV.1.11 IV.6.5

34. Megabari

Nomenclature

The Greek name of this people is Μεγάβαροι, while the Enlish name is Megabari.

Genealogy

They were part of the Aethiopians.

Geographical notes

They lived above Syenê.

Conditions of life

They were a small, nomadic tribe with the image of warlike people, although they weren’t. They were branded as fond of war because they attacked people when these were without any defence.

Citations

XVII.1.53

35. Megarians

There were two peoples who have the name Megarians, the ones who lived in Greece and the Hyblaean Megarians.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Μεγαρεῖς, in Latin they were called Megarenses or Megarei and in English it is Megarians. The Hyblaean Megarians are called Ὕβλαιοι Μεγαρεῖς in Greek.

Genealogy

The Megarians who lived in Greece were Dorians. The Mesembriani were colonists of them.

Geographical notes

The Hyblaean Megarians lived in a country where the Selinus flowed through, but they were forced to migrate by the Carthaginians. The other group lived in Greece and were the founders of Chalcedon and Megara in Sicily where they arrived led by Theocles. The inhabitants of this city founded Selinus,

118 also on Sicily, later on. The Greek Megarians possessed Nicaea as a naval station. Other cities they occupied were Polichnê, Aegeirussa, Nisaea and Tripodes (or Tripodiscium), next to the place where their market-place was situated. Together with the Athenians they founded Astacus, but they fought with each other over the possession of Salamis, a fight which Athens won.

Citations

Megarians (Greece): VI.2.2 VI.2.6 VII.6.2 VIII.1.3 IX.1.10 XII.4.2

Hyblaean Megarians: VIII.7.5

36. Meïonians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μῄονες, the English equivalent is Meïonians. There is some confusion on which people is meant by this name. Some say Meïonians is an older name for the Lydians, and that they are also sometimes called Maeonians or Mysians. Others think they are two different peoples who are then also confused with some other peoples such as the Mysians and the Phrygians. Homer gave this name to the Maeonians.

Genealogy

It is not clear if they were Lydians, a tribe of them or just an independent tribe altogether.

Geographical notes

They lived at the foot of the Tmolus according to Homer in Sardeis. They colonised the Plain of Thebê.

History

Two of their leaders were Mnesthles and Antiphus.

Citations

XII.3.20 XII.8.3 XIII.1.8 XIII.4.5 XIV.5.24 XIII.4.6

37. Meldi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μέλδοι, the Latin equivalent is Meldi, which is the same as the English name.

119

Geographical notes

The only thing Strabo says about them is that they lived next to the Sequana River.

Citations

IV.3.5

38. Menapii

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Μενάπιοι, in Latin and in English both they are called Menapii.

Geographical notes

They lived in Celtica, near the mouths of the Rhenus. They had settled on both sides of the river. Their territory was full of thorny, dense woods and marshes. The Sugambri lived opposite of them.

Citations

IV.3.4

39. Mesembriani

Nomenclature

In Greek this people is called Μεσημβριανοί. In English Mesembriani.

Genealogy

They were colonists of the Megarians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Mesembria and possessed Naucholus which was a small town.

Citations

VII.6.1

40. Messapians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Μεσσαπίοι. The English name is Messapians.

120

History

They only thing that is said about them is that they had fought the Tarantini in order to gain possession of Heracleia.

Citations

VI.3.4

41. Messenians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μεσσήνιοι, in Latin it is Messenii and in English Messenians.

Genealogy

There is a possibility they were related to the Pylians, for Nestor is sometimes called a Messenian.

Geographical notes

They lived in Greece in the isthmus, near the Sicilian Sea together with the Eleians. Their territory was situated towards the south and the Libyan Sea as far as Thyrides. Their neighbours were the Laconians and the Argives. They also travelled to Rhegium on command of an oracle of Apollo and ruled there.

History

They warred against the Macedonians, for they had killed the Macedonian king named Teleclus. Some of them fled the Macedonians, for they wanted to escape punishment for what they had done, i.e. violated some maidens in Limnae and then had killed the people who came to save those maidens.

Citations

VI.1.6 VI.3.3 VIII.2.2 XIV.1.3

42. Metagonians

Nomenclature

In Strabo, the only attestation of them is as this Μεταγώνιον ἔθνος. In English it was translated to Metagonians.

121

Conditions of life

They were a nomadic tribe according to Eratosthenes.

Citations

III.5.5

43. Methymnaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μηθυμναῖοι, in Latin they are called Methymnaei and in English Methymnaeans.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Lesbians.

Geographical notes

They possessed Arisba on Lesbos and Aegeirus. Assus was a city founded by them.

Citations

XIII.2.2 XIII.1.58 XIII.1.21 XIII.2.2

44. Myconians

It is said that a lot of men who lived on their island, were bald, hence the naming of ‘Myconians’ given to bald men.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μυκόνιοι, the Latin name is Myconii and the English name is Myconians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Myconos as their name implies.

Citations

X.5.9

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45. Milesians

Nomenclature

The Greek named them Μιλήσιοι, in Latin it was Milesii and in English Milesians.

Genealogy

The Paeseni were colonists of them.

Geographical notes

They lived in Miletus, hence their name, but since they were not content with only this place, they colonised a lot of other places such as Odessus, Apolonia, Sinopê. They also founded, Colonae, Panticapaeum, Scepsis where they lived together with the Scepsians, Icaros, Leros, Minae, Abydus, Arisca, Paesus, Artacê and Cyzicus. In the same way they founded Sinopê, they also founded a lot of other cities such as Olbia, which was situated near the Borysthenes, Ister, Cardia on the Chersonesus with co-operation of the Clazomenians, Heracleia and Amiscus – according to Theopompus and Abydus with approval of Gyges. They also fortified the Watch-tower of Perseus with a wall and founded Naucratis.

Conditions of life

Their government differed according to settlement; in Panticapaeum, which is situated near the mouth of Lake Maeotis, they ruled as a monarchy, but in Scepsis they lived together with the Scepsians in a democracy. They made the Mariandyni into their helots. They honoured an Apollo Ulius, which the Delphians did too.

History

They once possessed Panticapaeum, but lost it then to Mithridates. A very large temple was built by them, which had no roof because of its height. They overthrew Inaros in a sea fight. When the Persians expanded, they became subjects to them and later to Alexander the Great. A lot of known people originated from Miletus, such as Thales, Anaximander, Hecataeus and Aeschines.

Citations

VII.3.17 VII.4.4 VII.6.1 VII.fr.51(52) XII.3.4 XII.3.11 XII.3.11 XII.3.14 XIII.1.19 XIII.1.22 XIII.1.52 XIV.1.5 XIV.1.6 XIV.1.7 XVII.1.18

123

46. Milyae

The Milyae were not mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μιλύαι. In English they are called Milyae. It is generally accepted that the Milyae in earlier times were called the Solymi and later Termilae.

Geographical notes

They lived in the interior of the peninsula which was part of Asia Minor.

Citations

XII.3.27 XII.8.5 XIV.3.10 XIV.5.23

47. Minaeans

The Minaeans were a large tribe.

Nomenclature

The Greeks named this people Μιναῖοι. In English they are called Minaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Arabia Felix, on the side towards the Red Sea, they were in possession of Carna or Carnana, which was their largest city.

Conditions of life

They traded their aromatics with the Palaestine country.

Citations

XVI.4.2 XVI.4.18

48. Minyans

The Minyans were once very rich and had a lot of power. One of them is Orchomenus, who is mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are named Μινύαι, in Latin Minyae and in English Minyans.

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Genealogy

They were a part of the Thriphylians, next to the Epeians and the Eleians, but sometimes they were omitted and replaced by the Arcadians. It is said that the Argonauts were their ancestors or that their name is an alternative name for the Argonauts.

Geographical notes

They lived in Triphylia, after they were expelled from Lemnos and passed through Lacedaemon. Their territory was near Arenê – although no one is sure where this city actually was situated – in the country which was called Hypaesia. This people was gone from this place in Strabo’s time, some of them having migrated to Iolcus, others sailed with Theras and founded Thera.

Citations

VIII.3.3 VIII.3.19 IX.2.40

49. Mitylenaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μιτυληναῖοι. In English they are called Mitylenaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived on the mainland, but also in the land on the Gulf of Adramyttium. Together with the Cumaeans they founded Aenus.

History

Once, all adult Mitylenaeans were almost slain by the Athenians, but the order was renounced one day before the killing.

Citations

VII.fr.51(52) XIII.1.49 XIII.2.3

50. Moesians

Nomenclature

The Greeks named this people Μοισοί, in Latin it was Moesi and in English Moesians.

Genealogy

They were Thracians and the Mysians were colonists of them.

125

Citations

XII.3.3

51. Molossians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μολοττοί, in Latin they are called Molossi and in English Molossians.

Genealogy

They were an Epeirotic tribe, one of the fourteen.

Geographical notes

They lived in the western side of Thessaly and occupied parts above Aetolia and Acarnania where they lived together with the Thesprotians, the Cassopaeans, the Amphilochians and the Athamanes. They had once occupied the whole of the Epeirotic country, and so possessed most of the seventy Epeirotic cities which Aemilius Paullus Macedonius destroyed. They lived north of the Amphilochians, and their territory bordered to the Illyrian mountains. Their country was rather rugged. They were in possession of Dodona after the Thesprotians.

Conditions of life

Their kings were said to be descendants of the Aeacidae – people whose ancestors were Zeus and Aegina. They had an oracle at Dodona. Their language has some specific vocabulary, for they call old women ‘peliai’ and old men ‘pelioi’ in the same way the Thesprotians and the Macedonians did.

History

They became subjects to Pyrrhus, the son of Neoptolemus, and later to his offspring, who were Thessalians.

Citations

VII.7.1 VII.7.3 VII.7.5 VII.7.8 VII.7.11 VII.fr.2 IX.5.1

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52. Monommati

The Monommati were a mythical people with a strange appearance.

Nomenclature

They are called Μονόμματοι in Greek, and Monommati in English. Their name is derived from μόνο- (one) and ὄμμα (eye).

Physical information

They are said to have had dog’s ears, one eye in the middle of their forehead and shaggy breasts, while their hair stood erect.

Citations

XV.1.57

53. Morgetes

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μόργητες, the English name is Morgetes.

Geographical notes

They once lived in Rhegium, but when the Oenotrians expelled them, they migrated to Sicily were they lived together with the Siceli and the Sicani in Strabo’s time.

Citations

VI.1.6 VI.2.4

54. Morini

Nomenclature

In Greek they were called Μορῖνοι, in Latin and in English Morini.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Menapii in Arduenna. Their territory is therefore comparable with theirs, full of small trees forming a forest and rather rainy while they also had a lot of foggy days. It is from their coast that people travelled to Britain.

127

Conditions of life

Since their territory was full of trees, they used them to block the paths of their enemies by entwining the branches of the most thorny bushes so they wouldn’t be able to pass. Sometimes they fixed stakes in the ground. In the rainy seasons they were mostly safe, but in the dry seasons they were not difficult to capture. They became subjects to the Romans.

Citations

IV.3.5 IV.5.2

55. Moschians

The only thing Strabo says about them is that they are mentioned by the historians who describe the Mithridatic wars.

Nomenclature

The Greek word for this people is Μόσχοι, in Latin they are called Moschi and in English Moschians.

Citations

XI.2.14

56. Mosynoeci

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Μοσυνοικοί. In English they are called Mosynoeci.

Geographical notes

They lost their territory to some Armenians, named Artaxias and Zariadris.

Citations

XI.14.5

57. Mugilones

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μουγίλωνες, in English it is Mugilones.

128

History

They were conquered by Marabodes and became subjected to him.

Citations

VII.1.3

58. Mycenaeans

The Mycenaeans were once a powerful people.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for them is Μυκηναίοι, in Latin they are called Mycenenses. In English it is Mycenaeans.

Geographical notes

As their name implies they lived in Mycenae, which was the setting of the story of Heracles and the Hydra. They received Laconia as possession.

History

It is said they were once ruled by Agamemnon, but were reduced after the Trojan War when the Heracleidae returned. Later on their city was destroyed by the Argives. Once they depopulated Eiones and changed it into a naval station.

Citations

VIII6.8 VIII.6.10 VIII.6.13

59. Mygdonians

There were three groups of Mygdonians, the ones who lived in Mesopotamia, the ones situated in Macedonia and the ones who inhabited the Troad.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Μυγδόνες, in English it is Mygdonians. The ones in Mesopotamia have been given their name from the Macedonians. This name, and more specifically the one given to the Mygdonians in Macedonia, was used for a part of the Edoni (the rest is called Edones or Sithones).

129

Genealogy

The Mygdonians who lived in Macedonia were part of the Brigians, a Thracian tribe.

Geographical notes

The Mesopotamian Mygdonians lived in Mesopotamia, below mount Masius. Nisibis, or now Nusaybin, which was also called the Mygdonian Antiocheia, was a city in their country. Other places they occupied were Zeugma in Commagenê and Zeugma in Thapsacus, Tigranocerta, the regions of Carrhae and Nicephorium, Chordiraza and Sinnaca.

The Macedonian Mygdonians lived in Macedonia, near Lake Bolbe.

The Mygdonians who lived in the Troad had a territory whose boundaries were difficult to mark. They inhabited the north of Mount Olympus and were neighbours of the Doliones, the Trojans and the Myrleians.

Citations

Mesopotamia: XI.14.2 XVI.1.23

Macedonia: VII.3.2 VII.fr.11 VII.fr.36

Troad: XII.8.10 XII.8.11 XII.4.4

60. Mylasians

Nomenclature

They are called Μυλασεῖς in Greek, Mylaseni and Mylasenses in Latin and Mylasians in English.

Conditions of life

They honoured Zeus Osogo and Zeus Labrandenus and had temples for both of them. Their most eminent citizens held the office of priest for life.

History

Their city, Mylasa, was destroyed by Labienus, a political opponent. Their most known inhabitants were Euthydemus and Hybreas.

Citations

XIV.2.23 XIV.2.24

130

61. Myrmidons

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Μυρμιδόνες, which in Latin became Myrmidones and in English Myrmidons. According to Apollodorus it was a term for Greeks who lived in Thessaly. According to others it was the name for all the subjects of Achilles and Patrocles, who had fled, with Peleus, from Aegina.

Geographical notes

As said before according to Apollodorus they lived in Thessaly.

Citations

VIII.6.6 IX.5.5 IX.5.9

62. Mysians

There were two groups of Mysians, the ones who lived in Europe and were the ancestors of the others, and the Mysians who lived in Asia. The Mysians are mentioned by Homer, but it is not clear which of the two is meant.

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Μυσοί, in Latin it became Mysi and in English Mysians. If the Mysians in Asia were Lydians, they probably derived their name for the Lydian word for the oxya-tree, namely ‘mysos’.

Genealogy

The Mysians who lived in Europe were a Thracian tribe and the same people as the Moesians. According to Homer they were also connected with the Hippemolgi, the Galactophagi and the Abii. They were also the ancestors of the Mysians who lived in Thrace. These were Thracians or Lydians and were formerly called Bithynians. They were said to be the same people as the Maeones and the Meïones. Another alternative name which was sometimes given to them was Olympeni or Hellespontii. There was often confusion between this people and the Phrygians, the Lydians and the Maeonians.

Geographical notes

The ones who stayed in Europe lived on the banks of the Ister (now the Danube), next to the Little

131

Scordisci. They colonised Olympenê. The Mysians in Asia lived in Bithynia, south of the Bithynians (or they were the same) and were neighbours of the Lydians, the Phrygians and the Trojans. However the boundaries between these peoples are difficult to establish, there is even a proverb: ‘Apart are the boundaries of the Mysians and the Phrygians’. They lived around the Ascanian Lake according to Scylax the Caryandian and Appolodorus, near Olympus together with the Epicteti and possessed Morenê and Abrettenê. They ruled the Mesogis and a city called Mysia or Meïonia. After the Lydians had ruled the region of Adramyttium they took possession of it. When the Phrygians invaded their country some fled to the place above the sources of the Caïcus near Lydia, while others settled in the Plain of Thebê after being ruled by Telephus and Teuthras.

Conditions of life

Both Homer and Poseidonius mentioned that the Mysians of Europe were skilled in hand-to-hand combat. According to Poseidonius they lived on honey, cheese and milk for their religion forbade them to eat living things. They were peaceful and had the image of being god-fearing, because of which they received the name of ‘capnobatae’. The language of the Asian Mysians was a mixture of the Lydian and the Phrygian languages. They honoured a Zeus Abrettenus and a Carian Zeus whose temple they shared with the Carians and the Lydians.

History

The Mysians in Asia were already accounted for before the Trojan War, but after it they became rulers.

Citations

Europe: VII.3.2 VII.3.3 VII.3.6 VII.3.10 VII.5.12 XII.8.1

Asia: XII.3.3 XII.3.20 XII.3.27 XII.4.4 XII.4.6 XII.4.8 XII.4.1 XII.8.3 XII.8.9 XII.8.10 XII.8.4 XIV.3.3 XIV.5.23 XIV.5.29 XIII.1.8 XIII.1.65 XIII.4.11 XIII.4.12 XIV.2.23 XIV.5.29

132

N.

1. Nabataeans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Ναβαταῖοι, in Latin their name was Nabatei, while in English they are called Nabataeans or Nabateans.

Genealogy

They were part of the Arabians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Arabia Felix, above Syria. They possessed Petra, which was their metropolis and a promontory near the island of Phocae.

Physical information

They didn’t wear tunics, but girdles and slippers, and the ones from the king were purple.

Conditions of life

They once led a peaceful life, because of which their cities were not walled, but evolved into a people which plundered vessels while using rafts. They were well governed – ruled by a king, who had an Administrator, who was called ‘brother’ – until they were subjected by the Romans. Their king was quite democratic, for he served himself and had to give an account of his time as ruler in order that his reign could be examined. They were seen as sensible, but rather fond of possessing things. They even went as far as to fine people who had lost some of their possessions and as to prize people who increased them. Most of the time they served themselves, their family and each other, for they had but few slaves. Their meals were eaten in groups of thirteen while there were two girl-singers present at each banquet. Many drinking-bouts were held by the king, but the maximum of drinks was eleven cups. Each time they drank, they used a different golden cup. They build houses of stone, which was rather costly. Their country produced a lot of fruits with exception of the olive and they used sesame- oil. For cattle they bred white-fleeced sheep and large oxen, but no horses. Instead they kept camels. They produced gold, silver and aromatics, but had to import brass, purple garb, costaria, iron, styrax, embossed works, crocus, painting and moulded works. Their dead were not honoured, but just buried next to the dung-heaps, even if they had been kings by life. Their god was the sun, whom they honoured by pouring libations and burning frankincense each day at their altars which was on top of

133 their house.

History

They were used to overrunning Syria, but later their country was sacked and they became Roman subjects. They promised to help Aelius Gallus.

Citations

XVI.4.18 XVI.4.2 XVI.4.18 XVI.4.21 XVI.4.22 XVI.4.26

2. Nabiani

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ναβιανοί, the English equivalent is Nabiani.

Geographical notes

They lived in the country between Lake Maeotis and the Caspian Sea.

Conditions of life

They were nomadic.

Citations

XI.5.8

3. Nantuates

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Ναντουᾶται, in Latin and English it was Nantuates.

Geographical notes

They lived on the mountain-peaks of the Alps above the Salassi. Their neighbours were the Ceutrones, the Catogriges and the Varagri. They lived next to Lake Lemenna.

Citations

IV.6.6

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4. Nasamones

Nomenclature

In Greek this people was called Νασαμῶνες, in Latin and English Nasamones.

Genealogy

They were a Libyan tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived in Libya, in a reagion above the coast of the Arabian Gulf and above the Syrtis and Cyrenaea. Their territory stretched as far as the Altars of the Philaeni and was rather barren.

Citations

XVII.3.20 XVII.3.23

5. Nauplians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Ναυπλιεῖς. The English equivalent is Nauplians.

Conditions of life

They shared in the sacrifices to Poseidon on Calauria, but the Argives paid their contribution.

Citations

VIII.6.14

6. Naxians

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Νάξιοι, in Latin their translation is Naxii. In English they are called the Naxians.

Geographical notes

They lived in the country of Leontini, which was destroyed for they always took part in the misfortunes of the Syracusans, while they did not always participate in their luck. They founded Callipolis in Sicily.

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Citations

VI.2.6 VI.2.7

7. Neandrians

Nomenclature

The Greek name of this people was Νεανδριεῖς, which became Neandrians in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Neandreia and their territory surrounded the country of the Gargarians and the Assians.

Citations

XIII.1.51

8. Neapolitans

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Νεαπολῖται, in Latin it was Neapolitani and in English they are called the Neapolitans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Neapolis, nowadays Napels and occupied the island of Prochyta. Another possessin of them was Capreae (now Capri), though they lost it but later received it back from Augustus Caesar.

Citations

V.4.9

9. Negrani

Nomenclature

The Greek name of this people is Νεγράνοι, the English name is Negrani.

History

The only thing Strabo says about them is that when Gallus came, their king had already fled and their city was seized.

136

Citations

XVI.4.24

10. Neleidae

Nomenclature

In Greek this people was called Νηλεῖδαι, in English it is Neleidae. In Latin they are called the Nelides. This name is a patronymic which was derived from Neleus and was used for his descendants.

Geographical notes

They ruled over Messenia.

Citations

VIII.4.1

11. Nervii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Νερούιοι, in Latin and English it was Nervii.

Genealogy

They were a Germanic tribe

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Treveri, in Gaul.

Citation

IV.3.4

12. Nisyrians

Nomenclature

In Greek they were called Νισύριοι. In English their name became Nisyrians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Nisyros as their name implies, and they possessed some isles, which were conveniently named the Isles of the Nisyrians.

137

Conditions of life

They produced millstones.

Citations

X.5.16

13. Nitiobriges

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Νιτιόβριγες, in Latin they are called Nitiobroges and in English Nitiobriges.

Geographical notes

They lived in Aquitania, between the Garumna (the Garonne) and the Liger (Loire). Their neighbours were the Petrocorii and the Cadurci.

Citations

IV.2.2

14. Nomads

It’s difficult to see if Strabo meant a specific people with this name or every tribe that was nomadic. I have regarded them as a specific tribe because sometimes he speaks about ‘the Nomads’ as if they are a specific tribe and because the translator gave them a capital letter in his translation.

The Nomads are mentioned by Homer as being very just men and resourceless.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Νομάδες, in Latin they are called Nomades, in English it became the Nomads. Their name is derived from the verb νομάζω, which means ‘to graze’ for they let their flock graze wherever they want and they follow it. Some people who are also called nomads are the Nabiani, the Panxani, some are Scythians or Sarmatians. Some of the Debae were nomads, such as the Megabari, the Maurusians and the Masaesylians. Some of them were called galactophagi and abii.

Geographical notes

It is very difficult to give one place where they lived since it was precisely their way of life, i.e. nomadic, which gave them their name. Since they always travel, it is not possible to give boundaries

138 of their territories, only rough directions. There were Scythian Nomads, who are mentioned by Homer and Hesiod. They lived between Lake Maeotis and the Caspian Sea, after Sogdiani with the Iaxartes as boundary. During the warm season they lived in the plains, but when it got colder they settled around the lake. The island called Ophiodes was situated before them and they lived beyond the Georgi who lived in the Chersonesus. Both the Asiatic and European nomads used Tanaïs as their emporium, where they traded slaves and hides.

Conditions of life

As said before the Nomads were known for their habit to travel, following their flocks of which they lived. They drank the milk and made cheese from fresh or sour mare’s milk and ate their meat. Since they travelled, they had no use in storing food or selling merchandise, but this didn’t mean they never traded. They knew trade, but they only bartered, for they used no money but exchanged possessions. They also had little use for personal goods, so all their property was commonplace. Since they had little of value, they were seldom attacked. When they prepared to travel, they fastened their tents which were made of felt, onto the wagons. These tents were their ‘houses’ and their cattle lived around these. Even though they were nomadic, they were able to possess some land, but most of the time they just sold it again for a small prize, because it just had to be enough to live from. Still, only if the people who bought these lands didn’t pay, they did go to war against them. And consistent with this they were warriors, not brigands. They hadn’t much contact with other peoples, even though they were numerous and powerful. The only contact they had was when they prevented people from passing through their land by closing off the passable parts and navigable rivers. Once they were comparable with the Sogdians and the Bactrians. They had a unique name for the people who hunted elephants, i.e. ‘Acatharti’.

History

Because they weren’t of interest to the Romans, since they had not much contact with other peoples, they didn’t really need to be led, it was enough if they were watched. They still existed in Strabo’s time but influenced by the Romas style of life, which had a lot of luxuries, they became morally worse and even took up piracy. Masanasses made them citizens, farmers and soldiers instead of nomadic and brigandish.

Citations

VI.4.2 VII.3.7 VII.3.7 VII.3.9 VII.3.17 VII.4.6 XI.2.1 XI.2.2 XII.2.3 XI.5.8 XI.6.2 XI.8.1 XI.11.2 XI.11.3 XVI.4.7 XVI.4.10 XVI.4.18 XVII.1.53 XVII.3.7 XVII.3.15

139

15. Nomantini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Νομαντῖνοι. In English their name is Nomantini or Numantini.

Geographical notes

They have lived in Iberia, but were expelled by the Romans.

History

They were expelled from Iberia by the Romans.

Citations

VI.4.2

16. Norici

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Νωρικοί, in both Latin and English it is Norici.

Geographical notes

They lived on the outer sides of the mountains in the Alps, together with the Vindelici, the Breuni and the Genauni. Some of them lived near the Adriatic recess. Their territory also included a few passes through the Alps, it verged towards Italy and their neighbours were on the one side the Insubri and on the other the Carni and the region around Aquileia.

Conditions of life

They used to invade parts of Italy, and the territories of the Sequani, the Germans, the Boii and the Elvetii.

Citations

IV.6.8 VII.1.5

17. Nubae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Νοῦβαι, while the English form is Nubae.

140

Genealogy

They were a large Libyan tribe that was split in a few different kingdoms.

Geographical notes

They lived in the south of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, with their country stretching from Meroê till the bends of the Nile. They were not subjected to the Aethiopians.

Citations

XVII.1.2 XVII.1.53

18. Nysaei

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Νυσαῖοι which became Nysaei in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived between the Cophes (Kabul River) and the Indus.

Citations

XV.1.27

O.

1. Obidiaceni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὀβιδιακηνοί. The English version is Obidiaceni.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Maeotae.

Citations

XI.2.11

141

2. Ocypodes

They were a mythic people who were able to run very fast, it is said that they ran even faster than horses.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Ὠκύποδες, which became Ocypodes in English. Their name literally means swift-footed.

Geographical notes

It is said they lived in India and were very skilled runners. Legend goes that they even ran faster than a horse.

Citations

XV.1.57

3. Odomantes

Rhesus is said to have been their ruler.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Ὀδομάντεις, of which the English version is Odomantes.

Geographical notes

They lived on the far side of the Strymon, now called Struma. Their country was situated close to the sea, next to Datum. Their neighbours were the Edoni and the Bisaltae.

Citations

VII.fr.36

4. Odrysae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὀδρύσαι, in Latin this became Odrusae or Odrysae. In English they are called the Odrysae. It is a term for all the peoples who lived in a certain place.

Genealogy

They were a Thracian tribe.

142

Geographical notes

They inhabited the country above the coast in Thrace, their territory stretched from the Hebrus and Cypsella as far as Odessus. They were neighbours of the Bessi.

History

Strabo mentions some of their kings, i.e. Amadocus, Cersobleptes, Berisades, Seuthes and Cotys.

Citations

VII.fr.47(48) VII.fr.47a

5. Oenotrians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Οἰνώτριοι, in Latin it became Oenotrii and in English Oenotrians. According to Antiochus it was another name for the Italians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Italy, in Lucania, north of the isthmus while their territory stretched out to the Sicilian strait.

History

They were expelled from their country by the Samnitae and warred against the Metapontians.

Citations

VI.1.2 VI.1.4 VI.1.15

6. Oetaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Οἰταῖοι, the Latin name was Oetaei and the English Oetaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived next to Locris and Parnassus and were neighbours of the Dorians.

Conditions of life

They worshipped Heracles as ‘Cornocopion’, which means Locust-scarer, for he is said to have freed them from locusts.

143

Citations

IX.3.1 XIII.1.64

7. Olenii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Ὀλένιοι, their Latin and English name was Olenii.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Achaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived long ago in settlements in the region between Patrae and Dymê.

Citations

VIII.7.4

8. Ombri

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Ὀμβρικοί, in Latin they were called the Umbri and in English they are called Ombri, Ombrici or Umbri.

Geographical notes

They lived in Italy, where they possessed Sena, Carinum, Ariminius and Ravenna which was left to them by the Thessalians after these tribe had received them. Their cities were also inhabited by Roman colonists. The Sabini – against whom they warred for a long time – were their neighbours, while the Tyrrhenians – who also were their rivals – lived on the other side. Their territory was mountainous, but fertile and they were able to produce pelt. In their country they received colonists from the Aeginetans.

Citations

V.1.7 V.1.10 V.1.11 V.2.1 V.2.10 V.4.12 VIII.6.16

144

9. Ophians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὀφιεῖς, which became Ophians in English.

Genealogy

They were an Aetolian tribe

Geographical notes

They lived in Aetolia with the Evenus River flowing through their country. Their territory was also inhabited by some Bomians.

Citations

X.2.5

10. Ophiogeneis

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὀφιογενεῖς, which literally means serpent-born. In English this became Ophiogeneis.

Genealogy

Their founder, who could transform into a snake, was possibly someone from the Psylii.

Conditions of life

They were said to be related to the serpent tribe. Legend had it that their men were able to cure snake-bitten people by continuous stroking and that their ancestors were able to change from man to snake and back.

Geographical notes

They lived in the Troad.

Citations

XIII.1.14

145

11. Opici

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὀπικοί, the Latin and English name is Opici. According to Antiochus they were also called Ausones, but Polybius says that they are two different tribes.

Geographical notes

They lived in Campania, around the Crater. Some say they were driven out by the Sidicini, others say the Sabini did it when they were following a bull to find a place to live.

Citations

V.4.3 V.4.12

12. Opunitian Locrians: see Locrians

13. Opuntians: see Locrians

14. Orchomenians

Nomenclature

The Greeks called them Ὀρχομένιοι, in Latin they were called Orchomeni, and in English Orchomenians. They were called Minyae by Homer, for he did not assume them to be the same tribe. Both their names were derived from their leader Orchomenus, who was also called ‘Minyeian’.

Genealogy

The Achaeans in Pontus were colonists of them.

Geographical notes

Their territory, which was wealthy, was added to Boeotia. Together with the Boeotians they expelled the Pelasgians and the Thracians. Their land was dry in their time, but later on became Lake Copais. They lived near the mountain called Acontius and the Cephissus River ran through their country. They colonised Pontus after the Trojan War, while they travelled with Ialmenus, because of this the inhabitants there are called the Achaeans in Pontus.

Citations

IX.2.3 IX.2.40 IX.2.40 IX.2.42 IX.3.16

146

15. Oreitae

There were two groups of Oreitae, one that lived in Asia, and another that lived in Euboea.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὠρεῖται, while the English version is Oreitae. The ones in Euboea were in earlier times called Histiaeans because they migrated to them and mingled till they became one people with two names.

Geographical notes

The ones in Asia lived next to the Arbies with the river Arbis between them as boundary. The ones in Euboea originally had their own city but then fled to the Histiaeans to escape the Ellopians.

History

The Oreitae in Asia were autonomous, but the ones in Euboea were ruled by a tyrant named Philistides, who was chosen by Philip.

Citations

Asia: XV.2.1

Euboea: X.1.3 X.1.4

16. Orestae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὀρέσται, which became Orestae in Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were Epeirotes.

Geographical notes

They occupied a large country called Orestis, which was situated around a mountain stretching as far as Mount Corax and Mount Parnassus. The river which was called Erigon flowed through their territory. Later on they became a part of Macedonia.

Citations

VII.7.8 VII.fr.6 VII.fr.20 IX.5.11

147

17. Oretanians

Nomenclature

The Greeks called them Ὠρητανοί, which became Oretanians in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in the interior of Iberia, in a region called Oretania, with the Carpetanians, the Vettonians and the Vaccaeans as their northern neighbours. Parts of the coast were inhabited by them from mountain Calpe to New Carthage. They lived almost as far as Malaca. They occupied two powerful cities, named Castalo and Oria. A river which flowed through their territory was the Baetis. They lived on the Orospeda on the southern parts together with the Edetanians and the Bastetanians. Their territory consisted of woods made of tall trees and divided the coast from the interior. Gold and other metals could be found here.

Citations

III.1.6 III.3.2 III.4.1 III.4.2 III.4.12 III.4.14

18. Oropii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὠρώπιοι. Their English name is Oropii.

Geographical notes

They lived in Boeotia, in Psaphis. They occupied a city called Oropus which has been the cause for many disputes.

Citations

IX.1.3 IX.1.22

19. Osci

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Ὄσκοι, in Latin have the name Osci, which is the same name in English.

Genealogy

They were part of the Campanians, and consisted of the Sidicini.

148

Geographical notes

They inhabited the territory next to the Pomptine Plain. They occupied once a part of Campania and also the Heracleian Fortress (Herculaneum) and Pompaia (Pompeii), but later on they lost this to the Tyrrhenians.

History

The Osci themselves have disappeared, but their language did live on among the Romans, especially in a specific sort of poems.

Citations

V.3.6 V.3.9 V.4.8

20. Osismii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Οσίσμιοι, which became Osismi in Latin and Osismii in English. They are called Ostimii by Pytheas.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Belgae.

Geographical notes

Thye lived on a promontory stretching into the ocean.

Citations

IV.4.1

21. Ostimians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ὠστιμῖοι, they might have been the same as the Osismii. In English they are called Ostimians.

Geographical notes

See Osismii. Pytheas placed them somewhere else, but did this wrongly.

149

Citations

I.4.3 I.4.5

22. Oxybii

Nomenclature

The Greeks called them Ὀξύβιοι. The English equivalent was Oxybii.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Ligures according to Polybius.

Citations

IV.6.2

23. Ozolian/Hesperian Locrians: see Locrian

P.

1. Paeonians

There were two groups of Paeonians, one lived in Asia, the other in Thrace.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Παίονες, which became Paeones in Latin and Paeonians in English. Homer gave the epithet of ἀγκυλότοξοι to the ones in Asia, which means ‘of the curved bow’. The ones in Thrace are sometimes called Pelagonians.

Genealogy

The ones in Thrace at least were Thracian and were sometimes seen as colonists from the Phrygians.

Geographical notes

One group lived in Asia and lived close to the sea according to Homer. The ones in Thrace lived in Paeonia, in Amphaxitis, on both sides of the Axius River. Their boundaries were formed by the Halacmon, the Erigon and the Axius. Their territory stretched as far as Pelagonia and Pieria.

150

History

According to Homer came the Paeonians of Thrace from Amydon (now Abydon) to help the Trojans. Their leader then was Asteropaeus.

Citations

Asia: XIII.1.58

Thrace: VII.fr.11 VII.fr.12 VII.fr.20 VII.fr.38

2. Paeseni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Παισηνοί. In English this became Paeseni.

Genealogy

They were migrants from the Milesians.

Geographical notes

They settled first in Paesus, hence their name, and later in Lampsacus.

Citations

XIII.1.19

3. Palici

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Παλικοί, which became Palici in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Sicily and their territory had geysers.

Citations

VI.2.9

151

4. Pamphylians

The Pamphylians are not mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people was Πάμφυλοι, the Latin name is Pamphylii and in English it became Phamphylians.

Genealogy

It is said they were descendant of those people guided by Amphilochus and Calchas according to Herodotos.

Geographical notes

They lived for the most part in Pamphylia, though some of them were scattered out over different places. Their territory was situated in the southern parts at the foot-hills of the Taurus and stretched as far as the coast, near the peninsula of Asia Minor.

Conditions of life

They had many customs which were comparable with those of the Cilicians. They were sometimes pirates and used their harbours as bases of operation or as safe places for other pirates to trade or moor their ships. They allowed pirates to sell free men as slaves in Sidê. They were masters of the sea as far as Italy. Sometimes they attacked their neighbouring tribes.

Citations XII.3.27 XII.7.2 XIV.5.23 XIV.4.3 XIV.3.2

5. Pannonians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Παννόνιοι, in Latin the equivalent was Pannonii and in English Pannonians.

Genealogy

They were an assembly of the Breuci, the Andizetii, the Ditiones, the Peirustae, the Mazaei and the Daesitiatae and some smaller tribes.

Geographical notes

They inhabited most of Pannonia, living as far as the Ister and Segestica in the north. Their territory

152 was situated above the Illyrian coast. Their neighbours were the Dalmatians and the Ardiaei in the south, while they lived next to the Scordisci in the east. The climate was rather cold and their territory was mountainous where they lived on plateaus, but they didn’t grow vines there. They possessed Segestica.

Conditions of life

They traded with Aquileia

Citations

IV.6.10 VII.1.5 VII.5.2 VII.5.3 VII.5.10

6. Panopeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πανοπεῖς, in English they are called Panopeans.

Geographical notes

Their boundary was marked by Parapotamii.

History

They were said to have had a ruler named Tityus who was violent and lawless and was defeated by Apollo.

Citations

IX.3.12 IX.3.16

7. Panticapaeans

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Παντικάπαιοι, in English Panticapaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Panticapaeum, Acra was situated in their territory.

Citations

XI.2.9

153

8. Panxani

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πανξανοί, the English name is Panxani.

Geographical notes

They lived between Lake Maeotis and the Caspian Sea, they were nomads.

Citations

XI.5.8

9. Paphlagonians

The Paphlagonians are mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Παφλαγόνες, which became Paphlagones in Latin and Paphlagonians in English

Genealogy

They consisted of the Eneti.

Geographical notes

They lived in Paphlagonia, hence the name. Their territory was west of the Halys River which separated them from the Syrians (with whom the Cappadocians are meant) according to Herodotos. The Phrygians were their southern neighbours, sometimes intermingled with some Galatians, while in the west the Bithynians and the Mariandyni lived and in the north the Euxine formed a boundary. According to Ephoros they lived by the sea on the peninsula belonging to Asia Minor.

Conditions of life

They have built a lot of temples on Mount Olgassys.

Citations

VII.3.6 XII.3.8 XII.3.9 XII.3.27 XII.3.40 XIV.5.23

154

10. Paracheloïtae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Παραχελῳίται, in English they are called Paracheloïtae.

Geographical notes

They lived on the side of the river Acheloüs.

Citations

IX.5.10

11. Paraetacae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Παραιτάκαι, their Latin and English name is Paraetacae. They were probably the same as the Paraetaceni.

Geographical notes

They lived in Aturia, east of the Babylonians, and the river Araxas flowed from their territory.

Citations

XV.3.6 XVI.1.1 XVI.1.8

12. Paraetaceni

Nomenclature

The Greek name of this people is Παραιτακενοί, they are possibly the same as the Paraetacae. In English they are called Paraetaceni.

Geographical notes

They lived east of Greater Media, next to the Persians. Their territory was situated above Babylonia and rather mountainous. They lived to the north-east of Susis and Sitaccenê. The Apollioniatae were their neighbours.

Conditions of life

They were mountaineers and a hunting people, they treated the Apollioniatae badly and were brigands, though they were interested in agriculture.

155

Citations

XI.12.4 XI.13.6 ΧV.3.12 XVI.1.18

13. Parasopii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Παρασώπιοι, while their English name is Parasopii.

Conditions of life

They were divided over different settlements by the river Asopus. They were submissive to Thebes.

Citations

IX.2.24

14. Parati

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πάρατοι, which became Parati in English.

Geographical notes

They were one of the four tribes of mountaineers in Sardinia.

Conditions of life

They lived in caves. They were a brigandish people for they stole food from the farms and even sailed the seas to pillage. Especially the Pisatae were badly treated by them.

Citations

V.2.7

15. Parians

There were two groups of Parians, the ones who lived in the Troad and the ones who lived above Lake Maeotis.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Πάριοι, which became Parii in Latin and Parians in English.

156

Genealogy

The ones who lived above Lake Maeotis were part of the Däae.

Geograhical notes

The ones who lived in the Troad founded Paros (which became Pharos), Thasos and Parium which was situated on the Propontis and was founded with thr help of the Milesians and the Erythraeans. Parium had a great harbour and gained more and more territory at the expense of Priapus, on authorisation byf the Attalic kings.

The others lived above Lake Maeotis as mentioned before.

Conditions of life

They produced the Parian stone.

History

A known Pharian was Demtrius the Pharian.

Citations

Troad: VII.5.5 X.5.7 XIII.1.14

Lake Maeotis: XI.9.3

16. Parisii

Nomenclature

The Greek name is Παρίσιοι, in Latin and English they were called Parisii.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the land around the Sequana River, in which there was an island they owned. The city Lucotocia was also occupied by them.

Citations

IV.3.5

17. Parnasii

Nomenclature

In Greek they were called Παρνάσσιοι, which became Parnassii or Parnasii in Latin and Parnasii in

157

English.

Geographical notes

They inhabited Parnassus

Conditions of life

They were said to be the inventors of the paeans, for they shouted ‘Hie Paean’ to prize praise Apollo, who was the one who had civilised them according to myth.

Citations

IX.3.12

18. Paropamisadae

Nomenclature

Their name is Παροπαμισάδαι in Greek and Paropamisadae in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived alongside the Indus below the Paropamisus mountain of which they derived their name. Their neighbours were the Arii, but also the Bactrians. They possessed Bactra. Their territory was mountainous.

History

Legend has it that Prometheus was held in a cave in their country. Aristobulus is also said to have been there when he set out from there to India. Another known person who had visited their territory was Alexander when on the road to Bactra.

Citations

II.5.32 XV.1.8 XV.1.17 XV.2.8 XV.2.9

19. Paroraei

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Παρωραῖοι, which became Paroraei in English.

Genealogy

They were Epeirotes.

158

Geographical notes

They lived in a country bordering on the Illyrian mountains and their own country also was rather rugged. The Amphilochians lived below them.

History

They were ruled by their own native king until they became subjected to the Macedonians.

Citations

VII.7.8

20. Paroreatae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Παρωρεᾶται. In English they are called Paroreatae.

Geographical notes

Paroreatae was a name for a part of the people who lived in Triphylia. The mountains near Lepreum and Macistum belonged to their territory.

Citations

VIII.3.18

21. Parrhasians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Παρράσιοι, the Latin name is Parrhasii and the English version is Parrhasians.

Geographical notes

Some of them were said to have migrated to the Anariacae, whose name became Parsii.

Citations

XI.7.1

159

22. Parthians

The Parthians were seen as barbarians, but even so they had something in their favour, for when they were expanding their rule, they disclosed a lot of countries and knowledge that was unknown until then.

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Πάρθοι, in Latin it became Parthii or sometimes Parthyaei. The English version in Parthians.

Geographical notes

While their territory was rather small in ancient times, in Strabo’s time they had expanded and ruled Asia, e.g. Media and Babylonia. Neighbours of them are the Arii. They took possession of the satrapy Turiva and Aspionus, which was then ruled by Eucratides. They possessed Comisenê, Chorenê and the whole country stretching as far as Rhagae, the Tapyri and the Caspians Gates; their royal seat was Hecatompylus. The Roman Empire finally expanded till next to them and they were subjected. Their territory was mountainous, and they lived close to or in these mountains. They also ruled the region on the far end of the Euphrates, which was their boundary. Ecbatana was used by them as winter residence.

Conditions of life

They had a Council, which consisted of two groups, i.e. on the one hand the wise men and the Magi and on the other the kinsmen of the king. Their kings were selected from both these groups and were called after the city they ruled, i.e. they all received the name Arsaces. This custom was comparable with that of the Prasii.

History

In ancient times they were subjected to the Persians and then later to the Macedonians. But when they began to build an empire they reigned the Persians, even though they allowed them to keep their king, they subjected the Elymaei, the Apolloniatae, the Susians and the Uxii. The Medes and the Babylonians also became their subjects, but the Armenians they never succeeded to subdue. They were paid court by their neighbours, the inhabitants of Atropatian Media, for they plundered it on different occasions. Their kings had the custom to marry the successors of Atropates, who held a part of Media. They were the last people ever to rule over the Hyrcanians. When the Romans marched through their country they surrendered themselves to them and even sent their trophies – which they had acquired in their fights with them – to Rome, while Phraates gave his children and their

160 children to Augustus Caesar as hostages in order to receive the friendship of Rome. In Strabo’s time they even came to Rome when they were searching someone to become their king. They allied themselves with Labienus against Hybreas. Even while they wanted to be allies of Rome, they did fight Crassus, when he attacked them. Antony sent their trophies later to Rome.

Citations

I.2.1 II.5.32 VI.4.2 XI.6.4 XI.7.2 XI.9.1 XI.9.3 XI.11.2 XI.13.1 XI.13.2 XI.13.5 XIV.2.24 XIV.5.2 XV.1.36 XV.2.9 XV.3.3 XV.3.12 XVI.1.26 XVI.1.19 XVI.1.28

23. Parthini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Παρθῖνοι, which became Parthini in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived above Apollonia and Epidamnus now called Durrës), as far as the Ceraunian Mountains. Their neighbours were the Bylliones, the Brygi and the Taulantii.

Citations

VII.7.8

24. Pasiani

Nomenclature

In Greek they were called Πασιανοί, in English Pasiani.

Geographical notes

They took possession of Bactriana.

Conditions of life

They were nomads.

Citations

XI.8.2

161

25. Patavini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Παταουίνοι which became Patavini in Latin and in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Patavium (Padua), hence their name, which was a large city. The river Medoacus, which is now called Brenta, passed through their land.

Conditions of life

They are said to have had at least five hundred knights and in earlier times they had close to one hundred and twenty thousand knights. They traded clothing and other goods to Rome and in their territory the medium wool was made. Medium means that the wool is not soft, nor coarse, but somewhere in between.

Citations

V.1.7 V.1.12

26. Pateischoreis

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Πατεισχορεῖς, in English it is Pateischoreis.

Geographical notes

They lived in Persis.

Citations

XV.3.1

27. Pedasians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πηδασεῖς, the English version of it is Pedasians.

Genealogy

They were a tribe of the Halicarnassians.

162

Geographical notes

They ruled a city called Pedasa, which is now Pedasis in Caria.

Conditions of life

According to Herodotos the priestess of Athena developed a beard when they or their neighbours were close to danger. Legend has it this has occurred three times.

Citations

XIII.1.59

28. Peirustae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πειροῦσται. In English they are called Peirustae.

Genealogy

They were part of the Pannonii.

Citations

VII.5.3

29. Pelagonians

Nomenclature

The Greeks called this people Πελαγόνες, which became Pelagones in Latin and Pelagonians in English. According to some it was another name for the Paeonians.

Geographical notes

Their territory was made a part of Macedonia.

Citations

VII.fr.38 IX.5.11

163

30. Pelasgians

The Pelasgians are mentioned by Homer as being a good people.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πελασγοί, which became Pelasgi in Latin and Pelasgians in English. Sometimes they were named Pelargi, especially by the Attic people. This means literally storks, and they received this name because they travelled so much. There is a lot of confusion on which people is actually meant by this name. Most agree that it was an old tribe which spread through Greece and Thessaly where they mingled with the Aeolians. According to Ephorus they were Arcadians. Others say the name was also used for the people who lived as far as Epirus. Homer says the name is used for the people next to the Cilicians who inhabited the Troad, while Aeschylus claimed they came from Argos. Sometimes the name is used for the Danaans.

Genealogy

As mentioned before it is possible that they were part of the Arcadians. They could be divided in different tribes, possibly the Cauconians.

Geographical notes

They were said to be the first to rule Greece. They lived in a territory inside the isthmus. First they lived on the Ionian Coast (from Mycalê) and the nearby islands in earlier times. Some of them came from Thessaly and founded Agylla which name has changed now to Caerea. According to Homer they colonised Crete. Anticleides says that some of them travelled to Italy, while others settled in Imbros and Lemnos, from where some migrated to the peninsula of Athos and there scattered out over five cities, named Olophyxis, Dium, Cleonae, Thyssus and Acrothoî. Some are said to have been in Athens. They once occupied the Heracleian Fortress (Herculaneum) and Pompaia, but later on they lost it to the Samnitae. Some of them travelled to Boeotia and settled there. According to Hieronymus they lived in the plain-country of Thessaly and Magnetis, but were later ejected by the Lapiths and sent into Italy. They lived in Larisa (near Cymê) according to some.

Conditions of life

They were a nomadic tribe, and travelled a lot. According to Ephorus they became a people focused on military affairs, who persuaded many other peoples to do the same. He also says they founded the oracle of Zeus in Dodona and consulted it a lot during wars. The oracle was related to them.

164

History

They were already in existence before the Trojan War, and had travelled through many places in Europe in the past. After the fall of Troy, they were in trouble for the Locrians were building next to their border. They expelled the Phoenicians from Thebes. Since they were a travelling people they first augmented and became large but later on they disappeared and lost their territory to the Carians. Some known Pelasgians are Hippothoüs and Pylaeus, who were once rulers of them, and Maleos who occupied a place named Regis Villa, but left it and went to Athens. Legend goes that another ruler of them – called Piasus – slept with his own daughter Larisa and that she killed him for that by drowning him in a cask of wine as he leaned over it.

Citations

V.2.3 V.2.4 V.2.8 V.4.8 VII.7.1 VII.7.10 VII.fr.35 VIII.3.17 VIII.6.9 IX.1.18 IX.2.3 IX.2.25 IX.2.4 IX.5.22 X.4.6 XII.3.5 XII.8.4 XIII.3.2 XIII.3.3 XIII.3.4 XIV.2.27

31. Pelasgiotes

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πελασγιῶται, which became Pelasgiotes in English.

Genealogy

They had the Perrhaebians and the Lapiths as their descending tribes.

Citations

IX.5.20

32. Peligni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πελίγνοι. The English name is Peligni.

Geographical notes

They inhabited part of the Apennines and were neighbours of the Sabini. At one point they were part of Latium. Their territory was mountainous and barely touched the sea. The lived beyond the Picentine land. Together with the Marrucini they used Aternum as their harbour, though it was in possession of the Vestini.

165

Conditions of life

They inhabited villages, but also had a few cities.

History

Although they were a small tribe, they were very brave for they warred against the Romans. Later on they allied themselves with them till they revolted in the Marsic War, wanting political rights and freedom. After two years of war they received it.

Citations

V.2.1 V.3.4 V.4.2

33. Pelopidae

Nomenclature

The Greeks called them Πελοπῖδαι, which became Pelopidae in Latin and English. It is derived from the legendary Pelops of whom they are said to be descendants.

Geographical notes

They came from Pisatis and conquered Mycenae. Later on they lost it to the Heracleidae.

Conditions of life

They are mentioned by Sophocles as living in a πολύφθορον home. They were a rich people because of the mines round Phrygia and Sipylus.

Citations

VIII.6.7 VIII.6.19 XIV.5.28

34. Peloponnesians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πελοποννήσιοι, in Latin they are called Peloponnesii or Peloponnnenses. In English the equivalent is Peloponnesians.

Geographical notes

This is a name for the people who lived in the Peloponnesus. They frequently argued with the Ionians about their borders, till at last a pillar was erected to show the boundaries. They turned Deceleia into their base of operations during the Deceleian war.

166

Citations

IX.1.6 IX.1.17

35. Perrhaebians

The Perrhaebians are mentioned by Homer as being steadfast in war.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Περραιβοί, in Latin it is Perrhaebi and in English Perrhaebians.

Genealogy

According to Simonides they were part of the Pelasgiotes.

Geographical notes

They lived in Thessaly, where they possessed Doris – which they named Histiaeotis – and which was situated around Dodona and Titaresius. They occupied the territory between Argissa (now called Argura) and Atrax, Phalanna, Gonnus, Oloosson, Elonê (later called Leimonê). According to Homer they were neighbours of the Aenianians; some of them stayed round Olympus next to the Macedonians, but most migrated to Athamania and Pindus. Simonides however says they lived in the region about Gyrton – which was also Magnetan – the outlets of the Peneius and Mount Ossa and Mount Pelio, the region of Demetrias and Larisa, Crannon, Scotussa, Mopsium, Atrax and the region around Lake Nessonis and Lake Boebeïs. The Peneius flowed through their territory. In the middle of their city they had a fountain which was the property of Eumelus.

History

They had first lived in the country of Polypoetes which was situated near the sea and the Peneius. It stretched as far as the mouth of the Peneius and Gyrton. Then they were conquered by the Lapiths and driven out into the river-country. Still, they held the possession of some of their cities near Olympus and Tempê, such as Cyphus. In other places they lived mingled with the Lapiths. The majority of them migrated to the land around Pindus and to the territory of the Athamanians and the Dolopians. The ones who stayed were seized by the Larisaeans, who were their neighbouring tribe. Legend has it they were once ruled by Peirithoüs and Ixion. They transferred the Histiaeans from Euboea to Thessaly.

Citations

VII.fr.14 IX.5.17 IX.5.18 IX.5.19 IX.5.19 IX.5.20 IX.5.22 X.1.4

167

36. Persians

For the Greeks the Persians were one of the most known barbarian people.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πέρσαι, which became Persae in Latin and Persians in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Persis and possessed several places such as Armenia, though this was also possessed by the Macedonians and Ariana. At one time they ruled Asia Minor. In the winter they lived in Ecbatana, while their other palaces were at Persepolis and Pasargadae, where they kept their treasures, riches and where they were buried. At Gabae and near Taocê they also had some palaces and they used Acê (or Ptolemaïs) as their base of operations in their war against the Egyptians.

Physical information

Their soldiers armed themselves with a sword, knives, a rhomboidal wicker-shield and quivers. They wore tower-like hats and breastplates of iron scales. Their commanders wore three-ply trousers, a double tunic which had sleeves and reached to their knees. Their under garment was white, while the upper had different colours. Their cloak was vari-coloured or purple, while in the winter they only wore a vari-coloured one. They wore turbans in the same way the Magi did and deep double shoes. The majority wore double tunics reaching to the middle of the shin, while they bound a piece of linen around their head. Every man had a sling and a bow.

Conditions of life

Their customs were imitated by the Siginni. Their sacred rites were also used by the Medes, the Armenians and some other peoples. They didn’t erect statues or altars, for they sacrificed on high places because they saw the skies as Zeus. They worshipped Helius, but gave him another name i.e. Mithras. Other gods honoured by them were Selenê, Aphroditê and the four elements. Their offerings were carried out as follows: they crowned their victim and kill them on a purified place while they were saying a prayer. The leader of the sacrifice was called the Magus. He divided the meat and handed them to the people. Not one part of it is left to the gods, for they believed that the gods only needed the soul of the sacrifice and not the meat. Only a small part of the caul was sometimes placed upon the fire. The elements which were the most worshipped were water and fire. To bring offers to the water they killed their victim in trenches or near lakes, springs or riverq to honour it, though the blood was not allowed to pollute the water. Other pollutions could occur when someone urinated in the water or washed in it or laid something dead in it. The pieces of meat were

168 placed on myrtle or laurel branches and the Magi made contact with it using a slender wand. They poured oil mixed with honey and milk onto the ground and made incantations for a long while. To fire they first offered a prayer and then dry wood of which they removed the bark. On it they placed fat which was then drenched with oil before they set a fire to it. This fire had to be fanned, it was absolutely prohibited to blow the fire with your breath or burn something filthy or dead in it. If someone violated these rules, he was to be killed.

They were led by kings who inherited the rule. If someone disobeyed they were killed by cutting off their arms and head. Posterity was seen as very important. The man with the most children even won a prize. To achieve this they were allowed to marry many wives and have several concubines. Marriages were consummated at the start of the vernal equinox. The only thing the bridegroom was allowed to eat on that day was a camel’s marrow or an apple before he entered the bridal chamber. When children were born they stayed apart from their parents until they were four years. They were then trained to use a bow, to ride a horse, to use a javelin and to speak truthfully from the age of five till they turned twenty-four. Their teachers were their wisest men who also teached them about their myths by recounting the deeds of gods and heroes. The children were woken up early and divided in groups of fifty with one boy as their leader, most of the time the son of the king or of a satrap. They then had to race and re-tell their lessons so they learned to speak loudly with the full use of their lungs. Their teachers trained them to survive by showing them which fruits were edible, how to pass rivers without getting wet and to endure all kinds of hardship. These groups received the name of ‘Cardaces’ for they stole a lot. After these exercises they ate bread, cardamom (a sort of plant), barley-cake, grains of salt and meat and drank water. They hunted while riding horses and throwing spears, shooting arrows or using slings. After this training they had exercises in planting trees and how to gather the roots of these and how to produce linen clothing, hunter’s nets and weapons. They were expected to bring home wild animals, but they were not allowed to eat them. They could win prizes handed out by the king, whenever they won a contest in the pentathla. These prizes were mostly made of gold, for this metal was valued a great deal by them. It was not allowed to lay gold next to a dead body. From twenty to fifty years of age they had to serve in the army, as a horseman and a foot-soldier. They didn’t trade.

They ate extravagantly, serving different kinds of animals in a whole and in large quantities. They decorated their couches, drinking-cups and other things with silver and gold. Their most important decisions were made while drinking wine and were seen as lasting, while the ones that were made when they were sober, were seen as less lasting. Their meetings were accompanied by a kiss, though it depended on ranks if you had to give or receive a kiss. The lowest people only made obeisance. Their dead were smeared with wax and then buried, although the Magi were treated differently. They

169 were left to be eaten by birds. These Magi had some extraordinary customs, for it even was allowed for them to consort with their mothers. Even so they were held in high honour, in the same way their necromancers, dish-diviners and water-diviners were honoured.

The customs of the Persians were rather moderate, the only exception was that they imported wheat from Assus, wine from Syria and water from the Eulaeus.

Rumour had it (wrongly) they deposited treasures in the care of the Ephesians which then were used by these for the restoration of their temple of Artemis. According to Eratosthenes they tricked ambassadors by leading them over roundabout and troublesome ways. Their language and customs were similar to those of the Medes and the Carmanians.

History

They ruled Asia Minor and collected tribute from them together with the Macedonians after the Aeolians and the Ionians, and also the Lydians and the Medes whom they conquered. They have also ruled some Greeks once. Their onset came after the one from the Cimmerians and the Lydians. They built an arcade out of white marble as a look-out on mount Tmolus. When Cyrus was their king they conquered the Medes and made Susa their royal seat. In Susa their kings built houses and other building. They received silver from the people on the coast – and other tributes were paid by other peoples and these were arranged by Dareius the Long-armed – but most of it was used to decorate things, while a minority was used to produce coins, according to Polycritus. After the death of Cyrus they buried him in Pasargadae. During the battle of Thermopylae they were delayed by Leonidas and his men in the Narrows. But they found a way through the mountains and killed him and his soldiers. Wrongly thinking Salganeus had betrayed them, they executed him, but later they built a tomb for him on the Euripus, close to Chalcis. One of their generals was Memnon of Rhodos, who invited Hermeias (a pupil of Plato and Aristotle) so they could hang him. He was not the only one they killed, Polycrates too was tricked by them and then executed. They invaded the districts of Atarneus and Asssus and took Miletus. The Aradians were reduced to their present order of government by them. They broke up the power of Greater Armenia and were conquered by the Macedonians. They also took possession of Cappadocia after the Persians had divided it in two satrapies. Babylon was once destroyed by them. They also led Hyrcanian colonists to the Hyrcanian Plain. They named it like this in the same manner they named the Plain of Cyrus. Cyrus was the man who spread their hegemony. His son Cambyses became his successor, but he was overthrown by the Magi. Dareius received it after the Magi were killed by the Seven Persians. One of them was the ancestor of Orontes, who was called Hydarnes. Dareius was succeeded by other rulers, ending with Arses who was killed by the eunuch Bagoüs. This man placed another Dareius on the throne, who was overthrown by Alexander. After

170 him Asia was separated in different parts, which were assigned to his successor and their troops. Finally this people dissolved after having lasted for two hundred and fifty years. They still had kings but those were subjected to the Parthians after having been subjected to the Macedonians. The reason why Alexander conquered them while robbing them and destroying their palace at Persepolis, was because they had brought cities and temples of the Romans to ruins. He also destroyed the cataracts they had made in the Euphrates and the Tigris to prevent navigation. In the end they were conquered by the Romans in Plataea.

Citations

I.1.17 IX.2.31 IX.4.16 XI.11.8 XI.13.5 XI.14.14 XI.14.16 XII.1.4 XII.4.6 XII.8.7 XIII.1.57 XIV.1.7 XIV.1.16 XIV.1.22 XVII.1.19 XV.1.10 XV.2.14 XV.3.2 XV.3.3 XV.3.6 XV.3.6 XIII.4.5 XIII.4.13 XV.3.7 XV.3.9 XV.3.13 XV.3.14 XV.3.16 XV.3.17 XV.3.18 XV.3.19 XV.3.20 XV.3.21 XV.3.22 XV.3.23 XVI.1.2 XVI.1.5 XVI.1.9 XVI.2.25 XVI.2.14 XVI.2.39

37. Petrocorii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πετροκόριοι and Petrocorii in Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in the country between the Garumna (Garonne) and the Liger (Loire). The Vellavii, the Lemovices and the Averni were their neighbours.

Conditions of life

Some of them were exvellent iron-workers.

Citations

IX.2.2

38. Peucetii

Nomenclature

The Greeks called them Πευκέτιοι which became Peucetii in Latin and English. They are also named Ποίδικλοι, or Poedicli in English.

171

Geographical notes

They lived in the region of Apulia, which stretched from the Adriatic Sea as far as Silvium, so it enclosed some parts of the Apennines in it. Because of this their territory was rather mountainous. The boundaries of their country were difficult to determine because they stopped calling themselves ‘Peucetii’. It is possible that some Arcadian colonists settled in their region. The Daunii and the Calabri were neighbours of them. A mule-road which led from Brentesium to Beneventum (now Benevento), ran through their territory.

Citations

V.1.3 VI.3.1 VI.3.7 VI.3.8

39. Phaeacians

The Phaeacans were known for the Odyssey, where Homer says that some of them were ‘betarmones’, which literally means harmony-walkers.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φαιήκοι, the Latin name is Phaeaces. In English they are called Phaeacians.

Geographical notes

They are mentioned by Homer as living far away from other people ‘in the wash of the waves’367, by which Strabo concludes that their country might possibly have been in the Atlantic Ocean.

Citations

I.2.18 X.3.21

40. Phalannaei

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φαλανναῖοι which became Phalannaei in English.

Geographical notes

It is possible they used Orthê as their acropolis.

367Hom, Od VI.204

172

Citations

IX.5.19

41. Pharaeatae

Nomenclature

The Greeks called them Φαραιᾶται, in English they are called Pharaeatae.

Geographical notes

They lived in Messenia in a city called Phara.

Citations

VIII.7.5

42. Phareis

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φαρεῖς, in English they are called Phareis.

Geographical notes

They lived in Phara, a city close to Dymê.

Citations

VIII.7.5

43. Pharsalians

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Φαρσάλιοι, in Latin they were called Pharsalii and in English Pharsalians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Pharsalus and colonised the Phthiotic Halus.

Citations

IX.5.8

173

44. Pharusians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φαρούσιοι. In English they are called Pharusians.

Geographical notes

They lived north of the Maurusians and the Masaesylians. Next to them lived the Aethiopians of the west.

Conditions of life

They used a bow and arrows and rode scythe-bearing chariots. Although the Maurusians were their neighbours, they seldom interacted with them, even when they crossed the desert. This was possible for them for they had animal skins in which they stored water and bound these underneath their horses. Sometimes they went to Cirta. Legend had it some of them had homes which were dug out in the ground, the same way the Troglodytes did. It is possible that they used the skin of snakes and fish as bed-covers or drape.

History

They ruined the old cities of the Tyrians which were settled on the Gulfs that were situated behind the Emporicus Gulf.

Citations

XVII.3.3 XVII.3.7

45. Phlegyae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φλεγύαι, which became Phlegyae in both Latin and English. It was the old name for the Gyrtonians (although Homer calls them already the Gyrtonians even though it is not clear about which people he is talking). Their name is derived from Phlegyas, the brother of Ixion.

Geographical notes

They lived in Gyrton.

Citations

VII.fr.14 VII.fr.15a IX.5.21

174

46. Phocaeans

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Φωκαιεῖς. In Latin their name was Phocaei or Phocaeenses. In English it became Phocaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Phocaea, beneath Aegae and Temnus. The Hermus, now the Gediz River, flowed through their country. They founded Massalia, which had a harbour, and later Elea after having fled from Phocaea, when Harpagus conquered that city and after having been expelled from Cyrnus and Massalia according to Antiochus.

History

Legend goes that they received an oracle from the Ephesian Artemis to appoint Aristarcha as their guide when they left their homeland. She took a sacred reproduction with her and when they arrived, they built a temple and chose Aristarcha as their priestess. When they travelled to Elea, Creontidas was their leader.

Citations

IV.1.4 VI.1.1 XIII.3.5

47. Phocians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Φωκεῖς, which in Latin became Phocii or Phocenses which in turn became Phocians in English.

Geographical notes

Catopterius was the boundary between them and Delphi. They also possessed Trachin.

History

They plundered a lot of places during the reign of Philip, such as the temple of Delphi, which caused the Phocian War (or the Third Sacred War) during which the Delphians revolted against them. The Thebans fought against them on behalf of the Greeks.

175

Citations

IV.1.13 IX.2.5 IX.3.8 IX.3.14 IX.3.15

48. Phoenician tribes

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Φοίνικα ἔθνα, in English Phoenician tribes.

Geographical notes

They lived in Judaea, mixed with Aegyptian and Arabian tribes.

Citations

XVI.2.34

49. Phoenicians

The Phoenicians are mentioned by Homer, for they informed him according to some. They are also mentioned by Poseidonius, who describes them in his works as clever most of the time with only one exception.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Φοίνικες, in Latin they are called Phoenices and in English Phoenicians.

Geographical notes

They inhabited a great part of continental Europe and a lot of islands, but they also lived in a part of Libya where the not-nomadic people dwelled. Carthage and Iberia – which they conquered for its wealth – were in their possession. They once held Cadmeia when they arrived there with Cadmus who then ruled them. When they were expelled by the Thracians and the Pelasgians they migrated and ruled in Thessaly along with the Arnaei till they returned. They also founded Thebes. They occupied Boeotia and Pittussae where they taught the inhabitants to wear tunics with a broad border. All these place were under their control till the Romans came and conquered them.

Conditions of life

They were widely known as a sea-travelling people, they even went as far as the countries beyond the Pillars of Heracles where they founded a lot of cities. Some cities were founded by them on the Libyan sea-board. They had set up a trade with the people of the Cassiterides who produced tin and lead. They kept the route to this people a secret, but some Romans tried to follow them and

176 succeeded after some failures. They were the inventors of accounting and arithmetic since they were merchants. They taught astronomy and arithmetic to the Greeks. Their vocabulary was a bit different, for they called 'gymnetes' 'balearides' and in the same manner did call some ‘Gymnesiae’ the ‘Balearides’.

History

They subjected the Diagesbes, but fought alongside them when they warred against the Romans. But they were defeated. Since they were skilled in navigation, it is no surprise it was them who named a second constellation ‘Bear’, for they used it as a guidance when on sea.

Citations

I.1.4 I.1.6 I.3.2 III.2.14 III.5.1 III.5.8 III.5.11 V.2.7 VII.7.1 IX.2.3 XII.3.27 XVI.2.23 XVI.2.24 XIV.2.10 XVII.1.3 XVII.3.15

50. Phrygian tribes

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called φῦλα Φρύγια, which became Phrygian tribes in English.

Genealogy

The Berecyntes and the Cerbesians were Phrygian tribes who have disappeared.

Citations

XII.8.21

51. Phrygians

They are mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φρύγες, which became Phryges in Latin and Phrygians in Engish. Sometimes they are said to have been the same as the Brygi and the Bryges, or that some historians use their name when they mean the Trojans. Often they are also confused with the Lydians.

Genealogy

They were part of the Brigians (which was a Thracian tribe) or they were the same people whose

177 former name was Brigians. According to some they were the ancestors of the Paeonians, who were their colonists. The Doliones and the Bebryces were part of them.

Geographical notes

They left Europe, where they lived around Mount Bermium, and travelled to Asia while they were led by Scamandris according to Xanthus the Lydian. According to others they were originally from Thrace. Still some say they came from Ascania where they possessed a part of the territory near the Ascanian Lake where they ended up after following Ascanius and Phorcys according to Homer. This is confirmed by Scylax the Caryandian. Strabo thinks they only moved after the Trojan War for Priam invited the Phrygians from Berecyntes and not the ones who lived closer by. They are accounted for before the Trojan War. After that they took possession of the Troad. They lived in the interior of the peninsula belonging to Asia Minor, south of the Paphlagonians. Their neighbours were the Bithynians and the Mysians, though the boundaries were difficult to establish, they were even mentioned in a proverb: ‘Apart are the boundaries of the Mysians and the Phrygians’. They also possessed the parts round Cyzicus as far as the Practicus.

Conditions of life

Their rites resembled the Cotytian and the Bendideian rites.

Citations

VII.3.2 VII.fr.25 VII.fr.25a VII.fr.38 X.3.16 X.3.22 XII.4.6

XII.3.9 XII.3.20 XII.3.27 XII.4.4 XII.4.5 XII.4.8 XII.8.4

XII.8.7 XIV.3.3 XIV.5.23 XIII.1.8 XIV.5.29

52. Phryni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Φρύναι, their English name is Phryni.

Geographical notes

Their territory was situated behind that of the Bactrians.

Citations

XI.11.1

178

53. Phtheires

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Φθείροι which became Phtheires in English.

Geographical notes

According to Homer they lived near a mountain which might have been Latmus.

Citations

XIV.1.8

54. Phtheirophagi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Φθειροφάγοι, their Englilsh name is Phtheirophagi. Their name is derived from their squalor and their foulness for it means Lice-eaters.

Geographical notes

They lived above the Cercetae, the Moschi, the Macropogones and the Colchi. They were one of the tribes who came together at Dioscurias.

Citations

XI.2.1 XI.2.14 XI.2.19

55. Phthians

They are mentioned by Homer as being great-hearted.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Φθῖοι, which became Phthians in English. This was the name for all the subjects of Achilles, Philoctetes and Protesilaüs according to some, but Porphyrius called only the people from the Methonê ‘Phthians’ and says that they were ruled by Menelaus. It might also have been a name for the people who were with Eurypylus.

Citations

VII.fr.64 IX.5.7

179

56. Phthiotae

They are mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name was Φθιῶται, in English this became Phthiotae.

Genealogy

They consisted of the Achaeans or were the same people.

Geographical notes

They possessed the territory near Euboea and Thermopylae. Phthiotic Thebes, Lamis, Erineus, Echinus, Narthacium, Thaumaci, Coroneia, Melitaea, Pharsalus, Proerna, Paracheloïtae and Eretria. Together with the Dolopians they were ruled by Peleus.

Citations

VIII.7.1 IX.5.1 IX.5.9 IX.5.10 IX.5.11

57. Picentes

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πίκεντες, which became Picentes in Latin and in English.

Geographical notes

They lived as far as the Rover Silaris, next to old Campania. They established Picentia as their metropolis.

Conditions of life

They became couriers and letter-carriers as a service to the State.

History

They had made a pact with Hannibal and therefore were driven out to some villages by the Romans. Later on the Romans fortified Salernum against them.

Citations

V.4.13

180

58. Picentini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πικεντῖνοι which became Picentini in English.

Genealogy

They were colonists from the Sabini.

Geographical notes

Some of them lived on the Tyrrhenian Sea and some on the Adriatic Sea. The last ones were the ancestors of the first ones.

History

It is said that they followed a woodpecker from the Sabine country to their new homeland, and named themselves after this bird, namely picus, for they saw it as sacred to Mars.

Citations

V.3.1 V.4.2 V.4.13

59. Pictones

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πίκτονες. In Latin and English their name is Pictones.

Geographical notes

They lived between the Garumna (Garonne) and the Liger (Loire), near the ocean. They were the neighbours of the Santoni, but lived closer to the Liger than the Santoni did.

Citations

IV.2.1 IV.2.2

60. Pieres

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πίερες, in Latin this became Pierii, and in English Pieres.

181

Genealogy

They were part of the Thracians or it was an ancient name for them.

Geographical notes

They lived in Pieria, hence the name, and in the place about Olympus.

Citations

VII.fr.11 IX.2.25

61. Pisatans

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Πισάται. In English they are called Pisatans. In old times they were also called Pylians.

Geographical notes

Some of them lived in the Peloponnesus, and some – returning from Ilium – went to the place where they founded Pisa. Others went to Metapontium. There were two rivers running through their country, named Arnus and Ausar, who merged there. Their territory was fertile and full of stone- quarries and timber which was used for boat-building. Some of it was exported to Rome to make villas. Their neighbours were the Ligures.

Conditions of life

They once were rather warlike.

History

They were once pillaged by mountaineers from the opposite coast. Legend has it they did not take part in the Trojan War because they were seen as sacred to Zeus.

Citations

V.2.5 V.2.7 VIII.3.30

182

62. Pisidians

The Pisidians are not mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πισίδαι. In Latin they are called Pisidae and in English Pisidians.

Geographical notes

They lived in mountains.

Citations

II.5.32 XII.3.27 XIV.5.23

63. Pissuri

Nomenclature

Their name is Πίσσουροι in Greek and Pissuri in English.

Genealogy

They were part of the Däae.

Citations

XI.8.2

64. Pitanaei

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πιταναῖοι, their English name Pitanaei.

Geographical notes

They lived in the same place where in earlier times the Cilicians lived, on the coast behind the region where the Leleges lived.

Citations

XIII.1.60

183

65. Plataeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πλαταιεῖς, in Latin it became Plataeenses and in English Plataeans. Their name was derived from the men who made their living from rowing, for πλάτη means blade (of an oar).

Geographical notes

They lived in Plataeae.

Citations

IX.2.18

66. Plentuisans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πληντούισοι, which became Plentuisans in English.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the source of the Iberus, which is now called Ebro.

History

They were first enemies of Rome but later they became allies of the Romans.

Citations

III.3.8

67. Pleraei

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πληραῖοι. In English they are called Pleraei.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the land around the River Naro, near Black Corcyra (now Curzola), an island, and a city that was founded by the Cnidians. Their territory was situated next to the Rhizonic Gulf.

184

Citations

VII.5.5 VII.5.7

68. Pleutaurans

They are only mentioned by Strabo where he says that he doesn’t want to say all the names of all the people who lived in Iberia for there is no pleasure in that.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πλεύταυροι. In English they are called Pleutaurans.

Geographical notes

They lived somewhere in Iberia.

Citations

III.3.7

69. Poemandrians: are the same as the Tanagraeans, see there

70. Polyphagi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πολυφάγοι, their English name is Polyphagi.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Troglodytae, north of the Caucasus.

Citations

XI.5.7

71. Polyrrhenians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πολυρρήνιοι. In English they are called Polyrrhenians.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Cydoniatae. Before the Achaeans and the Laconians came they lived in villages, but when they arrived they made a common walled settlement.

185

Conditions of life

They worshipped Dictynna and had a temple built for her.

Citations

X.4.13

72. Pontici

Nomenclature

The Greek word for this people is Ποντικοί, which became Pontici in both Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were part of the Cappadocians.

Geographical notes

They lived near the Euxine.

Citations.

XI.8.4

73. Potamii

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Ποτάμιοι. In English their name is Potamii.

Geographical notes

They lived in the deme Potamos, hence their name.

Citations

IX.1.22

74. Praenestini

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πραινεστῖνοι. In Latin and English this became Praenestini.

186

Geographical notes

According to their name they lived in Praeneste.

History

Five hundred and forty of them held out in Casilinum against Hannibal, even when famine arose.

Citations

V.4.10

75. Prasians

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Πραιεῖς, in English Prasians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Argolis.

Conditions of life

The Lacedaemonians paid their due for the sacrifice for Poseidon on Calauria. They were part of the league of seven cities who shared in this sacrifice.

Citations

VIII.6.14

76. Prasii

There were two groups with this name (even though the translator named one the Prasians, their name in Greek is the same as that of the Prasii and not the same as that of the Prasians. For this reason I placed them under the Prasii).

Nomenclature

Both their Greek name is Πράσιοι, though one is translated in English as Prasians, and the other as Prasii.

Geographical notes

The ones who lived in Crete and whose name was translated as Prasians lived next to the Lebenians. They claimed that the Corybantes were certain genii and the descendants of Helius and Athena.

187

The others lived about Palibothra and their kings were named after this city i.e. they received Palibothrus as an addition to their own names. They were said to be superior to other tribes.

Citations

Prasians: X.3.19 X.4.12

Prasii: XV.1.36

77. Prausi

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Πραῦσοι, in English Prausi.

Geographical notes

Strabo was not able to say where they lived.

History

The second person with the name Brennus who attacked Delphi was possibly a Prausan.

Citations

IV.1.13

78. Preferni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πρέφερνοι, in Latin it became Privernates and in English Preferni.

Geographical notes

They lived in Latium and became subjects to Rome.

Citations

V.3.4

79. Prienians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πριηνεῖς. In English they are called Prienians.

188

Geographical notes

It is said that their origins were in Helicê.

Conditions of life

Their territory was used by the Ionians to offer sacrifices to the Heliconian Poseidon. During the sacrifice one of them was made king to monitor the offerings.

Citations

VIII.7.2

80. Psylii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ψύλοι, which became Psylii in both Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Libyans. It is possible the founder of the Ophiogeneis originated from them.

Geographical notes

They lived in Libya and inhabited a part of the interior land which was situated above the Syrtis and Cyrenaea.

Conditions of life

The ones who lived near Cyrenaea were said to have an aversion to reptiles.

Citations

XIII.1.14 XVII.1.44 XVII.3.23

81. Ptolemaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πτολεμαεῖς and in English it became Ptolemaeans.

History

According to legend they had fought Sarpedon. Later on, when they were left behind on the coast between Ptolemaïs and Tyre, they were flooded by a large wave which killed most of them

189

Citations

XVI.2.26

82. Pygmies

The Pygmies were a mythical people possibly based on the Aethiopians.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Πυγμαῖοι, which is Pygmaei in Latin and Pygmies in English.

Physical information

They were said to be very small.

Conditions of life

They were said by Homer to have experienced trouble from cranes when those flew to the south.

Citations

I.2.28 XVII.2.1

83. Pylians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Πύλιοι, Pylii in Latin and Pulians in English.

Genealogy

They might have been related to the Messenians.

History

They warred against the Arcadians because of a dispute on the possession of Chaa. This was mentioned by Homer. Legend has it many Pylians came to Athens with Melanthus, the father of Codrus, as their leader. They started an expedition to colonise some land together with the Ionians.

Citations

VIII.3.21 XIV.1.3

190

84. Pyrgetans

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Πυργῖται. In English they are called Pyrgetans.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Triphylians.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Cyparissians.

Citations

VIII.3.22

R.

1. Remi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ῥῆμοι. In Latin they are called Remi, and in English their name is the same.

Geographical notes

They lived west of the Treveri and the Nervii. The Senones were their neighbours.

Citations

IV.3.5

2. Rhaeci

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Ῥαικοί, which became Rhaeci in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in what became Latium when they and their neighbours were subjected by the Romans.

191

Citations

V.3.4

3. Rhaeti

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ῥαιτοί, their Latin name is Raeti which became Rhaeti in English.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the Alps those bend to the south and places beyond that. Their territory was situated next to Lake Constance in which the Rhenus ends. The Vindelici lived almost in their territory. Both these people lived besides the Elvetii and the Boii. Their land went as far as that section of Italy which was situated above Verona and Comum – which was badly treated by them – and to the regions through which the Rhenus flowed. It also stretched as far as the passes through the Alps. Here their neighbours were the Insubri, the Carni and the place around Aquileia.

Conditions of life

They produced the so called Rhaetic wine.

Citations

IV.3.3 IV.6.8 V.1.6 VII.1.5 VII.5.1 VII.5.2

4. Rhegini

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Ῥηγῖνοι, in Latin Regienses. In English their name is Rhegini.

Genealogy

They were colonists of the Chalcidians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Rhegium, hence their name.

History

They gave shelter to some Peloponnnesian Messenians and selected their rulers from them. One of these rulers was Anaxilas, he fortified the isthmus of Scyllaeum against the Tyrrheni and also turned it into a naval station. By doing that he took away the passage through which pirates had been able to

192 pass. Together with the Locri they fought the Crotoniates. This battle took place on the banks of the Sagra and they were victorious.

Citations.

VI.1.5 VI.1.6 VI.1.10

5. Rhizophagi

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Ῥιζοφάγοι and Rhizophagi in English. They were called Rhizophagi from ῥίζα (root) and φαγεῖν (to eat) because they ate roots.

Geographical notes

They lived near the Astasobas and the Nile.

Conditions of life

As their name implies they ate roots, which they prepared in a manner comparable with that of the Spermophagi prepared their nuts.

Citations

XVI.4.9

6. Rhodians

The Rhodians were a prosperous sea-travelling people.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ῥόδιοι, het Latin name is Rhodii and the English name Rhodians.

Genealogy

Originally they were Dorians who migrated from Megara to Rhodes which was in that time inhabited by Heracleidae.

Geographical notes

They lived at the eastern side of Rhodes, but also founded Sybaris and Siris on the Theuthras according to some. The Peraea, which was mainland territory, was also ruled by them, their territory there stretched from Daedala to a mountain named Phoenix. Apart from the island called Rhodes, they founded a city with that name in Iberia. Other cities founded by them were Parthenopê, Elpiae

193 and maybe Gymnesiae.

Conditions of life

Since they were a sea-travelling people they possessed some impressive harbours. They ruled the sea for a long time and put an end to piracy. Their walls, roads, etcetera were also very neat and orderly. Their administration was well developed. Some of the gods they worshipped were Apollo Eythibius (spoken as ἐρυθίβην instead of ἐρυσίβην), and Poseidon Asphalios for whom they built a temple on the island, which was created by the eruption of the volcano on Thera. They were the first to do so. Their city looked a bit like Munychia for they had the same sort of habitations. The architect of Rhodes may have been the same man who built the Peiraeus.

History

Together with Atallus they fought Philip alongside the Romans. There was no love lost between them and the Syrians, but they befriended the Romans and so stayed self-governing. Their government was not democratic, but they cared for the poor and helped them out. They also received many votive offerings, mostly in the Dionysium and the gymnasium, but also in other places. Examples of those are the Colossus of Helius, which was once one of the Seven Wonders but which is now in ruins, the Ialysus of Protogenes and the Satyr made by the same person. There was also a painting of a partridge to which real partridges made their call. The works of architects, the making of arms and their storage were a matter of concern to them. There were a lot of people of Rhodes who were rather famous, e.g. Panaetius the philosopher, Stratocles, Leonides the Stoic, Praxiphanes, Andronicus the peripatetic, Peisander the poet, Hieronymus Eudemus, Aristocles and Simmias the grammarian. There were also some well known people who came to Rhodes such as Apollonius Malacus, Molon, Poseidonius, Dionysius the Thracian and Apollonius (who was the author of the Argonautica) and who sometimes received the name of ‘the Rhodian’, even though they were not originally from there.

Citations

I.3.16 VI.1.14 ΙΧ.1.15 XIII.1.64 XIII.4.2 XIII.4.17 XIV.2.2 XIV.2.5 XIV.2.6 XIV.2.9 XIV.2.10 XIV.2.13 XIV.5.2

7. Romans

By building an empire the Romans have helped the geographers to get to know the countries which were unknown until then. During their rule a lot of knowledge was disclosed. According to Eratosthenes they were barbarians, but rather refined, especially concerning their government.

194

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ῥωμμαῖοι. In Latin they were called Romani and in English Romans.

Genealogy

They were said to be Arcadians, for they were descendants of Evander according to some legends. Proof of this, according to Coelius, was the fact that they sacrificed to Heracles in the Greek fashion and that they offered to the mother of Evander as to one of the nymphs, although they gave her a different name.

Geographical notes

They first lived in Rome, in the Latin country. From there they conquered the rest of Italy and then most of Europe. The one exception being the land that lies outside the Ister River, the regions alongside the coast between the Rhenus and the Tanaïs Rivers and in Libya most of the country except for the coast of Our Sea. The border between them and the parts belonging to Juba was Salda. They used Itycê as the base for their affairs in Libya after the destruction of Carthage. In Asia they also occupied the coast of Our Sea, except the parts that belonged to the Achaei, the Zygi and the Heniochi, a part of the interior, and parts from the east and north, though they were striving to get these in their possession. They were strong enough to invade Britain, but chose not to do so for a long time, because they deemed the Britons not dangerous enough to be considered a threat. It was Caesar who at last attacked Britain, but in reality not much was achieved. Even so, many of their chieftains made themselves allies to him, so Britain belonged virtually to Rome during Strabo’s time. They did attack Arabia Felix with an army led by Aelius Gallus. They settled in the city named after Sextius. They founded Aquileia as a defence against the barbarians. They mingled with the Ombrici and sometimes with the Tyrrheni for they sent colonists to their territory. Most of Sicily was occupied by them and they gave it to the herdsmen to use. They colonized Buthrotum, Cnossus, Cremna, a part of Sinopê, Aniocheia near Pisidia, Puteoli and Heracleia. They marked the boundaries of the Pontic Providence as far as the Halys. Some territory was given by them to the priests of Comana, a part to the priest of Zela and some to Atepozix (family of the tetrarchs of Galatia), and his part, they got back when he died. They ruled Galatia and the territory that was given to Amyntas after turning them into one province. Other cities they ruled were Sagalassus, Pinaca and Mesopotamia. Most of the cities situated on either way of the Latin Way, were founded by them.

Conditions of life

They were fond of fighting animals and because of this they were very well skilled in hunting. They had a custom which was a strange concept to the Vettonians among others, for they liked to walk for

195 the pleasure of the walking itself. Their historians imitated the Greeks but were less skilled. They went to the Massaliotes to school themselves in rhetoric and the other arts. A product made by them was fine wool which was protected by pieces of skin that were tied around the sheep. They put a stop to some traditions of the Gallic people, such as taking the heads of the enemy as a price and other customs concerning divinations and sacrifices. Since they had subjected a lot of peoples they were in possession of most of the gold-mines. The ones who lived in Cisalpine Celtica surpassed the rest of Italy in their wealth, their number of men and the largeness of their cities. Their name for Cyrnus was 'Corsica'. They offered to Zeus with the Latini on Mount Albanus and told the story of Romulus and Remus as the origins of their city. The Oscan dialect still prevailed amongst them, certainly in some specific sort of poem. They believed in their armour and courage to defend themselves instead of believing in fortifications. Their foresight, their making of broad roads, aqueducts, beatiful buildings and sewers made them well known throughout the world. They believed a campus near the Campus Martius was the holiest of all and because of this they placed the tombs of their famed people there. Some of them, who wanted to enjoy some rest, settled in Neapolis, where the Greek culture survived. They were first ruled by kings, then by a mix of a monarchy and aristocracy. They ended up ruled by emperors. They chose the kings of the Bosporians. Swimming in the rivers close to them there lived pelamydes, a sort of fish, which they caught and sold. Sometimes they lived in houses which were left empty by their former inhabitants. They imported marble from Laconia. When they started war against more civilised peoples, they felt the necessity to become more intellectual and to study. They frequented the general festival of Delos. An old marriage-custom took place amongst them, according to which Cato gave Marcia to Hortensius. They had certain jurisconsults who explained the laws. Since they divided countries differently than before, a lot of dialects and names of peoples have been lost. They transported Synnadic marble from Docimaea to Rome. Their Tyrrhenian nativity-casters were valued greatly. They neglected the oracle at Ammon, because they had already the oracles of Sibylla and the Tyrrhenian prophecies, who were received by watching the entrails of animals or how the birds flew and what omens the sky gave. They called the Maurusians Mauri and bought their wooden tables, made out of one piece. They paid 100 talents for a painting of Aphrodite Anadyomenê from the Coans.

History

When they first started to expand they were partners of the Sabini and Latini. They subjected Veii and Fidenae. During this phase they lost part of their territory once to the Galatae, the Senones and the Gaezatae. After some time however they got it back in possession.

Then they subjected the Latini, the Tyrrheni and the Celti. They also subjected the Aequi, the Volsci,

196 the Hernici, the Rutuli, the aborigines and some of the tribes of the Rhaeti, the Argyrusci and the Preferni. After this they conquered the Samnitae, the Tarantini and the rest of Italy with the country around Padus as the only exception. They subjected the Campani, and gave part of their territory to Roman colonists. . They crushed the Brettii, then took away their rule of Hipponium and named it Vibo Valentia. They warred against the inhabitants of Alba, demolished their territory and made the inhabitants adjudged Roman citizens. Alba itself they used as their prison, because its walls were fortified and it was situated deep in the interior of the land.

They fought three wars against the Carthaginians and won Sicily. When they conquered Tarentum, they took away the dedicated objects adorning the acropolis. During one of these wars Hannibal was the Carthaginian general who was feared by the Romans. During these Sicilian Wars they used Messenê as their base of operations against the Carthaginians. Afterwards they colonised it and expelled the Carthaginians from Syracuse. They subjected Iberia after almost two hundred years of war. The Lusitanians were moved to Iberia. Some of the Romans themselves settled in Lusitania. They subjected the peoples between the Tagus and the Artabrians. From the Leucani they won Paestum and expelled the Picentes because of their alliance with Hannibal. Against these Picentes they made Salernum a defence. In the end they conquered all tribes this side of the Ister and the Halys, as also the Iberians and the Celti. They expelled the Nomantini and destroyed Viriathus, Sertorius and the Cantabi. They conquered the Armenians, and other people above Colchis, though these sometimes revolted.

Their ruling began after that of the Macedonians. They defeated Philip, together with Titus Quintius near Cynoscephalae. Later they ended their rule and took over their territory after they had killed Perseus in the plain before Pydna. When the inhabitants of Corinth sided with Philip – the Macedonian king – and threw dirt at the Romans, they destroyed their city and in doing so enlarged the fame of Delos. Only Tenea they left in peace, for this city had joined the Romans. After some years they rebuilt Corinth. Because of the destruction of Corinth and Carthage they became rich and could afford a lot of slaves. They were formerly wanted as friends by the Parthians. They subjected the Caunians again to the rule of the Rhodians, who were their friends. In the battle of Cannae they lost many lives.

They subjected the Gallic people and conquered the Ligures and the Sallyes after a long war of eighty years. After some more wars they also subjected the Salassi. Another people they subjected was the Sabini. Because of this they became rather wealthy according to Fabius. They subjected Greece as far as Macedonia, destroyed some places and reserved others. Athens for example, they conquered, but let it held its autonomy and liberty while they held it in honour. They even gave it the territory around

197

Haliartus. Because of their wars they reduced the Epeirotic cities. The surviving inhabitants were brought together to live in Nicopolis. They fought against the Aetolians and the Acarnanians and were tricked by the Acarnanians into giving them their autonomy. They annexed Upper Larymna to the Boeotian Larymna and also gave Copiae its name, which was originally the city of the Thurii where Roman colonists settled. Only a trace of Erineus, Boeum, Pindus and Cytinium was passed to them.

They gave Isaura to Amyntas. The rest of Asia at this side of the Taurus they gave to Eumenes II, for example Telmessis. With him they fought Antiochus the Great and Perseus, and afterwards gave Antiochus’ territory to him. They made the temple of Agditis in Pessinus famous. They warred against the Phoenicians of Carthage and destroyed different cities in the territory of the Carthaginians, such as Tynis, Hermaea and Neapolis. They fought alongside Attalus against Pseudo-Philip, received the land of Attalus Philometor and turned it into a province named 'Asia'. They ruled over the Selgians.

Eunus and his runaway slaves were driven out from Enna by them. They destroyed Fregellae because its inhabitants revolted. They conquered the territory between Theodosia and Panticapaeum which first belonged to the Milesians and then to Mithridates who was their enemy. They defeated him and his men in Chaeroneia and, in doing this, won Delos. They banished Antiochus the Great from the land of Asia and ruined Ilium while being led by Fimbria during the Mithridatic war, after which Sulla gained power and ruled over Illium. They acquired six thousand talents of silver from Tiganes, who was the son of Artavasdes, king of Armenia, who had betrayed them.

They fought the war against Jugurtha and they warred against the Cherusci, the Chatti, the Gamabrivii and the Chattuarii, the Sugambri, the Chaubi, the Bructeri, the Cimbri, the Cauci, the Caülci, the Campsiani and other tribes. They conquered the Cimbri and the Helvetii. One of their generals, named Caepio, found some treasures of Delphi amongst the Tectosages. They restored the revenues in Ephesus to the goddess. They battled barbarians in Negrani, but only lost two people, for they were more experienced.

They subjected the people of Antium, who sometimes took part in piracy. This they even did after their subjugation till Demetrius complained and an end was put to this custom. They stopped the piracy, for they warred against Crete, reduced it and destroyed the Cilician piratical strongholds. They conquered Isauricê, where a lot of pirates lived, and destroyed most of their strongholds

They reduced Phoenicia to their present order of government. They tried to follow the Phoenicians to find their way to the Cassiterides. They were led astray at their first attempt, but after many attempts they discovered it. They subjected the Nabataeans, the Sabaeans and the Syrians. Part of the walls around Kainon Chorion were destroyed by them. They rebuilt Berytus, and settled two legions there. They spoke justice in the case of Ariarathes who caused a flooding of a part of Cappadocia and a part

198 of the territory of the Galatians. They looked after the affairs of Cappadocia; gave autonomy to the Cappadocians.

Some of the peoples were rather easily defeated, such as the people between the Rhenus (Rhine) and the Pyrenees Mountains. Between some peoples they set up some communication and learned them how to live under a rule. The barbarians who lived after the Massaliotes were subjected too by them. They often worked with the Cyprians, but later took possession of Cyrpus and made it a province. They destroyed Zama, the home of Juba, ruler of Maurusia. Lagetas revolted against them, wanting to be head of the government. They were once attacked by Adiatorix (tetrarch of the Galatians). They placed a part of their army in Patrae after they won in Actium. They fought against the Cilicians after letting them grow strong, while they were focusing on problems closer to home. Cilicia Tracheia they gave to Archelaüs and appointed Tarcondimotus king of Cilicia.

They divided the territory of the Ptolemies, after having succeeded them, into the original parts (Cyrenaea, Cyprus and Aegypt), and in doing so made Aegypt the same size as before. They made Aegypt a province and organised the administration for they send praefects (who were the highest in rank, comparable with the rank of king), whom the administrator of justice and the idiologus obey. They also placed three legions of soldiers in Aegypt, of which one stayed in the city, and nine Roman cohorts, of which three stayed in the city, three in Syenê and three in other parts of the country, likewise there were three bodies of cavalry which were placed on strategic points. They appointed Epistrategi, Nomarchs and Ethnarchs.

They started an expedition against the Arabians and discovered many of their characteristics. Some of them lived in Egypt and helped Gallus on his expedition against Arabia. Some of the chieftains of the Arabians listen to them. They also warred against the Germans. They were planning on sending an expedition against Boerebistas and the Getans, whom they subdued, even though not completely which was the same in the case of the Daci. They transferred some tribes from around the Rhenus to Celtica. They drove the Ardiaei back into the interior and reduced the Boii and the Scordistae (Galatae), the Autariatae, the Ardiaei and the Dardanii (Illyrians) and the Triballi (Thracians). They held an eye on the Nomads and conquered the Parthians.

Even when they subjected peoples, they allowed some of them to live autonomously. One of their techniques was called ‘divide and conquer’ which they used on some cities surrounding Alba. To some of the Aquitani, the Aeuscii and the Convenae they granted the ‘Latin right’. They gave the equality of civic right to the Italiotes and placed colonists amongst them. Some bad blood existed between them and the Caeretani for they gave them the right of citizenship, but didn't enroll them among the citizens. There was even an expression saying that 'when someone did not have equal

199 rights, they were delegated to the Tablets of the Caeretani'.

They gave Libya and Asia to kings who stood under their command, such as the Attalic, Syrian, Paphlagonian, Cappadocian and Egyptian kings. They ended the Helot-slavery and found allies in them and the Perioeci. They gave the Lacedaemonians autonomy despite their slight offence against some praetors. Later they ruled the kings of Armenia. They let the Cyziceni autonomous and even gave them some territory. They let the Lycians free, though they (the Romans) decided in matters related to war, peace and alliances. They let the Tyrians be autonomous. They divided Asia Minor in a different way, e.g. they did not divide the Phrygian, the Carian, the Lydian and the Mysian territory according to the tribes, but made a different jurisdictional organisation, and elected the kings or potentates. They gave freedom to the Prusians and set Corcyra free. They divided their part of Libya in various manners, being friendly to some people and not to others, giving land to some and not to others. They were friends with Adarbal,.

A few of their allies were the inhabitants of the island called Gades, the Coniacans, the Plenuisans, the Heneti and the Cenomani. The Massaliotes were also allies of them to whom they gave a ‘xoanon’, a reproduction of the Artemis of the Aventine Hill. While they were opponents of the Sequani, but allies of the Aedui, they subjected them both.

They had Greater Cappadocia as their province; assigned an eleventh prefecture to the predecessors of Archelaüs. They made part of Carthage a province, the other part autonomous and gave this part to Masanasses and his descendant, because of his valour and his friendship with the Romans They turned Cyrenê and Crete into one Province. They gave some of their possession to men who became kings, but made others into Provinces and new, free land or let them stay free. They changed the division of the Provinces sometimes, dividing them into Provinces to the Caesar and Provinces to the People, of which the first ones got send legati and procurators, and the second ones praetors and proconsuls. Their division of the Provinces (a name of a country means the parts of that country which were conquered by the Romans) There were two consular Provinces, i.e. Libya and Asia, ten praetorial Provinces, i.e. Iberia (1), Nerbonitis (Celtica) (2), Sardo and Cyrnus (3), Sicily (4), Macedonia and the land next to Epeirus (5 en 6), Achaea, Aetolia, Acarnania, some Epeirotic tribes (7), Crete and Cyrenaea (8), Cypros (9) and Bithynia, the Propontis and parts of the Pontus (10). The other Provinces were Provinces to the Caesar, to which the parts ruled by kings, potentates and decarchies belonged.

Citations

I.1.4 I.2.1 I.4.9 II.5.8 II.5.12 II.5.26 II.5.33 III.1.6 III.1.8 III.3.3 III.3.5 III.3.8 III.4.5 III.4.16

200

III.4.19 III.5.11 IV.1.5 IV.1.13 IV.2.2 IV.3.2 IV.3.5 IV.4.2 IV.4.3 IV.4.2 IV.4.5 IV.5.3 IV.6.3 IV.6.7 IV.6.12 V.1.1 V.1.6 V.1.8 V.1.9 V.1.10 V.1.12 V.2.3 V.2.7 V.2.9 V.3.1 V.3.2 V.3.3 V.3.4 V.3.5 V.3.6 V.3.7 V.3.8 V.3.10 V.3.13 V.4.6 V.4.7 V.4.13 VI.1.5 VI.1.13 VI.2.3 VI.2.4 VI.2.6 VI.3.1 VI.3.11 VI.4.1 VI.4.2 VII.1.3 VII.1.4 VII.2.2 VII.2.4 VII.3.11 VII.3.12 VII.3.13 VII.4.3 VII.4.4 VII.4.7 VII.5.6 VII.5.11 VII.6.2 VII.7.3 VII.7.5 VII.7.6 VII.7.8 VII.fr.8 VII.fr.22 VIII.4.8 VIII.5.4 VIII.5.5 VIII.5.7 VIII.6.22 VIII.6.23 VIII.6.23 VIII.7.3 VIII.7.5 IX.1.20 IX.2.2 IX.2.18 IX.2.30 IX.2.37 IX.4.11 IX.5.20 X.2.23 X.2.25 X.4.9 X.4.10 X.4.22 X.5.4 XI.6.4 XI.9.1 XI.14.10 XI.14.15 XII.1.4 XII.2.8 XII.2.9 XII.2.11 XII.3.1 XII.3.6 XII.3.9 XII.3.11 XII.3.31 XII.3.37 XII.4.3 XII.4.6 XII.5.1 XII.5.3 XII.6.2 XII.6.3 XII.6.5 XII.7.3 XII.8.11 XII.8.14 XIII.1.27 XIII.4.2 XIII.4.12 XIV.1.26 XIV.2.3 XIV.2.5 XIV.2.19 XIV.3.3 XIV.3.4 XIV.5.2 XIV.5.2 XIV.5.6 XIV.5.18 XIV.6.6 XVI.1.24 XVI.1.28 XVI.2.14 XVI.2.19 XVI.2.23 XVI.2.39 XVI.4.21 XVI.4.22 XVI.4.23 XVI.4.24 XVII.1.5 XVII.1.12 XVII.1.13 XVII.1.43 XVII.3.2 XVII.3.4 XVII.3.9 XVII.3.12 XVII.3.13 XVII.3.15 XVII.3.15 XVII.3.16 XVII.3.21 XVII.3.24 XVII.3.25

8. Roxolani

Despite the translation of Roxolani and Roxolanians as two different people, their Greek name is the same and they lived around the same place. Because of this it seemed strange to consider them as two different people.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ῥωξολανοί. In English they are called Roxolani or Roxolanians.

Genealogy

They were part of the Bastarnians or of the Scythians.

201

Geographical notes

They lived between Germany and the Bastarnians and between the Tanaïs and the Borysthenes. Part of them lived beyond the Borysthenes. It was not known if there were people living north of them or if they were the most northerly living people. Even if they were, they still lived more southerly than the inhabitants of the north of Britain. Most think there weren’t any people living beyond them for they believed the land there became impossible to inhabit due to the cold.

Physical information

They wore helmets and corselets made of raw ox-hides. They had wicker shields and their weapons consisted of spears, swords and bows.

History

They warred against Mithridates for they were allies of Palacus, but they were defeated. Their leader was Tasius.

Citations

VII.2.4 VII.3.17 II.5.7

9. Rucantii

They were seen as the bravest of the Rhaeti.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Ῥουκάντιοι, in English Rucantii.

Genealogy

They were part of the Rhaeti.

Citations

IV.6.8

10. Ruteni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ῥουτηνοί. In English they are called Ruteni.

202

Geographical notes

They lived between the Garumna (Garonne) and the Liger (Loire), close to Narbonitis.

Citations

IV.2.2

11. Rutuli

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Ῥούτουλοι, in Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They possessed Ardea, which was situated seventy stadia inland from the sea.

History

They were conquered by Latinus, Aeneas and their people even though they succeeded in killing Latinus, and thus became subjects to the Romans.

Citations

V.3.2 V.3.4 V.3.5

S.

1. Sabaeans

The Sabaeasn were one of the four largest tribes who lived in Arabia Felix.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαβαῖοι, which became Sabaei in Latin and Sabaeans in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Arabia Felix with Mariaba as their metropolis. Their territory was fertile and full of sweet-smelling palms and reeds, but there are also some dangerous animals here, such as some dark- red, poisonous serpent which can leap as far as a hare.

203

Conditions of life

They produced myrrh, frankincense, cinnamon and balsam. To cure the drowsiness which could be the result of inhaling their sweet odours, they used the incense of goat’s beard and asphalt. They produced a lot of fruits and as a result they were lazy and easy-going. They slept on the roots of trees and traded with some neighbouring people. Their king lived in Mariaba and was not allowed to leave his palace otherwise he would be stoned to death according to an oracle. Still, this king and the people who lived with him were very wealthy. Most of the common people took part in trading and farming. They also produced larimnum, an incense. Because of their trading they had grown rather rich according to Artemidorus, for they were able to decorate with gold, ivory and silver. They used to overrun Syria, but became subjects to the Romans later on.

Citations

XVI.4.2 XVI.4.19 XVI.4.21

2. Sabini

The Sabini were an old and native people who were known for their bravery.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σαβῖνοι which became Sabini in both Latin and English. According to some they were also called Samnitae or Sabelli.

Genealogy

The Picentini and the Samnitae were their colonists.

Geographical notes

They lived in the land stretching from the Tiber and Tyrrhenia to the stretch of the Apennines near the Adriatic. Their territory was narrow but its length was almost a thousand stadia, stretching from the Tiber and Nomentum as far as the territory of the Vestini. It was parallel to the Tiber and Tyrrhenia concerning its breadth. Their neighbours were the Latini and the Ombrici, while a part of their country stretched as far as the mountains of the Samnitae. Since they lived close to the Apennines, their land was mountainous, but even so it was still fertile and produced grapes, acorns and olives. They possessed only a few cities, such as Amiternum, Foruli, Cures, Reate, Eretum and Trebula because of the endless wars they waged.

204

Conditions of life

They cultivated cattle of every sort but were especially known for their Reate-breed of mules.

History

They warred with the Ombrici and it is said that they once offered everything which they had produced in one year to Mars in hopes of winning. Even their children were offered for they were sent after a bull that laid down in the land of the Opici. They slaughtered the animal and settled there. At first they were seen as partners by the Romans.

Citations

V.2.1 V.2.10 V.3.1 V.4.12 VI.4.2

3. Sacarauli

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σακάραυλοι. The English version is Sacarauli.

Geographical notes

They were said to have come from the land at the other side of the Iaxartes River, which was occupied by the Sacae, next to the Sogdiani. They took over Bactriana from the Greeks which event made them famous.

Conditions of life

They were nomads.

Citations

XI.8.2

4. Saccopodes: see Adiabeni

5. Sacians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σάκαι. In Latin they are called Sacae and in English Sacians.

Genealogy

They were part of the Scythians and colonists of the Nomads. The Attasii and the Chorasmii belonged

205 to them and the Massagetae.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia. They lived at the other side of the Iaxartes River with the Sacarauli as their neighbours. They ruled Bactriana and the best parts of Armenia. They lived as far as the Cappadocians.

Conditions of life

They were mostly shepherds and nomadic. Sometimes they raided their neighbouring countries or lands farther away.

History

They were destroyed when they were partying. This event led to a festival, which was named Sacaea. According to others they were attacked by Cyrus, but they bested him. He, pretending to flee, left his supplies such as food and drink behind. The Sacae proceeded to feast on them and when Cyrus and his men returned, they were too drunk and easily defeated. They were killed and the day was proclaimed sacred and received the name Sacaea. Whichever story was the right one, a Bacchic-like festival was born.

Citations

VII.3.9 XI.8.2 XI.8.4 XI.8.8

6. Sagalasseis

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σαγαλασσεῖς. In English they are called Sagalasseis.

Geographical notes

They lived the region this side of the Taurus, which faced Milyas.

Citations

XII.7.1

7. Sagapeni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σαγαπηνοί. In English they are called Sagapeni.

206

Geographical notes

Their territory was small and was situated above Babylonia.

Citations

XVI.1.18

8. Saii

The Saii are mentioned by Archilochus.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαίοι. In English they are called Saii.

Genealogy

They were part of the Thracians. Ii is possible that they were the same as the Sapaeï, the Sinti or even another tribe.

Geographical notes

They had lived on the island Samos, which was named after them according to some. They occupied the adjacent mainland.

Citations

X.2.17

9. Salaminii

According to Homer they brought twelve ships to Troy with Aias as their leader.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Σαλαμινῖοι, which became Salaminii in Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Salamis, hence the name.

Citations

I.1.10

207

10. Salassi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαλασσοί. In English they are called Salassi.

Geographical notes

They lived in Italy, north of the Padus. Their neighbours who lived north of them, were the Ceutrones, the Varagri, the Nantuates and the Catigores. Together with Lake Lemenna they were situated on the mountain crests of the Alps. The Taurini and other Ligures lived next to them. The Durian flowed through their country. They lived in a deep glen, surrounded by mountains and some of their land stretched up to the mountain-crests. They occupied some passes through the Alps between Italy and Celtica, which was also mentioned by Polybius.

Conditions of life

They possessed a few gold mines. The gold they found, was washed in the Durian and because of this they split the river in different branches. This caused war with the people who lived further up the river for they lacked water to farm because of this adaptation.

History

They were thrown out by the Romans who took possession of their mines and made Eporedia into a garrison. They were allowed to keep the passes.

Citations

IV.6.5 IV.6.6 IV.6.7 IV.6.11 IV.6.12

11. Salentini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαλεντῖνοι, which became Sallentini in Latin and Salentini in English.

Genealogy

They were a colony of the Cretans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Messapia. There was a temple of Athena and Cape Iapygia in their territory.

208

Citations

VI.3.1 VI.3.5

12. Sallyes Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σάλλυες which became Sallyes in English. Sometimes they were called Ligues by the early Greeks, and later Celtoligues.

Genealogy

They were part of the Transalpine Celti.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the coast after Massilia next to the Massaliotes and the Ligures and the Alps above it. Their territory rose from the north to the west where it moved away from the sea. They possessed the mountains and plains in their land. Together with the Cavari they lived parallel with the Volcae who lived at the other side of the Rhodanus. The writers who named them Celtoligues also added the land upto Luerio and the Rhodanus to their country. Their neighbours were the Albienses, the Vocontii and the Albioeci.

History

They were the first of the Transalpine Celti to be subjected to the Romans. Apparently they didn’t see eye to eye with the Massaliotes, for this people used Antipolis, Nicaea, Olbia and Tauroentium as a defence against them.

Citations

IV.1.3 IV.1.6 IV.1.9 IV.1.11 IV.1.12 IV.6.3 IV.6.4 IV.1.5

13. Samians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σάμιοι, their Latin name is Samii and in English they are called Samians.

Geographical notes

Originally they came from Mycale, but they migrated to Samos. They also founded Perinthus.

209

Citations

VII.fr.50a VII.fr.55(56)

14. Samnitae

The Samnitae were once a powerful people.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαμνῖται, which became Samnites in Latin and Samnitae in English. Another name they are sometimes given, is Σαυνῖται, which became Saunitae in English.

Genealogy

They were colonists of the Sabini. Legend has it they were descendants of the children of the Sabini who followed the bull to the land of the Opici. A part of them were the Hirpini.

Geographical notes

They lived in Samnium, which was situated in Italy. Some of them lived in the mountains near the Sabini. They possessed a small islet in the ocean where some rites took place (see infra).

Conditions of life

Some of their women lived on a small island in the sea because they were said to be possessed by Dionysus. Men were not allowed on this island, but the women sailed to the mainland to have intercourse. They had a custom to un-roof and re-roof the temple in one day. Each woman had to bring a part, and if they dropped it – and legend has it that there always was a woman who got nudged so she did – this woman was torn to pieces, which the rest of them carried around the temple, all the while calling “Ev-ah”. According to the Tarantini, the Samniteae were joined by Laconians and became philhellenes, so that a few of them were called Pitanatae. Sometimes they attacked the Tarantini. They had a custom concerning marriages, i.e. they selected the ten noblest virgins and ten young men and the first selected of the women was given to the first of the men, but if he turned out to be a bad person, he was disgraced and his wife was taken away. The differences which existed between them and the Brettii and the Leucanians were gone in Strabo’s time.

History

They destroyed Metapontium and some places near Ardea and conquered the Chones and the Oenotri. They transferred some of the Leucanians to Italy. Once they were in possession of Herculaneum and Pompaia. They drove the Tyrrheni out to Campania to inhabit it, for they often

210 made expeditions to this place, but the Samnitae themselves were later expelled by the Romans who subjected them. The Romans also killed all of their important people. Because of the Romans many of their cities became villages, such as Bovianum, Aesernia, Telesia, Panna and others. They decayed because of the disappearance of a common organisation.

Citations

V.2.1 IV.4.6 V.3.1 V.3.5 V.4.3 V.4.8 V.4.11 V.4.12 VII.1.2 VI.1.15 VI.4.2

15. Sanni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σάννοι. In English they are called Sanni.

Geographical notes

They lived in Cappadocia Pontica, above Trapzeus and Pharnacia. The Tibarani and the Chaldaei were their neighbours.

Citations

XII.3.18

16. Samothracians

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Σαμοθρᾴκες, in Latin Samothraces and in English Samothracians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Samothrace and possessed a little town called Tempyra.

Citations

VII.fr.47(48)

17. Santoni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σάντονοι, which became Santoni or Santones in Latin and Santoni in English.

211

Genealogy

They were part of the Biturges, who were a Gallatic tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived between the Garumna and the Liger, near the ocean. Close to them lived the Pictones. A road led through their country.

Citations

IV.2.1 IV.2.2 IV.6.11

18. Sapaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαπαῖοι, in Latin they are called Sapaei which became Sapaeans in English. It is possible that their name was a later name for the Saii and so that they were the same people.

Geographical notes

They lived in the interior of Thrace, near Abdera and also possessed a few isles around Lemnos. The Bessi were their neighbours.

Citations

VII.Fr.43(44) VII.fr.47(48) X.2.17 XII.3.20

19. Saraparae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σαραπάραι. In English they are called Saraparae. Their name meant ‘decapitators’

Genealogy

They were a part of the Thracians.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond Armenia, near the Medes and the Guranii.

212

Conditions of life

As the meaning of their name implies, they beheaded people. They were mountaineers and known as fierce and intractable.

Citations

XI.14.14

20. Sarmatians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σαρμάται, which became Sarmatae in Latin and Sarmatians in English. Sometimes the adjective Maeotic is added to their name so they are called the Maeotic Sarmatians.

Genealogy

The Caucasians consisted for the biggest part of Sarmatians. They consisted of the Izygian Sarmatians.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the region beyond Lake Maeotis and the Roxolanians, which was situated north of the Ister (Danube). Their territory stretched from the Hyrcanian Sea to the Pontus and from the Tanaïs River (the Don) to mount Imaeus (one of the mountains in the Caucasus) in the south. They mingled with some Thracian and Celtic tribes. The Tyregetans and the Basileians lived next to them.

Conditions of life

Most of them were nomadic and because of this, they were called wagon-dwellers by Homer. To make their horses – which were rather small – easier to handle, they castrated them. They hunted for deer, wild ass, boar and roe deer. There were no eagles to be found in their territory, but there lived a quadruped, named ‘colos’.

Citations

ΙΙ.5.7 II.5.30 II.5.31 VII.3.2 VII.3.17 VII.4.8 XI.2.15 XI.2.16 XI.6.2

21. Sauromatae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σαυρομάται, which became Sauromatae in both Latin and English.

213

Genealogy

They were Scythians.

Geographical notes

They lived above the Pontus and the Euxine (the Black Sea) and north of the Ister (Danube).

Conditions of life

They were rather unknown, but legends existed that some of them were vegetarians, while others ate humans.

Citation s

VII.2.4 VII.3.9 XI.6.2

22. Scaeans

They are mentioned as having a river named Scaeus and a Scaean wall. There also existed Scaean Gates in Troy.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σκαιοί, which became Scaeans in English.

Genealogy

They were Thracians.

Citations

XIII.1.21

23. Scordisci

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σκορδίσκοι. In English they are called Scordisci. Sometimes this became Scordistae, Σκορδίσται in Greek. Another name for them is Galatae or they were a part of them.

Genealogy

They were Celts, but they mingled with the Scythians, the Sarmatians as well as with the Bastarnian, the Thracian and the Illyrian tribes. According to some they were part of the Galatae while others say they were the same people. They themselves could be divided into two tribes, the Great Scordisci

214 and the Little Scordisci.

Geographical notes

They lived near the place where the Colapis (the Kupa or Kolpa river) and the Danuvius (another name for the Ister of Danube) merged. Their territory stretched along the mountains where the Macedonians and the Thracians lived. Their neighbours were the Pannonians. The Great Scordisci lived between the Noarus (the Sava) and the Margus, while the tribe named Little Scordisci, lived on the far side of the Margus, where their territory touched that of the Triballi and the Mysi. They also held some islands. The cities Heorta and Capedunum were also in their possession.

History

They often allied themselves with the Dacians. The Autariatae were conquered by them. Since they constantly warred against each other, they were easily subdued, first they subdued each other, next they were subdued by the Macedonians and later by the Romans.

Citations

Scordisci: VII.3.2 VII.5.2 VII.5.2 VII.5.10 VII.5.11 VII.5.12

Scordistae: VII.5.6 VII.3.2

24. Scordistae: see Scordisci

25. Scythian nomads

Nomenclature

In Greek they were called Σκυθῶν νομάδες, in English Scythian nomads.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia, in the region that stretched toward the north and that was situated beyond Sogdiana.

Citations

XI.2.1 XI.8.1

26. Scythians

The Scythians became mostly known due to the Parthians. They are not mentioned by Homer, but Strabo thinks that Homer meant them, where he speaks about the Hippemolgi, the Galactophagi and

215

Abii.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σκύθαι, which became Scythae in Latin. In English they are called Scythians. Sometimes this name is used for all the peoples who lived towards the north.

Genealogy

Most of the Scythians were named Däae, but they also consisted of the Sacians, the Taurians, the Pasiani, the Tochari, the Sacarauli, the Asii and the Massagetae.

Geographical notes

They inhabited a large place which was situated north of Hyrcania and Bactriana and which stretched from east of the Caspian Sea to the Tanaïs river (the Don). According to Ephorus it was the place where the north wind blew. They mingled with the Thracian and Celtic tribes.

Conditions of life

They were said to be brave and fierce, even to the point of being more inclined to kill themselves and their loved ones that to be captured. This was also done by Celtic, Thracian and Iberian tribes. Because of their fierceness the Black Sea was called Axine, for ἄξενος means inhospitable. Aeschylus said they were law-abiding. Other traits attributed to them were their straightforwardness and their independency. According to some they ate humans, which was also done by the inhabitants of Ierne (Ireland), and sometimes by the Celti, the Iberians and other people in times of need, but they did it as a sacrifice and even used the skulls for drinking-cups. Other food they ate was cheese made of mare-milk and some of them were said to be vegetarians. They were mostly nomadic, and so they were called wagon-dwellers. To make their horses – who were rather small – easier to handle, they castrated them. They hunted for deer, wild ass, boar and roe deer. There were no eagles to be found in their territory, but there lived a quadruped, named ‘colos’. They didn’t have a lot of respect for elderly people. They even had a custom which was comparable with that of the Bactrians, i.e. to gave people who were weak because of old age or illness, as food to dogs kept for this sole purpose. They were also said to have been the inventors of another custom by which people older than seventy were starved to death. After they took up the Roman style of life they became soft and lost their straightforwardness. They became cunning instead and even took up piracy.

History

Anacharsis and Abaris were two Scythians who became known throughout history. They often attacked the people they had expelled from their territory. They themselves were attacked by Darius

216 and later fought Mithridates during the reign of Scilurus. This battle took place near Ctenus, but they lost and were subjected to him. Before this they expelled the Cimmerians from the Bosporus but they were later driven out by the Greeks.

Citations

I.2.1 I.2.28 III.4.17 IV.5.4 VII.3.2 VII.3.8 VII.3.9 VII.3.13 VII.4.2 VII.4.3 VII.4.7 VII.4.8 XI.2.5 XI.6.2 XI.8.2 XI.11.3

27. Segusiavi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σεγουσινοί, their Latin and English name is Segusiavi.

Geographical notes

They lived between the Rhodanus (Rhône) and the Dubis and were subjected to the city of the Lugdunum (Lyon).

Citations

IV.3.2

28. Selli

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Σελλοί, in English Selli. It is not certain that this is the right name, even though Homer called them so. According to some, such as Pindar, the right name was Helli.

Geographical notes

They lived in Greece near the temple of Dodona.

Conditions of life

According to Homer they didn’t wash their feet and slept on the ground.

Citations

VII.7.10

217

29. Sembritae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σεμβρῖται. In English they are called the Sembritae.

Geographical notes

They originally came from Egypt, but they were expelled by Psammitichus. Later on they lived in Tenessis. Meroê and an island which was situated above it were also in their possession.

Conditions of life

They were led by a queen.

Citations

XVI.4.8

30. Semnones

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σέμνωνες which became Semnones in both Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were part of the Suevi.

History

They were ruled by Marabodus.

Citations

VII.1.3

31. Senonens

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σένονες, which became Senones in Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were a Celtic tribe.

218

Geographical notes

They lived in Celtica in Italy, but were migrants from the transalpine countries. They once possessed a great part of the land surrounded by the Apennines. Their neighbours were the Treveri, the Remi and the Nervii.

History

They once formed an alliance with the Gaezatae to attack the Romans. In the end they were totally destroyed.

Citations

IV.3.5 IV.4.1 V.1.6 V.1.10

32. Sequani

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Σηκουανοί. In Latin and in English, their name is Sequani.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Aedui and the Lingones, but their territories were separated by the Arar (Saône) of which they claimed property.

History

They once were a strong people who joined forces with the Germans against Italy. They wanted to toll the Arar, for it was used a lot to transport trading goods. They were opponents of both the Aedui and the Romans. These last conquered their territory. Before this the Norici, Genauni, Breuni and Vindelici sometimes overran their land.

Citations

IV.1.11 IV.3.2 IV.6.8

33. Seres

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σῆρες, which became Seres in both Latin and English.

219

Geographical notes

They lived in India and were neighbours of the Bactrians.

Conditions of life

They must have lived very healthy for they are said to live beyond one hundred and thirty years, though some say they even lived beyond two hundred.

Citations

XI.11.1 XV.1.34 XV.1.37

34. Seriphians

According to myth they were turned to stone by Perseus when he showed them the Gorgon’s head.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σερέφιοι, which became Seriphii in Latin and Seriphians in English.

Citations

X.5.11

35. Sesarethii: see Enchelii

36. Sibae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σίβαι. In English they are called Sibae.

Geographical notes

They lived below the peoples who lived between the Indus and the Hydaspes (the Jehlam or Jehlum River).

Conditions of life

It is said their ancestors accompanied Heracles on his expedition and that some customs of him survived such as dressing in animal skins and carrying clubs. The marking of their mules and cattle was the image of a club.

220

Citations

XV.1.8 XV.1.33

37. Sibini

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σιβινοί. In English they are called Sibini.

History

They were ruled by Marabodus.

Citations

VII.1.3

38. Sicani

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σικανοί, which became Sicani in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Sicily together with the Siceli, the Morgetes and other people.

Citations

VI.2.4

39. Siceli

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σικελοί. In Latin they were called Siculi, but in English it became Siceli.

Geographical notes

As their name implies, they lived in Sicily, but before that they had lived in Rhegium till they were conquered by the Oenotrians. In Sicily they lived together with the Morgetes, the Sicani and other people.

221

Citations

VI.1.6 VI.2.6

40. Siciliotes

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σικελιώτες, in English they are called Siciliotes.

Geographical notes

They lived in Sicily (but they were Greeks, not natives). They conquered Hipponium (Vibo Valentia) and built a naval station.

Conditions of life

They were ruled by a tyrant named Agathocles.

Citations

VI.1.5

41. Sicyonians

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Σικυώνιοι. In Latin they are called Sicyonii and in English Sicyonians.

Geographical notes

They received most of the Corinthian territory from the Romans.

Citations

VIII.6.23

42. Sidicini

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σιδικῖνοι, which became Sidicini in both Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were an Oscan tribe.

222

Geographical notes

They once possessed Campania, but lost it to the Cumaei and were expelled.

Citations

V.4.3

43. Sidoni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σιδόνες, in English they are called Sidoni.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Bastarnians.

Citations

VII.3.17

44. Sidonians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σιδόνιοι, in Latin they are called Sidonii and in English Sidonians.

Geographical notes

They were sometimes placed in the Persian Gulf or somewhere in the ocean, but according to some writers this was not where they lived. According to others these people where the ancestors of the Sidonians who lived in the Mediterranean. According to Zeno the philosopher, they lived near the Aethiopians and the Arabians.

Conditions of life

They were skilled in the making of beautiful art according to Homer. Some of these skills were connected with their life as merchants and ship-owners, such as astronomy and arithmetic, which they derived from their practical calculations and night-sailings. Connected with this is Mochus, who was a Sidonian, and was the originator of the dogma about atoms.

Citations

Ι.1.3 Ι.2.33 I.2.35 VII.3.6 XVI.4.27 XVI.2.24

223

45. Siginni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σίγιννοι which became Siginni in English.

Conditions of life

They imitated a lot of the customs of the Persians with one exception, for they used small and shaggy ponies, which are driven in a four-horse team by women. These women have learned to do so at early age and the best of them were allowed to cohabit with whomever she wanted.

Citations

XI.11.8

46. Silaceni

The Silaceni were a rather small tribe.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σιλακηνοί. In English they are called Silaceni.

Geographical notes

They lived above Babylonia, more to the east.

Citations

XVI.1.18

47. Simi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σιμοί. In English their name is Simi.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Aethiopians.

Conditions of life

Their arms were the horns of gazelles. They usually used them to fight the Struthophagi.

224

Citations

XVI.4.11

48. Sindi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σινδοί, in Latin they are called Sindenses and in English Sindi.

Genealogy

They were part of the Maeotae.

Geographical notes

They lived near Sindice in the Chersonesus, across the Hypanis. They also possessed Aboracê and Gorgipia, which became their royal residence.

Citations

VII.4.6 XI.2.11 XI.2.10

49. Sinti

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Σιντοί. In English they are called the Sinti. They are sometimes called Sinties, as Homer did, which might have been their ancient name. It also is possible that they later received a new name, i.e. Saiï.

Genealogy

They were a Thracian tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived in Lemnos.

Citations

VII.fr.45(46) X.2.17 XIII.3.20

225

50. Siraces

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σίρακες, though they are sometimes also called Σιρακοί. In English there are similarly two versions, i.e. Siraces and Siraci.

Genealogy

There were lower Siraces and upper Siraces. The lower Siraces were fugitives of the Upper Siraces.

Geographical notes

They lived in the south of Asia, on the plains beneath the Caucasus. Their territory stretched from Lake Maeotis to the Caspian Sea. They lived along the Achardeüs (now called Kuban).

Conditions of life

They were nomadic and had a king named Abeacus.

Citations

Σίρακες : XI.5.7 XI.5.8

Σιρακοί: XI.2.7

51. Sisyrbitae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σισυρβῖται. The English equivalent is Sisyrbitae. It was a name for some of the Ephesians and they were named after Sisyrbê.

Citations

XIV.1.4

52. Sithones

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σιθῶνες. In English it became Sithones.

Genealogy

They were a part if the Edoni.

226

Geographical notes

They lived in Thrace and received colonists from the Chalcidians of Euboea.

Citations

VII.fr.11

53. Sittaceni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σιττακηνοί. The English version is Sittaceni.

Genealogy

They were part of the Maeotae.

Citations

XI.2.11

54. Smyrnaeans

They claimed that Homer was a Smyrnaean.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Σμυρναῖοι, which became Smyrnaei in Latin and Smyrnaeans in English. This name is sometimes used to indicate the Ephesians because Ephesus was in earlier times called Smyrna.

Geographical notes

They lived in Smyrna after having founded it.

History

They gained Smyrna from the Leleges. Later on they lost it to the Aeolians but got it back with the help of the Colophians. They lived together with the Ephesians who invited them to join the Ionian League.

Citations

XIV.1.4 XIV.1.37

227

55. Soanes

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σοάνες. In English they are called Soanes.

Geographical notes

They lived near the Caucasus and ruled its heights above Dioscurias. Their neighbours were the Phteirophagi.

Conditions of life

They were a rather powerful tribe, but were seen as filthy. They had a monarchy which was ruled by a king and a council which consisted of three hundred men. The rivers contained gold which they obtained using sheep skins, which might have been the origin of the legend of the golden fleece. They poisoned their missiles.

Citations

I.2.14 XI.2.19

56. Sogdiani

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σογδιανοί. In English they are called Sogdiani.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia. The Iaxartes River (the Syr Darya) formed the boundary between them and the Sacae, and the Oxus River (Amu Darya) separated them from the Bactriani.

Conditions of life

They were comparable with the Bactrians and the nomads in their way of life. Their language was almost the same as the one from the Arians and the Bactrians, though there were a few variations.

Citations

XI.8.8 XI.11.3 XV.2.8

228

57. Solymi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σόλυμοι, in Latin and English this became Solymi. According to Homer they were not the same people as the Lycians, but others claimed that it was an old name for the people which later received the name Milyae, then Termilae and at last Lycians. It is also said sometimes they were the same as the Cabaleis or the Termessians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Lycia as far as Pisidia and inhabited the Taurus. According to Homer they lived somewhere far away to the east, but Strabo seems to think this was an invented people and not for real.

History

Legend has it they have fought a battle against Peisander and his father Bellerophon.

Citations

I.2.10 I.2.28 XIII.4.16 XIV.3.10 XII.3.27 XII.8.5

58. Sossinati

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Σοσσινάτοι which became Sossinati in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Sardinia.

Conditions of life

They were one of the four tribes of mountaineers in Sardinia, where they lived in caves. They stole food from the farms and even sailed the sea to pillage, especially the Pisatae were treated badly by them.

Citations

V.2.7

229

59. Spartans: see Lacedaemonians

60. Spermophagi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Σπερμοφάγοι. In Eglish this became Spermophagi.

Geographical notes

They lived near the Astasobas and the Nile.

Conditions of life

As their name suggests, they normally ate seeds. When those were not available they ate nuts which they prepared in the same manner the Rhizophagi prepared their roots.

Citations

XVI.4.9

61. Spinetae

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Σπινῆται. The English version is Spinetae.

Geographical notes

They lived near the Adriatic Sea in Italy.

History

They dedicated some spoils of war in Delphi.

Citations

IX.3.8

62. Sramans: see Garmanes

63. Steirians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Στειριεῖς. The English equivalent is Steirians.

230

Geographical notes

They lived in Attica and colonised Marmarium, Styra and Carystus.

Citations

X.1.6

64. Stoni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Στόνοι. In English it became Stoni.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond Comum (Como) which was situated at the foot of the Alps, on the territory that sloped toward the west. They once ruled Italy, but they were subdued.

Conditions of life

They were without resources and brigands.

Citations

IV.6.6

65. Struthophagi

The Struthophagi were a rather small tribe which fought the Simi.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Στρουθοφάγοι. In English this became Struthophagi.

Geographical notes

They lived in Aethiopia where they were the neighbours of the Elephanophagi.

Conditions of life

They hunted a sort of birds which were the size of a deer and could run very fast, but were unable to fly. They did this with bows and arrows or stealthily by baiting them with seed while some people were dressed as these birds and led them to the place where some others slaughtered them. They used the skin for clothing and bed-covers.

231

Citations

XVI.4.11

66. Stymphalii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Στυμφάλιοι, which became Stymphalii both in Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Stymphalus, which was situated in Arcadia fifty stadia from the Stymphalian Lake. The Stymphalian birds were said to live around this lake.

Citations

VIII.8.4 VIII.6.8

67. Suessiones

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Σουεσσίωνες. Both in Latin and English this became Suessiones.

Genealogy

They were part of the Belgae and were said to have been the most courageous after the Bellovaci.

Geographical notes

They lived in Celtica between the Ambiani and the Caleti.

Citations

IV.3.5 IV.4.3

68. Suevi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σουῆβοι. In English the equivalent is Suevi.

Genealogy

They consisted of the Coldui, the Langobardi, the Hermondori and the Semnones and were part of the Germans.

232

Geographical notes

They lived in the land stretching from the Rhenus (Rhine) to the Albis. The sources of the Ister (the Danube) were close to them. The Coldui inhabited the Hercynian Forest (now called the Black Forest), while others lived outside it and close to the Getae. Even a part of the land on the far side of the Albis was inhabited by some of them, i.e. the Hermondori and the Langobardi.

History

They were a powerful and large tribe which drove other people away to the other side of the Rhenus.

Citations

IV.3.4 IV.6.9 VII.1.3 VII.23.1

69. Sugambri

The Sugambri were one of the best known Germanic tribes.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σούγαμβροι, which became Sugambri or Sigambri in Latin and Sugambri in English.

Genealogy

They were a Germanic tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Rhenus and the ocean with the Menapii opposite of them.

History

They started the war against the Romans at the time that Melo ruled. His nephew Deudorix, the son of his brother Baetorix, was quite known.

Citations

IV.3.4 VII.1.3 VII.1.4 VII.2.4

233

70. Susians

Nomenclature

The Greek name of this people is Σούσιοι, their Latin name was Susiani and in English they are called Susians. This is another name for the Cissians.

History

The Cossaei and then Elymaei fought against them.

Citations

XI.13.6 XVI.3.2

71. Sybaritae

Nomenclature

This people is called Συβαρῖται in Greek which became Sybaritae in Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They possessed Laüs as a colony and built fortifications by the sea, but they lost those to the Leucanians.

Conditions of life

They has a custom to dedicate their spoils of war to the gods.

Citations

V.4.13 VI.1.1 IX.3.8

72. Sydracae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Συδράκαι which became Sycracae in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in India, their territory was situated beneath the people living between the Indus and the Hydaspes.

234

Conditions of life

They were a large tribe which were said to be descendants of Dionysus. So it was rather fitting that they produced wine. They also held processions in which their kings dressed in flowered robes and let drums play. This was the same when they began an expedition. This custom was practised all over India.

Citations

XV.1.8 XV.1.33

73. Symbri

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Σύμβροι, their English name is Symbri. It is possible they were the same people as the Insubri.

Geographical notes

They lived in Cisalpine Gaul, next to the Heneti.

History

They warred against the Romans.

Citations

V.1.9

74. Syracusans

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Συρακόσιοι, in Latin they are called Syracusani. In English their name is Syracusans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Syracuse and founded Ancona, when they fled Dionysius’ tyranny.

Citations

V.4.2

235

75. Syrians

Strabo warns that most authors writing about the Syrians are not to be trusted. They are not mentioned by Homer.

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Σύροι, which became Syri in Latin and Syrians in English. It is an old name for the Arimi, whose new name is Arimaeans. According to Poseidonius they called themselves Arimaeans or Arammaeans.

Genealogy

The Cauconians may have been a part of them.

Geographical notes

They lived in Syria, in Mesopotamia, outside the Taurus. Their territory stretched from Babylonia to the Gulf of Issus. In the past the country between this gulf upto the Euxine also belonged to their territory. In Babylon and in Ninus they built their royal palaces. Between them and the Paphlagonians flowed the Halys River which acted as a boundary, according to Homer, but he meant the Cappadocians instead of the Syrians, who were still called ‘White Syrians’ in Strabo’s time.

Conditions of life

Concerning language, appearance and habits they were largely alike the Arabians and the Armenians, though they also had some things in common with the Arammaeans, the Arians and the Assyrians. They used to live under a monarchy but they revolted sometimes. In general they were seen as civilised, especially in comparison with the Arabians and the Scenitae. This was also true concerning the tribes surrounding them.

History

They once reigned Armenia, but their ruling was broken up by the inhabitants of Greater Armenia. Their empire was conquered by the Medes. Later they were ruled by the Persians. According to Menandrius the Eneti came from the territory of the White Syrians when they went to Troy. They were opponents of the Rhodians, the Aegyptians and the Cyprians. They ended up as subjects to the Romans.

Citations

I.2.34 XI.6.2 XI.13.5 XI.14.15 XII.3.9 XII.3.5 XII.3.25

236

XII.3.27 XIII.4.6 XIV.5.2 XIV.5.2 XVI.1.2 XVI.2.13 XVI.4.21

T.

1. Talares

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Τάλαρες. In English they are called Talares.

Genealogy

They were part of the Epeirotes.

Geographical notes

They lived next to Thessaly and were made a part of it.

Citations

IX.5.11

2. Tanagraeans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ταναγραῖοι, the Latin version is Tanagraei and in English they are called Tanagraeans. Another name for them is Gephyraeans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Tanagra and possessed Mycalessus and Harma.

Citations

IX.2.10 IX.2.11

3. Taphians

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Τάφιοι, which became Taphians in English. They are sometimes said to be the same as the Cephallenians. The Teleboans too could have been the same people.

237

Geographical notes

They once lived in Acarnania, they ruled some islands such as Taphos (now Taphius) together with the Teleboans.

History

They were attacked by Amphitryon and by Cephalus, who ruled over them. According to Homer they were once reigned by Mentes. They were friends of the Ithacans and allowed them to live in their country so they both lived there. They took up piracy.

Citations

X.2.14 X.2.20 X.2.24

4. Taphrii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τάφριοι. In English they are called Taphrii. Latin?

Geographical notes

They lived on the Carcinites Gulf.

Citations

VII.3.19

5. Tapyri

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τάπουροι. In English it beccame Tapyri.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the territory between the Arians, the Derbices and the Hyrcanians. They were immigrants and once ruled by Media.

Physical information

The men dressed in black and let their hair grow long. The women did the opposite, they dressed in white and cut their hair short.

238

Conditions of life

They had a specific custom concerning marriage. When a married woman had given birth to two or three children her man gave her in marriage to other husbands. The man who was elected as the bravest was allowed to marry whomever he wanted. They were mountaineers who were rapacious.

Citations

XI.8.8 XI.9.1 XI.11.8 XI.13.3

6. Tarantini

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Ταραντῖνοι, which became Tarantini in English. Antiochus called them Iapyges.

Geographical notes

They lived in the land bordering on Metapontium, outside Italy according to Antiochus. They colonised Heracleia and Siris, even though the Thurii lived here too after they had come to an agreement.

History

They may have invented the story about the Samnitae being joined by some Laconians so they became philhellenes and some of them were called Pitanatae, in order to win them as their allies. They warred against the Thurii, came to an agreement with them and even helped them escape from the Leucanians. They also warred against the Metapontians and they were hated by the Achaeans. They were once a democratic, powerful people having the largest fleet in their part of the world. They lived according to the Pythagorean philosophy and were ruled by Archytas. After a while their government declined and they invented a lot of (too much) festivals. When they were at war with the Messapians and the Leucanians, they employed generals from other peoples. Even though they had asked for them they were often disobedient. They also employed another general during their war with the Romans. They lost their freedom during the war against Hannibal and became a peaceful colony of the Romans.

Citations,

V.4.12 VI.1.4 VI.1.13 VI.1.14 VI.1.15 VI.3.4 VI.4.2

239

7. Tarbelli

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τάρβελλοι which became Tarbelli in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Aquitania and held the other gulf of the isthmus, which was not the Galatic gulf.

Conditions of life

They were in possession of a lot of gold mines of great quality.

Citations

IV.2.1

8. Tarpetes

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τάρπητες. In English they are called Tarpetes.

Genealogy

They were part of the Maeotae.

Citations

XI.2.11

9. Tartessians

According to Ephorus the Tartessians said that Libya was overrun by the Aethiopians, as far as Dyris, where some of them stayed while others inhabited a large part of the seaboard.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ταρτήσσιοι, in Latin they are called Tartessii or Tartesii. The English equivalent is Tartesians.

Citations

I.2.26

240

10. Taulantii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ταυλάντιοι which became Taulantii in Latin and in English.

Genealogy

They were an Illyrian tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived above Epidamnys and Apollonia.

Citations

VII.7.8

11. Taurians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ταῦροι, Tauri in Latin and Taurians in English.

Genealogy

They were part of the Scythians.

Geographical notes

They held most of the Great Chersonesus. Mountain Trapzeus was situated in their territory which was rather mountainous. The harbour of Theodosia formed a boundary between them and the Bosporians.

Conditions of life

They took part in piracy, assembling in a harbour called Symbolon Limen, to attack all boats that passed by.

Citations

VII.4.2 VII.4.3 VII.4.5

241

12. Taurini

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Ταυρινοί which became Taurini in both Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were a Ligurian tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived in a part of the Alps which slopes towards Italy. There is a pass through their territory which was mentioned by Polybius and was used by Hannibal.

Citations

IV.6.6 IV.6.12

13. Taurisci

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ταυρίσκοι; in English they are called Taurisci. Another name for them is Ligurisci (Λιγύρισκοι), Teurisci (Τεύρισκοι), Tauristae or Teuristae.

Genealogy

They were part of the Norici or the Galatae. In any case they were a Celtic tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived around Aquileia and they possessed Nauportus.

Conditions of life

They traded with Aquileia. According to Polybius they possessed a gold mine of great quality. Some Italiotes came to work in it, but were cast out after a case of fraud was discovered. They lost these mines to the Romans. The Boii came to live with them and they ruled them. They were invaded by the Cimbri. They were ruled by Critasirus and conquered and destroyed by the Dacians.

Citations

IV.6.9 IV.6.10 IV.6.12 V.1.6 VII.2.2 VII.3.11 VII.5.1 VII.5.2

242

14. Tauristae: see Taurisci

15. Tectosages

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τεκτόσαγες. In English they are called Tectosages. Latin? They were named after a tribe in Celtica.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Volcae and/or part of the Galatae. They were related to the Trocmi and the Tolistobogii, or in any case the Tectosagi who lived in Asia Minor.

Geographical notes

They lived in the country that joined the Cemmenus Mountain and the southern and northern sides of this mountain. Their territory was situated close to the Pyrenees. Some of them were expelled after a revolt and migrated to a territory near Greater Phrygia, close to Pessinus and Orcaorci, where they possessed a fortress called Ancyra.

Conditions of life

The ones who lived near the Pyrenees had a lot of gold in their territory.

History

After they had expelled some of them and these had migrated to Asia Minor, they lived around Ancyra. In Strabo’s time there still was a tribe named Tectosagi. They took part in the expedition to Delphi and stole some treasure.

Citations

IV.1.12 IV.1.13 IV.2.1 XII.5.1 XII.5.2

16. Tegeatans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τεγεάται, which became Tegeatae in Latin and Tegeatans in English.

History

They destroyed Mycenae and shared it between themselves, the Cleonaeans and the Argives.

243

Citations

VIII.6.19

17. Teïans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τήιοι. The Latin equivalent is Teii and in English they are called Teïans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Teos, but ended up in Lebedus. Some of them migrated to Abdera, while some others returned. They ruled Chalcideis – where they lived on the isthmus – and the isthmus of the Chersonesus with the Erythraeans. Erae was also ruled by them.

History

After a revolt broke out they sought refuge in Ephesus, after which they were settled in Myonnesus by Attalus. They begged the Romans to forbid the fortifying of Myonnesus and then moved to Lebedus. There were a few known people who originated from Abdera, i.e. Hecataeus the historian, Appelicon and Anacreon the melic poet.

Citations

ΧΙV.1.29 XIV.1.30 XIV.1.31 XIV.1.32

18. Telchines

Legend has it nine of them lived in Crete, and that some of them accompanied Rhea to Crete and reared Zeus, who were then called Curetes.

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Τελχῖνες, which became Telchines in both Latin and English.

Genealogy

They were sometimes said to have been related to the Curetes or to have been the same people.

Geographical notes

They were once in possession of Rhodes, which was then called Telchinis. They had ended up there after they had migrated from Cyprus, and even before that, from Crete.

244

Conditions of life

There was an ambivalent opinion concerning them. They had the reputation of being ‘maligners’ or ‘sorcerers’ who destroyed living things by pouring a mix of sulphur and water from the Styx over them. Others defended them and said they received that reputation from their rivals because they were very skilled in their craftsmanship. It is even said that they were the first to handle brass and iron, and were the makers of the scythe which was in the possession of Cronus.

Citations

XIV.2.7 X.3.7 X.3.19

19. Teleboans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τηλεβόαι, which became Teleboae in Latin and Teleboans in English. It is possible that the Taphians were the same people.

Geographical notes

They lived once in Acarnania, according to Aristotle, and ruled the islands of the Taphians.

Conditions of life

They were said to have been pirates. Their ruler was named Cephalus.

Citations

VII.7.2 X.2.20 X.2.24

20. Temmices

The Temmices were seen as barbarians.

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τέμμικες. In English they are called Temmices.

Geographical notes

They lived in Boeotia, though they originally came from Sunium.

Citations

VII.7.1 IX.2.3

245

21. Tenedii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τενέδιοι, which became Tenedii in Latin and English.

Genealogy

They seem to have been related to the inhabitants of Tenea.

Geographical notes

They lived in Tenedos, hence the name. They also possessed a part of the mainland, i.e. the Achaeïum. Larisa and Colonae were ruled by them.

Conditions of life

They worshipped a Sminthian Apollo.

Citations

VIII.6.22 XIII.1.44 XIII.1.46 XIII.1.47

22. Tent-dwellers

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Σκηνῖται, in English they are called Tent-dwellers. This name was mostly used for Nomads (see also there).

Genealogy

They were part of the Arabians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia, in the land beyond Mesopotamia. Their territory was situated in the mountains around Aria and Margiana.

Citations

II.5.32 VI.4.2 XI.10.1 XVI.1.8

246

23. Termessians

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Τερμησσεῖς, which became Termessians in English. It was yet another name for the Solymi.

Genealogy

They were part of the Pisidians.

Citations

XIII.4.16

24. Termilae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τερμίλαι. In English the version was Termilae. It was an older name for the Solymi who were then named Milyae. After Termilae they were called Lycians.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Carians.

Geographical notes

They migrated from Crete to Lycia, according to some they were transferred by the Cretans, according to others they travelled with Sarpedon.

Citations

XII.8.5 XIV.3.10 XIV.5.23

25. Tetarchoritae: see Bessi

26. Tetracomi: see Bessi

27. Teucrians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τεῦκροι, Teucri in Latin and Teucrians in English.

247

History

They were said by some to have come from Crete to Hamaxitus, where mice crowded them and so they stayed, obeying an oracle saying they should stay where 'the earth-born' attacked them. They gave the name of the mountain on Crete, Ida, to the mountain here; others just said Teucer came from Attica to Hamaxitus, without mentioning the Teucrians.

Citations

XIII.1.48

28. Teuristae: see Taurisci

29. Teutones

It is said the Belgae were the only people that could stop them.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τεύτονες. In Latin they are called Teutones or Teutoni. In English it became Teutones.

Genealogy

They were part of the Germans.

Citations

IV.4.3

30. Thebans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Θηβαῖοι, in Latin they are called Thebani and in Enlgish Thebans. Homer called them Hypothebans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Thebes, but were said to have fled to Alalcomenae and to Tilphossius.

History

According to legend they were once ruled by Amphion and Zethus. They were attacked by Amphiaraüs, Diomedes and the other Epigoni who bested them. They had to pay tribute to the

248

Orchomenians and their tyrant Eginus. In the battle of Leuctra they conquered the Lacedaemonians who ruled the Greeks and gave the arbitration of the arguing cities to the Achaeans. They restored Messesnê. When their general Epameinondas died, they lost their hegemony because they became fixated on military virtues, and ignored learning and make contact with mankind. They fought the Phocians on behalf of the Greeks. Their city was once lost to them, but they regained it. From that moment on they suffered a lot of bad luck.

Citations

VIII.4.8 VIII.5.5 VIII.7.1 IX.2.2 IX.2.5 IX.2.28 IX.2.32 IX.2.36 IX.2.40 X.2.25

31. Thespians

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Θεσπιεῖς, in Latin they were called Thespienses and in English Thespians.

Geographical notes

They lived next to Thisbê (or Thisbae) and possessed Eutresis.

Citations

IX.2.28

32. Thesprotians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Θεσπρωτοί, Thesprotii in Latin and Thesprotians in English.

Geogaraphical notes

They inhabited the region above Acarnania and Aetolia. Their fertile territory consisted of the coast which stretched from the Ceraunian Mountains to the Ambracian Gulf.

Citations

VII.7.1 VII.7.5

249

33. Thessalians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Θεσσαλοί, which became Thessali in Latin and Thessalians in English.

History

They made the Penestae their slaves.

Citations

XII.3.4

34. Thessalians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Θετταλοί. In Egnlish this became Thessalians.

Geographical notes

They founded Ravenna and possessed parts outside Pylae toward the east and the Maliac Gulf.

History

They offered shelter to some of the Ombri in Ravenna and left them the city when they returned to their home.

Citations

V.1.7 IX.4.17

35. Thracians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Θρᾷκες, which became Thraces or Thraeces in Latin and Thracians in English.

Genealogy

The Thynians, the Bithynians, the Medobithynians, the Bebrycians, the Mygdonians, the Brigians (who consisted of the Phrygians, who were colonists of the Thracians), the Mysians, the Getae, the Argeadae, the Doliones, the Bisaltae, the Edoni (consisting of the Sithones, the Edones and the Mygdones), the Paeones, the Trojans, the Treres, the Pieres and possibly the Mariandynians and the

250

Milesians who founded Heracleia were part of them. Some of them are called ‘Saraparae’. Others were called Xanthians or Scaeans. They were seen as possibly related to the Armenians and the Medes, for legend had it they all were descendants of Jason and Medeia.

Geographical notes

They lived in most parts of Thrace, south of the Ister and held parts of Macedonia. The Bastarnians, the Scythians, the Sarmatians and some Celtic tribes mingled with them. Their neighbours were the Getae and the Mysians. Their territory held some mountains, in which their mountaineers lived from the beginnings of the Paeonians and Macedonian Mountains to the Strymon River. The regions beyond the Strymon were also inhabited by them stretching as far as the estuary of the Pontus and the Haemus, the coast aside. They once possessed Attica. The Bistonian Thracians possessed Abdera, while the Cebrenian Thracians lived next to the river called Aribus which flowed through Thrace. They also settled down in a part of Boeotia and colonised the places around Abydus and Abydus itself.

Conditions of life

They were mentioned by Homer as ‘horse-tending’. A custom of tattooing existed amongst them. They were known for their ‘paeanismos’, which was called a ‘titanismos’ by the Greeks. This was the name for the chanting of the paeans. They practised the Cotytian and the Bendideian rites. They were said to have been the originators of the Orphic rites. Their music was seen as Asiatic. Orpheus, Musaeus, Thamyris and Eumolpus were all called Thracians, because they devoted themselves to music from earlier times. The ones who settled in Boeotia dedicated Helicon to the Muses and consecrated the cave of the nymphs called Leibethrides. They gave the Mysians the name ‘Bithynians’.

History

While their leader was Eumolpus, they were conquered by Ion, later on Peiroüs – the son of Imbrasus – became their ruler according to Homer. The Bistonian Thracians were ruled by Diomedes. Rhesus was also mentioned as their king. They sailed away from Troy together with the Eneti. Some of the Thracians who lived next to the Greeks, started a war against them together with the Macedonians, who lived next to them. The Thracians who lived beyond the Haemus were attacked by Philip. They expelled the Phoenicians, but were later in return driven out by them.

Citations

VI.4.2 VII.1.1 VII.3.2 VII.3.7 VII.3.8 VII.5.4 VII.5.10 VII.7.1 VII.7.4 VII.fr.11 VII.fr.40 VII.fr.43(44) VII.fr.57(58) VII.fr.61

251

VIII.7.1 IX.2.3 IX.2.25 X.3.16 X.3.16 X.3.17 XI.14.14 XII.3.3 XII.3.25 XII.4.4 XIII.1.8 XIII.1.21 XIII.1.22

36. Thunatae

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Θουνᾶται, in English this became Thunatae.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Dardaniatae.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Medi.

Citations

VII.5.7

37. Thurii

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Θούριοι, which became Thurii in both Latin and English.

History

There was a competition between them and the Locri Epizephyrii, for both of them strove to be very precise in their writing of the laws. The Thurii won, but became morally inferior, for the success of a law is not in its precision, but in its content. They flourished but were then conquered by the Leucani. The Tarantini saved them and they fled to Rome. The Romans sent some colonists to their country to repopulate it and named it Copiae.

Citations

VI.1.8 VI.1.13

38. Thynians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Θῦνοι, which becam Thyni in Latin and Thynians in English.

252

Genealogy

They were a Thracian tribe

Geographical notes

They lived near the Black Sea.

History

They left Europe.

Citations

VII.3.2

39. Thynians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Θυνοί, which became Thyni in Latin and Thynians in English.

History

They gave the name Bithynians to the Mysians and named the coast near Apollonia and Salmydessus ‘Thunias’.

Citations

XII.3.3

40. Tibareni

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τιβαρανοί. In English they are called Tibareni.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia, next to the Moschian and Colchian mountains. Their territory was situated above Trapezus and Phernacia with the Chaldaeans and the Sanni as neighbours and on the far end of the territory which was ruled by Mithridates Eupator.

History

They were reigned by Pythodorus, a wise woman, who was the daughter of Pythodorus of Tralles. Later they were ruled by Lesser Armenia.

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Citations

XI.14.1 XII.3.18 XII.3.28 XII.3.1 ΧΙΙ.3.29

41. Tigyreni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τιγουρῖνοι. In Latin they are called Tigurini and in English Tigyreni.

Genealogy

They were part of the Helvetii.

Conditions of life

They joined the Cimbri in their robbing.

Citations

VII.2.2

42. Titans

The Titans were the mythical descendants of Gaia.

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Τιτᾶνες, in Latin Titanes and in English Titans. Sometimes they were also called Pelagonians.

History

They were said to have given Corybantes to Rhea as armed ministers.

Citations

VII.fr.40 X.3.19

43. Tochari

Nomencalture

The Greek name for this people is Τόχαροι. The English equivalent is Tochari.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Scythians.

254

Conditions of life

They were nomadic.

History

They were the best known because they had taken away Bactriana from the Greeks.

Citations

XI.8.2

44. Toenii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τοίνιοι, which became Toenii in English. According to other editors it should have been Helvetii, or Ἑλουήττιοι.

Geographical notes

They lived near Lake Constance.

Citations

VII.5.1

45. Tolistobogii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τολιστοβώγιοι. The English version is Tolistobogii. They were named after their leader.

Genealogy

They were part of the Galatians, and related to the Tectosages and the Trocmi.

Geographical notes

They were immigrants from Celtica, though it was unknown from which country they set forth. They lived next to the Bithynians and Phrygia Epictetus. Their fortresses were Peïum (where Deïotarus, their ruler, kept his treasures) and Blucium (which was his royal residence).

Citations

IV.1.13 XII.3.13 XII.5.1 XII.5.2

255

46. Toreatae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τορεάται. In English this became Toreatae.

Genealogy

They were part of the Maeotae.

Citations

XI.2.11

47. Toygeni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τωύγενοι. The English equivalent is Toygeni.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Helvetii.

History

They warred against the Massaliotes and joined the Cimbri in their robbing.

Citations

IV.1.8 VII.2.2

48. Tracheiotae

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Τραχειῶται. In English they are called Tracheiotae.

Genealogy

They were part of the Cilicians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Cilicia, in Tracheia (hence the name) outside the Taurus.

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Citations

II.5.32 XIV.5.1

49. Trachinii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τραχίνιοι, which became Trachinii in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Trachin, a Phocian town, and possessed a city called Oechalia.

Citations

IX.3.14 X.1.10

50. Tralleians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τράλλεις. In English their name is Tralleians.

Genealogy

They were Thracians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Tralleis, a well defended city full of people. The men holding important office were called Asiarchs.

Citations

XIV.1.42

51. Treres

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τρῆρες, which became Treres in English. They might have been the same people as the Cimmerians (see there too).

Genealogy

They were Thracians.

257

Geographical notes

They possessed the land after Abydus and captured Sardeis together with the Lycians. They took it from the Cimmerians.

History

They migrated after the Trojan War, in which they fought the Trojans. A prince named Cobus ruled them. They were said to have attacked the regions on the right of the Pontus and the neighbouring land and even Paphlagonia and Phrygia. They were ultimately driven out by a Scythian king named Madys.

Citations

I.3.21 XII.3.24 XII.8.7 XIII.1.8 XIII.4.8

52. Treveri

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τρηούιροι, which became Treveri or Treviri in Latin and Treveri in English.

Geographical notes

They lived near the Rhenus with the Mediomatrici and the Tribocchi as their neighbours. Near them the Romans built a bridge.

Citations

IV.3.4

53. Triballians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τριβαλλοί, which became Triballians in English.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Thracians.

Geographical notes

They lived in a region stretching from the territory of the Agrianes as far as the Ister and Peuce. Their neighbours were the Little Scordisci.

258

History

They were once very powerful, but were first invaded by the Autariatae, then subdued themselves due to warfare against each other till the Macedonians under Alexander the Great conquered them. Their king Syrmus fled to Peuce. Later the Romans conquered them.

Citations

VII.3.8 VII.5.6 VII.5.11 VII.5.12

54. Tribocchi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τρίβοκχοι, which became Triboces in Latin and Tribocchi in English.

Genealogy

They were a Germanic tribe.

Geographical notes

They lived in the land of the Mediomatrici, near the Rhenus. Originally they came from the other side of the Rhenus. Their neighbours were the Treveri.

Citations

IV.3.4

55. Triclari

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τρίκλαροι, which became Triclari in English.

Geographical notes

The river called Erigon flowed from their territory.

Citations

VII.fr.20

259

56. Tricorii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τρικόριοι. In English they are called Tricorii.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the mountains which were situated above the Cavari. Their neighbours were the Medylli, the Iconii and the Vocontii.

Citations

IV.1.11 IV.6.5

57. Tridentini

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Τριδεντῖνοι, in English they are called Tridentini.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond Comum (Como) in the land that slopes towards the west. In the past they reigned Italy.

Conditions of life

They were brigandish and without own resources.

Citations

IV.6.6

58. Triphylians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τριφύλιοι, the English equivalent is Triphylians. Their name was derived from the fact that three peoples lived in their country (see infra).

Genealogy

They consisted of the Eleians, the Minyans and the Epeians. Sometimes the Minyans were replaced by the Arcadians.

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Geographical notes

They lived in Triphylia.

History

They had disappeared in Strabo’s time and their name with them.

Citations

VIII.3.3 VIII.3.30

59. Tritaeans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τριταιεῖς. In English they are called Tritaeans.

Geographical notes

They lived in Elis, with Scollis in their territory, although it was also part of the countries of the Dymaeans and the Eleians.

Citations

VIII.3.10

60. Trocmi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τρόκμοι, which became Trocmi in both Latin and English. They were named after their leader.

Genealogy

They were part of the Galatae, and were related to the Tectosages and the Tolistobogii.

Geographical notes

They were migrants from Celtica, though it is unknown from which country they set forth. They lived in the most remote parts of Greater Cappadocia. They were in possession of the region near Pontus and Cappadocia. Their three military posts were named Danala, Mithridatum and Tavium.

Citations

IV.1.13 XII.3.39 XII.5.1

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61. Troglodytes

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τρωγλοδύται, which became Troglodytae or Trogodytae in Latin and Troglodytes in English. It might have been a later name for the Erembians, who were mentioned by Homer, for Erembians could have been derived from ἔραν ἐμβαίνειν, which means ‘to go into the earth’ and became then Troglodytes, which means ‘cave-dwellers’.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Arabians and consisted of different tribes.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the side of the Arabian Gulf close to Egypt and Ethiopia, and their territory belonged to both these countries. The boundary between them and the Arabians was the Arabian Gulf. They lived in the region that was situated above Callatis (Mangalia), Tomis (Kostanza) and Ister (Karanasib), which were all situated near the sea. Their territory was close to the Caucasus and their neighbours were the Eisadici, the Polyphagi and the Chamaeoetae. The climate was mostly a summerly, only having a winter when the Etesian winds blew.

Physical information

The women coloured their eyelids with stibii and wore shells as amulets around their necks. All people wore light skins and carried clubs. Some of them were circumcised in the same way as the Egyptians.

Conditions of life

Since they lived rather far away, it was a famous thing to visit them, as Menelaus was said to have done. They lived in caves or in holes they dug in the ground and cultivated barley, even though they were nomadic. Their government was a tyranny. Their children and women were held in common except for those of the leader. Whenever anyone had slept with a leader's wife, he had to pay a sheep as punishment. When they went to war the men fought with their bare hands, later on with stones and at last with arrows and daggers. The women were the ones who reconciled them. Their food existed of flesh and bones, which were cooked put together in a skin as basket. They drank blood mixed with milk, or a concoction of buckthorn. A drink reserved to only the tyrants was a mixture of water and honey. Their dead were ill-treated for they fixed the necks of the corpses to the legs using twigs of buckthorn. Then they laid them somewhere and threw stones till they were buried under the

262 pile. On the barrow they placed a ram’s horn. They had a custom to travel at night. When they did this, they hung bells on the male cattle to scare the wild animals, but they also used bows and torches for this purpose. When they guarded their flock at night, they sat next to the fire and sang. All this information was told by Artemidorus. They traded with the Aegyptians.

History

They were subdued by Sesostris the Egyptian.

Citations

I.1.3 I.2.34 VII.5.12 XI.5.7 XVI.4.27 XVI.4.4 XVI.4.17 XVI.4.22 XVII.1.1 XVII.1.2 XVII.1.13 XVII.1.53 XVII.3.7

62. Trojans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τρῶες, which became Troiani or Troes in Latin and Trojans in English. Trojans is also sometimes used to describe all the peoples who were allies of the Trojans during the Trojan War. Together with the Lydians and the Mysians they were sometimes called Phrygians.

Genealogy

They may have been Thracians. They were closely related to the people of Attica, for it is said that Erichtonius was the founder of both of them. The Leleges and the Cilicians were also close relatives. For the tribes which were part of them: see conditions of life, dynasties.

Geographical notes

They lived in a large part of the Asian coast. Their territory stretched from the region of the Aesepus River (Gönen) and Cyzicenê to the Caïcus River (Bakırçay). They once possessed Siris. The boundaries between them and the Mygdonians and the Doliones around Cyzicus were difficult to mark.

Conditions of life

They were said to have been taught the Samothracian Mysteries by Dardanus. Priam was their king, but they were governed by eight or nine dynasties, i.e. the dynastie of Mynes, the Eëtion, the Leleges, the Dardanians, the Lycians, the ones in Abydus, the ones in Percotê and the ones from Adrasteia. Some of the names of places were also found in Thrace. Homer gave them the epith ‘that

263 fight in close combat’ (ἀγχιμαχηταί). In Strabo’s opinion they were faint-hearted for they didn’t attack the camp of the Greeks, even while it had no walls to protect them.

History

They found allies in the Cauconians and in the Eneti, but not in the nomads living beyond the Borysthenes River. Neither did they got allies from beyond the Halys River, but it is possible they received help from the people who lived next to the Amazons. According to Apollodorus all their allies from Asia lived on the peninsula, but Strabo claims there were also allies from outside. They were led by Hector in the Trojan War according to Homer, while the people from Abydus to Adrasteia had two leaders, named Asius and Merops. Ares is said to have cheered them.

Citations

VI.1.14 VII.fr.49(50) VIII.3.17 XII.3.22 XII.3.24 XII.3.25 XII.4.4 XII.8.7 XIII.1.2 XIV.5.22 XIII.1.7 XIII.1.21 XIII.1.24 XIII.1.35 XIII.1.36 XIII.1.48 XIII.3.1 XIV.3.3

63. Tubatii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τουβάττιοι. In English they were called Tubatii.

History

Some of them were captured by the Romans and led in a triumph.

Citations

VII.1.4

64. Turdetanians

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Τουρδητανοῖς, which became Turdetani in Latin and Turdetanians in English. They might have been the same people as the Turdulians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Iberia, in Turdetania. If they were the same as the Turdulians, they had travelled to the country around Nerium and fought there after they crossed the Limaeas River. Later on they spread out and stayed. If they were a different people, they lived south of the Turdulians, but had lost their

264 differences in Strabo’s time.

Conditions of life

They were seen as the wisest of the peoples who lived in Iberia, for they had develloped an alphabet which they used to write down their history, poems and laws. They possessed mines with copper and silver, which they deployed. They gained a big profit from these. The Romans have settled colonies amongst them and they became civilised for they lived their life in the same way as the Romans did and even spoke their language.

Citations

III.1.6 III.2.9 III.2.15 III.3.5

65. Turdulians: see Turdetanians

66. Turks: see Urgi

67. Tusci: see Tyrrheni

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τοῦσκοι, which became Tusci in both Latin and English. It was another name for the Tyrrheni and they were also called Etrusci.

Citations

V.2.2

68. Tymphaeans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τυμφαῖοι. The English version is Tymphaeans.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Epeirotes.

Geographical notes

They lived around a mountain which stretched as far as from Mount Corax upto Mount Parnasssus. They possessed Aeginium and tried to take possession of the sources of the Peneius River. The Amphilochians lived above them.

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Citations

VII.7.8 VII.7.9 VII.fr.6

69. Tyregetans

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Τυρεγέται. In English this became Tyregetans.

Geographical notes

They lived north of the Ister, with the Iazygian Sarmatians, the Getae and the Bastarnians as their neighbours.

Citations

II.5.30 VII.1.1 VII.3.1 VII.3.17

70. Tyrians

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Τυρίοι, which became Tyrii in Latin and Tyrians in English.

Geographical notes

They conquered a large part of Iberia. Once they inhabited the gulfs which come next after Emporicus Gulf, but these were already abandoned in Strabo’s time.

Conditions of life

They produced the famous Tyrian purple, made of the shell-fish they caught near the coast. They had always been autonomous, even under the Romans.

History

They are said to have received an oracle which told them to send some colonists to the Pillars of Heracles. Three parties were sent, of which the first two returned back home, but the last one founded Gades.

Citations

III.4.5 III.5.5 XVI.2.23 XVII.3.3

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71. Tyrrhenians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Τυρρηνοί, the Latin equivalent is Tyrrheni and the English version is Tyrrhenians. Their name was derived from Tyrrhenus, the son of Atys. This name was also sometimes used to indicate the Falerii or Falisci. Alternative names were Etrusci or Tusci.

Genealogy

They were Lydians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Tyrrhenia in the plains stretching as far as the Tiber which was situated on their eastern side. To the west the Tyrrhenian and the Sardinians Sea were situated. Their territory was separated from Latium, the Sabini and Ombrica through the Tiber and was two thousand five hundred stadia of length (starting from Lunato Ostia). Its breadth was less than one thousand two hundred fifty stadia. They were rivals of the Ombri, but mingled with the Romans. They attacked the people around the Padus and lived there for some time, but were then expelled. In Strabo’s time they had become Romans. They once held Herculaneum and Pompaia after the Osci, but they lost it to the Samnitae.

Conditions of life

Their government was a kingdom at first, but later they split up in different city-states. They also took up piracy and were sometimes accompanied by the people of Antium. Before the Cretans became pirates, it was them who ravaged the Mediterranean Sea. This they continued to do, even when they were subjects to Rome, till Demetrius complained and they had to stop. The Romans then a halt to their unchecked license. It was said they were less warlike than the Pisatae. They were not liked by the Thessalians because of their outrages. Hera was worshipped by them under the name of Cupra. They called 'pitheci' 'arimi', and in doing so, according to some, seemed to state that the inhabitants of the Pithecussae Islands were the Arimi, who were mentioned in Homer as living in the fertile Hydê.

History

They attacked the Agyllaei and captured Agylla. They changed its name to Caerea for when one of them had asked for the name of the city a man on the wall had greeted him saying ‘chaere’ instead of giving the name. Some of them assembled with other people who had been banished by Sulla on the place where the Volaterrani lived and there withstood a biennial siege after which they left the place under a truce. They were the builders of the city and the temple of Cupra, which was their name for

267

Hera. After they had expelled the Cumaei, they occupied Campania for a while and founded twelve cities there, with Capua as capital city. Because of their indulgent living however they became soft and lost it to the Samnitae.

Citations

V.1.10 V.2.1 V.2.5 V.2.2 V.2.3 V.2.5 V.2.6 V.1.7 V.2.9 V.3.5 V.4.2 V.4.3 V.4.8 VI.4.2 X.4.9 XIII.4.6

U.

1. Ubii

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὔβιοι which became Uii in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived on the right bank of the Rhenus, opposite the Treveri, but by their own permission they were moved to the left bank by Agrippa.

Citations

IV.3.4

2. Urgi

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Οὖργοι. In English they are called Urgi.

Geographical notes

They lived alongside the Ister (Danube).

Conditions of life

They were nomadic though some of them had taken up farming.

268

Citations

VII.3.17

3. Usipi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐσιπέται, which became Usipetes or Usipii in Latin and Usipi in English.

History

Some of them were captured by the Romans and led in a triumph.

Citations

VII.1.4

4. Uxii

Nomenclature

They were called Οὔξιοι in Greek. In English their name is Uxii.

Geographical notes

They lived next to Persis with the river Choaspes in their territory. Their neighbours were the Susians and the Mardi.

Conditions of life

According to Nearchus they were a hunting tribe.

Citations

XI.13.6 XV.3.4 XV.3.6

269

V.

1. Vaccaeans

They were a rather large tribe.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐακκαῖοι, which became Vaccaei in Latin and Vaccaeans in English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Iberia, east of Lusitania, and west of the Celtiberians. Other neighbouring people were the Carpetanians and the Vettonians. The Durius River flowed through their country and they possessed Acutia.

Citations

III.3.2 III.3.3 III.4.12

2. Varagri

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Οὐάραγροι. The English equivalent is Varagri.

Geographical notes

They lived on the mountain-peaks of the Alps, above the Salassi. Other neighbours were the Nantuates, the Catogriges and the Ceutrones. Lake Lemenna was also situated next to them.

Citations

IV.6.6

3. Vasconians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐάσκωναι, their Latin name is Vascones and in English they are called Vasconians.

Geographical notes

They lived in Iberia, next to the Cantabrians. They possessed a city called Calaguris. Their cities which

270 were situated the farthest, were Pompelo and Oeaso.

Conditions of life

They were mountaineers.

Citations

III.3.7 III.4.10

4. Vellavii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Οὐελλάϊοι which beccame Vellavii in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Aquitania, between the Garumna and the Liger. Their neighbours were the Elui and the Arverni.

Conditions of life

They were first subjected to the Arverni, but in Strabo’s time they were autonomous.

Citations

IV.2.22

5. Veneti

Nomenclature

Their name in Greek is Οὐένετοι, in Latin and in English they are called Veneti. They are possibly the same people as the Henetians and the Enetians. They are also called the Paphlagonians sometimes.

Genealogy

They were a tribe of the Belgae.

Geographical notes

They used Britain as emporium and colonised the Adriatic Sea.

History

They fought a naval battle with Caesar but were conquered.

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Citations

IV.4.1

6. Vennones

Together with the Licatii and the Clautenatii they were the boldest tribes of the Vindelici.

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐέννωνες. In English they are called Vennones.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Vindelici.

Geographical notes

They lived beyond Comum (Como) in the land that slopes towards the east. The Rhaeti were their neighbours.

Citations

IV.6.6 IV.6.8

7. Veronians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Βήρωνες, in Latin they were called Veronenses and in English Veronians.

Genealogy

They were part of the Celts.

Geographical notes

They conquered a part of Iberia, where they lived north of the Celtiberians. Next to them lived the Cantabrian Coniscans. They inhabited a city called Varia and were neighbours of the Bardyetans.

Citations

III.4.5 III.4.12

272

8. Vestini

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐηστῖνοι, which became Vestini in both Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in the Apennines, next to the Sabini. The river called Liris (Liri) flowed through their territory which barely touched the sea. It was situated beyond the Picentine land. They inhabited some villages, but they also had a few cities. Their harbour, which was called Aternum, was also used by the Peligni and the Marrucini.

History

Although they were a small tribe, they were very brave for they warred against the Romans. Later on they allied themselves with them till they revolted in the Marsic War, wanting political rights and freedom. After two years of war they received that.

Citations

V.2.1 V.3.1 V.3.6 V.4.2

9. Vettonians

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Οὐέττωνες which became Vettones in Latin. In English they are called Vettonians.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the interior of Iberia. West of them was Lusitania and to the east were the Celtiberians. Other neighbours were the Carpetanians and the Vaccaeans. The Durius River flowed through their country. Another river in their territory was the Tagus, which was full of fish and oysters.

Conditions of life

They believed the Romans to be crazy for they walked for the pleasure of the walking itself. To their opinion one could better remain seated or fight instead of just walking around.

273

Citations

III.1.6 III.3.1 III.3.2 III.3.3 III.4.12 III.4.16

10. Vindelici

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐινδολικοί which became Vindelici in Latin and in English.

Genealogy

They consisted of the Vennones, the Clautenatii and the Licatii.

Geographical notes

They lived near Lake Constance, in which the Rhenus ended. They also inhabited the Alps and the country beyond them.

History

They fought against Tiberius in a naval battle.

Citations

IV.3.3 IV.6.8 VII.1.5 VII.5.1

11. Vitii

Nomenclature

The Greek name of this people is Οὐίτιοι. In English they are called Vitii.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia, on this side of the Armenian mountains together with the Anariacae, the Amardi, the Cadusii and the Gelae. They lived near the sea.

Citations

XI.7.1 XI.8.8

12. Vocontii

Nomenclature

In Greek they are called Οὐοκοντίοι. Both in Latin and in English their name is Vocontii.

274

Geographical notes

They lived in the mountains above the Cavari. The Medulli, the Iconii and the Tricorii were their neighbours, as well as the Albioeici. They possessed the northern parts of these mountains, stretching as far as the Allobroges.

Conditions of life

They were autonomous.

Citations

IV.1.3 IV.1.11 IV.6.4

13. Volcae

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐόλκαι, in both Latin and English it became Volcae.

Genealogy

Some of them were called Arecomisci.

Geographical notes

They lived next to the Rhodanus. Parallel to them, at the other side of the river lived the Cavari and the Sallyes. Some of them lived around Nemausus (Nîmes) and were autonomous.

Citations

IV.1.11 IV.6.4

14. Volsci

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Οὐόλσκοι, which became Volsci in Latin and English.

Geographical notes

They lived in Latium and made Suessa their metropolis.

History

They existed already when Rome was founded. They were conquered by the Romans who founded a lot of their cities.

275

Citations

V.3.2 V.3.4 V.3.10

X.

1. Xandii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ξανδίοι. In English this became Xandii. An alternative name for them is Parii, Παρίοι in Greek and Parii in Latin. It is possible that they were the same as the Xanthii.

Genealogy

They were a part of the Däae. This name was used for the Däae who lived above Lake Maeotis.

Citations

XI.9.3

2. Xanthians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ξανθίοι, Xanthians in English. They had their name in common with the river Xanthus near Troy.

Genealogy

They were Thracians.

Citations

XIII.1.21

3. Xanthii

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ξάνθιοι. Their English name is Xanthii. It is possible they were the same as the Xandii.

276

Genealogy

They were part of the Däae.

Citations

XI.8.2

Z.

1. Zacynthians

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ζακύνθιοι, which became Zacynthii in Latin and Zacynthians in English.

Geographical notes

They founded Saguntum which was destroyed by Hannibal.

Citations

III.4.6

2. Zanclaeans

Nomenclature

The Greek name for this people is Ζαγκλαῖοι. Their name is Zanclaei in Latin and Zanclaeans in English.

Geographical notes

Some of them lived in Mylae and founded Himera.

History

They sent for the Chalcidians and made Antimnestus their founder-in-chief.

Citations

VI.1.6 VI.2.6

277

3. Zugi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ζυγοί, in English it became Zugi.

Geographical notes

They lived in Asia. They were pirats or nomads.

Citations

XVII.3.24

4. Zumi

Nomenclature

Their Greek name is Ζούμοι, which became Zumi in English.

History

They were ruled by Marabodus.

Citations

VII.1.3

5. Zygi

The Zygi were mentioned by historians of the Mithridatic Wars and are said to have been rather wild.

Nomenclature

In Greek their name is Ζυγοί, in English it became Zygi.

Geographical notes

They inhabited the Cis-Tauran lands north of Hyrcania. Their territory was rather rugged and stretched to the sea of India, to farther Scythia and to Mount Imaeus. Their neighbours were the Sindici, the Heniochi and the Achaei.

Citations

ΙΙ.5.31 XI.2.1 XI.2.13 XI.2.14

278