Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic (the Barents Sea, the White Sea, the Kara Sea)

Ninth century 870–890 The travel of Otar, a Viking from the Norwegian province of Hologaland (now Helgeland), who discovered the way to the White Sea. The story of this journey was recorded from his own words by the English King, Alfred the Great. 9th–10th century The beginning of the Russian advance to the north and northeast and their appearance on the shores of the White Sea and the Barents Sea. Tenth century 920 The Viking Eirik Bloodaxe sailed in the mouth of the Northern Dvina (it was called “Vina” in the sagas). 965 The son of Eirik Bloodaxe, the Viking Harald Grey Cloak made a trip to the mouth of the Northern Dvina. Eleventh century 11th century The people of Novgorod, coming out of the White Sea, won Biarmia, the country located on the Pechora River and the Northern Dvina. 1026 The mouth of the Northern Dvina was visited by the Viking Torer Dog, who first engaged in peaceful trade but ended up plundering the temple of Iomala (supposedly located on the site of the current Kholmogory). Twelfth century 12th century (first The mention in the annals of the Terskiy Shore (the White Sea Throat), among Novgorod’s half) possessions. 1110 or 1130 The archbishop of Novgorod, John, founded a monastery of the Archangel Michael (at the mouth of the Northern Dvina), at which there was a settlement, an early precursor of the port and the city of Arkhangelsk. Thirteenth century 1222 Ivar Gacon, a warrior of the King of Norway from the Gulf, sailed at the mouth of the Northern Dvina. On the way back his ship was wrecked at the entrance to the White Sea. Fourteenth century 1302, 1320, 1323, The Belomorskiye armed forces performed sea voyages from the White Sea around the Kola 1349 Peninsula to Norway. Fifteenth century 1411 The sea campaign of the people from Dvina and Ustyug to Northern Norway, headed by Posadnik (governor of medieval Russian city-state, appointed by prince or elected by citizens) Yakov Stepanovich. 1412 The sea raid of Russian armed forces from the Dvina land to Northern Norway. 1419 The Norwegians sent to the White Sea a squad, which plundered and ravaged the villages in the deltas of the Varzuga, the Onega, and the Northern Dvina. During the repulse of the attack two Norwegian ships were captured. The first voyage of the White Sea industrialists to Novaya Zemlya. (continued)

# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 475 I.S. Zonn et al., The Western Arctic Seas Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-25582-8 476 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1427 The White Sea is depicted as the Gulf of the Arctic Ocean on the map of Claudius Klavusa. 1435 The monk Zosima founded the Solovetsky Monastery on the Solovetsky Islands. 1445 The attack of the Norwegian troops from the sea at the mouth of the Northern Dvina. 1491 In Varzuga, a large village of the Pomors, the temple of Nicholas of Myra (popularly called Nicholas Pomor, the patron saint of seafarers) was built. 1494 The voyage of the Moscow Ambassadors D. Zaitsev and D. Grek from Denmark around the Scandinavian Peninsula to the White Sea. 1496 The voyage of Moscow Ambassador G. Istoma on four ladyas (boats) from Novgorod to Copenhagen via Velikiy Ustyug, the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean around the Scandinavian Peninsula to the City of Trondheim (Norway), as a result of which the navigation (as defined by Academician B. A. Rybakova) description “Sailing in the Arctic Ocean” was made. The sea campaign of the people from Dvina and Ustyug to Northern Norway under the command of the governors of Moscow Ivan Lyapun and Peter Ushatyy. 1497 The voyage of the diplomats from Moscow, Dmitry Zaitsev and mates, from Copenhagen to the mouth of the Northern Dvina. 1500–1501 The voyage of the envoys of Ivan III, Tretyak Dalmatov, and Yuri Manuylov Grek, from the Northern Dvina to Denmark. Sixteenth century 1517 The farmers of Antonevo-Siysk Monastery in the lower reaches of the Northern Dvina, Terentiy and Grigoriy Tsivilёvs, Fedor and Nazar Timofeyevs made a routine trip to the Ob on their kocha (boat). The map by S.Gerbershteyn was printed. It was the first to include the Solovki (Solovetsky Islands). 1532 The Bavarian scientist Jacob Ziegler compiled the “Eighth Map, Containing the Skandinavsky Peninsula and the Most Powerful Kingdom of Norway, Sweden, Gothia, Finland, as well as the Area Inhabited by the Lapps.” 1550 The construction of the Kola stockade town. 1553 The first English expedition went into the Arctic Ocean to search for the Northeast Passage to India. The expedition consisted of three ships under the command of H. Willoughby. Around the coast of Norway the squad was divided. H. Willoughby with two ships went to the shores of the islands of Novaya Zemlya, but he died at the Murmansk coast. The commander of the third vessel, Edward Bonaventure, Richard Chancellor, passing along the Murmansk coast entered the White Sea and reached the mouth of the Northern Dvina River, arriving at Arkhangelsk. Then he went to Moscow, where he met with the Tsar of Russia, Ivan Vasilyevich IV the Terrible. 1554 The agreement on the trade of the Moscow State with England, through the White Sea, was signed. 1555 The first Russian pilot assistance at the mouth of the Northern Dvina River was set up. The English merchant Richard Gray built in Kholmogory a rope manufactory, which became the first Russian factory. 1556 According to the materials of the English navigator, the first among the Western Arctic explorers, S. Barrow, a map of the Barents Sea was compiled. The “Society of Merchants and Prospectors” organized an expedition in London, headed by R. Chensler, visiting the White Sea for the second time. The Englishman Stephen Burrough, on a small ship Searchthrift, searching for the Northeast Passage to China and India, arrived in Kholmogory, where he wintered. 1555–1557 The magnetic variation at the mouth of the Pechora River, the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach Island and in the village of Kholmogory was defined. 1557 The English merchant and captain A. Jenkinson came to Novye Kholmogory. 1564 A Danish expedition tried to go to China via the Arctic from Iceland, went to the Novaya Zemlya, but had to return due to the heavy ice. The description of it was given by Dietmar Blefken, a member of the expedition. 1565 The Dutch established a trading station in Kola. The Dutchman Oliver Brunel performed a voyage from Kola to Kholmogory, on a Russian ship. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 477

1569–1594 G. Mercator’s map, which depicts the White Sea, but neither the Onega Bay nor the Kanin Nos Peninsula, was published. 1570 The Dutch merchant Simon Van Salingen went through all the bays and harbors of the White Sea coast and conducted the first hydrographic surveys in Murman (between the Kola Bay and Svyatoy Nos). The beginning of the construction of ships in the Vologda Region for the White Sea and Baltic Sea under the direction of the Moscow Tsar Ivan IV. 1572 The first buildings of the Pomors appeared at the confluence of the Osetrovka and the Taz Rivers. 1576 The Russian vessel under the direction of O. Brunel went from the Pechora Delta to the Ob via the Yugorskiy Shar. 1577 The first Dutch vessel came to the mouth of the Northern Dvina. 1578 A fortress was built in Kem. 1580 A British expedition of two small vessels, George (40 t) and William (20 t), under the command of Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, got into the Kara Sea (the first British to do that). The ship William vanished on the way back. The description of this voyage was found in 1875 in the Ice Harbor on the Novaya Zemlya, in the form of a manuscript. 1583 Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible issued a special charter ordering the magistrates Peter Naschokov and Nikifor Zaleshanin to find a port city “at the Dvina River,” near the Archangel Monastery, 42 versts (an old Russian measure of distance equal to 3500 feet or 1.067 km) from the White Sea. 1584 The voyage of the Dutch O. Brunel to the Novaya Zemlya. His ship was wrecked in the Sangeyskiy Shar (Pechora). The Dutch Simon Van Salingen arrived at Kola as a diplomatic representative of the Danish King Frederick II, whom he promised to compile a sea map. The first Russian commercial Port of Novye Kholmogory was built (Novokholmogory – the future Arkhangelsk). 1585 According to the Tsar’s decree, Arkhangelsk became the only city where foreigners could buy goods from the interior regions of the country. 1587 Frencis Cherry, an agent of the British trading company in Moscow, said that “there is the Warm Sea behind the Ob.” 1590–1592 The attack of the Swedish armed forces at Pomorje and Kola. Kola was burnt down. 1591 “Navigation Guidelines” by the Dutchman Luke Wagener was compiled, based on the data of the Pomorian survey of the White and Barents Seas. The Dutch merchant Simon Van Salingen published his essay “On the Lopii Land,” in which he described his journey in the White Sea in the 1570s. 1594 The first Dutch expedition of W. Barents with the objective of finding a sea route to the Pacific Ocean through the Arctic waters. The expedition of two ships under his command reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya. Five hundred kilometer of its coastline, Admiralteystva Island and a group of small islands of Oranskiye were mapped for the first time. The Dutch merchant ship Swan, under the command of Cornelis Nay, came into the Kara Sea (they called it the New North Sea then). 1595 The Tyavzinsky Agreement between Sweden and Russia was signed. Under the agreement, Sweden took the obligation not to attack the Kola stockade; the collection of tribute from the Lapps was prohibited until the final demarcation of areas in Lapland. The second Dutch expedition of W. Barents, who performed the duties of Chief Navigator and Captain of one of the seven ships. The expedition managed to reach the Strait of Yugorskiy Shar and get to the Kara Sea for a short distance. The first description of Vaygach Island was given. 1596–1597 The third Dutch expedition of W. Barents, which reached Spitsbergen Island, where the traces of frequent visits of Russian sailors to the Archipelago were discovered, as well as the Archipelago of Novaya Zemlya, where in the Ice Harbor of the Kara Sea, on the west coast of the North Island of Novaya Zemlya W. Barents wintered and later died. The map of the Barents Sea from the North Cape to the Novaya Zemlya, composed by the Dutchman Gerrit de Veer, a member of the expedition of W. Barents to Novaya Zemlya, was published. (continued) 478 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1598 The map of the Arctic countries by W. Barents was published in Amsterdam. The book by Gerrit de Veer Voyages of Barents was published (translated into Russian in 1936). 1599 The Duma scribe (a government official in Russia in the fourteenth–seventeenth centuries) Vlasyev brought to Arkhangelsk two ships with the crew (navigators, sailors, masters), built by the order of Tsar Boris Godunov at the shipyards of Lubeck in Germany. 16th century (at the The appearance of the first Pomorian handwritten navigation directions. The first “Big Plans” end) “around the Muscovy, to all the surrounding states” were represented in the Razryadny Prikaz, with the scale of about 1:1,850,000. The Atlas of J. Van Keulen was published in Dutch in Amsterdam, it was known as the “See- torch.” The atlas shows the first map of the White Sea, compiled from the words of the Russian Pomorians. It was used until the middle of the eighteenth century. From this map in 1701 in Moscow A. Schonebeck etched the first maps of the White Sea in Russian. Seventeenth century 1601 The Dutch Simon Van Salingen made a map of Scandinavia. 1602 The first Russian shipyard was founded in Arkhangelsk. 1604 The first vessel from Hamburg arrived at the mouth of the Northern Dvina. 1607 Mangazeysky service class people came to the mouth of the Yenisei. 1608–1609 The expedition equipped by the East India Company, led by G. Hudson, which had the objective of finding a sea passage to China, reached the Novaya Zemlya. 1609 A map of the north of Russia and Siberia, which featured the deltas of the Yenisei, Pyasina, and the coast of the Gydan Peninsula, was compiled in Moscow. 1610 A group of traders from Dvina, headed by Kondratiy Kurochkin and Osip Shepunov sailed on kochas to the mouths of the Yenisei and Pyasina. 1612 The Dutch merchant Isaac Massa described the Russian march to the coast of Taymyr in 1605. 1613 Great Britain announced Spitsbergen (Svalbard) its own territory, giving it the name of “The New Earth of King James.” The marine campaign of Shestak Ivanov from Mezen who sailed from Mangazeya to Arkhangelsk. The units of Polish-Lithuanian invaders came to Kolmogory (Kholmogory), stayed there for 3 days, and then left for the Korelskiy Monastery of St. Nicholas (now the territory of Severomorsk). The country’s first Pilot Service was organized in Arkhangelsk. 1616–1619 Archers from Mangazeya surveyed the coastline between the rivers of Kara and Yenisei. 1619 The decree of Russian Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich banning the “Mangazeysky voyage (from Pomorje to Mangazeya) under penalty of death.” The Yenisei Province was created. 1627 The book To the Big Draft, which included “The Sea Rivers, Painting the Shore of the Arctic Ocean” was compiled in Moscow. 1629 Erofei Khabarov Taymyr from Ustyug made a trip from Mangazeya to Taimyr. 1651–1652 The expedition to search for silver ore on the Novaya Zemlya, headed by Roman Neplyuev. 1653 The royal decree allowing the farmer from the Arkhangelsk Province I. Khobarov pilot to Arkhangelsk and take to sea “trade ships of different lands,” which was the beginning of the creation of the sea pilot service in Russia. 1667 The Tobolsk governor P. Godunov ordered to stop sailing to Mangazeya through the Gulfs of Ob and Taz. 1671 Ivan Neklyudov sailed to the Novaya Zemlya in order to search for silver ores. 1672 The second attempt of Ivan Neklyudov to reach the Novaya Zemlya in order to search for silver ores. 1676 The voyage of the English captain John Wood to the Novaya Zemlya. 1686 The tradesman from Turukhansk Ivan Tolstoukhov tried to sail on three kochas from the Yenisei River along the western coast of Taymyr in order to reach the mouth of the Lena. He died near Faddey Island. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 479

1690 The expedition ship of Rodion Ivanov was wrecked at the Sharapovy Koshki Islands off the west coast of the Yamal Peninsula. The wintering of 15 manufacturers, four of which survived, including R. Ivanov, who gave a description of the Sharapovy Koshki Islands. 1693 The first trip to Arkhangelsk and the voyage of Russian Tsar Peter I in the White Sea on the 12-gun-boat Svyatoy Petr (Saint Peter). The first Russian “new manner” marine vessel – the 12-gun ship Apostol Pavel (St. Paul), with the length of 26.2 m, the width of 6.7 m excluding the sheathing, was laid in Arkhangelsk, thus initiating state shipbuilding in Russia. F.M. Apraksin accompanied Peter I to Arkhangelsk, was appointed Voivode of Dvinsk and Governor of Arkhangelsk, and supervised the construction of the first merchant ship in Solombala. Peter I founded the first Russian state-owned enterprise “Solombalskaya Shipyard.” Peter I visited Kholmogory. 1694 The ship, ordered by Peter I with the assistance of the Dutch cartographer N. Witsen, was delivered to Arkhangelsk. The second trip to Arkhangelsk and a voyage of Peter I in the White Sea with a group of three ships. The first map of the Solovetsky Islands was presumably compiled at this time. Peter I participated in the ceremonial launching of the first Russian merchant ship Apostol Pavel. Eighteenth century 18th century, the The first in the northern seas beacon building – a wooden tower was built on Mudyug Island in beginning the White Sea. 1701 The Novodvinsk fortress was laid on the island of Linsky Priluk in the Berezov mouth of the Northern Dvina. The engraver from Holland Adriaan Schoonebeek etched: “The Draft of the River of Dvina or Arkhangelskaya,”“The Dimensional Map, Starting from the Narrow Aisle Between the Russian and White Seas,” and “The Dimensional Map from Pyalitsa Even to Kovada According to the Best Test.” A failed attempt of the Swedish squadron of Vice-Admiral Sheblat (seven two-mast ships) to make a landing at the mouth of the Northern Dvina River near Novodvinskaya fortress with the objective to destroy Arkhangelsk, its shipyards, and ships. The squadron was met by the fire of the battery under Colonel Zhivotovsky. Two ships were sunk. 1702 Vice-Admiral K.I. Kryuys was sent by Peter I to Arkhangelsk, where he led the construction of the ships and fortifications in Arkhangelsk. He was the creator of the military port. The Russian squadron under his command took the Noteburg fortress. The third trip of Peter I to Arkhangelsk and founding the Novodvinskaya fortress according to his directions. Peter I ordered to lay in Solombala two small frigates Svyatoy Dukh (Holy Spirit) and Kuryer (Courier), which were launched in the presence of the Tsar. From Arkhangelsk the frigates came to the Nyukhcha pier, Karelia at the White Sea, and then they were dragged 160 miles to Lake Onega. 1703–1704 The creation of marine animal and whale hunting company of Duke Menshikov and the Shafirov brothers. 1705 The first warning marks (“pilot-barrels”) were set in the fairway of the Northern Dvina River. 1711 The Dutch traveler and painter Bruin published the book Cornelia de Bruin’s Journey Through Muscovy, 1701, 1708. 1714 F.S. Saltytkov, a well-known figure of the Petrine Era, presented to Tsar Peter I the project “On the Search for the Free Marine Path from the Dvina River, even to the Amur Mouth and China.” Peter I approved of the proposal of F.S. Saltykov concerning the feasibility of the development of the northern border regions of Russia. 1715 The termination of the military shipbuilding in Arkhangelsk. 1720–1721 Setting up the expedition with the participation of P. Chichagov, a land surveyor and Miller, a merchant, with the objective to find a marine pass from the Ob mouth to the east. (continued) 480 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1722 By a decree of Peter I all the foreign trade was relocated from Arkhangelsk to the banks of the Neva in St.-Petersburg. 1723–1724 The foundation of the “Kola whaling” company. 1723–1725 Trade voyages of the Bazhenins’ galiot from Arkhangelsk to the Pechora, headed by the helmsman Andrei Shnyarov. 1727 Three vessels of “Kola whaling” first hunted the whale in the waters of Spitsbergen (Svalbard). The French astronomer Ludwig (Luis) De L’Isle de la Croyère (De L’Isle Nikolay Iosifovich), who was invited to Russia by St.-Petersburg Academy of Sciences, started the cartographic work in the Arkhangelogorodskaya Province, which lasted for 3 years. He determined the coordinates of Arkhangelsk. Due to the imperfection of the instruments and methods of calculating of that time, the longitude was determined with an accuracy of 2. The publication of the decree for permission to conduct foreign trade through Arkhangelsk. 1727–1798 A number of inspections and marine reconnaissance inventory of the White Sea were made by the sailors of the Russian fleet Deoper, Kazakov, Bestuzhev, Belyaev, M. Nemtinov, Grigorkov, Domozhirov, Yarovtsev, I. Fedorov, Tokmachev. 1729 A handwritten copy of the map of the Solovetsky Islands was made from the original, composed by an anonymous inventory and being the first known Russian map of the White Sea. The map showed the outlines of Solovetsky and Anzer Islands, the settlement of the Solovetsky Monastery and, also, presented a rare coastal survey. Training sailing of vessels to Arkhangelsk and back under the command of D.I. Kalmykov. It was attended by the future Admiral, A.I. Nagaev. 1732 Empress Anna Ivanovna signed a decree on the administration of the second Kamchatka expedition, led by Captain-Commander Vitus Bering (the First Academic or the Great Northern Expedition) 1733 The first Dvina-Ob party of the Great Northern Expedition (1733–1743), with the objective to develop a sea route from the Northern Dvina to Ob, departed from Arkhangelsk. The northern sailors of the Kormakulovs built for the party two koches, Expeditsion and Ob. The detachment, led by Lieutenant S.V. Muravyev and M.S. Pavlov, and (since 1736) S. G. Malygin (1700–1764), the latter received for the expedition two more boats, built in Arkhangelsk. The Admiralty established in the Admiralty Nautical School in Arkhangelsk. 1733–1743 The research of the Great Northern Expedition. 1734 The beginning of the observations of the opening and freezing of the Northern Dvina River. Two koches, Expeditsion and Ob, under the command of lieutenants and S.V. Muravyev and M.S. Pavlov, left the mouth of the Northern Dvina to make the inventory of the coastline from Arkhangelsk to the mouth of the Ob River. 1734–1736 The unsuccessful operation of the first party of the Kara-Ob Great Northern Expedition, under the command of lieutenants S.V. Muravyev and M.S. Pavlov, on special vessels Expeditsion and Ob into the Kara Sea. Wintering in the area of the Pechora. A survey of Vaygach Island was carried out. The second wintering at the mouth of the Pechora River. Both of the lieutenants were recalled to St.-Petersburg, tried and demoted to sailors due to “numerous lazy and silly acts.” 1736–1737 The Dvina-Ob party of the Great Northern Expedition, under the command of S.G. Malygin and A. Skuratov, finished the inventory of the coastline from the White Sea to the Northernmost point of Yamal and found a passage from the sea in the Gulf of Ob. 1736 Lieutenant S.G. Malygin was appointed the new head of the Kara-Ob party. 1737 The expedition ship of the Ob and Yenisei party, under the command of D. M. Ovtsyn, after 4-year-long attempts passed from the Gulf of Ob to the Yenisei. S.G. Malygin carried out the inventory of the Yamal Peninsula and the Gulf of Ob. 1738–1739 The vessels of the Dvina-Ob party, under the command of S.G. Malygin made (with one enforced wintering) the return voyage from Berezov, at the Ob, to Arkhangelsk. 1738–1740 The voyage of Obi-Pochtalyon boat, commanded by F.A. Minin and overland trips of Sterlegov to the east of the Yenisei. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 481

1740 The gukor Kronshlot, under the command of V. Vinkov, made the transition from Kronstadt to Arkhangelsk, delivering artillery equipment. F.I. Soymonov compiled the General Map of the White Sea (not published). 1741–1742 The Lena-Khatanga party of the Great Northern Expedition carried out the overland work on the inventory of the coast of the Taymyr Peninsula. During these operations the navigator Chelyuskin reached the northernmost point of the Eurasian continent – Cape Chelyuskin. 1741 Lieutenant V. Vinkov was sent to Kola to make an inventory of the Kola Bay. The chief navigator E. Bestuzhev described the west coast of the Kanin Peninsula, Lieutenant Sukhotin surveyed the White Sea coast from Arkhangelsk to Mezen and the coast of the Kanin Nos Peninsula to Cape Kanin Nos. 1741–1742 Lieutenant V. Vinkov conducted the first Russian reconnaissance inventory of the Murmansk coast in the vicinity of the Kola Bay from Kildin Island. The Russian military squadron sailed on the cruiser along the coasts of the Kola Peninsula and Northern Norway. Ekaterininskaya (Catherine) harbor was founded in the Kola Bay. 1743 Admiral S.I. Mordvinov was appointed Captain of the Port of Arkhangelsk. 1743–1749 The 6-year-wintering on Spitsbergen (Svalbard) of four fishermen from Mezen: Ivan and Alexey Khimkovs, Stepan Shchipachev, and Fedor Verigin. 1744 S.I. Mordvinov, who commanded Poltava battleship, built in Arkhangelsk for the Baltic Fleet, transferred it to Kronstadt. 1745 The Academy of Sciences published a map of the Russian Lapland, the first map of the Kola Peninsula, compiled on a mathematical basis. It was included in the Atlas of the Russian Empire. 1746–1747 Surveys in the White Sea, under the leadership of Zhidovinov and Ivanov. 1749 The ship Varahail capsized and sank in the White Sea while exiting the mouth of the Northern Dvina. Twenty-eight members of the crew died (the commander M.P. Shpanberg). 1750 The guard ship service for Customs inspection and maintenance of foreign ships to Kola was organized in the Kola Bay. 1753 The Senate lifted the ban of 1704 thus allowing free navigation from Pomorje to the rivers of Ob and Taz. 1756–1757 The navigators Belyaev and Tolmachev, within the expedition of the Admiralty Board, conducted the survey of the Winter Coast from Arkhangelsk to Mezen and the east coast of the Mezensky Peninsula to Cape Kopushin. 1760 S. Lozhkin, a helmsman from Olonetsk, went to the eastern shores of Novaya Zemlya through the Strait of Karskiye Vorota (Kara Gate). After two winterings he rounded it from the north and arrived back in Arkhangelsk from the western side. Thus, S. Lozhkin was first to prove that Novaya Zemlya is an island 1761 The first information about private pilots from the Onega Bay who steered vessels to sawmills in the village of Soroka and the towns of Onega and Mezen. 1763 Mikhail Lomonosov presented to the Swedish Academy of Sciences his work “Thoughts on the Origin of Icy Mountains in the Northern Seas.” 1764 A map of the Gulf of Klokbay on Spitsbergen (Svalbard) was compiled. A squad of polar explorers, under the command of Lieutenant M. S. Nemtinov, went from Arkhangelsk to the Spitsbergen Archipelago on the “pinka”-boat Slon and “gukor”-boats St. John, St. Dionysius, St. Nikolai, and Natalia with the objective to organize the base for the expedition of V.Ya. Chichagov. According to the results of the voyage, a map of the archipelago was made. 1765 On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, supported by the Admiralty Board, the first high polar expedition (the ships Chichagov, Panov, and Babaev), under the command of V.Ya. Chichagov, was sent with the task of finding a sea route to the west of Arkhangelsk, across the Arctic Ocean to the shores of North America. Due to the severe ice conditions two attempts of the ship to go beyond the Svalbard Archipelago failed and it returned to Arkhangelsk in 1766. 1765–1769 The first Russian sea expedition to the Barents Sea, financed by the Russian Government. (continued) 482 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1766 The helmsmen from Arkhangelsk Ya. Chirakin allegedly “again” rediscovered the strait, known as the Matochkin Shar nowadays (has been known since the sixteenth century). He went through the Matochkin Shar Strait from the west to the east, to the Kara Sea and made a plan of the strait. A small book Adventure of Four Russian Sailors to the Island of Ost-Spitsbergen, Who Were Brought by a Storm, written by Peter Ludwig-Leroy, was published. 1768–1769 The expedition to Novaya Zemlya, headed by Fedor Rozmyslov, surveyed and mapped the Strait of Matochkin Shar. 1769 The first at the White Sea capital lighthouse (wooden), Zhizhgin was built. Lieutenant M. Nemtinov continued work of Belyaev and Tolmachev, surveying the coast of Letniy up to the Onega. 1770 The first realistic map of the White Sea, created based on the Russian inventories by E. Bestuzhev, Belyaev, M. Nemtinov, and Dutch maps was produced. It was used in manuscript form until 1778. The map was “flat,” the scale of about 1: 640,000. 1772 The member of St.-Petersburg Academy of Sciences, I.I. Lepekhin toured various provinces of Russia, including a visit to the Arkhangelsk Province within the expedition of the Academy of Sciences on the study and scientific description of the little-known outlying areas of Russian Empire. 1773 Surveys and inventories in the White Sea and the coast of Lapland under the guidance of D. A. Domozhirov and P. I. Grigorkov. 1774 “Mercator Map, Which Contains the White Sea and Part of the Arctic Ocean from Arkhangelsk to Cape Skagen in Jutland, with Parts of Novaya Zemlya, Greenland, Iceland and Scotland, Made Exactly Against the Ordinary Dutch Map, Hitherto Consumed by Navigators” was engraved in the Marine Cadet Corps for the Gentry. Despite the enormous disadvantages, it was the only map of North coast of Russia, engraved in Russian, for more than 20 years, although there also were more accurate data, obtained by Russian sailors, at that time. 1777 Lieutenant Commander V.E. Pustorzhevtsev performed reconnaissance marine inventory of the Onega Bay of the White Sea, detailing the rivers flowing into the bay from the west, and the offshore islands. 1778–1779 Lieutenants P.I. Grigorkov and D.A. Domozhirov conducted the reconnaissance and maritime inventory of the Terskiy Coast of the White Sea. 1779 The campaign of the military squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral Khmetevskiy, from Arkhangelsk to the Norwegian Sea. Hydrographic work in the Barents and Norwegian Seas was carried out. 1781 The decree of the Senate on the establishment of the first Russian Naval School for training navigators in Kholmogory. 1783 Lieutenants Babushkin and Neledinsky surveyed and measured the mouth of the Northern Dvina. 1785 By the order of Empress Catherine II, an expedition, under the command of Lieutenant- Commander I. Billings, was organized, with the objective to inventory the northern seas and their coasts. 1786 The Naval School was transferred from Kholmogory to Arkhangelsk. 1787 V.V. Krestinin, a historian from Arkhangelsk, wrote “News of the White Sea Herring Fishery.” 1797 The researcher from Arkhangelsk A.I. Fomin published “Description of the White Sea,” to which a map of the central part of the sea and the plan of the Solovetsky Monastery were enclosed. L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov led an expedition on the inventory of the White Sea. 1798 Inventory and measurements in the Kandalaksha Bay under the leadership L.I. Golenischev- Kutuzov were conducted. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 483

1798–1801 The first Russian naval reconnaissance inventory of the White Sea, under the leadership of L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov, was made. Upon the completion of the works L.I. Golenischev- Kutuzov compiled a general map of the sea, which was engraved in 1806. Following the issuance of the map, significant discrepancies were detected, mainly due to the errors in determining the coordinates of points, up to 1. As a result, the eastern shore was relocated one degree to the east, and the sea was shown much wider than it really is, but the card was used up to 1823. 1800 The beginning of meteorological observations in Arkhangelsk. L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov published the first atlas for sailing from the White Sea to the Baltic Sea. Nineteenth century 1805 L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov compiled “Atlas of the White Sea.” 1806–1807 The expedition, led by V. Ludlov, on the tender-ship Pchela (Bee) to the Novaya Zemlya in search of silver ores. The navigator of the expedition, G. Pospelov made a map of the Novaya Zemlya coast from the Kostin Shar to the Matochkin Shar. 1806 The map of the White Sea, compiled in the Mercator projection with the poles compression, under the direction of of L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov following the research of 1798–1801 was published. 1807 By the Decree of Alexander I in response to the request of the Danish Government, the exception was made from the Decree of 1806 on the export of grain from the ports of the Arkhangelsk Region for the residents of Norway. 1809 English warships attacked Pomorje, the base of the White Sea Fishing Company in Ekaterininskaya (Catherine’s) Harbor and burned the town of Kola on the Barents Sea coast of the Kola Peninsula. An English frigate destroyed fisheries near Kola and captured several trading schooners. The warships of Port Arkhangelsk failed to detect the invaders and resist the attack. 1810 The English captured the navigator Gerasimov’s ship at sea near the North Cape. On the way to England Russian sailors disarmed the guards, seized the ship back and returned to Kola. 1811 The classic research of Academician P.S. Pallas “Zoogeographia Russo-Asiatica” was published. The list of all known species of fish at the time in Russia, including the fish of the White Sea, was given in the third volume of it. 1817 The Atlas of the White Sea, compiled under the direction of L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov was issued. The Senate granted the Russian manufacturer K.N. Berd, who initiated the construction of steamships in Russia, the right for monopolistic organization of steam navigation on the White, Baltic, Black, Caspian, and Azov Seas. 1818 An unlit leading lighthouse was built on Mudyug Island. 1819 The Russian Minister of Marine I.I. De Traverse sent a letter to the Commander of Port Arkhangelsk, Rear Admiral A.F. Klokachev about his intention of sending a ship to explore Novaya Zemlya. The attempt of the expedition on the brig Novaya Zemlya, under the command of A.P. Lazarev, to bypass Novaya Zemlya from the north failed due to severe ice conditions. The Emperor Alexander I visited Arkhangelsk and visited the Novodvinskaya fortress on Kegostrov. In his presence in the Solombalskaya shipyard, the 74-gun ship Tri Svyatitelya and the 44-gun frigate Patrikiy were launched, and the new frigate Mercuriy was laid. 1820 Lieutenant F.P. Litke departed from Arkhangelsk on the brig Novaya Zemlya to the expedition to Novaya Zemlya Island. It lasted until mid-1821. 1821 I.N. Ivanov led an expedition to study the possibility of transporting ship timber from the Pechora River to Arkhangelsk. He explored and described the eastern bank of the Pechora River from Pustozersk to its mouth and then the coastline to the mouth of the Chernaya River. An identification tower was built on Cape Pulongsky Nose. 1821–1824 A 4-year expedition to Novaya Zemlya headed by F.P. Litke on the brig Novaya Zemlya compiled the maps of the western and southern coasts of Novaya Zemlya and the Matochkin Shar Strait. (continued) 484 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1822 The second expedition to Novaya Zemlya by F.P. Litke. The observations of part of the White and Barents Seas – the Lapland and the Murmansk coasts from Cape Svyatoy Nos to the mouth of the Kola River and the raids and the harbor were described. The Kola expedition, led by M.F. Reinecke, departed from Arkhangelsk. During the navigation, it carried out a detailed survey of the Murmansk coast from Kola to the border with Norway, Kildin Island, the Kola Bay, the Rybachy Peninsula, the Tuloma, and Kola Rivers. It also defined the bays and coves, where anchorages for military and commercial vessels could be made. An identification base was built on Cape Orlov-Tersky. 1823 The work by F.P. Litke “Fourfold Journey into the Arctic Ocean” was published. 1824 One of the units of F.P. Litke’s expedition, under the command of Lieutenant D.A. Demidov, was assigned to carry out depth soundings and reconnaissance marine inventory in the White Sea, which was implemented. Lieutenant M.F. Reinecke on the brig Kathy made a survey of the northeastern part of the White Sea. 1824–1828 The navigators I.N. Ivanov and N.M. Ragozin conducted the inventory of the Kara Sea coast from the Pechora to Yamal. 1825 The first steamboat Legkiy with the machine of 60 hp was built in Arkhangelsk. 1825–1827 The assistant navigator I.A. Berezhnykh conducted the maritime reconnaissance inventory of the White Sea coast between the Pechora River and Kanin Nos. 1826 The general map of the Murmansk coast, based on the works of F.P. Litke, M.F. Reinecke et al., was published. The atlas of the maps of the White Sea together with the Onega and Kandalaksha Bays, compiled under the direction of L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov, was published. The linear 74-gun ship Azov was launched in Arkhangelsk. Later it fought heroically in the Turkish fortress of Navarin and was first in the history of the Russian Navy to receive St George’s stern flag and a pennant. 1825–1905 A series of marine reconnaissance inventories of the Murmansk coast were carried out, under the leadership of M.F. Reinecke (1825, 1832), N.M. Deploranskiy (1888–1889), M.E. Zhdanko (1893–1894), A.I. Vilkitskiy (1899–1901), A.M. Bukhteev, and G.S. Maksimov (1903–1904). 1826–1829 The hydrographic expedition, led by I.N. Ivanov, described and mapped the coast of the Pechora and Kanin Nos to the Ob. 1827 The navigator I.N. Ivanov sailed from Obdorsk to the northeast cape of the Yamal Peninsula, defining its astronomical position. A.L. Yunker, on the schooner №2, conducted an inventory of the White Sea. M.F. Reinecke was first in Russia to carry out the observations of the sea level fluctuations in the open part of the Gorlo Strait and the Voronka area of the White Sea. The member of the Decembrist movement A.M. Ivanchin-Pisarev participated in the inventory of the islands of Morzhovets and Sosnovets, the Tri Islands, and the Iokangskiye Islands. 1827–1832 The Belomorskaya (White Sea) expedition, led by M.F. Reinecke, on the brig Lapominka and two schooners, carried out the reconnaissance survey of the White Sea in order to verify and update the maps and atlas by L.I. Golenischev-Kutuzov. Observations of tides and currents were conducted in many places; meteorological observations were carried out; the gravity was determined in Arkhangelsk and Kandalaksha. The surveys resulted in a new atlas of the White Sea and its detailed hydrographic description. 1828 M.F. Reinecke built an unlit tower on Cape Svyatoy Nos. 1830 M.F. Reinecke carried out the first pendulum determinations of the acceleration of gravity in the village of Kandalaksha on the White Sea shore. 1831 The Atlas of the White Sea, containing the data of the research of M.F. Reinecke’s expedition (1827–1831), as well as the data, collected earlier. The new atlas of the sea consisted of two sheets of the general map with the scale of approx. 1:650,000, 10 paticular maps with the scale of 1:200,000, and a number of plans. All the maps were made in the Mercator projection. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 485

1832 The expedition, led by Peter Kuzmich Pakhtusov (1800–1835), left from Arkhangelsk to the Novaya Zemlya on the boat Novaya Zemlya. The boat had been built by the draft of P.K. Pakhtusov, with the participation of the shipmaster V.L. Ershov. The expedition ended in 1833, having produced the description of the eastern and southern coasts of the southern island of the Novaya Zemlya. The second expedition, led by P.K. Pakhtusov, departed from Arkhangelsk to the Novaya Zemlya on the schooner Krotov and the karbass Kazakov. The karbase Kazakov was commanded by A.K. Tsivolka, who subsequently continued the work of Pakhtusov. On 7 October 1835 P.K. Pakhtusov returned to Arkhangelsk, got seriously ill and died on 19 November 1835. 1832–1833 The expedition to the Novaya Zemlya on the ship Novaya Zemlya under the command of P.K. Pakhtusov and the schooner Yenisei under the command Krotov undertook a voyage from the Kara Gate to the north along the east coast and through the Matochkin Shar Strait went to the western shore. The schooner Yenisei sank with all the crew. For the first time in history South Island had been completely bypassed. 1832–1887 A number of reconnaissance marine surveys were conducted in some areas of the White Sea, including the annual measurements of the main bar of the Northern Dvina River. 1833–1834 “Atlas of the White Sea and the Coast of Lapland,” compiled by M.F. Reinecke, was published. 1834 The first scientific expedition of St.-Petersburg’s Academy of Sciences, under the leadership of the Academician K.M. Baer (1792–1876), set off from the piers of Port Arkhangelsk. The purpose of the expedition was a historical study of the island (by no means, comprehensive). The expedition performed a great set of works – on zoology, botany, geology, meteorology, ethnography. In late September, they returned to Arkhangelsk. 1834–1835 The second hydrographic expedition on the ships Krotov and Kazakov to Novaya Zemlya, headed by P.K. Pahtusov and involving A.K. Tsivolka, to continue the inventory of the east coast. The expedition wintered near the Matochkin Shar, which was mapped. 1837 The expedition on the ship Krotov, led by К.M. Baer and involving A.K. Tsivolka, collected zoological and botanical samples on the Novaya Zemlya. 1838 The expedition, led by August Karlovich Tsivolka, departed from Arkhangelsk on the newly built there schooners Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen. The purpose of the expedition was to study and map the northwest, northern, and northeast coasts of the Novaya Zemlya. Spitsbergen was commanded by S.A. Moiseev, who became the first assistant of A.K. Tsivolka. In March 1839, Tsivolka died of scurvy. On 8 September 1839 the expedition returned to Arkhangelsk. Its research results were transferred to the Academy of Sciences and used to develop a new map of the islands. 1840 Alexander Fedorovich Middendorf traveled from Kola to Kandalaksha as a member of Baer’s expedition. The researcher examined the Ponoyskiy Coast, Kildin Island, the Vayda Bay, Kola, from where he passed to Kandalaksha through Lapland; he also collected the data on ornithology and malacology, as well as on the geology of Lapland. The first on the northern seas of Russia major stone lighthouse on Mudyug Island (Mudyugskiy) was set in operation. The expedition of R. Murchison, an English geologist, with the participation of the Russian geologist A. A. Keyzerlig, surveyed the southern coast of the White Sea, the rivers of Pinega, Northern Dvina, and others. 1841 The naval officer Savelyev conducted the first three-component survey of the Earth’s magnetic field on the White Sea. 1842 The trade campaign of I. Gvozdarev to the Novaya Zemlya (Barents Island). The naval school in Arkhangelsk was converted into skippers’ courses. The first of the built lighthouses, Tersko-Orlovskiy, Mordovetskiy, and Zhizhginskiy were set in operation. (continued) 486 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1843 The first Russian sailing directions along the Murmansk coast –“Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia, Volume II, Lapland coast,” composed by M.F. Reinecke, were issued. Reprinted in 1878. The hydrographic expedition of P.I. Kruzenshtern to the Pechora River. The position of Manager of the White Sea lighthouses was established in Port Arkhangelsk. F.P. Litke published the maps of tides of the North Pacific Ocean, the Barents, and White Seas. 1848 The German meteorologist Dove suggested that the branch of the Atlantic Current enters the Barents Sea and extends to the coast of the Novaya Zemlya. 1849 Commanding his own schooner Yermak, P.I. Kruzenshtern tried to pass from the White Sea to the Kara Sea. 1850 The work by M.F. Reinecke “Hydrographic description of the North Coast of Russia; Volume I; The White Sea” was published. 1851 The sailing of I. Gvozdarev on the schooner Gregoriy Bogoslov to the Blokbay Bay (Spitsbergen) and his tragic death. The creator of the first general works on the history of Russian seafaring, A.P. Sokolov published the paper “Northern Expedition of 1733–1743.” The Russian Academy of Sciences awarded M.F. Reinecke the full Demidov Prize for “Atlas of the White Sea” and “Hydrographic description of the North Coast of Russia. Volume I and II.” 1853 The German scientist A. Petermann united the Murmansk and the Pechora Sea into a single sea, called the Barents Sea in memory of the navigator W. Barents. 1854 Three British steam ships, which had a total of 57 guns and 560 crew members, entered the White Sea. The vessels engaged in the production of measurements near the mouth of the Dvina, in the robbery of the merchant ships and barges on their way, collecting food supplies, small landings in those areas where there were no Russian troops and setting fires there. The attempt of an Anglo-French squadron of 10 ships to capture the Solovetsky Monastery. For almost the whole day they bombed the monastery, but there were no killed or wounded in the monastery as the result; the only building which was severely damaged was a guest house, located outside the monastery. Two French ships arrived in the White Sea in order to give an opportunity to their allies to establish a though late, but actual blockade of the Russian shores. 1855 The flagship of the English fleet, the 44-gun frigate Meander landed troops (about 60 people) near the Kuzomen village of the Kola district. A squad of peasants, about 350 residents of several villages, offered armed confrontation, resulting in the British retreating to their ship and leaving for Arkhangelsk. In September of the same year the Morskoy Sbornik journal reported the event under the heading “Ports’ News.” The attempt of the British to capture Kandalaksha was successfully repelled. 1856 Director of the Hydrographic Department Vice Admiral M.F. Reinecke prepared “A report on installing port meteorological observatories in Nikolaev, Arkhangelsk, and Kamchatka and conducting meteorological observations on all the lighthouses of the seas.” 1857 The essay of G. Kolmogorov “On Maritime Trade of Siberia Directly with Western Europe” was published. The discussion of the draft by G. Kolmogorov on the construction of a port in the Strait of Yugorskiy Shar. 1858 The Swedish polar explorer N. Nordenskjold discovered rich deposits of coal on Spistbergen (Svalbard). The Russian Emperor signed the charter of the “Northern Dvina Steamship Company”–the first steamship company on the Northern Dvina. 1859 The Siberian merchant M.K. Sidorov filed a note to the Yenisei Governor on the possibility of navigation from Europe to Siberia through the mouths of the Yenisei and the Ob. 1859–1861 N.Ya. Danilevskiy and his party conducted comprehensive research in fishery in the White Sea, the Pechora River, and the Murman. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 487

1860 The law was adopted, according to which the Norwegians were allowed to settle in the former Kola district with the adoption of the Russian citizenship and exemption from payment of state taxes and conscription. Lieutenant P.P. Kruzenshtern (a grandson of a prominent Russian explorer) on a sailing schooner Yermak went from the Kara Strait into the Kara Sea in September to find it free of ice. 1861 The first steamship line Arkhangelsk-Solovki was opened. The voyages of the first steamship Vera lasted for 20–24 h. 1862 Lieutenant P.P. Kruzenshtern sailed on two ships, the schooner Yermak and the yacht Embryo, from the mouth of the Pechora River to the Kara Sea. Yermak was crushed in the ice and sank. The military Port of Arkhangelsk was demolished. The only facilities left were a part of the hydrographic unit and the required number of military vessels to maintain lighthouses and buoy-inspection. 1862–1865 Yu.I. Koshelevsky sailed from the mouth of the Pechora River to the mouth of the Yenisei. 1863 A steamship company was founded on the Yenisei River. 1866 The journal “Marine Collection” published “Navigation Timetable or the White Sea Coast- Dwellers’ Navigation Directions” (these sailing directions are known in three versions – Kemskiye, Sorokskiye, and Sumskiye). 1867 M.K. Sidorov filed a note to the Heir (the future Emperor Alexander III) “On the Means to Pull the Russian North out of Plight.” 1868 M.K. Sidorov visited Norway where he met with the Swedish scientist and polar explorer N.A.E. Nordenskjold and gained the scientist’s interest in his plans for the development of the Kara Sea Route. 1869 The sailing of the Norwegian fisherman E. Iogannesen. He crossed the Kara Sea from the eastern mouth of the Matochkin Shar to Vaygach Island and then to the Yamal and further to Belyi Island. He was awarded a Silver Medal by the Stockholm Academy of Sciences for hydrological observations. Twenty-four Norwegian fishing vessels went along and across the southwestern part of the Kara Sea. M.K. Sidorov was allowed to equip naval expeditions “to discover the routes through the Arctic Ocean at the mouth of the Ob and Yenisei Rivers,” followed up by the right for duty-free import of foreign goods to Siberia (on a specific list). The expedition on the exploration of the White Sea departed from Arkhangelsk. It visited Solovki, the Onezhskiy, Terskiy, Pomorskiy, and Karelian coasts of the White Sea. 1870 The “First Murmansk Whaling and Fisheries Partnership” was set up on Shalim Island. Academician A.F. Middendorf sailed into the Barents Sea near the Novaya Zemlya and made the first attempt to trace the penetration of warm Atlantic waters to the east in the Barents Sea. “The White Sea-Murmansk Express Shipping Company” was set up in order to provide for the commercial trading stations of the coast-dwellers on the Kola Peninsula, regular lines were opened. The Committee of the Russian Geographic Society developed a project of an expedition to the northern seas (the report of P.A. Kropotkin). I.P. Belavenets, Head of the Compass Observatory, led a magnetic survey along the river way from Schlüsselburg to Arkhangelsk, and then in the White Sea and on the Murmansk coast. “Fellowship of the White Sea-Murmansk Express Shipping Company” was established. The Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich made a trip in the White Sea and to the Novaya Zemlya, he was accompanied by Academician A.F. Middendorf. 1872 “Map of the Arctic Ocean and the Kara Sea including the Novaya Zemlya. Compiled from the Russian inventories of 1734–1870. Published by the Hydrographic Department of the Ministry of Marine in 1872. Scale 1:21,000,000, or 30 miles in one English inch” was published. A. Petermann compiled and published the map of the northern coast of the Novaya Zemlya (scale 1:720,000). The meteorological station near Arkhangelsk started monitoring the temperature of the water in the Northern Dvina River. (continued) 488 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1873 The Austrian expedition of K. Weyprecht and J. Payer on board of Tegetthoff discovered the land, named Franz Josef Land after the Austrian Emperor. 1874 The English captain Joseph Wiggins made the first voyage in the Kara Sea on the steamship Diana (later he sailed in 1876, 1878, 1884, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1893, and 1894). 1875 The partnership “Arkhangelsk-Murmansk Express Shipping Company” was established. The Swedish polar explorer N.A.E. Nordenskjold, financed by the Swedish industrialist Oscar Dixon, sailed on the sailing vessel Pröven (displacement of 43 t) from Tromso, Norway, along the west coast of the Novaya Zemlya, went into the Kara Sea through the Yugorskiy Shar and near the mouth Yenisei discovered an island, which he named Dikson, and then returned to his homeland overland through Russia. The fundamental work of S.F. Ogorodnikov “History of Port Arkhangelsk” (from 1693 to 1862) was published in St.-Petersburg. 1876 N.A.E. Nordenskjold organized an expedition to the Kara Sea on the transport steamer Ymer (displacement of 400 t), financed by the Russian gold-miner A. Sibiryakov. A large island, which Nordenskjöld named Sibiryakova Island, was discovered in the northern part of the Yenisei Bay. J. Wiggins on the boat Themse delivered the cargo to the Yenisei (Kureika). Suggestions were made to consider this year the beginning of the steamship trade voyages through the Kara Sea to the mouth of the Yenisei. 1876–1877 The expeditions of the Society for the Promotion of the Russian Merchant Shipping, under the leadership of H. Dal’, examined the Gulf of Ob and determined its accessibility for small draught ships. The expedition, led by Professor N.P. Vagner from St.-Petersburg, worked in the White Sea. 1876–1878 The Norwegian North Atlantic expedition on Vöringen conducted considerable research in the Barents Sea. 1877 By the resolution of the Governor of Arkhangelsk, 90 Nenets were resettled to the Novaya Zemlya, where they formed three encampments – Malye Karmakuly and Beluzhskaya Guba on the west coast of the South Island and the Matochkin Shar – at the eastern exit of the eponymous strait. The sailing ship Zarya transported the first cargo from the Yenisei (graphite, fish, furs, etc.) to St.-Petersburg, under the command of Captain D.I. Shvanenberg. 1878 The Norwegian E. Iogannesen on the schooner Nordland sailed into the Kara Sea and opened Solitude Island at its extreme northeast. The Swedish polar expedition on the ship Vega, under the leadership of N.A.E. Nordenskjold, conducted partial inventory and survey off the shores of Taymyr Island. 1878–1879 N. Nordenskjold on the ship Vega went from Tromso, Norway, to Nagasaki, Japan, along the Northern Sea Route from one wintering in the Kolyuchinskaya Bay, near the Bering Strait. This was the first voyage through the Northeast Passage. 1878–1884 The Dutch ship Willem Barents sailed annually in the Barents Sea, gathering a wealth of material. 1879 The Dutch research vessel Willem Barents approached the southern shores of the Franz Josef Land. They discovered a new island there, which was later called Hooker. 1880 The Scottish yachtsman Lee Smith on the steam yacht Eira cruised off the south coast of Franz Josef Land and opened the islands of Northbrook, Bruce, George Land, Alexandra Land, and several smaller islands. 1880–1881 The owner of the New York Herald newspaper, James Gordon Bennett sent the search-and- rescue ship Oscar Dixon in search of the schooner Jeanette, but the ship did not find De Long’s schooner and was crushed by the ice in the Yenisei delta, having lost of its crew. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 489

1881 The second expedition of Lee Smith on the steam yacht Eira to the Franz Josef Land. Anchoring at Cape Flora on Northbrook Island, the yacht sank. The members of the expedition were rescued and wintered on the cape. The following year, they made it to the Novaya Zemlya on the boat, where they were met by the ships, sent to the rescue. The hydrographic expedition, led by S.A. Moiseev, conducted an inventory of the Gulf of Ob of the Kara Sea. St.-Petersburg Society of Naturalists, with the participation of Professor N.P. Vagner organized Russia’s first marine biological station on the Solovetsky Islands to explore the flora and fauna of the White Sea, initially often referred to as the biological station of the Solovetsky Monastery. 1882 The winterer of the polar station “Malye Karmakuly” Dr. L.F. Grinevetskiy was first to cross the southern island of the Novaya Zemlya from the coast of the Barents Sea to the Kara Sea and back. The Dutch, with the permission of the Russian Government, decided to build a polar station on Dikson Island to carry out the observations under the program of the First International Polar Year. A small Norwegian ship Varna (250 m) was chartered for the Dutch expedition, headed by the scientist M. Snellen. Trying to get into the Kara Sea, Varna was carried into the sea by the ice, where it was met by the steamer Dymphna of the Danish expedition, drifting in the Kara Sea in order to implement the plan of building a station at Cape Chelyuskin. Having freed itself from the ice, the vessel Dymphna of the Danish expedition, arrived in Norway. The first floating North Dvina lighthouse was set in its regular place and operated for 25 years. 1882–1883 Holding the First International Polar Year, with the participation of 12 countries (Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Holland, England, the USA, Canada, Germany, Austria- Hungary, and France). A geophysical station was set up at the mouth of the Lena River. 1883 The Norwegian ship Varna sank, the members of the Dutch expedition switched to Dymphna, as a preliminary and then made a decision to reach the Yugorskiy Shar across Vaygach Island on foot and boats, where they met the steamer Louise, which took them to Norway. “Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia, Compiled by Lieutenant Commander M.Reinecke. Part 1: The White Sea” was published. 1885 The fishing encampment Eretiki was founded in the northern part of the Ura Bay of the Barents Sea, where one of the first companies on whale hunting and processing was set up. The settlement was renamed Port Vladimir in honor of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, a brother of Emperor Alexander III, who had visited it. The fundamental work “The White Sea Invertebrate” by N.P. Vagner was published. 1886 Norwegian walrus hunters began to sail to the Franz Josef Land Archipelago. 1887 The Independent White Sea Survey was established for conducting hydrographic operations. A.I. Vilkitskiy and F.F. Vitram determined via telegraph the difference in the longitudes in the area of Pulkovo-Arkhangelsk. The Russian ethnographer and statistician E.K. Ogorodnikov published his research “Coastal Areas of the Arctic and White Seas and their Tributaries according to the Big Draft Book.” 1887–1889 The expedition, led A.I. Vilkitskiy, was first to carry out the work on determining the acceleration of gravity (on the Novaya Zemlya, in Arkhangelsk and Malye Karmakuly) in the Arctic sector of Russia. 1887–1914 A series of reconnaissance surveys and detailed marine inventories of the most important areas of the White Sea were made under the leadership of: E.V. Maidel (1887–1891), M.E. Zhdanko (1891–1897), A.A. Maltsov (1898–1904), F.K. Drizhenko (1905–1907), K.I. Prestin (1908), I.S. Sergeyev (1909–1910), and N.N. Matusevich (1911–1914). 1889 The Anglo-Siberian Trading Company was set up for navigation on the Kara Route. A hydrographic expedition was organized to explore the southern part of the Kara Sea and the mouths of the rivers of Ob and Yenisei. 1889–1899 The Solovetskaya Biological Station of St.-Petersburg Society of Naturalists operated in the White Sea. (continued) 490 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1890 “The General Statute on Sea Pilots” was published, being the most comprehensive legal act regulating the activities of pilots in Russia until 1917. The statue provided for the establishment of six pilotage districts: the Belomorian, Baltic, Kronstadt, Black Sea, Caspian and Eastern districts; the basic organizational unit of it was the Pilots’ Society. The management of pilots in all the seas of Russia was carried out by the Marine Department of the Main Hydrographic Office. 1890–1891 N.N. Kolomeytsev on the longboat Kuznechikha and the schooner Bakan conducted hydrographic operations as part of the Separate Survey of the White Sea. 1890–1910 A large set of hydrographic operations were performed in the Barents Sea, on the ships Naezdnik, Murman, Dzhigit, Vestnik, Bakan, Samoyed, and Pakhtusov, under the leadership of A.I. Vilkitskiy, N.V. Morozov, M.E. Zhdanko, A.M. Bukhteev, and F.K. Drizhenko. 1891–1893 Hydrographic works were completed at the mouth of the Northern Dvina River for the construction of the railway to Arkhangelsk. 1893 The cruiser of the second rank Nayezdnik was sent from the Baltic to the Barents Sea to patrol territorial waters (all the bays, inlets, and raids of the Russian coast of the Arctic Ocean and around the White Sea). In England, by the order of the Ministry of Marine, three vessels were built: the twin-screw steamer Lieutenant Ovtsyn, the paddle steamer Lieutenant Malygin, and the sailing barge Lieutenant Skuratov. All three ships, under the general direction of the commander of the steamer Lieutenant Ovtsyn Lieutenant L.F. Dobrotvorskiy, arrived safely from England through the Kara Sea to the Yenisei in the same year. The steamer Lieutenant Malygin was commanded by Lieutenant E.L. Shvede, the sailing barge Lieutenant Skuratov – by Lieutenant P. Tunderman. The sea ships delivered a consignment of cargo for construction of the Siberian railway. The project of hydrographic research of the Siberian coast, adjacent to the mouths of the Yenisei and Ob, as well as parts of the Kara Sea, was approved. Passing soundings in the Kara Sea were taken and the visual survey of the Yenisei from Krasnoyarsk to Turukhansk was conducted, under the direction of L.F. Dobrotvorskiy, E.L. Shvede et al. The beginning of the outstanding Norwegian Arctic Expedition, led by Fridtjof Nansen, on the motor sailing ship Fram, which sailed along the northern coast of Siberia and then drifted in the ice of the Arctic Ocean (from the New Siberian Islands to the north of the Greenland Sea). The N.A.E. crossed the Kara Sea from west to east, having discovered the islands of Sverdrup, Scott Gagsen, Mona, the Nordenskjöld Archipelago, and others. The ship Blencathra (the former warship Newport, then renamed Pandora and later on – St. Anna), under the steering of Captain J. Wiggins, went in the Kara Sea to the mouth of the Yenisei. 1894 The Committee on the Construction of the Siberian Railway funded a special hydrographic expedition, under the leadership of A.I. Vilkitsky, with the objective to explore the mouths of the rivers of Ob and Yenisei and the southern part of the Kara Sea, which carried out inventories of the Yenisei and the Ob deltas, the Kara Sea and the sounding at the entrance to the Yenisei Gulf, having compiled the Atlas of the Yenisei from Yeniseisk to the sea. The Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte made a trip to the North, visiting Arkhangelsk, the Kola Peninsula, the Norwegian coast, Christiania (Oslo), Stockholm and Helsingfors (Helsinki), and then prepared a report for Emperor Alexander III, which proved the economic feasibility of the construction of railways to the North and suggested setting up a military port in the harbor of St. Catherine (Ekaterininskaya) in Murman. The report received no response. The son of Alexander III, Nicholas II also stayed completely indifferent to the project. Frederick Jackson, who led the British expedition to the Franz Josef Land, the ship Windward when entering Port Arkhangelsk for additional provision took with him a log hut and the Russian carpenter Varakin. In 1899, Jackson’s book A Thousand Days in the Arctic was published. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 491

As a result of severe storms on the way from Murman to Arkhangelsk and other White Sea coast destinatons 34 Pomor vessels, returning from fishing, were crashed. The death toll constituted 52 people. The Committee to assist the Pomors of the Russian North was formed in St.-Petersburg, with a charitable purpose. 1894–1895 Fridtjof Nansen wintered on one of the islands of the Franz Josef Land (Jackson Island). 1894–1897 The head of the British Polar Expedition F. Jackson explored the western and northwestern parts of the Franz Josef Land on the ship Windward. 1895 The governor of Arkhangelsk A.P. Engelgardt paid an tour to the Kola Peninsula with the orientation objective. Due to his initiatives and motions, a telegraph line was installed in Murman, the steamship line was extended, the insurance of ships was introduced and new navigational aids were installed on the banks. Engelhardt supervised the construction of the City of Alexandrovsk, greatly assisted in the relocation to Murman and the construction of the Murmansk Biological Station. A marine hydrometeorological station (one of the first in the northwest of Russia) was set up on Cape St. Nose, on the border of the Barents and White Seas. The transition of the ships Lieutenant Ovtsyn and Lieutenant Skuratov, carrying the hydrographic expedition of A.I. Vilkitskiy, from the Yenisei to the Ob via the Kara Sea. The research by N.M. Knipovich “The State of Marine Fisheries and Animal Industries of the Arkhangelsk Province” was published in St.-Petersburg. 1896 Bottle mail was applied to study the currents along the Siberian coast of the Arctic Ocean. Having crossed the Franz Josef Land Archipelago on foot, Fridtjof Nansen met the British explorer Jackson at Cape Flora. The return of Fridtjof Nansen and then his arrival home in Norway, on Fram. The first part of “Brief Historical Sketch of Hydrography of the Russian Seas. The North Sea, the White Sea” was published in St.-Petersburg. The Northern Committee was established under the Committee on the Assistance to the Russian North Pomors. It included Academics B.B. Golitsyn, F.I. Chernyshev, M.A. Rykachev, and hydrograph M.E. Zhdanko et al. N.M. Knipovich was appointed Secretary of the N.C. 1897 N.M. Knipovich published “Project of Scientific and Field Research of the Murmansk Coast.” The expedition to the North Pole of the Swedish engineer S. Andrée on the balloon Eagle set off from Spitsbergen. On behalf of the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte, Vice Admiral Makarov followed the sea route through the Kara Sea to the mouths of the Ob and Yenisei to determine the feasibility of its use for a regular steamer. Sailing of Vice Admiral Makarov on the ship Ioann Kronshtadtskiy with a caravan of ships from Murmansk to the island of Spitsbergen and via the Kara Sea to the Yenisei River to study the polar navigation conditions. The vessel Blencathra, as a member of the English trade expedition of Popham, sailed to the Yenisei under the steering of Captain J.Wiggins. The research by N.M. Knipovich “On Fishery and Marine Animal Hunting in the Arkhangelsk Province” was published in St.-Petersburg. The narrow gauge railway Arkhangelsk-Vologda was opened on the left bank of the Northern Dvina (rebuilt in 1916). G.Y. Sedov (1877–1914), a prominent polar explorer, the leader of the first Russian scientific expedition to the North Pole, made his first visit to Arkhangelsk. 1898 D.I. Mendeleev and S.O. Makarov filed to S.Yu. Witte the memorandum “On the Exploration of the Arctic Ocean during the Trial Voyage of Yermak.” The American journalist W. Wellman on the ship Fridtjof wintered on Gal Island in the southeast of the Franz Josef Land. The Hydrographic Expedition on the Exploration of the Mouths of the Rivers of Ob and Yenisei and the Southern Part of the Kara Sea was reorganized into the Hydrographic Expedition of the Arctic Ocean (HEAO) and since then a lot of markings had been put on the shores of the Kara Sea to meet the needs of seafarers. (continued) 492 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Vice Admiral Makarov in the statement of sailing in the Kara Sea made an observation about “...the desirability of exploring and surveying the sea route to the Ob and Yenisei ...” He offered primarily to conduct an inventory of the Yuorskiy Shar, Kara Strait, the islands of Belyy and Vilkitskogo, and the straits between them, all the southern and eastern shores of the Kara Sea, the gulfs of Ob and Yenisei. These proposals were taken into account while planning the hydrographic operations in the area. The ship Andrey Pervozvannyy was built in Germany, later it was renamed into the GISU (Hydrographic Ship) Murman and then Mgla (1932). 1898–1904 The reconnaissance marine inventory of the Yugorskiy Shar Strait; part of the southern coast of the Kara Sea from the aforesaid strait to the Kara River; the western and northern shores of the Yamal Peninsula; the eastern, western, and northern shores of the Vaygach Island; the southeastern coast of the Pechora Bay, the Gulyaevskiye Koshki; and the mouth of the Indiga River were conducted under the leadership of A.I. Vilkitskiy, A.I. Varnek, F.K. Drizhenko, I.S. Sergeyev, N.V. Morozov, P.A. Brovtsyn, and V.V. Akhmatov et al. 1899 The opening of the port in the City of Aleksandrovsk (now Polyarnyi). The cruiser Svetlana, attended the opening, representing the Baltic Fleet. The icebreaker Yermak, built for Russia, was launched in Newcastle, England. The Marine Biological Station was relocated from the Solovetsky Islands to Ekaterininskaya Harbor of the Kola Bay. The first campaign of S.O. Makarov on the icebreaker Yermak to the Arctic. A number of standard oceanographic sections in the North-European seas, including the meridian 330300E (from the Kola Bay to the north) in the Barents Sea, were established at the Conference on the Sea Exploration in Stockholm, Sweden. The Italian expedition on the ship Stella Polare (with a crew of Norwegians), led by the Duke of Abruzzi, to the North Pole. They wintered in the Teplitz Bay off the western shore of Rudolf Island, from where they attempted to reach the North Pole on dogs. The polar party was headed by Captain Umberto Cagni. The attempt was unsuccessful. One of the supporting parties of three people died (later, in 1901, a monument was erected in their honor). Petermann Land had been proven not to exist. The expedition of the American Wellman went back on the ship Capella, having discovered three islands (of Bliss, Bryce and Alger) on their way. An entirely new map of the Ob-Yenisei district was compiled and the sailing directions for the Yenisei Gulf and the Gulf of Ob were published, based on the research of the Hydrographic Expedition, led by A.I. Vilkitskiy. “Data for the Study of the Gulf of Ob and the Yenisei Gulf, Collected in 1894, 1895 and 1896 by the Hydrographic Expedition under the Command of Lieutenant Colonel A.Vilkitskiy. Sailing Data” were published in St.-Petersburg. K.M. Deryugin traveled in the White Sea and in Lapland, took part in the operations of the White Sea Biological Station of St.-Petersburg Society of Naturalists. The Solovetsky Biological Station of St.-Petersburg Society of Naturalists was relocated from the territory of the Solovetsky Monastery to the Ekaterininskaya Harbor of the Kola Bay of the Barents Sea. The Merchant Shipping School was opened in Arkhangelsk. 1899–1901 The Russian-Swedish expedition with the objective to measure the degree on Spitsbergen, initiated by the Stockholm Academy of Sciences. 1900 The Arctic expedition of 1900–1903, led by the Russian geologist and polar explorer Baron E.V. Toll, embarked on the steam brigantine Dawn to depart from Aleksandrovsk-on-Murom. The hydrological unit was headed by A.V. Kolchak. The Italian expedition of Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi on Stella Polare returned to Norway. The wooden single mast yacht Mechta (40 t) carrying on board the expedition of the artist A.A. Borisov, was captured in the ice in the Kara Sea off the coast of the Novaya Zemlya and abandoned by the crew. The new lighthouses of Intsy and Chesmensky, as well as a number of small lighthouse lights were set in operation in the White Sea. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 493

1900–1903 Conducting the Russian Arctic Expedition, led by the polar geologist, Baron E.V. Toll. Twentieth Century 1901 Norwegian explorer of polar regions Roald Amundsen surveyed the Barents Sea on board of a small ship called Gjøa. Afterwards the extensive materials acquired by Amundsen were processed by F. Nansen. S.O. Makarov sailed to the Arctic for the second time on the Yermak icebreaker. 1901–1902 American expedition funded by an American industrialist W. Ziegler, under E. Baldwin who took part in W. Wellman’s expedition in 1898, spent winter on Alger Island, the Franz Josef Land Archipelago. 1902 Marine Biology Research Centre in Yekaterininskaya Harbor of the Kola Peninsula (the Barents Sea) was renamed into Murmansk Biology Research Centre. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) was founded. The Russian Geographical Society expedition to the Kolguyev Island. Hydrography Expedition for the Arctic Ocean under A.I. Varnek worked in the Kara Sea on the Pakhtusov steamship. Navigation classes in Arkhangelsk were shut down. Fish processing office was established in Arkhangelsk. Work of the Arkhangelsk Department of the Emperor’s Navigation Society was resumed. 1903 Hydrography Expedition went to the Barents Sea on the Russian ship Bakan. Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi reported on the Italian expedition to the northern part of the Barents Sea. Navy Navigation Corps Colonel M.A. Klykov published “Materials for sailing directions in the Arctic Ocean, Kara Sea and Novaya Zemlya.” 1903–1905 A. Fiala led American expedition funded by W. Ziegler aiming to reach the North Pole on the America vessel. They spent winter in the Teplits Bay on the Rudolf Island, on the Alger Island, on the Flora Cape of Northbrook Island. They had not reached the Pole. 1904 F. Nansen’s work “On Bathymetrical Features of the Northern Arctic Seas” was published. V.A. Rusanov left Arkhangelsk for his first expedition to the Novaya Zemlya on board of the Olga Konstantinovna steamship. Commercial Port Bureau was established in Arkhangelsk. Count K.G. Tolstoy was appointed head of the Bureau. 1905 The Specific Surveying of the Murmansk coast was established under captain II rank A.M. Bukhteyev (nine officers and one vessel). Norway achieved full independence (ended the union with Sweden upon agreement with Stockholm). British trawlers came to the Barents Sea. Ministry of Transportation expedition navigated river vessels via the Kara Sea to the Yenisey and carried cargoes for the Trans-Siberian railway. L.L. Breitfuss’s work “Marine Hunting in the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean” was published in St.-Petersburg. 1905–1914 First detailed survey of the Murmansk coastal waters was performed under A.M. Bukhteyev (1905–1912) and F.K. Drizhenko (1912–1914). 1906 N.M. Knipovich’s book Basics of Hydrology of the European Part of the Arctic Ocean was published and became one of the key works on the Barents Sea. Battleships Tsesarevich and Slava, and the Bogatyr cruiser came into the Kola Bay. Hydrography survey of the Murmansk coast was performed sailing on board of the craft Bakan. Commercial and industrial circles of Siberia had meeting in Irkutsk and resolved that “commercial and industrial importance of the Kara Route for the state was indisputable.” Fishery Museum was opened in Arkhangelsk. K.F. Tiander’s work “Scandinavians’ Trip to the White Sea” was published in St.-Petersburg. (continued) 494 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1907 American journalist W. Wellman unsuccessfully repeated S.A. Andrée’s attempt to reach the North Pole on an airship starting from the Virgo Bay, Spitsbergen. Head of the Murmansk Scientific and Hunting Expedition of the Academy of Sciences L.L. Breitfuss published an article “On European Russian Borders in the Arctic Ocean” in the “Russian Navigation” magazine. Norwegian industrialist Brakme visited the northwestern part of the Kara Sea on the Severn ship. The Belgica vessel of the Duke of Orléans’s expedition passed through the Matochkin Shar Strait to the Kara Sea and drifted in its southern part captured by ice, then it was carried to the Barents Sea via the Karskiye Vorota Strait. Expedition under G.Y. Sedov left Arkhangelsk on board of the Olga steamship towards the Krestovaya Guba Bay (by the western coast of the Novaya Zemlya). Old Severo-Dvinskiy lightboat was replaced with a new one. 1908 Russian naval activist De Ger’s expedition to Spitsbergen and French officer Candiotti’s expedition to the Novaya Zemlya. V.A. Rusanov’s second visit to Novaya Zemlya as part of the French expedition on board of the Jacques Cartier. They crossed the northern island from the Krestovaya Guba Bay to the Neznayemy Bay on the Kara Sea side. Aid to Pomors Committee closed down. Arkhangelsk Research Society of the Russian North was established instead. Arkhangelsk commercial port received newly built icebreaker Lebedin. 1909 W. Wellman attempted to reach the North Pole on an airship starting from the Virgo Bay, Spitsbergen, and again unsuccessfully. Motor-sailing schooner Aleksandr Kovalskiy began its work on surveying the Kola Gulf. Hydrographer A.V. Kolchak’s work “Ice in the Kara and East Siberian Seas” was published. First mareograph was set up on the Popov Island (Kem’ Roadstead, the White Sea). The observations allowed to publish “Annual information of tides in the White Sea” in 1911. N.V. Morozov’s work “Navigation Book, or the White Sea Pomors’ Sailing Directions” was published. 1910 Main Office of Land Farming and Management expedition under V.A. Rusanov worked on Novaya Zemlya and sailed on board of the Dmitry Solunskiy vessel around the northern island. Norwegian Sigurd Scott Hansen visited St.-Petersburg as head of Norwegian ship owners who were going to establish a joint-stock company to provide transport connections between Vardø (Norway) and Turukhansk on Yenisei (Russia). The motor sailing vessel Dmitry Solunskiy left Arkhangelsk (displacement of 180 tonnes) and carried expedition under V.A. Rusanov to Novaya Zemlya. Pomorskiy boathouse formal opening took place in Solombala. It was used to build and repair sea and river light wooden vessels. There is Solombala shipyard nowadays. 1911 Russian State Duma endorsed the act on construction of four radio stations on the Kara and White Seas (in Arkhangelsk) coasts and on placing navigation signs in the Kara Sea. An expedition left Arkhangelsk to the Kara Sea on the Pakhtusov steamship to choose radio stations construction sites (in the Matochkin Shar Strait, Karskiye Vorota (Kara Gate), by the Maare-Sale Cape on the Yamal Peninsula). “Siberian Joint-Stock Company” was established in Norway funded by Norway, Russia, and Britain, to develop trade on the Northern Sea Route. V.A. Rusanov’s expedition sailed around the southern island of Novaya Zemlya on the Polyarnaya vessel. Hydrographer and land surveyor N.N. Matusevich was appointed Head of the Specific Surveying of the White Sea and kept the office for 20 years. An expedition under Arkhangelsk Fishery Museum Director V.F. Drzhevetskiy left Arkhangelsk on the sail ship Jacques Cartier and headed towards Spitsbergen. The aim of the expedition was to explore black coal reserves on the Archipelago and to reclaim them for Russia. However, the vessel did not reach the island as a severe storm stranded it on the Norway coast. The expedition fellows returned to Arkhangelsk. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 495

1912 Trading Company of Grumant, Agafelov and Co partnership was established by merchants from Arkhangelsk and St.-Petersburg. The Gerkules schooner under V.A. Rusanov left Arkhangelsk Port heading towards Spitsbergen and further to the east. German arctic expedition project aimed to explore the Taymyr Peninsula. In order to train participants of the future expedition, another expedition under the command of the Imperial German Navy lieutenant H. Schröder-Stranz went to Spitsbergen on the Norwegian motor sailing vessel Herzog Ernst. Most of the fellows died during the travel. F. Nansen’s expedition went to Spitsbergen on the Veslemøy. The motor sailing boat Gerkules of V.A. Rusanov’s expedition passed via the Matochkin Shar Strait into the Kara Sea. They left there a telegram to be sent to St.-Petersburg, saying that they would proceed towards the northern end of Novaya Zemlya. Nothing is known about the expedition since. Jonas Lied from Norway founded “The Siberian Steamship, Manufacturing and Trading Company Limited.” The Norwegian vessel Tulla hired by the “Siberian Joint-Stock Company” attempted to reach the Yenisei via the Kara Sea and failed. Russian steamship Obnovka sank in the Northern Dvina River, 115 people died. Lieutenant G.L. Brusilov’s expedition left Arkhangelsk on the Svyataya Anna schooner that was later on locked by the polar ice by the western coast of the Yamal Peninsula. Surveying of the White Sea was newly commenced under the Captain II rank N.N. Matusevich. The first Russian expedition to the North Pole under the command of G.Y. Sedov left from the Sobornaya Wharf (nowadays Krasnaya Wharf) in Arkhangelsk on board of the Svyatoy muchenik Foka vessel. Most of the crew were sailors from Arkhangelsk. Hydrometeorological Office was established on the European part of Russia sea coast on the Commercial Ports Department of the Ministry of Industry and Trade’s initiative. It headquartered in Arkhangelsk. 1912–1913 The Svyatoy Foka ship spent winter in a bay by the northwestern coast of the Guker (Hooker) Island. G.Y. Sedov named the bay Tikhaya. Wooden steam schooner Svyataya Anna under the command of Lieutenant G.L. Brusilov drifted in the Kara Sea from the Yamal Peninsula coast northwards. In 1914 the ship with the crew (apart from two people) disappeared on high latitudes. 1912–1914 G.Y. Sedov’s expedition to the Arctic on the seal hunting ship Svyatoy Foka. 1913 Expedition under the command of R.L. Samoylovich arrived to Spitsbergen on the steamship Mariya and boat Grumant. Hydrography Expedition for the Arctic Ocean commenced on its fourth voyage from Vladivostok on the Taymyr (Captain II rank B.A. Vil’kitskiy) and Vaygach (Senior Lieutenant P.A. Novopashenny). The Nikolay II Land (now Severnaya Zemlya, or Northern Land Archipelago) and a few islands had been discovered in the course of the travel. The expedition returned to Vladivostok. The “Siberian Joint-Stock Company” organized an expedition on the cargo steamship Correct. F. Nansen and two passengers (former Secretary of the Russian Embassy in Norway I.G. Loris- Melikov and gold industry entrepreneur S.V. Vostrotin from Yeniseysk) were invited. The ship went from the Yugorskiy Shar Strait to the Yenisei mouth and returned. F. Nansen, I.G. Loris- Melikov, and S.V. Vostrotin proceeded to Yeniseisk on board of the river vessel Omul’, and then F. Nansen went to Vladivostok. Peter the Great memorial was officially unveiled on the Northern Dvina coast where Arkhangelsk had been founded. Dates of when Peter the Great stayed in the city are engraved on the pedestal sides. “The White Sea Sailing Directions” comprised by hydrographer A.N. Arskiy was published. (continued) 496 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1914 Russian aviator J. Nagórski (1888–1976) performed the first ever aerial search in the Arctic (the Barents Sea). G.Y. Sedov together with two sailors G.V. Linnik and A.I. Pustoshny left the Tikhaya Bay heading to the North Pole on 15 February. On the way he died in the Neymayer Strait and was buried on the cape Auk, Rudolf Island. G.Y. Sedov’s expedition met navigation officer V. Al’banov and sailor A. Konrad from G.L. Brusilov’s expedition on the Flora Cape. Motor sailing schooner Gerta under the command of the Captain I rank I.I. Islyamov left Aleksandrovsk in search of G.Y. Sedov’s expedition, reached the Franz Josef Land and planted Russian flag on the cape Flora claiming the Land for Russia. Hydrography Department organized an expedition under O. Sverdrup to search for G. Sedov’s, V. Rusanov’s, and G. Brusilov’s expeditions on the Eclipse (later Lomonosov) vessel bought in Norway in the Barents and Kara Seas. Navigation officer V.I. Al’banov left the Svyataya Anna vessel and started to the Franz Josef Land on foot together with 13 sailors who volunteered to go with him. Only V.I. Al’banov and sailor A.E. Konrad made it to the Flora Cape where the arctic expedition on Svyatoy Foka picked them up. Polar stations opened on the Vaygach Island (by the eastern entrance to the Karskiye Vorota),at the eastern mouth of the Yugorskiy Shar and on the Maare-Sale Cape (western coast of Yamal). Ministry of Industry and Trade proposed a draft “On organising timely steamship connections under Russian flag between the European Russia ports and the Ob and Yenisei River mouths via the Kara Sea.” Permanent Polar Committee at the Academy of Sciences was established. British ships (armored cruiser Drake and auxiliary cruiser Mantua) under Rear Admiral W.L. Grant came to Arkhangelsk. In the beginning of the First World War the British craft vessel Mantua carried first lot of gold for three million Pounds Sterling from Arkhangelsk to Liverpool, England, to create special gold reserve to credit the allies at war with the Imperial Germany. Aviator J. Nagórski and his crew returned to Arkhangelsk on the Pechora steamship after search for G.Y. Sedov’s, G.L. Brusilov’s, and V.A. Rusanov’s expeditions. The disassembled hydroplane, on which the aviator flew above the Arctic five times (first in the world), was also carried by the ship to Arkhangelsk. First icebreaker (ice-cutter) Earl Grey bought in Canada arrived to Arkhangelsk (later it was renamed to Canada, then Fyodor Litke). It laid foundation for the icebreaker fleet of the Arctic Ocean. Construction of one of the new districts of the Arkhangelsk Port named Bakaritsa began. Later Bakaritsa became a major base for military cargo processing. 1914–1915 The craft vessels of the Hydrography Expedition for the Arctic Ocean, Taymyr and Vaygach, performing passage-through from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk, wintered by the western coast of the Taymyr Peninsula. Taymyr managed to contact the motor sailing vessel Eclipse which was sent by the Naval Ministry to look for the lost expeditions of G. Brusilov and V. Rusanov (O. Sverdrup was the head of the search party and Captain). They contacted Arkhangelsk and St.-Petersburg via the radio station on the Eclipse. Expedition under B.A. Vil’kitskiy sailed on two icebreaker ships Vaygach and Taymyr fom Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk via the Northern Sea Route with one wintering for the first time in the Northern Sea Route history. They discovered the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, surveyed large areas of the coast and many islands, performed hydrography and hydrometeorology works in the Arctic Ocean. 1915 Kandalaksha commercial port was founded. Murmansk commercial sea port was founded. The first vessel to moor at the wharf on that [foundation] day was the steamship Drott that carried equipment for construction works in the port and on the railway from America. Hydrography Department sent an expedition under the command of the Captain G. Pospelov to the Franz Josef Land on the Andromeda to make sure there are no fellows of V. Rusanov’s and G. Brusilov’s expeditions there. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 497

Hydrography Department sent the Gerta vessel under the command of doctor Kogan to search Spitsbergen coast and look for G. Brusilov’s expedition in the Greenland Sea. B.A. Vil’kitskiy’s expedition built the first hut on the Dikson Island and a radio station to contact the continent while wintering by the Taymyr Peninsula coast. Radio station (15 Kilowatt) built on the Dikson Island to aid vessels of the Hydrography Expedition for the Arctic Ocean proceeding from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk was put to operation. Expedition on the Eclipse visited the Uyedineniya Island. Expedition under the command of astronomer and land surveyor V.V. Akhmatov estimated longitude difference between the Yugorskiy Shar Strait and the Dikson Island by means of radiotelegraph. “The White Sea Sailing Directions 1913” by General Major of the Navy Navigation Corps N.V. Morozov was published. K.M. Deryugin published a book The Kola Peninsula Fauna and Habitat Conditions There. Staff of the Specific Surveying of the White Sea performed exploratory surveying of some coastal areas from the Kanin Nos Cape to the Konushin Cape and then to the Morzhovets Island, to lay new waterways along the Konushin coast. The collected materials allowed to compose two maps (scale of about 1:250,000) and new waterway sailing directions. The German auxillary cruiser Meteor laid mine barriers in the White Sea Throat Strait, later the English auxillary cruiser Arlanza hit one of the mines. Russian Naval Ministry commenced organizing mine sweeping operations in the White Sea. The whale-hunting polar vessel Eclipse, bought in Norway to search for G.Y. Sedov’s, V.A. Rusanov’s, and G.L. Brusilov’s expeditions, returned to Arkhangelsk (together with the Taymyr and Vaygach) under Otto Sverdrup, having wintered by the Cape Vilda. Two small submarines № 1 and № 2, part of the Special Operations Submarine Division, arrived to Arkhangelsk. They were included into the defense forces of the Arkhangelsk Port. They were based in the Northern Dvina River mouth. Military General Governor position was introduced for Arkhangelsk governorate and Belomorskiy District. “The White Sea Defence Temporary Base” was formed. Later it was expanded to become Arkhangelsk military port. Icebreaker Bureau was established at the Arkhangelsk commercial port office. There were 13 icebreakers and ice cutters laying foundation to the icebreaker flotilla. The vessels provided passage from the White Sea Gorlo (Throat) to Arkhangelsk during winter navigation time. The narrow-gauge line Vologda–Arkhangelsk reconstructed into a broad-gauge railway. The first port icebreaker of Norway, Mjolner, built in 1878, purchased by Russia arrived to Arkhangelsk. I. Anufriyev’s work “Sailing in the North: some history” was published. 1915–1916 The outer harbor “Ekonomiya” was built to extend winter navigation time in Arkhangelsk. 1916 The Varyag cruiser entered the Kola Bay. Romanov-na-Murmane town was founded. Later it became Murmansk, one of the major Russian ports and main city to the North of the Arctic Circle. F. Nansen’s work “Spitsbergen waters” was published. The Naval Department ordered the Arctic Ocean Flotilla to be created. One of the largest Russian sea transport vessels Baron Drizen (Baron Driesen) with the displacement of 18,000 tonnes exploded in the portal area Bakaritsa in Arkhangelsk. There were 1,500 tonnes of trinitrotoluene, melinite, and other explosives. A total of 810 people died. Three vessels, three floating cranes, and several coastal buildings were destroyed. Steam icebreaker Sadko sank in the Kandalaksha Gulf near a bank that was later named after her. The ship was weighed in 1933 and sailed until 1941. The Arctic Ocean flotilla created. It was meant to defend the Russian sea ways in the North. It was based mainly in Arkhangelsk and Murmansk. (continued) 498 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

“The first keel sheet” of the Svyatogor icebreaker was “laid” on the British wharf Armstrong Whitworth in Newcastle upon Tyne on commission from the Russian Naval Ministry. The ship was to be used to extend navigation period in the White Sea. In 1927, she was renamed to Krasin upon the All-Russian Central Executive Committee provision. Nowadays she is the World Ocean Museum Department in St.-Petersburg, “the Krasin Icebreaker.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent note to governments of allied and friendly countries on incorporating the lands and islands discovered in 1913–1914 in the Arctic Ocean into the Russian Empire territories. 1917 The battleship Chesma entered the Kola Gulf. The Rear Admiral A.I. Bestuzhev-Ryumin who took office as Head of the Kola district had his flag on her. The Russian cruiser Askold anchored on the Murmansk roadstead after the difficult voyage from Toulon, France, via Glasgow, Great Britain. The crew took charge of the revolution in the Murmansk Kray. Specific Surveying of the White Sea was renamed into Hydrography Expedition of the White Sea, Specific Surveying of the Murmansk coast into Hydrography Department of the Arctic Ocean. Equipment Department of the Arkhangelsk military port was established upon the Naval Minister’s orders. The Svyatoy Georgiy submarine built in England arrived to Arkhangelsk. A.A. Zhilinskiy’s work “Sea hunting and foraging in the White Sea and Arctic Ocean” was published. Steam icebreaker Semyon Dezhnyov exploded in the Arkhangelsk Port. The grand British steamship Bairopea caught fire and broke in two. They could not stop the fire for a week; the Ekonomiya district was full of ashes. Over 500 people were injured or died. 1918 The “Trading Company of Grumant, Agafelov and Co” Partnership of merchants from Arkhangelsk and St.-Petersburg (established in 1912) transferred its rights to Nakhimson, emigrant from Russia who together with British companions organized “Anglo-russkiy Grumant” (English-Russian Grumant) Company in London in 1920. Landing of the English troops in Murmansk. Foreign intervention in the North. The Council of People’s Commissars of RSFSR issued a decree on organizing Hydrography Expedition of the Arctic Ocean allocating one million Roubles to fund its work. Civil War events in the North held back the expedition works for 2 years. S.B. Averintsev’s research voyage on the fishery trawler Del’fin in the Kamenskoye shallows area. “Arctic Pilot” sailing directions were published in Great Britain. Main Hydrography Department suggested restoring the Hydrography Expedition for the Arctic Ocean immediately, namely “creating state institution which would provide information on ice conditions, on passing and access ability of one or another area to all sailors, would give necessary directions and guidance, aid vessels in need, etc.”. The Taymyr and Vaygach, the Hydrography Expedition for the Arctic Ocean vessels (under Captain I rank B.A. Vil’kitskiy) sailed from Arkhangelsk to the Kara Sea to explore the ice conditions and carry supplies to the radio stations. Main Hydrography Department published “Summary on meteorology and oceanography of the Kara and East Siberian Seas.” Steam icebreaker Vaygach ran ashore in the Yenisei Gulf and was abandoned by the crew. The transport vessel (port vessel) Solombala went from Arkhangelsk to the Ob’ River mouth (Nakhodka Port) and back. The Triple Entente troops landed in Arkhangelsk. Provisional Government of the Northern parts of Russia was established in Arkhangelsk with the Triple Entente countries’ support. Revolutionary socialist N.V. Chaykovskiy was the Chairman. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 499

The mine layer Ussuri (former steamship Lyutsun) was sunk on the Northern Dvina water way. The British icebreaker Aleksandr Nevskiy (later HMS Aleksander, then Lenin), built in 1917 on commission of the Russian Tsar Government, came to Arkhangelsk. A trickle of but 35 sailors was resisting the enemy ships trying to land on the Mud’yug Island (fortifications of which were the key to Arkhangelsk) for several hours. 1918–1921 Norwegian arctic expedition under R. Amundsen on the Maud ship. They aimed to repeat F. Nansen’s Fram drift in the Arctic Ocean. 1919 Special expedition was sent to Pechorskiy Kray with the support of the science and technology department of the Supreme Soviet of the People’s Economy. It aimed to study fishery under guidance of Professor V.K. Soldatov. “Sea Expedition to Siberia” (“White Kara Expedition of 1919”) under B.A. Vil’kitskiy’s guidance. Steam icebreakers Taymyr, Vaygach, and Aleksandr Nevskiy came to the Dikson Island and left there 2-year coal and food supply for the arctic station. Hydrography survey vessels division arrived to the Dikson Island from Arkhangelsk. The division was formed by K.K. Neupokoyev. Later on it comprised the main base for the Specific Ob’-Yenisei Hydrography Division. The Collegium of the Industry and Trade People’s Commissariat established Committee on the Russian North Research and Practical Use (shortly, Committee on the Russian North). Aviator Kazakov presented an aviation expedition project to the Supreme Soviet of People’s Eonomy. He suggested visiting the Kara Sea region for ice research and avia-exploration. Provisional Government and invaders left Arkhangelsk taking the three icebreakers with them: Minin, Svyatogor, and Aleksandr Nevskiy. Provisional Government (democratic) of the White Sea Karelia was formed. 1919–1920 Norwegian sailor, carpenter, and whale hunter P. Tessem died in the course of moving from the first wintering area of R. Amundsen’s expedition (the Maud Harbor) to the Dikson Island. He had to deliver mail and the research materials collected. A monument commemorating him was erected on the Dikson Island later on. 1920 The Spitsbergen Treaty (Svalbard Treaty) was signed in Paris. Nakhimson, emigrant from Russia, together with a British companion established “Anglo- russkiy Grumant” (English-Russian Grumant) Stock Company in London. The Naval forces of the Northern Fleet were established. It included a sea division, a river flotilla, hydrography expedition for the Arctic Ocean, hydrography expedition for the White Sea, board for lighthouses management and the White Sea sailing directions, coastal defense ships of the Murmansk District, and a diver-and-rescue party. An armed uprising took place in Murmansk, restoring the Soviet power in the area. According to the decree of the First uyezd Congress of Soviets, the uyezd center was transferred from Aleksandrovsk to Murmansk, the uyezd was renamed into Murmanskiy (uyezd was the low-level administrative subdivision in the USSR and the Russian Empire before that). According to the ordinance by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of People’sEconomy,the Northern Scientific and Hunting Expedition was established in order “to perform research of scientific and practical nature and incidentally to make use of the natural production powers, mostly of hunting and fishing as well as deer farming at the Extreme North.” In 1925, the Expedition became the Research Institute on the North Studies. Murmansk trawler fleet was established. On the day, the Soviet trawler T-30 commenced on its first fishing voyage. 19 March 1920 is considered the official date of the trawler fleet creation. On the day the State Fishery Office was established by the Order № 51 of the Arkhangelsk Governorate revolution committee and the first trawler flotilla in the Soviet Russia acquired 12 nationalized vessels. (continued) 500 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

The Treaty of Tartu (Yuryev until 1918) was signed by Finland and the RSFSR. According to the Treaty, Finland incorporated the western part of the Pechengskaya Volost along with parts of the Rybachiy and Sredniy Peninsulas, as well as a part of the Kolsko-Loparskaya Volost (volost being an old administrative division type in Russia). Finland gained access to the World Ocean on its new northern borders. Murmansk oblast office on fishery and hunting was established by Order of the People’s Commissariat for Food Supplies. The office managed the sea coast from the Finland borders to the Orlovskiy Cape, western coast of the White Sea and all reservoirs and lakes along the Murmansk railway within Arkhangelsk Governorate and on the Kola Peninsula. The SpecificOb’-Yenisei Hydrography Division was established to study the Obskaya Guba Bay, the Yenisei Gulf, lower parts of the Ob’ and Yenisei Rivers, and also to manage buoyage in the area. The division’s work provided for first “bread expeditions” and “commodity exchange expeditions” that carried significant amounts of food and raw materials from Siberia to Arkhangelsk in August–October 1920. The Northern Scientific and Hunting Expedition under R.L. Samoylovich’s guidance was established and commenced research in the Barents Sea. The steam icebreaker Solovey Budimirovich (later Malygin) sailed from Arkhangelsk to Murmansk and was locked by ice in the Barents Sea and carried to the Kara Sea. The Svyatogor icebreaker (later Krasin) and the Canada ice cutter (later Litke) were sent to her rescue. Soviet hydrography expedition worked in the Yugorskiy Shar Strait and in the Karskiye Vorota. Norwegian government sent a search expedition to the Dikson Island, on board of the Heimen under Ole Hansen, to look for Peter Tessem and Paul Knutsen, fellows of R. Amundsen’s expedition. White Russian emigrant P.G. Kushakov presented a project of international community creation to exploit the Kara Sea Route. The All-Russian Co-operative Society (ARCOS) was established in London as British-Soviet stock company and the Kara Sea expeditions counterparty. Hydrographer A.I. Osipov’s party discovered the Novy Port Bay – a convenient for cargo loading locality on the western coast of the Obskaya Guba. British and French intervention left Arkhangelsk. Authority for providing safe navigation in the White and Barents Seas (short name in Russian – Ubekosever) was established. The date is considered the day of Hydrography office of the Northern Fleet establishment. Thirteen outdated military minesweepers were nationalized in Arkhangelsk and given to Oblastryba institution. The event marks the official date of the Soviet trawler fleet establishment. The British cruiser HMS Iphigenia arrived to Arkhangelsk. She was to trawl the waterways, check vessels, and perform other defense activities from the Svyatoy Nos Cape to Arkhangelsk. The White Sea Military Flotilla was established. Committee of the Northern Sea Route organized “bread expedition” responsible for carrying bread from Siberia to Arkhangelsk (Kara expeditions). 1921 On I.I. Mesyatsev’s initiative, Floating Sea Research Institute (short Russian name – Plavmornin) of the People’s Commissariat for Education was established according to the special decree of 10 March 1921 by Council of People’s Commissars. The institute’s aim was to study seas of the Russian North. There were biology, hydrology, meteorology, and geology departments. The well-known Persey was among the four expedition vessels of the institute. The decree allowing foreign commercial vessels to enter Murmansk Port was signed. The First Kara expedition to cater for export–import shipping between ports of Western Europe and rivers of Western Siberia was established by the Soviet Government. The expedition marked the beginning of the Kara Sea Route annual exploitation. The steamships Ob’ and Yenisei were damaged by ice during the Kara expedition and sank in the Kara Sea. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 501

The first Soviet scientific expedition worked in the Kara Sea aboard the hydrography vessel Taymyr. They surveyed the Baydarata (Baydaratskaya) Bay and made several systemic hydrological sections of the whole southeastern part of the sea. Expedition aboard the Malygin steam icebreaker hired by the Floating Sea Research Institute included research group of L.A. Zenkevich, V.K. Soldatov, and S.A. Zernov among others. They worked in the Novozemelskiy area of the Barents Sea and the southern part of the Kara Sea performing hydrology surveys in the Ob’–Yenisei area. N.V. Rose made first ice forecast report in the Kara Sea. Soviet expedition under N.A. Begichev in search of R. Amundsen’s fellows (P. Tessem and P. Knutsen). The Council of Labour and Defence adopted a resolution on port construction in the Yenisei River mouth being included into the State construction program. The Council of Labour and Defence adopted a resolution “On organising an expedition to Siberia via the Kara Sea.” Seven million Roubles of gold were allocated to fund the expedition. The Council of Labour and Defence resolved to purchase vessels for the Kara expedition from abroad. The SpecificOb’-Yenisei Hydrography Division staked out, surveyed, and measured the Yenisei Gulf and the Obskaya Guba Bay. They also discovered the Oleniy Island. The Kara (Siberian) expedition took place (it was organized on V.I. Lenin’s initiative). A division of three steam icebreakers (Vladimir Rusanov, Georgiy Sedov, Aleksandr Sibiryakov) and four transports with barges of the first commodities exchange expedition commenced on its voyage from Arkhangelsk. The division joined the foreign division of five steamships purchased in Britain. The expedition was accompanied by the Lenin icebreaker. The foreign division arrived to Ust–Yeniseisk, the Arkhangelsk division – to Novy Port in the Obskaya Guba. In 40 days (22 of them on the roadstead), bread and goods for export were delivered to Arkhangelsk. “The White Sea ice sailing directions” by General of the Navy Navigation Corps N.V. Morozov was published. Council of People’s Commissars of RSFSR signed a decree allowing foreign commercial vessels to enter Arkhangelsk and other ports. Council of People’s Commissars of RSFSR signed a decree “On Protecting Fish and Beast Lands in the Arctic and the White Sea.” Specialized icebreaker Milner from Norway for the Arkhangelsk Port perished by the Lumbovskiye Islands in the White Sea. 1922 It was resolved that the Naval forces of the Northern Sea would be dissolved. Flagman ship of the Naval forces of the Northern Sea Yaroslavna left Arkhangelsk, visited Iokanga, Murmansk, crossed the Barents Sea, and reached Novaya Zemlya. Authority for providing safe navigation in the Kara Sea and in the Siberian rivers mouths (short name in Russian – Ubekosibir’)wasestablishedbasingontheOb’-Yenisei Hydrography Division. The first interdepartmental meeting on the Northern Sea Route resolved, among other things, to deal with sailing directions and the Kara Sea Route maps publishing. Hunting expedition of the Northern Sea Route Committee on the Agnessa schooner led by industrialist D. Wardroper visited the area between the Yenisei Gulf and the Obskaya Guba Bay, mapped the island to the north from the Yavay Peninsula and named it Agnessa (later the Shokalskiy Island). The hydrography vessel Metel’ sailed from Petrograd (St.-Petersburg) to the Kara Sea under K.K. Neupokoyev. The second commodity exchange Kara expedition led by M.V. Nikolayev. The hydrography vessel Varshava sailed from Arkhangelsk to the Ob’ River. American magazine National Geographic published “The Arctic as an Air Route of the Future” article by V. Stefansson. Materials based on the East Siberian Sea sailing directions by K.K. Neupokoyev were published. (continued) 502 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

V.V. Shuleykin, a prominent oceanologist in the future, sailed aboard the Pakhtusov ship in the White Sea. First Soviet research vessel Persey was built. Expedition led by K.M. Deryugin on board of the Murman ship performed hydrography works in the White Sea. The icebreaker Skuratov (former Minto, then Ivan Susanin, then Leitenant Dreyer) sank in the Chosha Bay. 1922–1933 Hydrographers of the Authority for providing safe navigation in the Kara Sea and in the Siberian rivers mouths surveyed the Obskaya Guba Bay, the Bely and Shokalskiy Islands, Malygin Strait, Tazovskaya Guba Bay, Yenisei Gulf with the Oleniy, Sibiryakov, Neupokoyev, Vil’kitskiy islands, coasts eastwards from the Dvukh Medvedey Cape, Kamennyye Islands, and Severo-vostochnyye Islands in detail. They also performed magnetic, gravimetric, hydrologic, and meteorological observations. 1923 Specific Northern hydrography division was formed. Hydrographer and geodesist N.V. Rose built magnetic observatory (the first one in the Russian North) by the eastern entrance to the Matochkin Shar Strait. Regular observations of absolute values of geomagnetic fields, magnetic dip and declination were performed from 15 September 1923. State Oceanographic Institute expedition on Persey (USSR) and Norwegian expedition led by Thor Iversen on the Blaafjeld visited the Franz Josef Land. The Novy Port (New Port) construction at the Ob’ River was finished. Two large steel lighters keels were laid down at the Baltiyskiy factory. The lighters were meant for the Kara expedition. Central Union of Consumer Cooperatives organized the Third commodity exchange Kara expedition. Expedition vessel Persey sailed on its first voyage in the White Sea on the route Arkhangelsk–Mezen’–Kandalaksha–Arkhangelsk. Over the course of 18 years Persey performed about 100 passages in the norhern seas. She perished on the Murmansk roadstead in 1941. 1923–1924 B.A. Vil’kitskiy became head of the Soviet commodity exchange Kara expeditions to the Ob’ and Yenisei Rivers mouths. 1924 The Northern hydrography expedition led by N.N. Matusevich was established basing on the Specific Northern hydrography division. That year the expedition performed reconnaissance survey in the Pechora River mouth and the Matochkin Shar Strait. Hydroplane was used for the research for the first time. The “Aeroarctic” international society was established to study the Arctic regions using aeronautic vessels. Famous polar explorer F. Nansen became its first President. Aviators B.G. Chukhnovskiy and M.S. Babushkin flying the twin-engine monoplane “Yu-20” performed ice survey from the air along the eastern coast of the Novaya Zemlya for the Kara expedition vessels. It was the first time when aviation was used to explore ice conditions in the Arctic. During the spring ice drift the Agnessa schooner was crushed by ice and sank in the lower course of the Yenisei. V.Yu. Vize published his work “On Surface Currents in the Kara Sea” where he analyzed peculiarities of the schooner Svyataya Anna ice drift (G.L. Brusilov’s expedition of 1912–1914), and predicted the presence of unknown land in the sea. In 1929, they discovered there an island and named it after V.Yu. Vize. Fourth Kara expedition. Large amounts of Siberian timber exported abroad for the first time. Sea expedition of the Russian Hydrology Institute surveyed ice distribution and tidal currents in the Kara Sea on the Nord ship and steam icebreaker Malygin. Hydrography Department of USSR published “Sailing Directions for the Yenisei Gulf and the Yenisei River up to Ust-Yeniseisk Port” in Leningrad (St.-Petersburg). The “Directions” was the first work ever composed for sailing in the area. It was written by Head of the Authority for providing safe navigation in the Kara Sea and in the Siberian rivers mouths, hydrographer N.F. Timofeyevskiy. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 503

Systemic hydrography surveys commenced in the north (the White Sea, the Murmansk coast, and the Novaya Zemlya coast). They surveyed the White Sea Gorlo (Throat) Strait among other areas under N.N. Matusevich’s guidance. He also superwised the “Currents Atlas” composition. The book ran into several editions. Scientific and Fishing Herring expedition in the White Sea. Specific practice division of the White Sea Naval Forces (the Avrora cruiser and training vessel Komsomolets) sailed in the training voyage around Scandinavia to Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars of RSFSR issued a resolution “On the Arctic Ocean Islands Administration” defining the Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach, Kolguyev Islands and their populations as administered by Arkhangelsk Governorate executive committee. Commercial Navy school in Arkhangelsk became the Arkhangelsk Sea Ways Training College. 1925 Spitsbergen was officially proclaimed a part of Norway and became its administrative subdivision Svalbard. The Svalbard Act of 17 July 1925 no. 11 was endorsed by the royal resolution and came into effect. Murmansk Biology Centre became an independent scientific institution (a research laboratory). The “Murmansk Coast Sailing Directions” and M.I. Tikhiy’s book Murman Fish of Commercial Value were published. British expedition under F. Worsley visited the Franz Josef Land aboard the sailing ship Island. They discovered a small island Tom. The Council of People’s Commissars resolved to proclaim the Krasnoy Armii, Matochkin Shar, Vil’kitskogo, Shokalskiy, Yugorskiy Shar, and Karskiye Vorota Straits the USSR territorial waters. Ice Office was established by the Matochkin Shar Strait to inform sailors on the ice conditions in the Kara Sea and the straits at Novaya Zemlya via radio. The Authorities for providing safe navigation in various seas met in Leningrad and approved the program of hydrography works in the Barents and Kara Seas. Expedition of the Research Institute on the North Studies led by R.L. Samoylovich visited the northern island of Novaya Zemlya on board of the Elding ship, and surveyed geography of the eastern coast where a few new bays and inlets were found. Fifth Soviet Kara expedition led by M.V. Nikolayev. Well-known American international lawyer David Miller published an article “Political Rights in the Arctic” in the United States Department of State. K.M. Deryugin’s work “Survey of the Barents and White Seas, and of Novaya Zemlya. 1912–1924” was published in Arkhangelsk. Research Institute on the North Studies was established. V.V. Shuleykin’s work “White Sea Tides Hydrodynamics” was published. 1925–1926 North hydrography expedition studied currents in the White Sea Gorlo (Throat) Strait and published “Tidal Currents Atlas for the White Sea Throat Strait.” 1925–1934 North hydrography expedition surveyed the Murmansk coast from the Vayda Bay (Rybachy Peninsula) to the Svyatoy Nos Cape in detail, but without ship sounding from the Rynda Guba Bay. Then only selected sea surveying was performed in detail until 1941. 1926 N.M. Knipovich’s work “Key to the Fishes of the Barents, White and Kara Seas” was published among works of the Research Institute on the North Studies. Hydrography expedition on the steamship Sever under hydrographer V.N. Dmitriyev proceeded with mapping of the Khalmyer Bay (Gydanskaya Bay). N.A. Begichev found remains of Norwegian sailor P. Tessem, fellow of R. Amundsen’s polar expedition, on the continental coast across from the Dikson Island. R. Amundsen was buried there as well later. (continued) 504 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Central Executive Committee Presidium of USSR resolved to rename the Zemlya Nikolaya II Archipelago into Severnaya Zemlya. Central Executive Committee Presidium and the Council of People’s Commissars issued a resolution “On proclaiming lands and islands of the Arctic Ocean territories of USSR.” The resolution proclaimed establishment of the Soviet arctic sector located between meridians 32004’35”E and 168048’30”W (excluding eastern islands of the Spitsbergen Archipelago). Regular synoptic office catering for the Kara expeditions commenced its activities in the Novy Port. The sixth Soviet commodity exchange expedition led by N.I. Yevgenov. The steam icebreaker Georgiy Sedov provided passage for the expedition through the Matochkin Shar Strait. In Leningrad, Hydrography Department of USSR published “Obskaya Guba Sailing Directions” by Head of the Authority for providing safe navigation in the Kara Sea and in the Siberian rivers mouths, hydrographer N.F. Timofeyevskiy. 1926–1938 Northern hydrography expedition performed hydrography surveys (triangulation, topography survey, measuring) in the Severnaya Dvina River mouth, the White Sea Throat, Mezenskiy Gulf, Onezhskiy Gulf, Kandalaksha Gulf, on the Karelia coast, Terskiy coast, Summer (Letniy) coast, and Winter (Zimniy) coast. They also explored the Severnyye Koshki Islands. Geodetic control grid was created over the whole White Sea coast excluding the Onezhskiy Gulf. 1927 The Zarnitsa vessel of the Research Institute on the North Studies performed oceanography surveys in the northern latitudes of the Barents Sea near the Franz Josef Land. The Floating Sea Research Institute fellows on the Persey performed oceanography works all over the southwestern part of the Kara Sea. The seventh Soviet Kara expedition was led by N.I. Yevgenov. Ice observation and forecast Office was established under V.A. Snezhinskiy at the White Sea and in the Severnaya Dvina mouth. 1928 Umberto Nobile’s airship Italia left Milan, reached Spitsbergen and in 2 weeks reached the North Pole. It crashed on the way back approximately 90 km from Spitsbergen. A Soviet amateur radio operator Nikolay Schmidt from Arkhangelsk Oblast received SOS signal from the crashed airship Italia. Norwegian polar explorer R. Amundsen perished in the Barents Sea on the Latham plane when searching for Umberto Nobile’s expedition (Italy). Several vessels (including Krasin and Georgiy Sedov) visited the Franz Josef Land searching for fellows of the expedition of the Italia airship. A.V. Kolchak’s work “Ices of the Kara and Siberian Seas” was translated into English and published by the American Geographical Society. Governmental Committee on the Arctic was established to promote research in the USSR polar territories. The Ob’ group of the Authority for providing safe navigation in the Kara Sea and in the Siberian rivers mouths went on a hydrography expedition to map the Obskaya Guba on board of the Messner schooner. The eighth Soviet Kara expedition was led by N.I. Yevgenov. K.M. Deryugin published “The White Sea Fauna and habitat conditions there.” The Council of Labour and Defence resolved to establish Northern Sea Route Committee (“Komseverput’”) Stock Company aimed to provide for the Northern Sea Route systemic use, catering for all the necessary facilities, and ensuring it becoming the artery of commercial relations between Siberia and Europe. M.M. Litvinov informed the Politburo about Great Britain Naval Service vessels often entering the Soviet territorial waters and covering British fishermen illegally fishing in the Barents and even White Seas. Arkhangelsk Sea Ways Training College became Sea Training College. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 505

1929 The Council of People’s Commissars of USSR resolved to establish committee on unification of research works on the northern seas. Member of the Academy of Sciences N.M. Knipovich was appointed head of the committee. However, the Committee had not commenced on any activities. The Floating Sea Research Institute and Murmansk biology centre united and became State Oceanography Institute which existed until 1934. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars of RSFSR issued a resolution “On the Arctic Ocean Islands Administration.” Scientific research of the Arctic regions became commercially and economically important for the USSR. According to the Soviet Government resolution, an expedition on the Georgiy Sedov icebreaker built a permanent research center on the Hooker Island in the Tikhaya Bay (Franz Josef Land). Expedition on the Georgiy Sedov erected a memorial on the Rudolf Island in the Teplitz Bay to honor three fellows of the Italian expedition that sailed on the Stella Polare. They perished in 1900. The ninth Soviet Kara expedition under N.I. Yevgenov was accompanied by the Krasin icebreaker. Icebreakers started to provide passage for the Kara expeditions annually. First Soviet expedition to high latitudes commenced from Arkhangelsk on board of the steam icebreaker Georgiy Sedov (Captain V.I. Voronin) towards Franz-Josef Land. The expedition was organized by the Arctic Institute and led by O.Yu. Schmidt. V.V. Timonov’s work “On questions of hydrology regime of the White Sea Throat” was published. 1929–1931 G.L. Travin traveled alone in the Arctic by bicycle, going along the Arctic Ocean coast, visiting some islands. He went from west to east from the Kola Peninsula to the Dezhnev Cape on Chukotka. 1929–1935 L.V. Antonov performed ice conditions observations in the Kara and Laptev Seas aboard the Krasin icebreaker. 1930 With N.N. Zubov’s participation, the first bathymetric maps of the Barents Sea (1:2,000,000) was compiled. Norwegian vessel Bratvang was the first to explore the Victoria Island in the west of the Barents Sea. Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences establishing had begun: Khibiny Mountain Centre of the USSR Academy of Sciences – Kola Centre of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1934) – Kola Department of the the USSR Academy of Sciences (1949) – Kola Science Centre the USSR Academy of Sciences (1988). Nowadays, the following institutions are parts of the Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences: Geology, Mountains, Polar Geophysics, Murmansk Marine Biology Institutes; I.V. Tananaev Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Rare Elements and Mineral Raw Materials, N.A. Avrorin Botanical Garden and Institute of Polar and Alpine Botany, Institute for Issues of Industrial Ecology on the North, Economy Issues Institute, Institute for Informatics and Mathematical Modelling of Technological Processes, Centre for Physical and Technical Problems of Energy Development in the North, and Centre for Humanitarian Problems in the Barents Region. Leningrad Oblast executive committee resolved to establish Lapland Nature Reserve as part of the forestry and hunting economy system. From 1985, it became Lapland Biosphere Reserve according to the UNESCO certificate. Polar expedition led by O.Yu. Schmidt and V.Yu. Vize commenced to the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago on the steam icebreaker Georgiy Sedov. Attempts to acclimatize Kamchatka crabs at the Murman Bay. Norwegian scientific expedition led by G.H. Horn visited the Franz Josef Land Archipelago. Georgiy Sedov visited the Franz Josef Land again. The expedition had been to the Northbrook, Bell, MacKlintok, and Alger Islands, and explored their flora, fauna, and geology. (continued) 506 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Complex sea expedition on the steam icebreaker Georgiy Sedov was led to Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya by O.Yu. Schmidt (Head), V.Yu. Vize (Research Advisor), and V.I. Voronin (Captain). They discovered the Vize and Isachenko Islands, Sedov Archipelago, and explored the northern part of the Kara Sea. They also carried the expedition led by G.A. Ushakov to the Domashniy Island coast and delivered materials for the first arctic research center on the Severnaya Zemlya. The first “Kara Sea and Novaya Zemlya Islands Sailing Directions” was published under N.I. Yevgenov’s guidance basing on the Northern hydrography expedition results. The Northern Sea Route Committee (“Komsevmorput’”) expedition on board of the Messner schooner founded a factory by the Yuribey River mouth, in the apex of the Gydanskaya Bay. It triggered annual visits of trade vessels to the bay. Steam icebreaker Malygin provided passage for some vessels of the Kara expedition from Yenisei around the Zhelaniya Cape. Steamship Anastas Mikoyan surveyed and measured the Gydanskaya Bay. The sailing-motor ship Belukha went from Arkhangelsk to the Western Taymyr coast to get to the Lena River. It came back without reaching its goal. The expedition led by G.A. Ushakov to the Severnaya Zemlya built a radiostation on the Domashniy Island (Severnaya Zemlya). The tenth Soviet Kara expedition. The Kara Sea Route economic exploitation began. German minesweeper Capella sank by the Kaninskiy coast. “Belomorstroy” was established on I.V. Stalin’s initiative to construct the White Sea – Baltic Sea Canal. The Research Institute on the North Studies became the All-Soviet Arctic Research Institute. 1930–1931 G.A. Ushakov and his fellows undertook several sledge trips over the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago. 1931 Icebreaker Aleksandr Sibiryakov carried a large group of Soviet miners and polar explorers to Spitsbergen. First commercial soils map of 13 areas of the Barents Sea was composed under M.V. Klyonova’s guidance. The American submarine Nautilus failed to reach the North Pole and came to Spitsbergen. Swedish-Norwegian expedition on board of the Quest ship visited the western part of Franz Josef Land. Steamship Lomonosov (former Eclipse) delivered a hut for magnetic observations to the Tikhaya Bay. First touristic voyage of Soviet steam icebreaker Malygin to the Arctic. Soviet hunting vessels began visiting Franz Josef Land to hunt walruses. The eleventh Soviet Kara expedition under N.I. Yevgenov. The sailing-motor ship Belukha attempted another voyage from Arkhangelsk to the Western Taymyr coast to reach the Lena River, again unsuccessfully. The White Sea methodology center of the Hydrography Institute was established at the Malaya Pirya Guba Bay, near the Umba village on the Kola coast, Kandalaksha Bay, on the K.M. Deryugin’s initiative. It existed until 1938. The Council of Labour and Defence of USSR approved the project of the White Sea – the Baltic Sea Canal construction. G.A. Migalkin’s work “Hydrography Seas Research in 1915–1922, part 1, the White Sea and Murmansk coast” was published. I.V. Stalin sent a suggestion note “On Northern Coast Defence” to the Politburo. Airship Graf Zeppelin flew over Arkhangelsk and cross-navigated the Western Arctic. 1931–1932 Motor boats Nydoyamo and Avral wintered in the southern part of the Gydanskaya Bay. During the time the expedition performed course surveys. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 507

1932 In connection with International Polar Year celebrations the second meteorological station on the Franz Josef Land was set up on the Rudolf Island. K.M. Deryugin purchased the sailing motor schooner Kayra for use at the White Sea methodology center. At a scientific meeting by the Karelia Research Institute K.M. Deryugin was insisting on setting up a research center at the Onezhskaya Guba Bay of the White Sea. Special Expedition for Underwater Works (short name in Russian – EPRON) took part in rescuing the German steamship Westa. The Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route was established at the Council of People’s Commissars. From 25 June 1933 Hydrography Department of the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route was established as part of the Directorate. The Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route was meant to provide sea passage from the White Sea to the Bering Strait, facilitate it with everything needed, maintain it accurately, and ensure safe navigation along the route. Steamship Aleksandr Sibiryakov was the first icebreaker in the Arctic navigation history to sail from Arkhangelsk to Vladivostok (full Northern Sea Route) in one navigation season. O.Yu. Schmidt was the Head of the expedition, V.I. Voronin was the Captain. “Atlas of ice conditions, compression and diverging in the northern part of the White Sea and the White Sea Gorlo (Throat), as well as near the Morzhovets Island” by A.K. Burke was published. An integrated team of scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences led by its President A.P. Karpinskiy arrived to Arkhangelsk to perform various research activities in the Pechora Basin, on the Vaygach Island, on the Novaya Zemlya and in other areas of the region. In December of the same year Bureau on The North Region Research was established, in 1935 it became Northern Base of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The Council of People’s Commissars resolved to organize an expedition to follow the Northern Sea Route from Arkhangelsk to Vladivostok to study geography and navigation conditions of seas at Siberian coasts. According to the Second International Polar Year program the sailing motor boat N. Knipovich turned around the Franz Josef Land Archipelago, performed oceanography research in the Barents Sea, and planted the USSR state flag on the Victoria Island. People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of USSR resolved to establish a Consulate on Spitsbergen. Expedition led by R.L. Samoylovich on the Vladimir Rusanov steam icebreaker discovered the Izvestiy TsIK Islands in the Kara Sea. Hydrography Department organized an expedition to the northeastern part of the Kara Sea on board of the steam icebreaker Taymyr. The expedition was led by A.M. Lavrov and V.V. Shuleykin. They surveyed the Severnaya Zemlya Islands and the Taymyr Peninsula according to the Second International Polar Year program. Oeanography works were performed in the shallow part of the Kara Sea in front of the Obskiy and Yeniseiskiy Gulfs, aboard the Albatros motor vessel. She ran ashore at the Bely Island on her way back and so perished. The Persey ship of the Floating Sea Research Institute worked in the southwestern part of the Kara Sea. The N-3 airplane (Commander L.M. Portsel) crashed and sank at the entrance to the Beluzhya Guba Bay. The plane was performing ice reconnaissance for the Kara expedition vessels. Three people died by drowning (L.M. Portsel, Z. Dalfone, and Ruchyov). Three others (among them M.I. Shevelyov, famous Soviet polar aviator in the future) managed to survive. An Arctic research center was established on the Chelyuskin Cape by an expedition aboard the Vladimir Rusanov steam icebreaker. Arctic Institute expedition led by N.V. Pinegin visited the Franz Josef Land aboard the Malygin steam icebreaker. The twelfth Soviet Kara expedition led by M.I. Shevelyov. Sea expedition of the State Oceanographic Institute was led by N.N. Zubov aboard the N. Knipovich ship. They went around the Franz Josef Land Archipelago. (continued) 508 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1932–1933 Second International Polar Year. Twenty people with I.D. Papanin in charge wintered in the Tikhaya Bay to mark the beginning of the Second International Polar Year. Soviet steam icebreaker Aleksandr Sibiryakov with the All-Soviet Arctic Institute expedition sailed from west to east via the Northern Sea Route in 65 days (Head O.Yu. Schmidt, Research Advisor V.Yu. Vize). They discovered the Bolshoy and Maly Islands of the Arctic Institute Islands group in the Kara Sea. 1933 The All-Russian Central Executive Committee and Council of People’s Commissars added a point on the Victoria Island to the resolution “On the Arctic Ocean Islands Administration” of 10 November 1929. The State Oceanographic Institute and Central Fishery Research Institute joined into All-Soviet Fishery and Oceanography Research Institute. Murmansk Department of the State Oceanographic Institute (renamed to the North Fishery and Oceanography Institute) became the northern branch of the new Institute. Polar Committee team went to the Vaygach Island. First group of the Baltic Fleet vessels of two squadron destroyers, two watch ships and two submarines sailed from Leningrad to Murmansk via the White Sea – Baltic Sea Canal. North Military Flotilla, permanently based in Murmansk, was established. It marked the North Fleet creation. Party and Government Committee (K.Y. Voroshilov, S.M. Kirov, and I.V. Stalin) visited ships of the North Military Flotilla, sailed around the Kola Gulf aboard the steam tug Burevestnik and proposed base locations for the ships. Separate submarine division was formed, marking the North Fleet submerged forces creation. Steamship Chelyuskin (former Lena) commenced on its first and, as it appeared, last voyage from Murmansk Port – in a few months it sank in the Chukchi Sea. First in the world automated meteorological station was set up in the Tikhaya Bay (constructed by Prof. P.A. Molchanov. Soviet navigators accompanied German transport vessels via the Kara Sea to the Ob’ and Yenisei ports. Soviet oceanologist V.A. Beryozkin’s work “Tides, currents and waves of the Kara Sea” was published. Expedition on the Chelyuskin found the Uyedineniya Island 50 miles from the spot marked by E.H. Johannesen. Hydrography expedition was led by V.Yu. Vize on the Aleksandr Sibiryakov to the northern part of the Kara Sea. Expedition on the Aleksandr Sibiryakov discovered a group of islands named after the Arctic Institute southward of the Sibiryakov Island and the Izvestiy TsIK Islands. Western Taymyr expedition (Belukha, Stalinets, Gydayama) performed topography (detailed survey of the coast from the Mikhaylov Cape to the Little Diomede Island) and hydrology works in the Kara region of the Northern Sea Route. Hunting vessel Nerpa, the first hunting vessel to go up to the extreme north of the Kara Sea, sailed around the Vize Island and reached 800080N. The northern part of the Kara Sea map composed basing on 1930–1932 expeditions results was published. Polar research center on the Bely Island commenced its work. Hydrology expedition on board of the Voronov ship (Head I.D. Protopopov) and on the Pakhtusov boat (Head M.M. Nikitin) performed observations in the Karskiye Vorota (Kara Gate) Strait. Estonian steamship Kannik that carried timber to Europe sank near the Bely Cape of the Vaygach Island. Timber had been rescued using forces of prisoners from a prisoner transport. Icebreakers began providing passage for cargo steamships heading to the Lena River mouth. Hydrographers of the Northern hydrography expedition for the first time performed theodolite measurements of coasts near Keret’ and Knyazhaya Guba settlements on the White Sea. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 509

Specific hydrography team was formed to provide navigation and hydrography survey support to ensure ships passage from the Baltic Sea to the White Sea via the White Sea – the Baltic Sea Canal. The team successfully trawled the whole route with a stiff surveying drag. I.V. Stalin, S.M. Kirov, and K.Y. Voroshilov inspected the ready-built White Sea – Baltic Sea Canal from the Anokhin steamship. I.V. Stalin, S.M. Kirov, and K.Y. Voroshilov visited ships of the Special Operations Expedition No 1 (EON-1) during its voyage to the White Sea and later when forming North Military Flotilla on its base in the Sorokskaya Guba Bay (White Sea). They inspected all compartments of the Dekabrist submarine in detail. Voyage of 126 Soviet writers along the White Sea – the Baltic Sea Canal. The Defence Committee adopted “List of measures to ensure military vessels transfer from the Baltic to the White Sea.” People’s Commissar for Military and Navy K.Y. Voroshilov ordered to transfer certain ships from the Baltic Fleet to the White Sea. Special Operations Expedition No 1 (EON-1) and then No 2 (EON-2) were established to fulfill the order. Special Operations Expedition No 1 reformed into the North Military Flotilla. Bureau of the Polar Committee in the North (sometimes called Bureau of the Academy of Sciences in the North) was established. It was the first Soviet academic center in the Arkhangelsk North. 1934 The Council of Labour and Defence of USSR adopted a resolution “On developing naval bases and airdromes for the Northern Navy.” Area of the Polyarny settlement was appointed the main operational base for the Northern Navy, while the Vayenga Guba – the rearward base and Murmansk – the repair base. On 17 February the People’s Commissariat of Supplies of USSR consolidated North Fishery and Oceanography Institute with North Herring Expedition. As the result of reorganization of the marine research institutes (State Oceanographic Institute, Central Fishery Research Institute, All-Soviet Fishery and Oceanography Research Institute, North Fishery and Oceanography Institute) they created Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO). The Fyodor Litke icebreaker led by V.Yu. Vize sailed from Vladivostok to Murmansk within one navigation season for the first time in the Northern Sea Route navigation history. Soviet navigators accompanied a German transport vessel via the Kara Sea to the Ob’ and Yenisei ports. All-Soviet Arctic Institute went on a scientific and hunting expedition to the Novaya Zemlya on board of the Pomors boat Arctic. Steam icebreaker Sadko sailed the Arctic for the first time. Significant scientific works were performed aboard the Yermak icebreaker providing passage for the Kara and Lena expeditions. Sea port was established on the Dikson Island. Half-ruined wooden post with “Gerkules, 1913” carving on it was found on Veyzel Island (one of the Mona Islands group, by the Taymyr coasts) by a hydrography expedition aboard the Stalinets schooner. The island was renamed after V.A. Rusanov’s schooner, Gerkules. The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) expedition under R.L. Samoylovich went to the northeastern part of the Kara Sea aboard the Georgiy Sedov. They surveyed the northern part of the Kara Sea, explored the Vize and Uyedineniya Islands in detail. They discharged many messenger buoys which had been recovered in a year mostly by the coasts of the Northern Norway and Iceland. A mark planted by the Eclipse crew in 1915 was found on the Uyedineniya Island. Polar research center was constructed on the Uyedineniya Island. Polar research center was constructed on the Leskina Cape, the Yenisei Gulf. Book “Lost in the Ice. G.L. Brusilov’s Polar Expedition aboard the Hunting Schooner Svyataya Anna” was published in Leningrad. Topographer M.I. Tsyganyuk found remains of clothes and equipment that belonged to V.A. Rusanov’s expedition disappeared in 1912, on a small island among the Minina Skerries. (continued) 510 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Book I.V. Stalin White Sea – Baltic Sea Canal was published. The authors dedicated it to XVII party congress. Editors: M. Gor’kiy, L.L. Averbakh, S.G. Firin. After the Chelyuskin had perished in the Chukchi Sea, the Council of People’s Commissars and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union adopted a resolution “On Measures to be Taken to Develop the Northern Sea Route and Economy in the North.” Among other developments, it prescribed extension and modernization of the Arkhangelsk and Murmansk ports. 1934–1935 First bottom fish commercial evaluation was performed with N.A. Maslov’s participation. Murmansk herring (Clupea harengus), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), and rockfish (Sebastes) spawning sites were found. The first “Atlas of bottom-dwelling animals of the Barent Sea” was composed. 1935 V.Yu. Vize’s book History of the Soviet Arctic Exploration. Kara and Barents Seas was published. In accordance with the resolution by the Central Executive Committee of USSR, the USSR joined the Spitsbergen Treaty (Svalbard Treaty) signed in Paris in 1920. In accordance with the resolution by the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars of 20 July 1934, Hydrography Institute of the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route was established. The purpose of the institution was to prepare navigators, hydrography engineers, and oceanologists for work in the Arctic. First class graduated in 1938. First Soviet systemic oceanology survey of the Barents Sea southward of the 75N was performed under N.M. Knipovich’s guidance (the Persey and Knipovich vessels). Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) was named after the founder of commercial fishery explorations in the North, honorary member of the Academy of Sciences, N.M. Knipovich. The main base of the Northern Navy Flotilla – Polyarny settlement – was opened to operation. In accordance with the resolution by the Central Executive Committee of 27 June 1935, uniform geographical names were prescribed for the parts of the Arctic Ocean adjacent to the USSR coast, for the first time. Steamships Iskra and Vantsetti went along the Northern Sea Route from Murmansk to Vladivostok, Stalingrad and Anadyr’ – from Vladivostok to Murmansk. The Council of People’s Commissars of USSR resolved to establish Marine Biology Centre of the USSR Academy of Sciences at the Dalne-Zelenetskaya Guba Bay. Later on, it became Murmansk Marine Biological Institute. Passenger ship terminal opened in Murmansk. First Soviet high-latitude expedition was organized aboard the icebreaker Sadko under the famous Soviet explorer G.A. Ushakov. They prohibited Soviet hunting vessels to sail to the Franz Josef Land. Hydrography expedition aboard the Malygin went to the northeastern part of the Kara Sea and discovered an archipelago of seven small islands near the Isachenko Island. Hydrography works were performed on the skerries near the Khariton Laptev coast. The D-3 (Krasnogvardeyets) submarine went to the Novaya Zemlya and the Kara Sea. She perished in 1942. I.A. Kireyev’s hydrology expedition sailed aboard the steamship Malygin to the northeastern part of the Kara Sea. V.I. Vorobyov’s hydrography expedition worked in the Yenisei and Pyasinskiy Gulfs. A polar research center was constructed on the Russkiy Island. The Kirov Islands were discovered in the northeastern part of the Kara Sea. Icebreakers on duty started working all along the Northern Sea Route. Special Expedition for Underwater Works (short name in Russian – EPRON) lifted the steamship Proletariy in the Arkhangelsk Port. Steam icebreaker Vladimir Rusanov sailed from Arkhangelsk to the Indigirka River mouth and back within one navigation season. 1935–1936 The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) fishing expedition went to the Kara Sea and the Yamal Peninsula under V.N. Andreyev. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 511

1936 The German cruiser Königsberg visited the Barents Sea “to protect fishery.” The high-latitude expedition on the Sadko icebreaker performed hydrography, oceanography, geology, and hydrology works. An aviation base intended for the North Pole expedition was established on the Rudolf Island. Gerrit de Veer’s book The True and Perfect Description of Three Voyages by the Ships of Holland and Zeland was published in Russian (translated from Latin). The so-called Ice Patrol sea expeditions became regular. Expedition on the steam icebreaker Sadko went to the northwestern part of the Kara Sea and set up several integrated oceanography centers. V.Yu. Vize was the Research Advisor for the expedition. Expedition of the AARI aboard the Nerpa hunting vessel performed hydrology survey in the southern part of the Kara Sea, southward from the line Cape Zhelaniya – Dikson Island. The survey was led by K.A. Gomoyunov and provided valuable materials on distribution of temperatures, salinity, soils, currents, etc. in the Kara Sea. Sailing motor boats Professor Vize and Papanin performed hydrography and hydrology works in the very southwestern part of the Kara Sea. They discovered high water temperatures between the Vaygach Island and the Yamal Peninsula. Aleksandr Sibiryakov sailed to the Uyedineniya island and then to the Domashniy Island. In November, the steam icebreaker Aleksandr Sibiryakov crashed in the Guba Kamenka Bay by the southeastern end of the Novaya Zemlya southern island, at the entrance to the Karskiye Vorota Strait (from the east). The hunting vessels Kapitan Pospelov and Kapitan Voronin sailed from the Barents Sea to the Pacific Ocean along the Siberian coasts for the first time. Hydrology expedition led by P.M. Tsetkin went to the Yugorskiy Shar Strait aboard the ships Polyarnik, Arktika, and Pakhtusov. Hydrology vessel Toros wintered in the Nordenskjold Archipelago. Integrated scientific, hunting and fishing expedition went to the lower course of the Ob’ River led by I.K. Yakimovich. B.A. Sergeyevskiy’s work “Hydrography Survey in the South-Eastern Part of the Kara Sea. Ob’–Yenisei Region” was published in Leningrad. The “Programme of Major Naval Shipbuilding” prescribed to “construct a major military shipyard in the Arkhangelsk area. It should be much bigger than the Andre Marti (South) Yard in the Nikolayev town, and of quite a modern type in technical sense – like the Amur “Komsomolskiy” Shipyard.” Plant No 402, future Sevmash (Northern Machine-Building Enterprise), was founded in Molotovsk (now Severodvinsk). 1936–1937 Hydrography expedition under N.N. Alekseyev worked at the Nordenskjold Archipelago aboard the motor boat Toros. They surveyed the continental coast across from the Nordenskjold Archipelago, as well as the Taymyr Island which appeared to be not one but a group of three islands (which also had been noted during the flights in 1932 and 1935). 1936–1938 Hydrography expedition led by G.P. Kolesnikov worked in the Gydanskiy Gulf aboard the Minin schooner. Apart from hydrography works, it performed hydrology sections in the gulf. 1936–1944 Novella “Two Captains” by V.A. Kaverin was published in two parts. The story is based on the tragic voyage of G.L. Brusilov’s expedition (Captain Tatarinov’s in the book) that disappeared in the North aboard the Svyataya Anna (Svyataya Mariya schooner in the book). In 1955, same-name fiction film was produced (directed by V.Ya. Vengerov), and TV series (6 parts) directed by E.E. Karelov in 1976. 1937 Participants of the North Pole-1 expedition (I.D. Papanin, E.K. Fedorov, P.P. Shirshov, E.T. Krenkel’) arrived to Murmansk aboard the Yermak icebreaker. V.K. Yesipov’s work “Commercially Important Fishes of the Barents Sea” was published. Northern Military Flotilla became Northern Fleet in accordance with the order of the People’s Committee for Defence. German cruiser Köln visited the Barents Sea “to protect fishery.” (continued) 512 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Soviet navigators accompanied two German transport vessels via the Kara Sea to the Ob’ and Yenisei ports. The AARI expedition sailed aboard Nerpa to the northwestern part of the Kara Sea under K.A. Gomoyunov. Icebreaker Yermak performed ice conditions observations in the Barents and Kara Seas. Hydrography expedition aboard the Georgiy Sedov icebreaker went to the northeastern part of the Kara Sea. B.G. Ostrovskiy’s book White Sea was published in Arkhangelsk. Airplanes for the high-latitude expedition “North Pole-1” flew from Moscow to Arkhangelsk. Administration of the Plant No 402 construction in Molotovsk was transferred from the People’s Commissariat for Defence Industry to the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) due to failure to meet the deadline. 1938 The People’s Commissar for the USSR Navy P.A. Smirnov arrived to Polyarny to thoroughly inspect the Northern Fleet by I.V. Stalin’s order. Regular hydrology and meteorology support is now provided for the Northern Fleet. Participants of the XVIII International Geological Congress visited gulfs and bays at the Novaya Zemlya aboard the Vologda steamship. First patrol oceanography expedition went to the Barents and Kara Seas aboard the Murmanets ship. Expedition on the Papanin vessel worked in the Kara Sea near Taymyr. First spring ice patrol went to the Kara Sea on the Nerpa, and then another ice patrol went to the northeastern part of the Kara Sea, Barents Sea, and Vil’kitskiy Strait on the Murmansk and Litke vessels. The White Sea Biological Station of Moscow State University was set up on the Karelia coast of the Kandalaksha Gulf. The Sudostroy settlement near Arkhangelsk became Molotovsk Town (from 1957 Severodvinsk). The town’s shipbuilding plant was assigned Number 402, nowadays it is called Northern Machine-Building Enterprise OJSC. 1938–1940 Hydrography expedition led by V.A. Radziyevskiy went to the Nordenskjold Archipelago aboard the hydrography vessel Toros. 1939 The Politburo adopted the resolution “On Constructing Naval Base Vayenga (now Severomorsk) at the Northern Theatre of Operations.” The Politburo adopted the resolution “On Reinforcing the State Border Defence in Murmansk Oblast.” German ocean liner Bremen (third in the world) brought the American dry cargo ship City of Flint as a prize of war to the Murmansk Port wharf without notice. N.G. Kuznetsov declared the necessity of having a Northern Fleet base at the Yokanga, at the gulf eastward of the Kola Gulf. Icebreaker I. Stalin led by Captain M.P. Belousov went from Murmansk to the Greenland Sea to free the Georgiy Sedov steam icebreaker from ice as she was completing her historic drift at the Laptev Sea. People’s Commissar of the Navy N.G. Kuznetsov sent a note “On Operational Value of the Spitsbergen and Bear Islands (Svalbard Archipelago)” to the Head of the Council of the People’s Commissars V.M. Molotov. In accordance with the resolution by the Supreme Soviet of the People’s Economy, the Kolchak Island in the Taymyr Gulf of the Kara Sea was renamed after S.I. Rastorguyev, sailor of the Russian polar expedition of the Academy of Sciences 1900–1903. N.N. Zubov performed preseasonal ice conditions reconnaissance from the plane in the Kara Sea. During the navigation season the icebreaker Yermak led by V.P. Meleshko performed extensive hydrology works in the Vil’kitskiy Strait. Soviet hunting vessel Murmanets went on a hydrography expedition in the Kara Sea. Strategic ice conditions reconnaissance began being regularly performed in the Soviet Arctic Seas. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 513

The Politburo obliged the Arkhangelsk Oblast Committee to immediately allocate 1,000 workers in order to quickly finish coastal batteries construction on the Morzhovets Island in the White Sea Gorlo (Throat) Strait and by the Lodeynoye settlement on the western coast of the Kola Peninsula. The Politburo adopted a resolution “On proclaiming the White Sea Throat a restricted area to foreign vessels.” Resolution of the Council of the People’s Commissars “On the working mode in the Kola Gulf” closed entrance to the gulf for any foreign vessels. 1940 The German liner Bremen spent almost the whole autumn at the Murmansk wharf. The steam icebreaker G. Sedov completed her drift in the Arctic that began on 23 October 1937 and lasted for 812 days. The I. Stalin icebreaker and G. Sedov steam icebreaker arrived to Murmansk. The G. Sedov (Captain K.S. Badigin) was awarded the Order of Lenin for her heroic drift in the Arctic Ocean and the Greenland Sea ice, and the I. Stalin (Captain M.P. Belousov) received the same award for providing passage for G. Sedov on her way out of the Arctic. The hunting boat Murmanets was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. Fifteen members of the crew were awarded titles of Heroes of the Soviet Union for accomplishing the research program in the most difficult weather conditions of the Arctic and for their courage. The Winter War ended and the USSR and Finland signed a peace treaty. Finland ceded a part of the Karelian Isthmus, an area near Alakurtti town (westward of Kandalaksha), western parts of the Rybachiy, and Sredniy Peninsulas in the Barents Sea to the USSR. The Soviet divisions left the Petsamo Province (Pechenga). The Dekabrist (D-1) submarine perished while performing a military training task in the Motovskiy Gulf area. The Shch-423 submarine under Captain-Lieutenant A.M. Bystrov sailed the Northern Sea Route from Polyarny to Vladivostok as part of the Special Operations Expedition No 10 for the first time in the Arctic sailing history. German cruiser Komet went on an intelligence voyage to the Pacific Ocean via the Arctic Ocean seas along the Northern Sea Route. She was disguised as the Soviet vessels Semyon Dezhnyov and Dunay while sailing. Expedition led by V.I. Vorobyov aboard the Sedov performed extensive measurement works near the Izvestiy TsIK Islands and the Kirov Islands. Polar research center was set up on the Pravda Island. Hydrography expedition led by S.G. Karandashev went to the Minin Skerries where they discovered several new islands, bays, and straits (the Podkova, Pestsovy, Krugly, Kravkova, and other islands). V.I. Vorobyov’s work “The Kara Sea” was published in Moscow. The White Sea Navy base was established in Arkhangelsk. The Severodvinsk, Severomorsk, and Yokanga Navy bases were being constructed. 1941 The Yokanga Navy base construction was officially approved. Two British submarines Tiger moored at Polyarny to patrol the Barents Sea. “Hydrology guide of the USSR seas. The Barents Sea” was published. Polar centers at the Franz Josef Land stopped their operations due to the Great Patriotic War outbreak. Landing operation was performed by ships of the Northern Fleet in the Zapadnaya Litsa Guba Bay. Hydrography vessel Akademik Shokal’skiy (Ice Patrol №16) surveyed the ice conditions in the southwestern part of the Barents Sea and nearing the Novaya Zemlya straits. Northern Division of the White Sea Military Flotilla was formed by orders of the Northern Fleet Commander, Rear Admiral A.G. Golovko. It was meant to defend the Kara Sea and the Novaya Zemlya straits. The steam icebreaker Sadko ran ashore onto an unknown shallow in the Kara Sea. She stayed afloat for 2 days and sank. The Lenin icebreaker rescued the crew. A convoy of the I. Stalin and Lenin icebreakers and the Bureya transport sailed from Murmansk to the Kara Sea protected by the Kuybyshev, Uritskiy, and Engels destroyers. (continued) 514 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

First polar convoy of seven transports escorted by the SRK-22 guard ship sailed from Arkhangelsk to the Kara Sea. Thereby they began transferring cargo vessels to the Arctic to provide for transportation needs in the North. Great Patriotic War had begun (22 June). Martial law was proclaimed in the Arkhangelsk Oblast by order of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Military navigation service was established at the White Sea Military Flotilla. There were eight sites located in Arkhangelsk, Yokanga, Kandalaksha, Kem’, Belomorsk, Mezen’, Onega, and Shoyna. The USA President F.D. Roosevelt signed a bill on adding the USSR to the “Act to Further Promote the Defense of the United States” (so called Lend-Lease Act). Trilateral meeting of the USSR, the USA, and Britain took place in Moscow. A protocol on delivering aid totalling one billion US Dollars to the USSR as envisaged by the “Lend-Lease Act” was signed at the end of the meeting. First of Arctic Convoys by which the Western Allies supplied material aid to the Soviet Union (seven transports, code name Dervish or PQ-1) arrived to Arkhangelsk. First “homebound” allies convoy sailed from Arkhangelsk to Britain (QP-1) carrying timber and ore as means of the USSR credit payments to Britain. The Lomonosov schooner perished in Arkhangelsk. State Committee on Defence of the USSR adopted a special resolution on Arkhangelsk Port. In the autumn the motor ship Spartak sailed from Kandalaksha to Arkhangelsk carrying over 2,500 people to take part in defense fortifications construction. She was barred by ice when approaching Arkhangelsk. People were getting ill, food supplies running out. The icebreaker Lenin came to the rescue. British minelayer Adventure arrived to Arkhangelsk carrying 200 magnetic mines and 1,000 depth bombs. Military transport HMS Queen of Canada delivered 1,953 Soviet miners and their family members evacuated from Spitsbergen to Arkhangelsk. I.V. Stalin suggested W. Churchill that “20–25 divisions to be landed in Arkhangelsk” as means of active aid. On order by the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route, Arkhangelsk Sea Agency of Murmansk Arctic Steamship Company became Arkhangelsk Sea Arctic Company. While sailing towards Umba from Arkhangelsk, the Pomorye vessel built at the Admiralteyskiy Plant in Leningrad tripped a mine of the Soviet defense mine field 2 miles from the Bolshoy Sedlovaty Island. Only two people of 34 crew members and 30 passengers managed to survive. Thirty-five transports, 40 trawlers, and about 80 motor boats proceeded from the Kola Gulf to the White Sea without escort, one by one. The ships were rescued from the German aviation attacks and served for transportation in the North. Three German destroyers wrecked the watch ship Passat and rescue craft RT-67, and damaged the RT-32 rescue craft southeastward of Teriberka settlement, in the White Sea. Four destroyers wrecked the Meridian vessel northeastward of Teriberka. 1941–1943 Hydrographers of the Northern Fleet took part in providing navigation and hydrography support for passage along the ice routes in the White Sea and the Severnaya Dvina River. 1941–1944 Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) was evacuated from Murmansk to Arkhangelsk. 1942 The Baku leader and the Raz’yaryonny and Razumny destroyers sailed from Vladivostok to Murmansk via the Arctic to reinforce the Northern Fleet. They covered 7,360 miles in 762 sailing hours during the voyage, average speed of 9.6 knots. Icebreakers helped them to pass 1,000 miles through the ice. The Hydrography Service of the Northern Fleet personnel took part in supporting a landing operation westward of the Pikshuyev Cape between the Zapadnaya Litsa Guba Bay and Titovka Guba Bay. First allied convoy PQ-7 arrived in Murmansk from Iceland. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 515

The K-21 submarine under the Hero of the Soviet Union, Captain II rank N.A. Lunin’s command attacked the German battleship Tirpitz. A German submarine attacked the marine airdrome and meteorological station in the Malyye Karmakuly and Belushya Guba settlements (Novaya Zemlya), and wrecked the Krestyanin steamship that was sailing from Naryan-Mar. At the entrance to the Yugorskiy Shar Strait, a German submarine destroyed a small convoy of three tugs and two barges carrying workers for the Naryan-Mar Port and prisoners from Norilskstroy to work at the NKVD site № 300. British cruiser Edinburgh was wrecked in the Barents Sea when she was carrying Soviet gold (465 bars, or 5,535.6 kg of highest purity gold) to the UK. Soviet steamship Kiyev, part of the QP-10 British convoy, was torpedoed and sank in the Barents Sea approaching the Medvezhiy Island (some suppose she had 4.5 tonnes of gold aboard, in payment for the lend-lease). Soviet hydrography vessel Yakutiya encountered a Nazi submarine by the Wardroper Island (by the Meduz Cape, in the Khmyznikov Strait, northern part of the Minin Skerries, according to another source). German submarine U-601 sank the Soviet cargo (timber) steamship Kuybyshev near the Vil’kitskiy Island when entering the Yenisei Gulf. All of the crew died. It was resolved to establish a Navy base at the Novaya Zemlya as part of the White Sea Military Flotilla. Commanders of the German Kriegsmarine group “North” proposed a heavy cruisers (the Admiral Scheer and Lützow) operation project in the Kara Sea. German heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer went on raid to the Dikson Island. She encountered the Soviet steam icebreaker A. Sibiryakov by the Belukha Island (Kara Sea) and sank her. The Admiral Scheer then shot the Dezhnev (SKR-19) steam icebreaker and the Revolyutsioner steamship in the Dikson Port. Hydrography vessel Murmanets (Ice Patrol №18) surveyed ice conditions by the western coasts of the Novaya Zemlya and in the Kara Sea in summer. The very first group of German polar explorers landed on the Kara Sea islands. Hitler’s Kriegsmarine began the Wunderland Operation in the Kara Sea. The Soviet Friedrich Engels went on her first voyage in the high Artic latitudes from the USA to the Dikson Port. The Severodvinsk Port construction began southwestward of Arkhangelsk. Northern hydrography expedition commenced on the hydrography works aiming to ensure navigational safety of the allied convoys heading to Arkhangelsk along the Arctic ice edge by the western coast of the Novaya Zemlya Islands and Kaninskiy coast. Full-scale hydrography works had been performed at the convoy formation sites, anchor moorings, and escort vessels bases. The icebreaker Iosif Stalin had been damaged during the German bombings of the Arkhangelsk Port. That made accepting military convoys from Britain more difficult. I.V. Stalin severely criticized I.D. Papanin who was responsible for the convoys acceptance. Hydrography vessel Murmanets (Ice Patrol №18) took part in rescuing 147 sailors of the PQ-17 convoy wrecked vessels. In order to provide regular shippings of imported defense cargoes, a temporary railway line was put in operation: from Isakogorka Station to Ekonomiya Port with ice crossing over the Severnaya Dvina River. In spring and summer a ferry (scow) railway crossing was in place. I.D. Papanin, commissary of the State Defence Committee of USSR on the marine shippings in the North, was in charge of the works. Hydrography vessel Ivan Papanin left Arkhangelsk to perform works in the Kara Sea. 1942–1943 A submarine division of the Pacific Fleet sailed via two oceans and nine seas to the Arctic to join the Northern Fleet where it was assigned to. (continued) 516 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1943 British cruiser Belfast that was taking part in escorting the northern convoys arrived to Murmansk. Soviet submarine S-101 (Commander Captain-Lieutenant Y.N. Trofimov) torpedoed and sank the German submarine minelayer U-639 (Commander Oberlieutenant W. Wichmann) in the Kara Sea. The German U-255 submarine crew established a filler point for reconnaissance hydroplanes at the northeastern coast of the Novaya Zemlya, sank the sailing motor hydrography boat Akademik Shokal’skiy 10 miles from the Spory Navolok Cape (Novaya Zemlya). Twelve people of her crew died. The German U-302 submarine sank the Soviet cargo steamship Dikson southeastward of the Mona Islands. The German submarine U-601 caused damage to the Soviet Arctic Convoy VA-18, sinking the transport Arkhangelsk (15 people died) and the escort minesweeper T-896 northwestward of the Nansen Island, Nordenskjold Archipelago. Using the secret airdrome on the northern island of the Novaya Zemlya, German hydroplanes BV-138 performed reconnaissance in the Kara Sea and on several occasions flew to the Nordenskjold Archipelago. German submarine U-703 sank the Soviet cargo steamship S. Kirov near the Izvestiy TsIK Islands. Some of the crew died, 27 people were rescued. German submarine U-960 torpedoed the minesweeper TShch-42 from the VA-18 convoy escort by the Arctic Institute Islands. The crew were killed. The Krasin icebreaker provided passage for military vessels and transports in the White Sea during the winter navigation season. W. Averell Harriman, USA Ambassador to the USSR, visited the Arkhangelsk Port and greatly praised its work on lend-lease cargo reception. 1944 Light cruiser of the US Navy, Milwaukee was transferred to the Soviet Union (Northern Fleet of the Navy). She was considered as a substitute for the light cruiser Emanuele Filiberto Duca d’Aosta when dividing the Italian Fleet. She was renamed Murmansk and became the first cruiser of the Northern Fleet. The Northern Fleet gained 10 British ships as reparations. There were eight destroyers plus one as spare parts, and the battleship Arkhangelsk (former HMS Royal Sovereign). The so-called Stalin’s tenth blow began in the Pechenga Area (Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive). Soviet Army crossed the Norway border and liberated the Kirkenes Port at the Barents Sea. The Pechenga (Petsamo–Kirkenes) area was fully liberated. Nine Soviet torpedo cutters of the Northern Fleet attacked German convoy near Vardø, northern Norway. Two transports, two destroyers, three minesweepers, and six escorting ships were sunk as the result. During the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive, the Northern Fleet hydrographers provided landing at the southern coast of the Malaya Volokovaya Guba, at the site between the Pikshuyev Cape and Mogilny Island, at the Liinakhamari Port, and at the site between Pechenga and Kirkenes. The landing operations were successful. Memorial to submarine sailors – heroes fallen fighting for their country – was erected in Polyarny. Military actions on the Kola Peninsula resulted in crushing defeat of the German divisions. Three Nazi submarines tried to fight through the Vil’kitskiy Strait to reach the Soviet Port Nordvik but failed. German submarine U-957 torpedoed the SKR-29 Brilliant that was one of the VD-1 Convoy escorting ships near the Kravkova Island, 70 miles westward of the Middendorff Bay, the Kara Sea. Almost all of the crew died. A group of German submarines Greif came to the Kara Sea. Nazi landing party occupied the Soviet polar station “Sterligova Cape” (Mikhaylov Peninsula, near the Minin Skerries). (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 517

Soviet minesweepers T-116 and BO-206 sank the German submarine U-362 near the Mona Islands. Near the Belukha Island, the German submarine U-957 wrecked the Soviet sailing motor hydrography vessel Nord that was ensuring safe navigation providing lighthouses maintenance. Eighteen people died, two were taken prisoner. Soviet Arctic convoy BD-5 was destroyed in the Kara Sea near the Bely Island. It was carrying cargoes for polar research centers, winterers’ families, and aviators of the Kara aviation base from Arkhangelsk to the Dikson Island. German submarine U-365 torpedoed the Marina Raskova transport, then the minesweepers T-118 and T-114. 373 people died. Polar wireless station was constructed on the Vaygach Island, by the eastern entrance to the Karskiye Vorota Strait. Polar wireless station was constructed by the eastern entrance to the Yugorskiy Shar Strait in the Maare-Sale, western coast of Taymyr. Soviet minesweeper AM-120 fought a German submarine near the Kravkova Island. The minesweeper was sunk, some of the crew died. The State Defence Committee of USSR adopted a resolution “On Measures to Reinforce Defence of the Marine Lanes and Communications near the Novaya Zemlya and in the Kara Sea.” Kara Navy Base was established on the Dikson Island. The Kapitan Belousov icebreaker provided passage for Soviet and allied convoy vessels through ices of the White Sea. The Murmansk cruiser (former Milwaukee, USA) led an operation on escorting the White Sea group of the RA-61 Convoy (15 transports and 2 tankers). Arkhangelsk Sea Training College became Arkhangelsk Navy School. British aircrafts were on purpose relocated to an airdrome near Arkhangelsk. They attacked the German raider battleship Tirpitz then located in Tromsø (Norway) and sank her. Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of USSR established medal “For the Soviet Arctic Defence.” 1945 The Soviet destroyer Karl Liebknecht wrecked the German submarine U-286 by the entrance to the Kola Gulf. All of the crew (51 people) died. The JW-66 Convoy entered the Kola Gulf. The last allied convoy arrived from Britain, which comprised of 26 transports and 19 military vessels. Sixteen submarine chasers arrived with the convoy as part of the USA lend-lease and were included in the USSR Northern Fleet. Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of USSR established the Pechengskiy area on the Petsamo region territory ceded by Finland to the USSR in accordance with the Moscow Armistice of 1944 signed by Great Britain and USSR on one side and Finland on the other. The Pechengskiy area was included into the Murmansk oblast by the same decree. Marine Biology Centre (Karelian-Finnish, from 1956 Petrozavodsk, University station) opened in Gridino Village, Karelian shore. It was there until 1950. The Great Patriotic War ended (9 May). A.G. Golovko, Commander of the Northern Fleet, signed an order to abolish system of domestic convoys in the Barents Sea and transferring ships and fleet divisions to peace status. Six meters high, tetrahedral obelisk to honor the port officers fallen in battles was erected in front of the Murmansk port Administration building. There are 83 names on the memorial tablet. The White Sea and Kola Navy defense areas were established. 1946 The Northern Fleet Museum opened. The White Sea–Baltic Sea Canal was opened to navigation after restoration. N.A. Dmitriyev’s work “Herring Biology and Fishing in the White Sea” was published. 1947 The USSR Government adopted a plan on powerful icebreakers design and construction to ensure navigation in the Arctic. (continued) 518 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1948 A new fishery area (Norwegian Trench) was explored in the Barents Sea. Expedition on board of the Fyodor Litke icebreaker performed hydrography works in the Kara Sea, studied the Taymyr ice massive formation processes. A.P. Okladnikov’s work “Russian Polar Sailors of XVII century by the Taymyr Coasts” was published. V.Yu. Vize’s book Seas of the Soviet Arctic was published by the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route publishing house. E.F. Guryanova’s work “White Sea and its Fauna” was published. 1949 The Murmansk cruiser of the Northern Fleet was given back to the USA where it was demolished. The research vessel Persey-2 went on her first voyage. 1950 In accordance with instruction №259r of 11 January 1950 by the USSR Council of Ministers, Murmansk Higher Marine School (MHMS) was founded to prepare engineers for the USSR fishery fleets. Institution names were MHMS in 1950–1969; Murmansk Higher Engineering Marine School (MHEMS) in 1969–1975; Lenin Komsomol Murmansk Higher Engineering Marine School in 1975–1992; Murmansk State Fishing Fleet Academy (MSFFA) in 1992–1996; and Murmansk State Technical University from 1996 to now. “Atlas of the Arctic Ocean” was published. The Navy Headquarters published the “Sea Atlas.” The fourth volume of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia was published. There was an article on the White Sea. 1951 The Norwegian Storting resolved to transfer the Spitsbergen Archipelago and the Bear and Jan Mayen Islands defense task to the Commanders of the NATO sea region. 1953 First fishery maps of the Barents Sea were published. The GKS-V hydrostat dived for the first time for research purposes in the Barents Sea. The second volume of the “Sea Atlas” was published. Arkhangelsk Sea Arctic Steamship company was joined with the Murmansk Sea Arctic Steamship company (based in Murmansk). 1954 Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Council of Ministers of the USSR issued a resolution “On establishing Northern nuclear test site on the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago” (from 1992 Central Nuclear Test Site of the Russian Federation). 1955 First nuclear test was performed on the test site near the Chyornaya Guba Bay southwest of the Southern Island of the Novaya Zemlya. Nuclear warhead with explosive yield of 20 kg was tested 12 m deep. Members of the Academy of Sciences N.N. Semyonov, Y.K. Fyodorov, S.A. Khristianovich, M.A. Sadovskiy, and Admiral S.G. Gorshkov were present during the explosion. First thermonuclear explosion in the atmosphere was performed from Tu-16 airplane on the Novaya Zemlya. Expedition aboard the Fyodor Litke icebreaker for the first time sailed around the Franz Josef Land from the Kara Sea side and reached 82021’N which was a record for freely sailing vessels. The B-67 submarine fired a ballistic missile in the White Sea for the first time in the world. 1956 World’s first nuclear icebreaker, the Lenin was laid on the Admiralteyskiy yard shipways in Leningrad. Soviet ichthyologists began naturalizing salmon by the Murmansk region coasts. Minister for Fishery of the USSR A.A. Ishkov visited Norway. They exchanged opinions on fishery research cooperation prospects for the first time. Norwegian Minister of Fisheries Nils K. Lysø visited Murmansk. M.I. Belov’s work “Sailing in the Arctic from the Ancient Times to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century. The Northern Sea Route Exploration History” was published. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 519

1957 The USSR Government and the Royal Norwegian Government signed an agreement on marine borders between the countries in the Varangerfjord. The USSR Council of Ministers adopted a resolution to establish historical titles for the White Sea waters (southward of the line between the Svyatoy Nos Cape and the Kanin Nos Cape), Chosha and Baydarata Bays waters, Penzhinskaya Guba Bay (northward of the line connecting Yuzhniy Ostrovok by the Povorotny Cape with the Dal’niy Cape), proclaiming the water areas historically belonging to the USSR. The S-146 submarine fired P-5 missile (NATO codename SS-N-3C Shaddock) in the White Sea. 1957–1958 The Third International Polar Year (International Geophysical Year). 1958 The first Soviet nuclear submarine K-3 (Leninskiy Komsomol) was given to the Northern Fleet and based in the Zapadnaya Litsa, Malaya Lopatka Bay. Norwegian research vessel Johan Hjort visited Murmansk carrying scientists from the Institute of Marine Research in Bergen. The Severyanka submarine began its exploration and research of fishery. Sea trials of the first Soviet nuclear submarine K-3 (later Leninskiy Komsomol) were completed in the White Sea. 1959 World’s first nuclear icebreaker, the Lenin was launched in Leningrad. Expedition of the ice and hydrology patrol went to the Kara Sea aboard the Tors vessel. USSR deposited nuclear waste for the first time. Radioactive waters were drained to the White Sea after the nuclear submarine K-3 trials. 1960 A Soviet fighter shot down the reconnaissance RB-47 Stratojet of the USA Air Force near the Kola Peninsula above the Barents Sea. Four members of the crew died, two were taken prisoner. A ballistic missile was fired by a submarine of the Northern Fleet underwater for the first time. V.V. Kuznetsov’s fundamental monograph White Sea and Biological Traits of its Flora and Fauna was published. 1960–1964 Attempt to naturalize the red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus, Kamchatka crab) by the Murmansk region coasts. They planted 232 breeders, 158 individuals of various ages (2–7 years old), about 10 thousand one-year-olds and underyearlings, as well as 1,560 thousand larvae. 1961 Torpedoes exploded in the forward compartment of the B-37 submarine moored in Polyarny. The fierce explosion also destroyed the S-350 submarine moored next to the B-37. A total of 122 people were killed. The S-80 submarine of the Northern Fleet sank in the Barents Sea, reasons unknown, 68 people died. She was recovered in 1968 and lifted in 1969. The Leningrad Radiation Hygiene Research Institute began monitoring of the whole Soviet coast in the Arctic. 1962 N.S. Khrushchev visited Murmansk, Severomorsk, and Gremikha post, where he presented the Orders of Lenin and Gold Star medals for Heroes of the Soviet Union to leaders of the Leninskiy Komsomol nuclear submarine voyage to the North Pole. The 69th brigade of the Northern Fleet submarines went to Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis. First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Chairman of the Council of Ministers N.S. Khrushchev visited Arkhangelsk. He was accompanied by Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR D.F. Ustinov, Defense Minister of the Soviet Union and Marshal R.Y. Malinovskiy, and Chief of the Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Navy and Army General A.A. Yepishev. They visited the Lenin Woodworking Plant and went on a sightseeing tour of the city (the program included living quarters and public amenities buildings sites). 1963 A nuclear submarine under Captain II rank Y.A. Sysoyev sailed under ice and emerged in the North Pole geographic spot. Northern Department of the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) was established in Arkhangelsk. (continued) 520 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1964 The mixed navigation vessel Baltiyskiy-18 sailed 5,540 km via seas, rivers, and lakes from Murmansk to Baku in 15 days for the first time in the world, thus establishing new cargo transportation method by water. A memorial to honor the prominent polar explorer N.A. Begichev was erected in the Dikson settlement. The Professor Dobrynin research vessel sailed from Gelendzhik to Arkhangelsk via the Volga–Don Canal to take part in the White Sea expedition “History and Present Processes of Geological Evolution of the Oceans and Seas Coastal Areas.” 1965 Annual international research on defining productivity of new generations (0-group) of the main commercially valued fish species of the Barents and Norway Seas began. Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Nerpa” Shipyard opened in Snezhnegorsk town of the Murmansk region. The Northern Fleet was presented with the Order of the Red Banner in accordance with the decree by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Memorial for the world-first icebreaker Yermak was unveiled on the façade of the Murmansk Oblast Museum of Regional Studies. On 1 March 1899 the ship commenced on her first voyage. Renowned Captains P.A. Ponomaryov, V.I. Voronin, and M.Y. Sorokin commanded the Yermak each in his time. Picture of the color glass pieces joins the granite pedestal where one of the anchors of the icebreaker (3 tonnes, plus 5 m chain) is placed. Inscription on the bronze board reads: “To “Grandfather” of the icebreaker fleet of the Order of Lenin, Yermak icebreaker.” The American icebreaker Northwind crossed the Kara Sea and entered the Vil’kitskiy Strait where her propeller screw broke down. 1966 For the first time in the history of the Soviet Navy, the K-133 submarine under the Hero of the Soviet Union Captain L.N. Stolyarov’s command sailed from the Northern Fleet base to the Pacific Fleet base around the South America via the Drake Passage. The voyage took place from 2 February to 26 March. The submarine sailed 146 miles in 21 h and 58 min on the surface and 19,899 miles in 1,264 h underwater. Soviet military historian and arctic explorer I. Sendik’s book Fleets Military Actions in the Arctic was published in Moscow. 1967 The General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union L.I. Brezhnev and member of the Politburo, Chairman of the Council of Ministers A.N. Kosygin visited the Northern Fleet presented with the Red Banner Order. By Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Northern Sea Steamship company was presented with the Order of Lenin for supporting progress of sea transport development and in connection with the 100 year old foundation anniversary. 1968 First experimental tidal power station was constructed in the Kislaya Guba Bay, in the northern part of the Kola Peninsula. 1968–1970 Quantitative benthos survey was performed in the Barents Sea. 1969 Soviet divers recovered pieces of the Persey research vessel from the bottom of the Eyna Bay (Motovskiy Gulf of the Barents Sea). M.I. Belov’s book The Northern Sea Route Exploration History was published. In the Barents Sea, at the entrance to the White Sea, the Soviet nuclear submarine K-19 collided with the American submarine Gato supposedly on a reconnaissance mission. There were no fatalities. 1970 Diesel-electric ship Gizhiga went on her experimental voyage in November–December, with the Lenin icebreaker providing passage in the Kara Sea and the Kapitan Belousov icebreaker – in rivers, to prove possibility of winter navigation. Book Soviet Arctic. Seas and Islands of the Arctic Ocean was published in Moscow by the “Nauka” publishing house. 1971 Two diesel-electric ships Gizhiga and Lena went on an experimental voyage leaving Dudinka on 25 December and returned to Murmansk successfully. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 521

1972 Fore body and deck-house rails from the S-51 submarine were placed in Gremikha settlement (now Ostrovskiy). Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) experimental center for technological research was opened. Hydrography Department of the Navy published “Sailing Directios for the Kara Sea,” parts I and II. Sea and river transport terminal opened in the center of Arkhangelsk. 1973 Agreement on polar bears protection was signed by Denmark, Norway, USSR, the USA, and Canada in Oslo, Norway. Dvinskiy State Wildlife Sanctuary was established in the Severnaya Dvina River mouth. 1974 Marine Biology Centre of Leningrad University was opened on the Sredniy Island of the Keretskiy Archipelago. 1974–1975 Fifty muskoxen were carried from the USA to the Taymyr Peninsula and the Wrangel Island for naturalization. 1975 The Arktika nuclear icebreaker built on the Ordzhonikidze Baltiyskiy Plant was commissioned. A monument was erected in front of the sailors recreation center in Murmansk to honor military cooperation of the anti-Hitler coalition countries. A memorial was unveiled in front of the sailors intervoyage recreation center in Murmansk to honor fishermen and trawlers perished in the Great Patriotic War. The memorial is an obelisk enclosed with anchors and chains. Speakers embedded in the obelisk base play sounds of the sea, seagulls cries, striking of bells, and melody of “Farewell, rocky mountains” song. There are two stelas with 26 granite boards attached to them in front of the obelisk. There are silhouettes of the ships and 32 names of the perished trawlers on the boards. The Kingdom of Norway Government and the USSR Government signed an agreement on fishery cooperation. Special Soviet-Norwegian Committee (now Mixed Russian-Norwegian Committee) was established to ensure the goals of the agreement were reached. The world’s most powerful icebreaker Arktika (Leonid Brezhnev in 1982–1987) went on trials to the Kara Sea. 1976 Fire broke out aboard the nuclear submarine K-47 when she was 40 m deep coming back from the Barents Sea. Eight people died. Reactors were stopped. The submarine returned to the base under own steam. Military airplane TU-16 K led by Major A. Uspenskiy crashed in the White Sea. 1977 The Arktika nuclear icebreaker became the first surface ship to reach the North Pole. She sailed there from Murmansk in 14 days. Norway resolved to establish 200 mile fishery protection zone around Spitsbergen. In its regime, the zone was identical to the Norway Economy Zone regime. Soviet Union began fishing for northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis) in the Barents Sea on recommendation of the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO). I.A. Kozlov and V.S. Shlomin’s book Northern Fleet Presented with the Red Banner Order was published. Y.N. Nevesskiy, V.S. Medvedev, V.V. Kalinenko’s work White Sea: sediment generation and evolution in Holocene was published in Moscow. Arkhangelsk commercial port became a port of all-year-round navigation. 1978 Soviet Fleet began sailing almost all-year-round on the Murmansk – Dudinka line to provide cargo transportation for Norilsk plant. 1979–1987 The nuclear submarine Parche (SSN-683), USA, went on seven reconnaissance voyages in the Barents Sea. 1979 Taymyr State Wildlife Sanctuary was established. The Otto Schmidt research vessel sailed on her first research voyage to the Kara Sea to perform survey on the “Kara Experiment” program which lasted until 1994. (continued) 522 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1980 One of the volumes of the “Ocean Atlas. The Arctic Ocean” was published. Museum of the Murmansk Higher Engineering Marine School (now Murmansk State Technical University) history opened for visits. A memorial honoring soldiers of the 12th brigade of marine infantry (one of the most famous divisions that fought in the Murmansk Region and on the Rybachiy Peninsula) was unveiled in Murmansk. 1982 Commercial oil inflow was opened at the Peschanoozyornoye field on the Kolguyev Island. A.D. Dobrovol’skiy and B.S. Zalogin’s book Seas of the USSR was published by “Mysl’” publishing house in Moscow. Veteran Organization of the White Sea Military Flotilla was established. 1983 Murmansk gas field was discovered in the Barents Sea. The Professor Shtokman research vessel sailed on her tenth voyage to the Barents and Kara Seas as part of the “Arctic” and “Akvaneft” projects to survey depths and sea bottoms, lithodynamics processes and gas-biochemical fields of the benthic environment. The Arkhangelsk City was presented with the Order of Lenin by Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR for great contribution to sea fleet development, reclamation of the northern regions of the country, service of the working people of the city during the Great Patriotic War, advances in agricultural and cultural construction and in connection with the city’s 400 years anniversary. 1984 Fire broke out on the nuclear submarine K-131 in the Barents Sea (Norway Sea, according to other sources). Fourteen people died. The submarine was tugged to her base. The Professor Shtokman research vessel sailed on her voyage to the Barents and Kara Seas as part of the “Arctic” and “Akvaneft” projects to survey depths and sea bottoms, lithodynamics processes, sediments formation and shelf evolution, and to evaluate possible oil and gas fields in the areas. The ship also began monitoring of the radioactive contamination in the Kara Sea. Northern hydrography expedition on the Semyon Dezhnyov research vessel performed oceanography survey (109 one-time stations) and observations on the 20-day autonomous buoy station in the central part of the Kara Sea. By Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Arkhangelsk Commercial Port was presented with the Order of the Patriotic War (First Class) for service during the Great Patriotic War, for supplying the Soviet Army and Navy. International Fishery Day was established by resolution on the International Conference of Fishworkers and Support Groups that took place in Rome. 1985 Hero City title was awarded to Murmansk along with the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star medal by the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Flag was displayed on the nuclear icebreaker Rossiya as she was launched from the Baltiyskiy shipyard. The icebreaker arrived to her home port Murmansk on 31 December and commenced on her first voyage to the Arctic on 10 February 1986. The motor ship Nina Kukoverova was captured by ice and sank at the 120 m depth when entering the Vil’kitskiy Strait. The crew was rescued by the Lenin icebreaker. “Arctic Atlas” was published, edited by A.F. Tryoshnikov. L.M. Shchipke’s book Kara Sea Protectors was published in Krasnoyarsk. In the “Geography of the World Oceans” series the “Arctic and Southern Oceans” volume was published detailing the Arctic seas features (including the White Sea). 1987 E.T. Krenkel polar station was established on the Heiss Island, Franz Josef Land. “Murmansk Initiatives of the USSR” were adopted. They outlined directions for negotiations with countries concerned with the Arctic region issues solving. The Professor Shtokman research vessel sailed on her voyage to the Barents and Kara Seas as part of the “Geopol,”“Sediment,” and “Akvaneft” projects to study sedimentary cover and Earth crust, relief shapes, geology structures, and shelf evolution. Rusanovskoye gas condensate field was discovered in the Kara Sea. Work “Paleogeography and paleoecology of the Barents and White Seas over the Quaternary Period” was published in Apatity. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 523

1988 Drilling began at the Shtokmanovskoye gas condensate field in the Barents Sea. Member of the Academy of Sciences I.S. Gramberg’s work “Barents-Kara shelf plate” was published in Moscow. At the International Conference on Research in the Arctic it was suggested to establish a regional scientific organization, International Arctic Science Committee (IASC). Book Ecology and Bioresources of the Kara Sea was published in Murmansk, by Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, Kola Science Centre, USSR Academy of Sciences. I.A. Bykhovskiy’s work “Arkhangelsk Shipbuilders” was published in Arkhangelsk. 1989 The K-21 submarine was placed in Severomorsk on the Kola Gulf coast as a memorial and a museum. Kola Science Centre, USSR Academy of Sciences published G.G. Matishov’s work “Environment Situation and Issues of Bioresources Protection in Seas of the Northern Europe (Barents Sea as Example).” Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation was defined by the State Committee at the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the Arctic Affairs. Reference book “Hydrometeorological Conditions of the USSR Seas Shelf Zone,” volume 5 “White Sea” was published. 1990 Employees of P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences went to the Barents Sea aboard the Akademik Sergey Vavilov on her seventh voyage and began systemic study of radioactive and ecology features of the Barents Sea. Commercial collecting of the Iceland scallop (Chlamys islandica) began in the Barents Sea after the research by the Murmansk Marine Biological Institute and Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO). The Rossiya icebreaker went on a commercial voyage Murmansk – North Pole – Murmansk with foreign tourists aboard. International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) constitutive document was signed by Denmark, Iceland, Canada, the USA, Russia, Norway, Sweden, and Finland in Resolute Bay in Canada. Collection of works “Biology of the White Sea” was published by M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University. 1991 Memorial complex to honor the Komsomolets nuclear submarine sailors perished in 1989 in the Norway Sea was erected on the Kola Peninsual in Zapadnaya Litsa. The Arctic states signed Declaration on Arctic Environmental Protection and adopted Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy in Rovaniemi, Finland. The aircraft cruiser Admiral Kuznetsov arrived to the Northern Fleet and was assigned to the 43rd (Atlantic) division of missile cruisers based in Vidyayevo settlement. Russia adopted “Rules on Sailing the Northern Sea Route Waterways.” The Moscow State University publishing house published A.A. Ivanova’s book On Water Turnover in the Obskaya Guba Bay in Moscow. The Dalniye Zelentsy research vessel surveyed the high latitude archipelagos Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen. Expedition aboard the Akademik Sergey Vavilov surveyed sediments radioactivity in the Kara and Barents Seas. Celebrations of 50th anniversary of the first allied Arctic Convoy “Dervish” took place in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. 1992 AnexpertgrouponpossibleradioactivecontaminationoftheBarentsandKaraSeaswas established within the Mixed Russian-Norwegian Committee on environment protection cooperation. Russian nuclear submarine K-276 Krab and the American USS Baton Rouge nuclear submarine collided in Russian territorial waters not far from the Kildin Island, 20 m deep. The American submarine was decommissioned after the collision. (continued) 524 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Researchers of the USA, Norway, and Russia took part in an ecology expedition to the Pechora Sea, the Novaya Zemlya, the Kolguyev, Vaygach, and Dolgiy Islands aboard the Dalniye Zelentsy research vessel. The first Russian-Norwegian expedition went to the Kara Sea to study radioactive contamination on the Viktor Buynitskiy research vessel. Cultural and Historic Ensemble of the Solovetsky Islands was included in the UNESCO List of World Heritage. 1992–1993 Expedition aboard the Dalniye Zelentsy research vessel studied radioactivity of sediments in the Kara and Barents Seas. 1992–1995 State Program for Science and Technology “Integrated Research of Seas and Oceans, Arctic and Antarctic” was being carried out. 1993 The Russian ballistic missile submarine K-407 and the American nuclear submarine Grayling collided in the Barents Sea. High latitude expedition aboard the Dmitriy Mendeleyev research vessel (P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Science) went to the Kara Sea to study benthos by scooping samples from the bottom and collecting them with 17 trawl nets, to begin detailed research of radioactive contamination of the Ob and Yenisei Rivers estuaries. The Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest reserve in Russia, was established. Declaration on Cooperation in the Barents Euro-Arctic Region was signed in Kirkenes, Norway. 1993–1998 International Northern Sea Route Programme (INSROP) was carried out. 1994 Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Science published work “Radionuclides in Ecosystems of the Barents and Kara Seas Regions” by G.G. Matishov, D.G. Matishov, J. Szczypa, and K. Rissanen. Russian-Swedish expedition (“Tundra Ecology-94”) aboard the Akademik Fyodorov research vessel took place to honor the memory of N.A.E. Nordenskjold’s expedition aboard the Vega in 1878–1879. The Professor Shtokman research vessel began monitoring of the Kara Sea radioactive contamination. Book Hydrometeorological Regime of the Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian Seas by V.K. Pavlov, G.A. Timokhov, M.Y. Balkakov et al. was published in St.-Petersburg by the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI). International Arctic Science Committee launched project “Arctic Climate Change Impact.” The Pomor science and technology vessel performed special benthos survey in the Kara Sea. 1995 JSC MASCO (Malaya Sudokhodnaya Kompaniya) was founded on the base of former port fleet of the Murmansk Commercial Sea Port. Fishing for Kamchatka crab began at the Murmansk Region coasts. Oil that leaked from the pipeline near Usinsk (Komi Republic) in August 1994 (about 79,000 tonnes) was carried to the Barents Sea by the Pechora River waters in spring when tundra snows melted. V.I. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry expedition aboard the Akademik Boris Petrov research vessel went to the southwestern part of the Kara Sea to study radioactive contamination. Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences published collection of works “Environment and Ecosystems of the Novaya Zemlya (Archipelago and Shelf).” Nongovernmental organization “Arctic Convoy” was created in St.-Petersburg uniting Russian convoys veterans from St.-Petersburg, Murmansk, and Arkhangelsk. Cultural and Historic Ensemble of the Solovetsky Islands was included in the list of objects of historic and cultural federative heritage. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 525

1996 Environmental NGO “Bellona Foundation” published a report “The Russian Northern Fleet: Sources of Radioactive Contamination” which was classified by Federal Security Service as strictly confidential information. Federal law “On basics of state control of social and economical development of the Russian Federation Northern Region” was adopted. Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) published the work “Cod of the Barents Sea: biology and fishery outline.” Governments of Russia, Norway, and the USA began carrying out the joint military cooperation program in the Arctic –“Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation.” German expedition went to the Barents, Kara, and Laptev Seas, as well as to the eastern part of the Arctic Ocean to support oceanography tasks carried out within the Arctic Climate System Study (ACSYS) framework. Declaration on the Arctic Council establishment was signed in Ottawa, Canada. The Council was founded as intergovernmental forum for promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among the Arctic States. Remains of the Rear Admiral B.A. Vil’kitskiy were reburied on the Smolenskoye cemetery in St.-Petersburg. Book Russian Arctic on the Verge of a Catastrophe under the general editorship of A.V. Yablokov was published. 1997 Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences published a fundamental work “Kola Gulf: oceanography, biology, ecosystems, pollutants” by G.G. Matishov, D.G. Matishov, A.A. Namyatov et al. Third International Conference “Russian Arctic Shelves Reclamation” took place in St.-Petersburg. The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program and Report was prepared along with the report on the Arctic Environment Condition. Russian Government adopted a nonbinding document “Basic Principles of State Policy of the Russian Federation.” Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences published G.G. Matishov and other’s book Scientific and Methodological Approaches to Evaluation of Oil and Gas Extraction Impact on the Arctic Seas Ecosystems (Shtokmanovskoye field as example). A.N. Chilingarov and Y.M. Kokorev’s work “Thoughts on the Russian North” was published. Experiments emulating emergency situations with nuclear warheads were conducted on the Central Testing Site on the Novaya Zemlya. Norwegian Polar Institute published fundamental work “Natural conditions of the Kara and Barents Seas” in Oslo, Norway. 1997–1998 Experimental voyage of Russian and Finnish tankers to carry gas condensate from the Obskaya Guba and Yamal Peninsula to Rotterdam port in Netherlands as part of the European Commission International Transportation Project (ARCDEV). 1998 Y.A. Pavlidis, A.S. Ionin, F.A. Shcherbakov, N.N. Dunayev and S.L. Nikiforov’s book Arctic Shelf. Late Quaternary Period History as Basis for Evolution Forecast was published. High latitude expedition went to the Barents Sea aboard the Akademik Fyodorov research vessel. Federal law “On the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation” was adopted. “International Code of Safety for Ships in Polar Waters” was elaborated. International Eurasian Conference on transport defined the Northern Sea Route as an independent Eurasian transport route. V.Y. Borodachev’s work “Ices of the Kara Sea” was published in St.-Petersburg. The Arctic Council launched the “Sustainable Development Program.” Polar Academy was assigned a title of State higher educational institution for the indigenous culture peoples. The book by V.B. Rodionov, A.G. Kostianoy Oceanic Fronts of the North-European Basin Seas was published in Moscow. (continued) 526 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

1999 First joint Russian-Norwegian trawling survey on census of Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) juveniles in the Norway-Barents population, near the Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land Archipelagos. International symposium for 100th anniversary of the standard oceanographic Kola Meridian transect took place at the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO). An international workshop “Land-Ocean Interactions in the Russian Arctic” was held in Moscow. The Arkhangelsk Regional Assembly of Deputies of second convocation adopted a resolution “On establishing the Russian Arctic National Park.” International workshop “Land-Ocean Interactions in the Russian Arctic” was held in Moscow. The Akademik Boris Petrov research vessel performed plankton communities baseline study in the Kara Sea. First international military and historic conference “Arctic Convoy À99” was held in St.-Petersburg. 1999–2000 By the Russian Federation Government regulation, Russia granted access for foreign vessels to 69 sea ports and stations of the Northern Sea Route. 2000 The nuclear-powered cruise missile submarine K-141 (Kursk) sank at 108 m deep in the Barents Sea during training voyage after torpedo explosion. A total of 118 people died. In September 2000 all of the crew were forever listed as the Northern Fleet submarine division personnel. The Commander G.P. Lyachin was awarded the title of Hero of the Russian Federation posthumously. Fishing for Kamchatka crab naturalized in the Barents Sea was promoted. A meeting on the Northern Sea Route development and economical reclamation of the Arctic was held in Murmansk. The Russian Federation President V.V. Putin spoke at the meeting. Titanium memorial board with inscription “To PQ-17 Sailors. To those who survived on the Novaya Zemlya and to those who remained in the Barents Sea for ever” was set up at the Belushya Guba Bay on the Novaya Zemlya. Severnaya Zemlya 1930–1932 expedition museum opened on the Sredniy Island, Severnaya Zemlya. Lukoil tanker fleet began carrying oil from the Obskaya Guba area, Varandey settlement and Kolguyev Island areas. I.S. Gramberg VNIIOkeanologiya research institute published a book Arctic on the Cusp of the Third Millennium in St.-Petersburg. The State Duma of the Russian Federation adopted a resolution “On ensuring sustainable development of the Extreme North regions and equated localities.” The Government of the Russian Federation adopted “Concept of state support of economical and social development of the Northern regions in the new economic environment.” The Akademik Boris Petrov research vessel performed plankton and benthos communities baseline study in the Kara Sea. The Dal’niye Zelentsy research vessel performed ecology monitoring of the Kara Sea shelf. The Akademik Fyodorov research vessel performed fundamental research of the high latitude marine ecosysems of the Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian Seas. International conference “War of 1939–1945 in the Arctic” was held in Arkhangelsk. The American journal Sea Power published the Arctic Convoys veteran V.V. Dremlyug’s article “Dog watches, destruction and enamel cup,” where the author describes the Murmanets hydrography vessel managed to rescue 147 allied sailors of PQ-17 convoy at the end of 1942. XI Congress of the Russian Geographical Society was held in Arkhangelsk. P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology initiated a research on the “The White Sea System” Project as part of the Program “Fundamental issues of oceanology: physics, geology, biology, ecology.” 2000–2001 Manned submersibles Mir-1 and Mir-2 of P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology dived and surveyed the wrecked nuclear submarine Kursk several times. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 527

Twenty-first century 2001 The nuclear submarine Kursk was recovered from the bottom of the Barents Sea. Work “Practice of systemic oceanology research in the Arctic” was published in Moscow. The Government of the Russian Federation adopted the project “Basic Principles of State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.” The Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences published the work “Ecology of the Barents Sea Commercial Fish Species” edited by G.G. Matishov. The UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf declined the application of Russia claiming 1.2 million km2 of the Arctic shelf (Lomonosov Ridge, Mendeleev Ridge, Podvodnikov Basin, as well as part of the Makarov and Amundsen Basins) due to lack of scientific evidence. “Non-commercial partnership on the Northern Sea Route exploitation coordination” was created to coordinate actions of Russian users of the Northern Sea Route. The Akademik Boris Petrov research vessel performed plankton communities studies in the Kara Sea. Celebrations for 60th anniversary of the Allied Convoy “Dervish” arrival to Arkhangelsk were held in the city. During the joint Russian and British celebrations for 60th anniversary of the Arctic Convoys the Canadian requiem opera “PQ-17 Convoy” was for the first night performed in Aleksandrinskiy Theater in St.-Petersburg. Sea Doctrine of the Russian Federation was adopted for the period up to 2020. “Pomor Encyclopedia,” volume 1, was published in Arkhangelsk. Book White Sea. Ecology and Environment by V. Berger, S. Dahle, K. Galaktionov et al. was published in Tromsø, Norway, by Derzavets publisher. Northwestern department of P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, was established in Arkhangelsk. 2002 “Law on the Svalbard (Spitsbergen) Archipelago nature environment protection” came into effect. The book Arctic: Russia’s Interests and International Conditions for Their Implementation was published. Wooden building of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring Administration on the Dikson Island burnt down. It was one of the first buildings in the settlement. Popov Meteorology Observatory Polar Centre was constructed on the Bely Island. The Akademik Boris Petrov research vessel performed plankton communities studies in the Kara Sea. 2003 Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) purchased research vessels Fridtjof Nansen, Vilnius, and Smolensk. Pechora Sea. Systemic Research book was published in Moscow. The nuclear submarine K-159 sank in 3 km from the Kildin Island on her way from the Gremikha base to Shipyard No 10 (now “Schkval”) in Polyarny to be dismantled there. Spent fuel was not removed. 2003–2006 Benthos survey was performed in the Barents Sea (repetition of 1968–1970 survey). 2004 They began fishing for Kamchatka crab in the Barents Sea. Northern branch of the Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) became its Northern department. The “Evropeyskiye izdaniya & Severnyye prostory” Publisher published “North Encyclopedia” in Moscow. D.G. Matishov, G.G. Matishov’s book Radioecology in the Northern European Seas was published in Germany by Springer. Krenkel Hydrometeorological Station was opened on the Heiss Island. International project participants (Arctic Council and International Arctic Science Committee) presented the report “Arctic Climate Impact Assessment.” Sea Arctic expedition went to the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago on motor sailing vessels. (continued) 528 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

World Data Center for Oceanography published G. Matishov, A. Zuyev, V. Golubev et al.’s book Climatic Atlas of the Arctic Seas 2004: Part 1. Database of the Barents, Kara, Laptev and White Seas – Oceanography and Marine Biology (USA, Russia). The book by A.G. Kostianoy, J.C.J. Nihoul, V.B.Rodionov Physical Oceanography of Frontal Zones in the Subarctic Seas was published by Elsevier. 2005 New bridge across the Kola Gulf was put into service. It is 1,611 m long (about 2.5 km including road approaches). Karelia Science Centre published work Lithosphere structure in the Russian part of the Barents Region in Petrozavodsk. Norwegian coast defense vessels stopped the Russian trawler Elektron as she was fishing in the so-called gray (i.e., disputed) zone of the Barents Sea. German publisher Springer published fundamental work White Sea. Its Marine Environment and Ecosystem Dynamics Influenced by Global Change by Russian and Norwegian scientists. The Russian Navy nuclear ballistic missile submarine Dmitriy Donskoy launched intercontinental ballistic missile Bulava from the White Sea. 2006 Kola Science Centre published work Oceanology and biology research of the Arctic and Southern Seas of Russia (on the occasion of 70th anniversary of Murmansk Marine Biological Institute) Exact replica of the British King George V’s sailing yacht was built at Solombala shipyard in Arkhangelsk for famous Norwegian yachtsman Sigurd Coates. She was 38 m long, mast 50 m high. S.I. Fokin, A.V. Smirnov, Y.A. Layus’s book Marine Biology Stations in the Russian North (1881–1938) was published in Moscow. Illustrated Atlas of the White Sea Invertebrates edited by N.N. Marfenin, S.A. Belorustseva was published. 2007 “Northern Dimension Policy Framework Document” took effect. The Arctic region and the Barents Sea were marked as priority zones. Russian nuclear icebreaker 50 Let Pobedy successfully supported work of the Danish research expedition “LOMROG-2007” and returned to Murmansk. Norway and Russia signed a protocol which established the sea border through the Varangerfjord area. Collection of works Biology and Oceanography of the Northern Sea Route. Barents and Kara Seas edited by the Russian Academy of Sciences member G.G. Matishov was published by “Nauka” in Moscow. P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences expedition went to the Kara Sea aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh research vessel. V.N. Bulatov’s work Science in Arkhangelsk Region. Historical outline was published. V.Ya. Berger’s work White Sea Production Potential was published in St.-Petersburg. 2007–2008 International Polar Year. 2008 Yu.N. Zhukov’s book Stalin: the Arctic Shield was published in Moscow. Gazprom (Russia), Total (France), and StatoilHydro (Norway) signed an agreement on establishing the “Shtokman Development AG” company to develop the Shtokman gas condensate field. The first volume of the Kola Encyclopedia was published in Murmansk. Military reporter S.A. Kovalyov’s book Swastika over the Taymyr was published. Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) published work Kara Sea Ecosystems. A.N. Chilingarov was appointed the Russian President’s Special Envoy for International Cooperation in the Arctic and Antarctic. Y.I. Kilikinskaya’s work White Sea Biology Centre country (recollections of the Moscow State University White Sea Biology Centre work in 1938–1987) was published in Moscow. The Security Council of the Russian Federation adopted “Basic Principles of State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic up to 2020 and further prospects.” (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 529

2009 The first Murmansk International Economic Forum discussed the Arctic reclamation issues. Global Ecology Fund held an international scientific conference “Russian Arctic – problems and prospects” in Moscow. Basic Principles of State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic up to 2020 and further prospects were published. World-first nuclear icebreaker Lenin permanently moored by the Sea Terminal in Murmansk. The Russian Prime Minister V.V.Putin signed a resolution on establishing the “Russian Arctic” National Park in the north of the Novaya Zemlya. The second volume of the Kola Encyclopedia was published in Murmansk. A.N. Chilingarov, V.M. Gruzinov, Y.F. Sychev’sbookGeography of the Arctic. Outline was published in Moscow. The Marine Arctic Complex Expedition erected a memorial with bas-relief of the polar explorer and sailor, Admiral A.V. Kolchak on the Kolchak Island in the Kara Sea. The Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment of the Russian Federation adopted a resolution on banning hunting for pups of harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus). D.A. Medvedev visited Arkhangelsk where he held State Council meeting on rising economic energy efficiency in Russia. Kirill, Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus,’ visited the Solovetskiye Islands, Arkhangelsk, and Severodvinsk where he paid a visit to Sevmash (Northern Machine-Building Enterprise), and to the nuclear ballistic missile submarine Dmitriy Donskoy where he gave his blessing to all of the crew. M.D. Kravchishina’sbookSuspended substances and their granulometric composition in the White Sea was published in Moscow. The book edited by Nihoul J.C.J., Kostianoy A.G. Influence of Climate Change on the Changing Arctic and Sub-Arctic Conditions was published in Springer. 2010 The Russian Prime Minister V.V. Putin visited Murmansk where he met heads of shipbuilding enterprises, and held a meeting with fishermen and fish products processers “On developing coastal infrastructure for reception, processing, storing and transportation of fish products.” Flagship of the Northern Fleet Pyotr Velikiy took part in escorting vessels in the Gulf of Aden protecting them from Somalian pirate attacks. During his state visit to Norway the Russian President D.A. Medvedev discussed questions of the Shtokman field development as well as those related to the countries’ borders in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Norway signed “Treaty on Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean.” The Russian Prime Minister V.V. Putin visited the Russia’s northernmost frontier outpost “Nagurskaya” on the Alexandra Land Island (Franz Josef Land Archipelago in the Barents Sea). Flying at marginal low height, the Russian warfare aircrafts Il-38 flew around the American frigate USS Taylor on her way from Murmansk where she took part in celebrations of 65th anniversary of the end of the Second World War. The second International Arctic Economic Forum was held in Murmansk. President D.A. Medvedev visited Severodvinsk (Murmansk Oblast) and participated in launching the first nuclear submarine of Generation-4, the Severodvinsk, lead ship of 885 Yasen-class project (laid in 1993). Marine writer, Captain I rank V.V. Shigin’s book Nuclear Cruise Missile Submarine Kursk 10 Years Hence. Facts and Versions was published in Moscow. Russian yacht Pyotr I sailed through the Arctic Ocean without icebreaker escort. In one navigation she went from St.-Petersburg via Northwest and Northeast Passages covering 9,000 nautical miles in 109 days and returned to St.-Petersburg. Military reporter S.A. Kovalyov’s book Arctic Shadows of the Third Reich was published. Research expedition “Arctic-2010” commemorating 165th anniversary of the Russian Geographical Society was organized by Dmitriy Shparo’s Club “Priklyucheniya” (“Adventures”). They visited Taymyr – New Siberian Islands – Yakutia – Novaya Zemlya. (continued) 530 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

A.A. Indzhiyev’s book Battle over the Arctic. Will the North Belong to Russia? was published. The Baltika tanker of Aframax size (over 100,000 tonnes) belonging to JSC Sovkomflot sailed via the Northern Sea Route (Murmansk – Ningbo, China) carrying gas condensate. The NTV Russian television channel broadcasted documental series “Battle over the North.” The rescue tug Neotrazimy carried 37 people (crew, rescuers, Ministry of Emergency Situations specialists, and Russian Academy of Sciences experts) aboard covered over 10,000 miles in 74 days from Arkhangelsk to Anadyr. Expedition worked on the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago, in sea ports Tiksi, Dudinka, Dikson, Pevek, Providence Bay, Anadyr, and in the eastern part of the Kara Sea. First International forum “The Arctic – Territory of Dialogue” was held in Moscow. Search expedition went to the Franz Josef Land in association with Border Service, Russian Federal Security Service aviation, Russian Geographical Society, “Zhivaya Priroda” (“Wildlife”) Club. City of Military Glory title was given to Arkhangelsk “for courage, stamina, and mass heroism displayed by the city defenders when fighting for freedome and independence of the home country.” Memorial to the seal-rescuer was erected in Arkhangelsk as seal meat saved lives of thousands of citizens in Great Patriotic War years of famine (1942–1943). Book System of the White Sea, Volume 1 Natural environment of the White Sea drainage area edited by A.P. Lisitsyn was published. Moscow State University published illustrated atlas Fauna and Flora of the White Sea. A.V. Platonov’s fundamental work War in the Arctic Seas was published in St.-Petersburg. M.V. Lomonosov Northern (Arctic) Federal University was established in Arkhangelsk. The Centre for Space Monitoring of the Arctic of the Northern (Arctic) Federal University was established in Arkhangelsk. 2011 The Russian State Duma ratified Russian-Norwegian “Treaty on Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean.” Norway and Russia celebrated year of F. Nansen – famous Norwegian polar explorer and a symbol of Norway – in connection with 150 anniversary from his birthday. Norwegian companies Statoil, Eni Norge and Petoro discovered a major oil field on the shelf in the Barents Sea (Skrugard Project). The Statoil experts evaluate the field’s potential in 500 million barrels. The companies began preparing documentation for drilling works. A.F. Fyodorov and S.A. Kovalyov’s book What the Third Reich Was Looking for in the Soviet Arctic. Secrets of Polar Wolves was published in St.-Petersburg. Russian “Rosneft” and “British Petroleum” signed several agreements on establishing joint ventures for cooperation works on the three blocks of the East-Prinovozemelskiy field on the Arctic shelf. Olga Greyg’s book Secret Antarctic. Russian Reconnaissance on the South Pole was published. Much of the book is devoted to the Arctic Seas including the Kara Sea. S.A. Kovalyov’s book Mysteries of the Lost Expeditions was published. F. Nansen’s book Through Siberia and N. Budur’s book Nansen: Man and Myth were published in Moscow in connection with Year of F. Nansen and R. Amundsen celebrations. Honorable polar explorer, Captain G.D. Burkov’s book War in the Arctic was published in St.-Petersburg. Foreign Affairs Ministers of Denmark, Iceland, Canada, Norway, Russia, the USA, Finland, and Sweden signed “Agreement on cooperation on aeronautical and maritime search and rescue in the Arctic.” In connection with M.V. Lomonosov’s 300th birthday anniversary, Russian Geographical Society supported expedition “In the footsteps of Pomors” on exploring Pomors movements areas from the White Sea to the Arctic. Second International Arctic Forum “Arctic – Territory of a diologue” was held in Arkhangelsk. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 531

The book edited by S. Vignudelli, A.G. Kostianoy, P. Cipollini, J. Benveniste Coastal Altimetry was published in Springer. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy The Barents Sea Encyclopedia was published in Moscow. 2012 “Rosneft” and “ExxonMobil” signed an agreement according to which the American company received 49% share in the three blocks of the East-Prinovozemelskiy field development in the Kara Sea. R.P. Buynov’s book Engaged to the North. In the Footsteps of the Two Captains was published in Moscow. Expedition aboard the Dalniye Zelentsy went to the Kara Sea. M.A. Chvanov’s book Mystery of Navigation Officer Albanov was published in Moscow. As part of the project “Offshore and coastal technologies for oil production and transportation from the Arctic,” German publisher Springer published N.A. Marchenko’s book Russian Arctic Seas. Navigational Conditions and Accidents (in Russian and English). Russian President V.V. Putin signed a decree appointing A.N. Chilingarov the Russian President’s Special Envoy for International Cooperation in the Arctic and Antarctic. “Development strategy for the Russian Arctic” project prescribed lifting the nuclear submarine K-27 sank in the Kara Sea since 1982. Russian Geographical Society and Association of business arctic cooperation began publishing information and analytics journal “Arctic news” (four issues per year). Russian President V.V. Putin visited Severodvinsk and Arkhangelsk where he inspected the new nuclear submarine Yuriy Dolgorukiy and icebreaker Vitus Bering. 2013 V.S. Koryakin’s book War in the Arctic 1941–1945 was published in Moscow. Famous expert on international marine fishing V.K. Zilanov’s book Russia Losing the Arctic? was published in Moscow. Former aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov, upgraded on the Sevmash (Northern Machine- Building Enterprise) in Severodvinsk for India and renamed Vikramaditya, went on trials to the White Sea. I.S. Zonn and S.S. Zhiltsov’s book Arctic Race. Occupy and Drill was published in Moscow. V.N. Polovinkin and A.B.. Fomichev’s book Russian North was published in St.-Petersburg. Book Russian North in Military-Naval and Economic Aspects was published in St.-Petersburg. The book by V.K. Zilanov Is Russia Losing the Arctic? was published in Moscow. The Third International Forum “Arctic is the Territory of Dialogue” was held in Salekhard. The eighth session of the Arctic Council was held in Kiruna, Sweden. President V.V. Putin approved of “Strategy of Development of the Artic Zone of the Russian Federation and Provision of National Security for the period until 2020.” The Arctic Explorer’s Day was established in Russia (21 May). The international forum on the white bear conservation was held in Moscow. The Federal State Official Organization “Administration of the Northern Sea Route” was set up. The work of the Scientific Research Institute of War History “The Russian North in Military and Economic Terms” was published. The decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On Implementation of Budget Investment into the Construction of Two Series All-Purpose Atomic Icebreakers” was adopted (it implied the construction and commissioning of three all-purpose atomic icebreakers, including the head icebreaker, before the end of 2017). The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy The Kara Sea. Encyclopedia (in Russian) was published in Moscow. 2014 The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov The White Sea. Encyclopedia (in Russian) was published in Moscow. In Moscow, the German Historical Institute hosted the international conference “The Soviet Arctic: Exploration, Investigation, Images.” (continued) 532 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

Russia and South Korea for the first time discussed ways of cooperation in the Arctic. In St.-Petersburg, the book-album of G.P. Avetisov “Arctic necropolis” was published. In the Arctic, in the Kara Sea, Rosneft (Russia) and Exxon Mobil (USA) from the Norwegian platform West Alpha in the license area East-Prinovozemelsky-1 in the new Pobeda field produced the first ultralight oil. Preliminary reserves are estimated at 100 million tons of oil, 300 billion cubic meters of gas. The well is named “Universitetskaya-1” and is the most northern in the world. The Ministry of Defense of Russia began to create a permanent military base in the Arctic. In St.-Petersburg, the book Ensuring Russia’s National Interests in the Arctic was published, prepared by the Western Military District, the Military Academy of the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces, the Institute of Military History, and the State Polar Academy. Gazprom started oil production at the Prirazlomnoye field in the Pechora Sea. Joint integrated expedition of Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District and Roskogidromet on the research vessel Professor Molchanov “Yamal-Arctic-2014” in the Kara Sea, the Yenisei Bay and the Ob Bay to assess the technogenic pollution of the Yamal and Tazov regions, and the ecological monitoring of the Yamal and Gydan peninsulas. In Moscow, in the series “The Marine Chronicle”, books by V.G. Redansky In the Ice and Under the Ice and N.A. Cherkashin Commanders of the Polar Seas were published. The R/V Akademik Fedorov together with the nuclear-powered icebreaker Yamal conducted the “Shelf-2014” expedition under the project “Additional hydrographic works to determine and substantiate the outer limit of the Russian continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean”. The Ministry of Economic Development of Russia established an interdepartmental working group to organize work on the creation of a national atlas of the Arctic. In St.-Petersburg, a new shipyard for the production of marine tugs and vessels for the Arctic region was opened at the Pella shipyard. In the United States, the book Russia’s Arctic Strategies and the Future of the Far North by Marlene Laruelle was published. An expedition to the North Pole for young polar explorers led by M. Shparo, B. Smolin and Ombudsman P. Astakhov (180 km was crossed). At the initiative of the Ministry of Higher Education and Sciences of Denmark, the Arctic Research Forum was established. The Korean Polar Research Institute (KOPRI) and the Norwegian Institute for Polar Research (NPI) have opened a joint Center for Polar Research in Tromsø, Norway. In St.-Petersburg, M.P. Komarov published a book Submariners go under the ice, which includes a description of 400 campaigns under the ice of the Arctic Ocean of Soviet submarines. USA, England, Russia. Daewoo Ship Building & Maritime Corporation received an order for the construction of 9 icebreaker gas carriers for the Russian natural gas production project in Yamal. In Moscow, the Center for Strategic Assessments and Forecasts published the work Observer countries in the Arctic Council: the position and motives of the activity. Interagency interstate United States, France, South Korea, United Kingdom team of scientists began an ambitious experiment in the ice marginal zone of the Arctic Ocean with the largest arsenal of robotic equipment. The end of the experiment is planned for 2017. Norway has made changes to its “Strategy for the Far North.” In the publishing house “Paulsen” (Moscow), Arthur Conan Doyle’s book Dangerous work. Arctic diaries was published. President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin signed the Decree “On the Land Regions of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation”. SAFU (Arkhangelsk) published a collection of abstracts of the All-Russian Conference with international participation. The State of the Arctic Seas and Territories in the Conditions of Climate Change. The John Nurminen Foundation (Finland) published in Russian a book by Matti Lainem, Juha Nordminen Vltima Thule, Arctic Studies. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 533

In Russia, a new military structure – the United Strategic Command “North”, established on the basis of the Northern Navy began to function. The Proceedings of the Institute of Europe of the Russian Academy of Sciences (No. 307) published the work of N.M. Antyushina The Arctic: a new format for international cooperation. The government of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District has established a medal “For the Preservation of the Arctic”. In Moscow, “Paulsen” Publishing House published the book of the Norwegian polar explorer O. Sverdrup Under the Russian Flag. Prime Minister Vladimir Putin ordered to develop the National Atlas of the Arctic Zone. 2015 In Moscow, a monograph by A.I. Gubanov (Moscow State University) Delimitation of the continental shelf in the Arctic: international legal problems and prospects was published. Research expedition of “Rosneft” and AARI “Kara-Zima-2015” to the Kara Sea on studying glaciers and ice properties, processing elements of ice management, monitoring seismicity in licensed areas of the oil company was held. Russia began “Arctic industrialization.” By 2020, 220 billion rubles should be invested in the development of the Arctic. Russian Deputy Prime Minister D. Rogozin, Minister of Economic Development A. Ulyukaev, Minister of Natural Resources S. Donskoy opened the drifting Arctic station “North Pole- 2015” in the Arctic Ocean, which marked the resumption of the program of drifting stations after the evacuation of the Russian “North Pole-40” in 2013. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Russian Federation has allocated 205.2 million rubles on the resumption of expeditionary research in the Arctic. On Western Spitsbergen Island held the First International Arctic Forum “Living Planet 2015”. Prime Minister of the Russian Federation D. Medvedev signed the project of development of the Northern Sea Route. Divers of the underwater research team using Russian equipment immersed in the Barents Sea to a depth of 111 m at a water temperature of þ 4 C, where they stayed 101 minutes. This record immersion for the Arctic was recorded by Božana Ostojic, member of the Board of Directors of the World Conference of Underwater Activities. A new version of the Marine Doctrine of the Russian Federation was approved, in which special emphasis is placed on the Arctic. The world’s first asymmetric icebreaker Baltika (one side straight, the other bulging) completed the tests in the Arctic. Two rescue vessels for the Russian Arctic Murman and Bering Strait have been built. Russia submitted an application to the United Nations Commission on the Continental Shelf for the second time to extend the boundaries of the continental shelf in the Arctic. The issue price is the increment of the exclusive economic zone by 1.2 million km2 in the Arctic Ocean. In the Publishing House “Paulsen”, Moscow, the series “Great British Expeditions” published a book by S. Buffet, T. Meyer 8 Poles by Frederick Paulsen. Journey to the world of cold »(8 poles – in every hemisphere of the Earth there are 4 poles – geographic, magnetic, geomagnetic and relative inaccessibility F. F. Paulens is still the only person who has visited all of them). In Moscow the Publishing House “Paulsen” published books: P. Rybkin The Russian Arctic. A century in photos, L. Simakova Alexander Kuchin. Russian at Amundsen and V. Sokolov Diary of Sokolov, the founder of the polar station on the island of Kotelny. Trimaran Qingdao-China with an international crew (Russia, China, France, Germany) set a new world record of sailing yachts sailing along the Northern Sea Route, having traveled from Murmansk to the Bering Strait for 13 days. The Government of the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous District and the Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation published the Almanac The Russian Arctic. Territory of law: Issue II Conservation and sustainable development of the Arctic. Legal aspects. In St.-Petersburg Polytechnic University published a monograph Theory and practice of integrated development of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation. (continued) 534 Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic

The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov Millenium of Discovery and Development of the Arctic Ocean (in Russian) was published in Moscow. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy The Seas of Russia. Encyclopedia. The Barents Sea (in Russian) was published in Moscow. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov The Seas of Russia. Encyclopedia. The White Sea (in Russian) was published in Moscow. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy The Seas of Russia. Encyclopedia. The Kara Sea (in Russian) was published in Moscow. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V.Semenov The Arctic Ocean. Encyclopedia in two volumes (in Russian) was published in Moscow. 2016 Second edition of the book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov The Arctic Ocean. Encyclopedia in two volumes (in Russian) was published in Moscow. In Moscow, a book by A.B. Gromov The Battle for the Arctic was published in “Veche” Publishing House. In Moscow, O. Greig’s book Kolchak the Polar. Life for the Motherland and Science was published by “Trade House Algorithm” Publishing House. The First Congress of the University of the Arctic (World Arctic Congress UARTIC-2016) was held in St.-Petersburg. The Italian composer Ludovico Einaudi performed his new work Arctic Ellegia on the piano in the open sea in front of a melting glacier on Spitsbergen. In Moscow “Paulsen” Publishing House published a book by R. Aliev The Wrong White. The Arctic from the Vikings to the Papaninians. In the Kara Sea, the Icebreaker Captain Dranitsyn together with the R/V Akademik Treshnikov conducted a unique expedition on the impact on icebergs in order to deviate it from the dangerous drift line. Russian President Vladimir Putin on a space bridge opened a unique Arctic terminal built to service a large oil Novoportovskoye field in the Yamal Peninsula. In Moscow the “Paulsen” Publishing House published a book by the Norwegian historian and writer Tur Bjarne Arlova entitled The History of the Spitsbergen Archipelago. The Military-Historical Society published the book The Russian Arctic during Peter the Great. In Moscow, “Paulsen” Publishing House published a photo album The Krasin Icebreaker. History in photos. by M.A. Emelina, M.A. Savinov, P.A. Filin. In St.-Petersburg, the Baltic plant launched the world’s most powerful nuclear icebreaker Arktika. Term for delivery to the customer December 2017. In Novosibirsk, the special report Priorities of Russia in the Arctic was published for the International Forum of Technological Development “Technoprom-2016”. The Analytical Department of the Council of the Federation apparatus published a paper On Measures to Ensure the National Security of the Russian Federation in the Arctic Zone. In the collection of the Izborskiy Club there was published a book by A. Prokhanov, A. Chilingarov, and others The State of Russia. New stage. Arctic vector. In St.-Petersburg, a diesel electric icebreaker with a capacity of 25 MW Viktor Chernomyrdin was launched at the Baltic plant. It will become the largest and most powerful non-nuclear icebreaker in the world. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov The Eastern Arctic Seas Encyclopedia was published in Springer. 2017 At the end of December 2016 – early January 2017, for the first time in the history of the Arctic navigation, Russian vessels, under the guidance of the icebreaker 50 Years of Victory, made a unique over-late transit cruise by the Northern Sea Route to the west. In Moscow, the Publishing House “Paulsen” published a book by L.M. Savatyugin Novaya Zemlya Archipelago. History, names and titles. The Arctic Science Center of “Rosneft” issued an ecological atlas called The Kara Sea. Russian oil companies “Rosneft” and “Lukoil” began drilling operations in the Taymyr Peninsula. (continued) Chronology of the Key Historical Events on the Western Seas of the Russian Arctic 535

President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin and Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev visited the Island of Alexandra, Franz Josef Land, where they got acquainted with the results of work on cleaning the Arctic and conducting climate research. Russian President Vladimir Putin spoke at the Fourth International Arctic Forum “The Arctic: Territory of Dialogue.” In Fairbanks (Alaska, USA) a meeting of the Arctic Council took place, at which the results for the last two years were summed up and the chairmanship was transferred to Finland. In Moscow, Publishing House “Paulsen” published the Arctic encyclopedia in two volumes. The book by I.S. Zonn, A.G. Kostianoy, A.V. Semenov The Western Arctic Seas Encyclopedia was published in Springer.

References

Andrienko VG. Ice-breaker fleet of Russia. 1860s – 1918. History of Russian America (1732—1867), vol. 1–3. Moscow; 2009 (in Russian). Bolkhovitinova NN, editor. — Moscow, “Arctic. Interests of Russia and international conditions of “Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya”; 1997–1999 (in their realization.” Moscow; 2002 (in Russian). Russian). Arctic – my house. History of development of the North in History of Russian sea voyages. Moscow; 2008 biographies of prominent people. Magidovich VI, edi- (in Russian). tor. Moscow, “Severnye prostory”; 2001 (in Russian). History of the hydrographic service in the Russian Fleet. Belov MI. History of exploration and development of the V. 3 “Chronicle of the greatest events.” St.-Petersburg; Northern Sea Route. Moscow, Leningrad, V. I; 1956 1996 (in Russian). (in Russian). History of the hydrographic service in the Russian Fleet. Big Russian Encyclopedia, vol. 1–51. 2nd ed. Moscow; V. 4 “Bibliographic handbook of the prominent sailing 1949–1958 (in Russian). masters and hydrographers of the Russian Fleet.” Blon G. The great hour of the oceans. Polar seas. Moscow, St.-Petersburg; 1997 (in Russian). Mysl; 1984 (in Russian). Ivanyan EA. Encyclopedia of the Russian-American rela- Bolgurtsev BN. Maritime biographic handbook of the Far tions in the 18–20 centuries. St.-Petersburg, 1997, East of Russia and Russian America. Vladivostok; Moscow; 2001 (in Russian). 1998 (in Russian). Kaplin PA, Leontyev OK, Lukyanova SA, Nikiforov Brief geographic encyclopedia, vol. 1–5. Moscow; LG. The coasts. Moscow; 1991 (in Russian). 1960–1966 (in Russian). Kindersley Dorling. Alaska. Travel guides. Moscow; 2008 Burlak VN. Voyages to cold seas. Moscow, “AiF Print”; (in Russian). 2004 (in Russian). Koryakin VS. Chelyuskin epopee. Moscow; 2011 Deryugin KK. Soviet oceanographic expeditions. Lenin- (in Russian). grad, Gidrometeoizdat; 1968 (in Russian). Kovalev SA. Swastika over Taymyr. Moscow; 2008 Directions for navigation in the Laptev Sea. Leningrdad, (in Russian). Main Office of the “Glavsevmorput”; 1938 Kovalev SA. Arctic shadows of the Third Reich. Moscow; (in Russian). 2010 (in Russian). Divin VA. Russian sea voyages in the Pacific Ocean in the Kovalev SA. Secrets of the lost expeditions. Moscow, 18 century. Moscow; 1971 (in Russian). Veche; 2011 (in Russian). Evgenov NI. Directions for navigation in the Kara Sea and Krasnov VN, Balatin VV. History of the research vessels Novaya Zemlya. Leningrad, Hydrographic Office and fleet of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Moscow, Commission for the Northern Sea Route; 1956 Nauka; 2005 (in Russian). (in Russian). Krasnov VN, Krasnov IV. Lend-lease for the USSR, Geoecology of the shelf and coasts of the Russian seas. 1941–1945. Moscow; 2008 (in Russian). Aybulatov NA, editor. Moscow; 2001 (in Russian). Kozlov IA, Shlomin VS. Red Banner Northern Fleet. Mos- Geographic Encyclopedic Dictionnary. Moscow; 1989 cow; 1983 (in Russian). (in Russian). Leonov AK. Regional oceanography. Moscow; 1960 Geography of Russia. Encyclopedic Dictionnary. Moscow; (in Russian). 1998 (in Russian). Marchenko NA. Russian Arctic Seas. Navigational condi- Guide to the history of geographical names on the coast of tions and accidents. Springer; 2012. the Soviet Union. Ministry of Defense of the USSR; Marine encyclopedic guide. In two volumes. Leningrad; 1976 (in Russian). 1986 (in Russian).

# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 537 I.S. Zonn et al., The Western Arctic Seas Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Seas, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-25582-8 538 References

Maslennikov BG. The sea map says. Moscow, Voennoe Zubov NN. Russian sea explorers – explorers of the seas izdatelsto; 1986 (in Russian). and oceans. Moscow; 1954 (in Russian). Mikhailov NN, Vyazilov ED, Lamanov VI, Studenov NS. Marine expeditionary research in Russia. St.- Petersbrug; 1998 (in Russian). Internet Resources Navy Dictionnary. Ed. by the USSR Navy Commander http://wikimapia.org/wiki/ V.N. Chernavin. Moscow; 1990 (in Russian). http://www.wwf.ru/about/what_we_do/species/polarbear/- Oceanographic encyclopedia. Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat; umka-patrol/ 1974 (in Russian). http://www.sirjohnbarrowmonument.co.uk/ Pasetskiy VM. Vitus Bering. Moscow; 1982 (in Russian). http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title Pasetskiy VM. Arctic star moments. St.-Petersburg; 1995 http://ru.wikipedia (in Russian). http://ussrfleet.1939-45.ru/sev_fl.php Peskov VM. Alaska is more than you think. Moscow; 1994 http://barentsculture.ru/page/1/ (in Russian). http://institute/contacts/ Russian Marine Expeditionary Investigations of the World http://www.mmbi.info/institute/history/ Ocean. NOAA Atlas NESDIS 56; 2002. http://www.pinro.ru Shigin VV. Sails torn to shreds. Moscow, Veche; 2008 http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ПИHPO (in Russian). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Polar_Institute Shirokorad AB. A battle for Russian Arctic in 16–21 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Arctic_Science_ centuries. Moscow; 2008 (in Russian). Committee Siberia. Around the world. Moscow; 2006 (in Russian). http://company.msco.ru/history/index.shtml Skrinitskiy NV. Russian admirals. Biographies and desti- http://www.serin.ru/bioresrus/law/international/atlantic_ nies. Moscow; 2003 (in Russian). salmon.html Solotsko AA. History of Vitus Bering voyage on the boat http://www.nasco.int/about.html "Saint Gavriil" in the Arctic Ocean. Moscow; 1983 http://www.mgounb.ru/?content=42&folder=3&month=0 (in Russian). http://severcom.ru/cooperation/inter_orgs/item1.html Terentyev SA. Arctic and Antarctic. Moscow, Knigovek; http://nrsl.net/content/company/zdanie/stone1.jpg 2011 (in Russian). http://nrsl.net/content/company/zdanie/stone1.jpg The Arctic and Southern Oceans. Leningrad; 1985 http://www.nrsl.net/ (in Russian). http://www.solovki.ca/people_18/sea_cadet_school.php The Northern Encyclopedia. Moscow; 2004 (in Russian). http://nrsl.net/content/company/zdanie/stone1.jpg The Russian explorers and navigators. Military Publishing http://nrsl.net/content/company/zdanie/stone1.jpg House of the Ministry of Defence of the USSR. http://www.nrsl.net/ Moscow; 1982 (in Russian). http://www.crewing.ru/amu/index_r.html The Russian Maritime Encyclopedia. V1 (2006), http://www.fishnet.ru/companies/1955/ V 2 (2007), St.-Petersburg (in Russian). http://www.logistics.ru/9/26/i77_33072p0.htm The Soviet Arctic. Moscow, Nauka; 1970 (in Russian). http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Tsiporukha MI. Forgotten researchers of the Russian Seas. http://www.ansc.ru/rus/InfR.shtml Moscow, Voenizdat; 2005 (in Russian). http://www.polarpost.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?f=8&t=1796 Veksel’ S. Second Kamchatka expedition of Vitus Bering. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/217336/pictures/wiki/ Moscow, Leningrad; 1946 (in Russian). files/108/leonid_breitfuss.jpg/pictures/wiki/files/108/ Vize VYu. Seas of the Russian Arctic, vol. I-II. Moscow; leonid_breitfuss.jpg 2008 (in Russian). http://guides.rusarchives.ru/browse/guidebook.html?bid= Yablokov AV, editor. The Russian Arctic: on the verge of 79&sid=185070 catastrophe. Moscow; 1996 (in Russian). http://www.fishres.rulГ.rfi..NslГtfNoIs.php?id=23223 Zalogin BS, Kosarev AN. The Seas. Moscow; 1999 https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php7title=Oбыкнoвeнный. (in Russian). тюлeнь&oldid=70573_791 Zhukov YuN. Stalin: the Arctic shield. Moscow; 2008 https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php7title=Бeлoмopcкaя_ (in Russian). pяпушкa&oldid=65_933703 Zonn IS, Kostianoy AG. The Barents Sea Encyclopedia. https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php7title=Ceвepный_ Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya; 2011. зaвoз&oldid=64570792data:textlhtml;chaгset=utf-8. 267 pp. (in Russian). %ЗC%h5%20al%ign%3D%22centeГ%22%20style% Zonn IS, Kostianoy AG. The Kara Sea. Encyclopedia. 3D%22ColOГ%3A%20гgb(O%2C%2OO%2C%200)% Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya (International 3B%2Ofont-family%3A%2 Relations); 2013. 246 pp. (in Russian). https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php7title=A тлaнтичecкaя_ Zonn IS, Kostianoy AG, Semenov AV. The White Sea TpecKa&oldid=69990450 Encyclopedia. Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye https://гu.wikipedia.oгglw/iпdex.php?title=Бappoу_(пpo otnosheniya; 2014. 253 pp. (in Russian). лив)&oldld=66688557 References 539 http://iecca.гulo-sovetelitem/101-memorandum-o-sozdaпii- https://гu.wikipedia.oгglw/iпdex.php?title=Maк-Клуp_ mezhduпaГodnogO-ekspeгtпogo-soveta-po-sotгudnich <пpoлив)&oldid=6486923 3 estvu-v-aгktike https://ru.wikipedia.prg/w/indcж.php1titlc-Гpклн,_Aдoльф_ https://ru.Wikipedia.orglW/iпdex.phP'!title=Hop.eжcкoe_ Bawннгroн&oldid=0:68498825 тe'leииe&oldid=(i7129888 https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php7title=OcTpoB_Haд https://гu.wiklpedia.orglw/index.php?title=Ocтpoв_Ушa eжды&oldid=61667327 кoвa&old_id=57507702 http://gruzdoff.rulwiki/%DO%9D%DO%BE%01%80% http://www.gpavet.naгod.гulNamesЗlommaneу.htm OO%B2%OO%B5%OO%B6%O1%81%OO%BA% https://гu.Wikipedia.OГg/wiki/%DO%93%D1%83%DO% DO%BE%OO%B5_%DO%BC%IДaтaпocлeднeгoи B4%DO%B7%DO%BE%DO"IoBD%DO%BE%DO% змeнeния-2015-04-09 B2_%DO%B7%DO%BO%DO"IoBB%Do%вa%DO https://ru.wikipedia.orglw/index.php?title=Baйкaунт-Meл https://гu.Wikipedia.OГg/wiki/%DO"Io9З%D1%80%DO% вилл&oldid=64869298 B8%DO%BB%DO%B8._%DO%90%DO%B4%DO% https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php7 BE%DO%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%DO"Io92%DO http://igo.3dп.гulloadlseveгnyUedovityi-okeanlгusskaja, https://гu.wikipedia.oгglw/iпdex.php?title=Лaнкacтep_ JIOljaгnaja_ehkspedicija_1900_1902_9Q17-1-D-25 (пpoлив)&oldid=70087062 https://гu.wikipedia.oгg/wiki/%CC%EO"/oEA-%CA% EB%E8%ED%F2%EE%EA_<%EF%FO"IoEE%EB% E8%E2