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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School

2009 The Effect of on Ensemble Performance: A "Best-Evidence" Synthesis Amy I. Acklin

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COLLEGE OF

THE EFFECT OF CONDUCTING ON

ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE:

A “BEST-EVIDENCE” SYNTHESIS

By

AMY I. ACKLIN

A Dissertation submitted to the College of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2009

The members of the committee approve the dissertation of Amy I. Acklin defended on June 15, 2009.

______Clifford K. Madsen Professor Directing Dissertation

______Alexander Jiménez Outside Committee Member

______Richard Clary Committee Member

______Patrick Dunnigan Committee Member

______Steven N. Kelly Committee Member

Approved:

______Don Gibson, Dean, College of Music

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members.

ii

Dedicated to my husband, Chad Acklin

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Completing this part of the journey is a tribute to the many dear people in my life. To my husband Chad, you are the most amazing person that I know. Thank you for the many sacrifices you have made to make this degree possible. To my Mom and Dad, thank you for your unconditional love and for all you have provided to nurture my musical interests and growth as a person. To my grandparents, family, and friends, thank you for your energy and support during this time. To Beck and Bekah, you have been my anchors. To my fellow colleagues and the grads, it has been a pleasure to work beside you and learn from you. To Dr. Napoles, thank you for your guidance on this research endeavor and especially for your friendship. To my committee, thank you for your time and instruction during this project and my studies at FSU. Dr. Madsen, thank you for teaching me to ask questions, search for answers, and crave knowledge. I am so grateful for the hours you have given directing my dissertation, but I am even more thankful for the time you have taken to shape my thoughts and actions. Professor Clary, thank you for teaching me to hear fantastic in vibrant and radiant colors and to seek after the highest musical goals that the imagination can create. Dr. Dunnigan, thank you for teaching me how to lead with courage, handle life with consistency and patience, and for giving me tremendous opportunities with the band department. Dr. Kelly, thank you for your constant encouragement, for allowing me to work with summer camps, and for teaching me to take one step at a time. Dr. Jiménez, thank you for teaching me how to lead with passion and the importance of showing love to those in your ensemble. Dr. Standley, thank you so much for your direction on this project. Lastly, Dr. Ostling, Jr. and Dr. Speck, thank you for nurturing my excitement of conducting. Many of the ideas expressed in this paper are a result of your mentorship during the early years of my musical development.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables viii Abstract ix

INTRODUCTION 1

1. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CONDUCTING COMPETENCIES 4 Nonverbal Communication 4 Conducting Behavior Taxonomies 5 Facial Expression and Eye Contact 6 Perceptions of Eye Contact 9 Gestures 11 Perception Studies 15 Aesthetic Responses 15 Perceptions of Conductors 18 Expressive versus nonexpressive conducting 21 Conductor and ensemble relationships 23 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance 25 Teacher/Conductor Effectiveness 27 Conductor Traits 27 Conductor Motivation 28 Intensity 29 Approval/Disapproval 31 Sequential Patterns 31 Conductor Modeling 33 Techniques 34 Coding Rehearsal Behaviors 37

CONDUCTING PEDAGOGY 40 Methodology 40 Conducting Theories 40 Conducting Textbooks 40 Conducting Curriculum 42 Conducting Assessment Techniques 45 Physical Skill Development 48 Gestures 48 Expressivity 50 Movement-based exercises 53 Aural Skill Development 56 Error-Detection Skills 56 Detecting Errors While Performing 59 Programmed Instruction 60

v Score Study Methods 62 Teaching for Transfer 64 Conducting Technology 65 65 Educational Uses 67 Synchronization Studies 68

BEST-EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS 70 Meta-analytic techniques 70 Effect Size 72 Principles of a Best-Evidence Synthesis 73 Uses of Best-Evidence Synthesis 74

2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 76 Need for the Study 76 Purpose of the Study 77 Research Questions 78

3. METHOD 79 Literature Search Procedures 79 Effect Size Computations 80 Criteria for Inclusion 81

4. RESULTS 82 Expressive versus Nonexpressive 82 Specific Conducting Gestures 83 Conductor-gesture Instruction 84 Nonverbal and verbal methods 84 Synchronization 85 Effect Sizes for Qualifying Studies 86

5. DISCUSSION 96

SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS 96 Review of Literature 96 Conducting Competencies 96 Conducting Pedagogy 97 Best-evidence synthesis 98 Expressive versus Nonexpressive 98 Specific Conducting Gestures 99 Conductor-gesture Instruction 100 Nonverbal and verbal methods 100 Synchronization 101 Methodology 101 Answers to Research Questions 101 Implications/Suggestions for Further Research 103

vi

REFERENCES 105 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 140

vii LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: 86

Descriptive information and effect sizes for qualifying studies.

TABLE 2. The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: 91 Descriptive information for qualifying studies with noncalculable effect sizes.

viii ABSTRACT The first purpose of this study was to provide an overview of experimental and descriptive research lines within the field of conducting. The findings of this literature search reflect the tremendous growth of inquiries and findings since the 1970’s (Ostling, 1976). Research studies were broadly categorized into two overarching themes: conducting competencies and conducting pedagogy. Lines within conducting competencies included: 1) nonverbal communication, 2) perception studies, and 3) teacher/conductor effectiveness. Conducting pedagogy revealed studies in 1) methodology, 2) physical/aural skill development, and 3) conducting technology. The second purpose of this study was to examine the effect of conducting on ensemble performance through the meta-analytic techniques of “best-evidence synthesis.” Developed by Robert Slavin (1986), this process compares similar studies through the common statistical metric of effect size. Results can then be discussed for practical applications in the relative terms of small effect size: d = .2; medium effect size: d = .5; and large effect size: d = .8 (Cohen, 1977). Twenty-three studies, divided into five categories, met the inclusion criteria. Results from studies examining expressive versus nonexpressive conducting on the impact of ensemble were mixed. While some research suggested that expressive conducting only influences listener perceptions, other research indicated that specific conducting gestures do, in fact, shape the sound of an ensemble. Results also suggested a positive and large effect size in the area of conducting-gesture instruction with young ensembles. Other studies examined the effect of conducting in combination with verbal and modeling rehearsal techniques. Conducting gestures were effective, but only within a combination of other rehearsal techniques, suggesting that many skills define conductor competencies. Lastly, studies were examined to explore the synchronization between conductor and ensemble members. Results suggest that with previous conducting experience maintain steadier tempi while following a conductor than musicians without conducting training.

ix INTRODUCTION Examining the art of conducting begins with the deceptively simple question, “What is a great conductor?” In searching for answers, one can draw on a plethora of resources, including personal experience, accounts from experienced conductors, observations of conductors, as well as descriptive and experimental research. The composite result suggests that conducting is a multifaceted blend of musicianship, people skills, leadership, and nonverbal communication. The myriad competencies needed by a conductor move well beyond the beating of time. and conductor (1948) remarked on the complex role of the conductor, stating: The conductor must see and hear, he music be resourceful and energetic, he must know the and the range of the instruments and be able to read a score. Besides the specific talent whose component qualities we are going to discuss he must have other, almost indefinable gifts, without which the invisible contact between him and the performers cannot be established. Lacking these, he cannot transmit his feelings to the players and has no dominating power or guiding influence. He is no longer a director and leader, but simply a time-beater, provided he is able to beat and divide time regularly (p .410). While Berlioz notes the mysterious relationship between conductor and , recent research in conducting suggests there are definable and observable skills that great conductors possess. For instance, work in the field of nonverbal communication indicates that conductors communicate with an ensemble not only during a rehearsal but also in the way they approach the podium. Other studies have suggested that a conductor can measurably influence the aural perception of audience members. Additionally, research in teacher effectiveness has given valuable insight that has led to more effective and student-conductor relationships. Research has provided valuable insights into the most salient questions of conducting praxis. What are effective ways to define, observe, and measure the complex nuances of conducting and nonverbal communication? What are the effects of conductor eye contact and facial expression on ensemble attentiveness and performance skills? Are there measurable differences between novice and experienced conductors? It is also interesting to consider what actual influence a conductor has on the sound of an

1 ensemble. Similarly, are there specific gestures or facial cues that improve or hinder the quality of a performance? After defining effectiveness in conducting, one must then examine the necessary skills to teach novice conductors. Perhaps the greatest strength of an experienced conductor is the ability to successfully balance a variety of skills needed in a rehearsal and performance environment. While experienced conductors demonstrate these skills with ease and fluency, the development of even one skill can be a monumental task for the beginning conductor. Fundamental questions, such as what is important to teach and how one goes about teaching it, are of importance in developing an effective conducting course. What are the developmental stages for novice conductors? What are effective methods for sequencing and assessing conducting technique and nonverbal communication skills? What are the latest advances in conducting technology and can recent findings be integrated into the undergraduate conducting curriculum? While conducting research in the 1970’s was scarce, there is now a substantial body of scholarship. However, with an increased amount of literature comes the need for developing methods to summarize and synthesize research. As Light and Smith (1971) noted in the social sciences, it can be challenging to recognize the overarching patterns within a sophisticated body of studies. Yet, upon a careful and systematic review, trends often emerge. One type of systematic review is a meta-analysis, which developed as a way to aggregate a larger body of evidence and bring “statistical analysis of the summary findings of empirical studies” (Light & Smith, 1971, p. 21). Glass (1976) popularized this method within the social and behavior sciences, which has now become a widely used method of comparing studies by using the common metric of effect size. The field of music has also benefited from meta-analyses, seen especially in the field of (Standley, 1986, 1996, 2002). While the body of conducting research has grown substantially in the last few decades, it has not been until recently that an accumulation of studies was large enough to benefit from meta-analytic techniques. This first purpose of this study is to present a narrative review of descriptive and experimental findings within two areas of research: conducting competencies and conducting pedagogy. The second purpose is to investigate

2 the effect of a conductor on ensemble performance using the meta-analytic techniques of a best-evidence synthesis. This technique was designed by Robert Slavin (1986) to combine the best qualities of a narrative review and meta-analysis. Its original use was to measure the effectiveness of education programs and present both statistical and practical findings. Given the need in the conducting field for further systematic inquiry and evidence of “best-practices,” the application of a best-evidence synthesis seemed to be of perhaps a timely and useful value.

3 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Conducting Competencies Nonverbal Communication Much of the research in conducting relies heavily upon important studies in the field of nonverbal communication. Ekman and Friesen (1969), pioneers in nonverbal research, provided a categorical scheme for discussing nonverbal behaviors: emblems, illustrators, regulators, affect displays, and adaptors. They credited much of their discussion to the early works of Efron (1941) and Mahl (1968). Another approach organized nonverbal behaviors by four signaling systems including: 1) body, 2) space, gaze, and touch, 3) facial expression and the communication of emotion, and 4) voice and gesture (Remland, 2004). These categories are helpful not only in discussing trends among human communication, but also in conductor-musician relationships. Others have examined the practical applications of nonverbal communication (Riggio & Feldman, 2005). For example DiMatteo proposed that doctors could improve relationships with patients through nonverbal sensitivity training (as cited in Weitz, 1979, p. 136). Harris and Rosenthal (2005) also suggested that teachers would benefit from training in nonverbal communication. Faye (1989) argues the same for musicians, noting accounts of famous conductors who have recognized the power of nonverbal gestures. Whether in the conductor’s walk to the podium or the direction that a conductor points their feet during a rehearsal, it appears that conductors are continuously communicating to an ensemble. Research in nonverbal communication supports the notion that nonverbal behaviors are defined within the larger framework surrounding them (Druckman, Rozelle, & Baxter, 1982). For example, Burgoon, Buller, Hale, & deTurck (1984) investigated the effect of combining five nonverbal cues – eye contact, proximity, body lean, smiling, and touch on relational communication. Results indicated that a second cue was beneficial for strengthening the meaning of the first cue and that a third compatible cue had little benefit. Motley (1993) found that facial expressions used in conversation

4 were interpreted by the surrounding verbal context. Thus, specific facial expressions could have numerous interpretations based on the nature of the conversation. Conducting Behavior Taxonomies. Many persons consider the art of “great” conducting to be an innate ability; however, the field of nonverbal communication suggests that we are continually learning and interpreting new gestures. This suggestion has profound implications for conducting pedagogues. Researchers in the mid 70s began to recognize the irrefutable relationship between nonverbal communication and conducting. Ostling (1976) proposed five areas of study in the field of conducting: facial and hand expressions, eye contact, body motion, posture, and the expression of emotions. Since the Ostling review, the study of conducting has expanded to multiple lines of research, including rehearsal effectiveness, ensemble members’ perceptions of conductors, and ways to use technology to measure and assess conducting technique. Another review of conducting literature here (Vallo, 1990) recognizes five ways to approach conducting and research: 1) behavioral, 2) competency-based education, 3) experiential, 4) social-psychological (defined as “the influence of group and individual dynamics”) and 5) academic-musical. Many of the valuable coding systems of conductor behaviors developed from the early work in nonverbal communication. One of the first measurements of facial behavior was the Facial Affect Scoring Technique (FAST), developed by Ekman, Friesen, and Tomkins (1971). It was designed to predict the emotions of six different facial poses, including happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, and fear. Others developed systems to code nonverbal conducting behaviors (Berz, 1983; Civikly, 1973; Daellenbach, 1970; Lewis, 1977) or study the relationship between conducting and nonverbal communication (Mellor 1979). Ervin (1975) was among the first to develop a system for observing nonverbal communication of conductors. In his pilot study, Ervin found that he had assigned too many categories for examination. What began as a multifaceted system with long lists of observation categories was reduced to a simpler tally system of recording expressive/nonexpressive conducting and eye contact/no eye contact with the ensemble. It is interesting to consider that over thirty years after Ervin’s study, researchers are still examining the complexities of expressive conducting and conductor eye contact.

5 Research evidence also suggests that nonverbal communication has a meaningful impact on the experience and perceptions of students. Johnson, Darrow, & Eason (2008) found that nonverbal behaviors of novice and expert teachers strongly influenced participants’ perceptions. Results indicated a strong correlation between effectiveness and rapport (r = .85) and that the expert teachers were rated significantly higher than novice teachers were. A qualitative analysis of written comments revealed that participants noticed nonverbal communication more than any other behavior. The researchers suggested that novice teachers should receive training in developing effective nonverbal skills. Facial expression and eye contact. Conductors’ opinions regarding the importance of eye contact are mixed. For instance, conductor believed that most of the communication from a conductor came from the eyes (Chesterman, 1990). Alternately, conductor Herbert van Karajan often conducted with his eyes closed. In an interview, van Karajan stated: I don’t need eyes because I can feel the spirit of a musician much better if I’m not distracted by the manual things he does. I can feel when he’s short of breath and I will help him to get over a phrase when otherwise he would make a mistake. I have a very strong feeling for people when I have my eyes closed. I can almost be in them, in their spirit. That is the reason why I do it. (Chesterman, 1990, p. 19) Research in nonverbal communication suggests that the eyes, whether closed or open, convey meaning to others. In a review of literature concerning eye contact and the conductor, Fredrickson (1992) discusses four categories of nonverbal communication research: children, teachers and students, human interaction, and the conductor/teacher. Research with children reveals that infants use eye contact for processing information as early as two weeks old and demonstrate eye avoidance in stressful situations. Research has also indicated that eye contact is a strong indicator of attentiveness in seven through nine year olds. Also important for conductors to consider is the research in teacher/student relationships, which suggests that eye contact can aid the teacher in classroom control. Furthermore, eye contact can also benefit the student. For example, Rennels and Chaudari suggest that students seated in the front of a class receive more eye

6 contact from the teacher and are likely to receive better grades (as cited in Fredrickson, 1992, p. 26). Another study by Ekman and Friesen (1969) identified six basic facial expressions: anger, happiness, surprise, disgust, sadness, and fear. Additional research has also identified facial expressions associated with “complex” mental states, including guilt, admiration, and arrogance (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, & Jolliffe, 1997). The researchers compared the recognition of basic and complex expressions with normal adults and adults with autism or Asperger’s Syndrome (Baron-Cohen, et.al., 1997). Participants looked at twenty pictures that represented basic and complex expressions of the eyes, mouth, and whole face. Results revealed that while persons with autism or Asperger’s Syndrome scored significantly lower than the normal adults in recognizing complex expressions, they were equally capable of identifying basic facial expressions. Results also suggested that the whole face is the most descriptive in communicating overall basic facial expressions, although the eyes were equally descriptive in communicating complex expressions. Lastly, participants in the eyes and whole face conditions scored significantly higher in communicating complex expressions than the mouth alone. These results suggest that while the eyes are an integral part of expression, the whole face may be the most effective form of communication. Understanding the influence of facial expressions could provide insights for sequencing conducting instruction. For instance, Yarbrough, et.al. (1979) found that different types of instructional feedback influenced the specificity of facial expressions observed by conducting students. Students (N = 47) enrolled in an undergraduate conducting class were assigned to a control group, an instructor feedback condition, or self-observation feedback condition. Students in the treatment groups watched recordings of their conducting practicum and gave written comments after each session. Results revealed interesting comparisons between the two experimental conditions. Students in the instructor feedback group wrote significantly more responses regarding eye contact than the observation group. Conversely, the observation group wrote significantly more responses regarding facial expression. Because the observation group did not receive

7 instructor feedback, it is possible that their responses support the notion that a person’s natural tendency is to observe the whole face versus isolated facial elements. The challenge of isolating expressive elements of conducting is that it involves gestures with almost imperceptible nuances and subtleties. One researcher attempted to examine expressivity by limiting observations to a conductor’s various expressions and arm movements (Wollner, 2006). The five stimulus conductors were of varying abilities and each conducted excerpts from Beethoven’s No.3. Observers viewed each conducting excerpt on a videotape and rated the expressiveness of each conductor under four conditions: face with no audio, arms with no audio, whole body (but purposefully blurred on videotape) and no audio, and a final excerpt using the entire body with sound. Results suggested that while the observers’ overall impression came from viewing the conductors’ arms, the eyes revealed the most detail in expression. Interestingly, these ratings were the same for both inexperienced and experienced conductors. In a similar study, Fredrickson (1994) examined the impact of losing visual and/or aural stimuli on ensemble performance and eye contact. Subjects (N = 120) were college band students divided into four groups (n = 30). During regularly scheduled band rehearsals, the researcher would pull out students individually to sightread an altered excerpt from Percy Grainger’s Irish Tune from County Derry. Students played the excerpt from beginning to end without any stops with the assistance of watching a conductor on a television monitor and listening to an ensemble through headphones. The control group sight-read the entire selection without any interruptions in the visual or audio stimulus. However, after the first 16 measures, the three experimental groups lost the audio, visual, or both stimuli. Audio and video recordings of each participant allowed outside observers to rate the performance quality and measure duration and frequency of eye contact for each participant. Results revealed significant differences between the conditions. The control group ranked the highest in performance accuracy and the most frequent eye contact, watching the conductor 28% of the time. Students who only lost audio or visual stimuli performed equally well and ranked higher than the group that lost both. Byo and Lethco (2001) also examined the eye contact frequency of ensemble members in a study that examined the effects of fast music (a march) versus slow music

8 (a ) on student interaction with the conductor. Results indicated that the band students (N = 12) used more eye contact during the chorale and in sections of rapid musical changes. The amount of eye contact given by the conductor did not seem to influence the amount of eye contact given by the ensemble. These results suggest that the complexity of the music on the printed score bears more influence on the ensemble than the nonverbal behaviors of the conductor, although this issue warrants more research. Perhaps the strongest argument for the use of eye contact on the podium is to increase attentiveness from the ensemble, thus making a rehearsal more productive. Research indicates that frequent eye contact between teacher and students increases on- task behavior in the classroom (Yarbrough, 1975; Yarbrough & Madsen, 1998). For example, Yarbrough and Price (1981) examined off-task behavior in a music rehearsal, finding a strong relationship between off-task behavior and nonperformance activities. That is, the less time spent making music, the more time students were off-task. Eye contact between teacher and student also revealed a strong relationship to longer periods of on-task behavior. Perceptions of Eye Contact. Given the wealth of research indicating that eye contact is an important part of communication, it seems intuitive to propose that eye contact would also be beneficial for conductors. If so, the effectiveness of the conductor may be connected to the duration of eye contact with the ensemble. One researcher examined four levels of conductor eye contact with an ensemble: 1) constant eye contact, 2) mostly constant eye contact, 3) moderate overall eye contact, and 4) no eye contact (Harden, 2000). The “mostly eye contact” condition required the conductor to look away at pivotal musical moments, such as entrances and , while the “moderate overall eye contact” condition allowed for eye contact during segments of structural importance. High school choral students (N = 339) participated in the study and completed a survey evaluating the overall effectiveness of the conductor. Ratings from the survey revealed that students preferred the “constant” and “mostly constant” eye contact conditions, as those ratings were significantly higher than the “moderate” and “no eye contact” ratings. The students’ written responses also showed a preference for the “mostly constant” eye contact condition with an overall percentage of 74% positive remarks. Eye contact was also the most cited response for overall effectiveness, totaling 37% of the answers.

9 VanWeelden (2007) also found eye contact to be an influencing factor on overall ratings of conductor effectiveness. The researcher examined musical style and conductor race on conductor and ensemble perceptions. Results revealed that the Caucasian conductors received significantly higher eye contact ratings than the African American conductors. Results also showed an interaction between facial expressions and the race of the conductors and musical style. For example, the African American conductors received higher ratings on facial expression while conducting the spiritual than the Caucasian conductors. The reverse was also true: ratings of facial expression from the Caucasian conductors were higher on the western art song than the African American conductors. While the results of the Harden (2000) and VanWeelden (2007) studies suggest eye contact may be a main contributor for evaluating overall conductor effectiveness, other researchers have found conflicting results. One study compared the conducting behaviors of novice and experienced conductors (Johnson, Fredrickson, Achey, & Gentry, 2003). Participants examined videotaped excerpts of five nonverbal behaviors of student and professional conductors, including right arm movement, left arm movement, eye contact, facial expression, and body movement. Results indicated that the behavior most highly correlated with positive student conductor evaluation was right arm movement while evaluation of professional conductors was most highly correlated with left arm movement. Facial expression and eye contact were significantly correlated in the overall assessment, but were ranked lower than body movement and right and left arm movement correlations. Another study also suggests eye contact to be a weak indicator of conductor perceptions (VanWeelden, 2002). Six female conductors with either thin (ectomorphic) or thick (endomorphic) body builds were videotaped conducting a 45 second excerpt of Barber’s “The Coolin.” Participants in the study watched each excerpt and completed a questionnaire regarding the performance quality of the ensemble and nonverbal elements of the conductor, including: 1) the conductor’s eye contact, 2) facial expression, posture, 3) overall effectiveness, and 4) the participants’ confidence in the conductor. Unbeknownst to the participants, the audio behind each video excerpt was identical. Results revealed that performance order significantly influenced the

10 performance ratings, but that neither gender nor body types were contributing factors to overall perceptions of the conductor or ensemble. Ratings of facial expression, posture, and overall effectiveness showed moderate to moderately strong relationships with the ensemble performance ratings, with the exception of eye contact, which did not reveal any strong correlations. The researcher suggested that this outcome could be partly due to the “mock” conducting design, as the conducting participants did not conduct a live ensemble and thus perhaps did not communicate as strongly with the eyes as they would have with people in front of them. Lastly, it seems from the collection of contradicting research in eye contact and facial expression that researchers are still working to isolate, define, and measure the complexity of variables. For example, results from a recent study on nonverbal communication in one-to-one music lessons revealed no relationship between nonverbal behaviors demonstrated by the teacher and overall teacher effectiveness ratings (Kurkul, 2007). The behaviors included eye contact, smiling, hand gestures, proximity, silence, and touch. This is not to say that the nonverbal behaviors were ineffective. Rather, the researcher included the variable of “nonverbal sensitivity” which was defined as how teachers use nonverbal behaviors to adapt to a student’s learning needs in a lesson. The concept of nonverbal sensitivity moves past the notion that teachers should demonstrate a certain percentage of nonverbal behaviors to be effective. Rather, it focuses on the appropriateness and timing of gestures specific to a learning environment. The results of this study revealed that both students’ and judges’ ratings of overall effectiveness were influenced by their perception of the teachers’ nonverbal sensitivity. Gestures. Numerous researchers have examined how conducting gestures affect an ensemble, suggesting that before, during, and after conducting, a conductor is always communicating through nonverbal cues. In a study by Fredrickson, Johnson, and Robinson, (1998) the researchers found that pre-conducting behaviors had an effect on participants’ perception of the conductor’s competence. Twenty undergraduate conductors were videotaped while demonstrating five pre-rehearsal behaviors: 1) the podium, 2) preparing materials, 3) going to a ready position, 4) giving a preparatory beat, and 5) conducting four beats. Conditions included eight combinations of the pre-rehearsal behaviors: 1) poor pre-conducting/poor conducting, 2) no

11 behavior/poor conducting, 3) poor pre-conducting/no behavior, 4) excellent pre- conducting/poor conducting, 5) poor pre-conducting/excellent conducting, 6) excellent pre-conducting/no behavior, 7) no behavior/excellent conducting, and 8) excellent pre- conducting/excellent conducting. Observers (N = 165) used a Likert-type scale to rate the competence of each conductor. The highest rated conductors combined excellent pre- conducting with excellent conducting. Most interesting was that the poor pre-conducting behaviors lowered the overall perception of conductor competence, even when followed by great conducting. For this reason, it seems important that novice conductors practice pre-rehearsal nonverbal behaviors in their conducting classes. Other gestures, including arm movement, eye contact, facial expressions, and body movement were observed in a study that examined five professional conductors and ten college music education students (Johnson, et.al., 2003). Observers used the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to identify conducting gestures, rate gestures on a positive/negative scale, and rate overall impressions of each conductor. Comparisons of ratings and gestures revealed that observers’ overall assessments of the student conductors were most influenced by their arm and body movements. Alternatively, the assessments of the professional conductors were most related to their left arm movements. In fact, right hand movements had little to do with the professional conductors’ assessments, as they employed other gestures to communicate. Byo and Austin (1994) also examined the difference in nonverbal behaviors between novice and expert conductors. Participants included six preservice teachers in instrumental music and six experienced college band directors with a seasoned record of performance excellence. Videotapes of rehearsals were collected from each conductor. Six categories were observed through the process of a “nonverbal script” and/or counting the number of occurrences of each behavior. The categories observed were adapted from a previous study (Madsen & Yarbrough, 1985) and included: 1) right arm, 2) left arm, 3) eye contact, 4) facial expression, 5) body movement, and 6) cues. Each category included subcategories, such as expressive gestures, neutral patterns, and direction of eye contact. Results suggested that the expert conductors used neutral patterns significantly less frequently than the novice conductors and had a greater repertoire of gestures labeled as “other.” There was no significant difference in the frequency of eye contact between

12 expert and novice conductors, but there was a significant difference in the duration. Expert conductors averaged 9.2 seconds of maintained eye contact with the ensemble while novice conductors averaged 4.17 seconds. Other significant differences revealed that expert conductors used more expressive body movements and facial gestures, while the novice conductors used more static body position paired with a neutral face expression. Concerning arm gestures, the expert conductors displayed a significantly higher number of cues than the novice conductors did; however, there were no significant differences between the two groups in duration of mirrored patterns or number of expressive gestures. Additional results indicated that although the expert conductors demonstrated a wider range of variation between themselves, as a group, their composite skills were significantly different from the novice conductors. The researchers suggested that expert conductors have the “ability to ‘fill in the gaps’ between basic nonverbal skills that were learned in isolation (isolated from each other and in some cases from music) and thus inject a convincing communicative power to gesture” (p. 14). These results further support the complexities and nuances of nonverbal behaviors and suggest that there are many templates for communicating musically. Others have coded the frequency of gestures as a means of comparing the behaviors of conductors. For example, Patterson (1984) tabulated the frequency of conducting gestures of eight choral directors, finding that over 50% of the subjects used similar facial expressions and that all of the conductors mouthed the words to the during performance. In a similar study, Stauch (1986) coded the nonverbal communication behaviors of three college choral directors, finding 23 types of gesture behavior. Trends among the three conductors included increased levels of gaze/facial expression when looking at the ensemble and periodic changes in posture during preparatory and cue gestures. Karpicke (1988) developed a method for scoring conductor’s gestures in relation to an ensemble’s response called the Gesture Response Instrument (GRI). Subjects (N = 20) were high school orchestra conductors divided into two groups: strong gesturers (n = 10) and weak gesturers (n = 10). A panel of four observers used the GRI to rate videotapes of the conductors performing Cassation by M.L. Daniels. Results suggested that the GRI was a valid instrument for observing conducting gestures and could be a useful tool for assessing nonverbal behaviors.

13 It should not be assumed that what a conductor demonstrates on the podium will be accurately interpreted or have a positive effect on performance, especially with young players. One of the first studies to test this assumption was by Sousa (1998) who examined the identification and interpretation of 55 conducting gestures. The list of nonverbal gestures, defined by Sousa as “musical conducting emblems” was compiled from five standard conducting textbooks and organized into eight categories: 1) beat patterns, 2) dynamics, 3) styles, 4) preparations, 5) releases, 6) fermata/holds, 7) changes, and 8) phrasing. A group of junior high, high school, and college instrumentalists (N = 306) viewed the videotaped conducting examples and paired musical ideas to the specific gestures. Of the 55 gestures, the total population was able to accurately recognize 38 of the gestures with at least 70% agreement. There was a correlation between age and experience and the number of correct responses, with the college group recognizing the most (85%) and the junior high group recognizing the least number of gestures (59%). In addition, as the experience level increased, the standard deviation decreased (junior high SD = 6.501, high school SD = 5.948, and college SD = 3.268). Research indicates that teaching conducting gestures to ensemble members has positive benefits. In a study with children, Liao and Davidson (2007) found that the use of gesture exercises while aided in the ’s vocal technique, including improved tone and increased vocal support. Another study of young musicians examined the effect of conducting instruction on 151 beginning band students (Kelly, 1997). The researcher randomly divided eight bands into either an experimental group that received conducting instruction or a control group that only worked on their music. There was no significant difference between groups in the performance execution of , , or dynamics. However, the experimental group did perform significantly higher than the control group in the execution of and phrasing. Cofer (1998) also examined the effect of short-term instruction on conducting gestures with 7th grade band students (N = 60). The control group (n = 30) received five days of instruction using a warm-up that reviewed 18 concepts of expression. The experimental group (n = 30) also received 5 days of instruction, but instead of verbal instruction, they were shown conducting gestures that represented the 18 concepts of

14 musical expression. Results revealed that the experimental group scored significantly higher on both the paper-and-pencil measure and the individual performance measure. Seventy percent of the students in the experimental group recognized 16 of the 18 gestures in both tests. The control group only recognized 11 of the 18 gestures in the paper-and-pencil measure and 3 of the 18 gestures in the performance exam. Lastly, Roebke (2005) examined the effect of a conductor giving instructions while simultaneously gesturing on the perceptions of ensemble members. Two high directors rehearsed Percy Grainger’s Ye Banks and Braes O’ Bonnie Doon with their ensemble while using two “script” conditions. In the Nonverbal Exhibitor script, the conductor began the rehearsal by saying “Ye Banks and Braes in 6/8 – the pattern looks like this” (conductor shows a 6 pattern). For the Nonverbal Inhibitor script, the conductor began the rehearsal by saying “Ye Banks and Braes in 6” and continued on to the next rehearsal segment. Eight-minute segments of each rehearsal condition were videotaped and shown to a group of undergraduate music education majors from four universities (N = 101). Results from the survey revealed that the conductor demonstrating the Nonverbal Exhibitor condition received significantly higher ratings regarding teaching effectiveness, teaching behaviors, and musical competence than did the conductor using the Nonverbal Inhibitor condition. These findings suggest that using conducting gestures simultaneously with instruction improves an ensemble’s perception of the conductor. Further research is warranted to measure the performance effects of Nonverbal Exhibitors in a rehearsal.

Perception Studies Aesthetic responses. One of the challenges in measuring the effect of conductors on an ensemble or audience is that the musical experience by nature deals with the abstract feeling of emotions. It is interesting though, to examine trends that emerge when observing human reaction to music. Several research studies have examined these perceptions, also referred to in the literature as emotional and aesthetic responses or the perception of musical intensity or tension. Madsen, Brittin, and Capperella-Sheldon, (1993a) investigated the process of empirically measuring aesthetic responses to music with music graduate students and

15 faculty (N = 30). Participants listened to a twenty-minute excerpt of Puccini’s La Bohème while measuring their aesthetic experience on a positive/negative continuum using the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) dial. “Aesthetic experience” was purposefully not defined and left to each participant to interpret. After a two-week period, comparisons of four participants responses indicated .90 reliability. CRDI results revealed that “peak experiences” lasted for 15 seconds or less and were usually followed by an “afterglow.” Results also indicated a cluster of peak experiences around the same places in the music. Questionnaire responses suggested that all participants had at least one “aesthetic experience” and felt that the CRDI was an accurate measurement of their aesthetic response. Adams (1994) investigated the effect of emotional responses of listeners as measured by the CRDI. Participants (N = 180) were undergraduate music (n = 90) and nonmusic (n = 90) students at a small liberal arts college randomly assigned to one of three groups: visual-only (control group), aural-only, and video-aural. Participants used the CRDI measuring device to indicate their level of emotional response while listening and/or watching a professional videotaped excerpt of Mahler’s Symphony No. 2, “The Resurrection.” There were no significant differences in the responses between music and nonmusic majors in the aural only and visual/aural conditions. There was, however, a significant difference in the visual only condition (p < .01), with musicians reporting a higher level of emotional response (M = 108.83) as compared to nonmusicians (M = 72.37). Fredrickson (1994) investigated whether or not having the visual stimulus of a conductor would affect the perceived tension heard by listeners. Participants (N = 40) were undergraduate and graduate music majors assigned to either a control group (n = 20) or a treatment group (n = 20). The control group listened to a band recording of Percy Grainger’s Irish Tune from County Derry whereas the treatment group listened to the same selection while watching a videotaped performance of the conductor and ensemble. Participants rated their perceived level of musical tension throughout the performance using the CRDI, used previously by the researcher (Madsen & Fredrickson, 1993b). Results indicated no significant difference in the perceived level of tension between the

16 two groups. However, the treatment group did demonstrate greater range of higher and lower responses on the CRDI scale. Flowers and O’Neill (2005) examined the effect of listening to music and listening to a poem on the enjoyment and distractions of middle school students. Students (N = 118) were tested at a computer where they listened to the excerpts on headphones and documented their distractions by using a touchpad and SCRIBE software (Duke & Farra, 2000). Results indicated fewer distractions in the first and last 30 seconds of both the music and prose. While there were more distractions in the musical example, the students favored the music over the reading. The findings on distractions support other research that indicates that audiences are more engaged at the beginning and end of a piece of music and that the greater the musical intensity, the higher the focus. Results also support other research that suggests attention is increased when a listener can connect the music to something specific that they already know. Peddell (2004) investigated the effect of video and audio stimuli on perceived expressiveness ratings of observers. Participants (N = 116) included undergraduate nonmusic majors (n = 50), undergraduate music majors (n = 42), and graduate music majors (n = 24). The researcher recorded an ensemble and conductor performing Elgar’s Nimrod from Enigma Variations and edited the video to create five conditions for evaluation: 1) video-only from the audience perspective, 2) video-only from the performers’ perspective, 3) audio and video from the audience perspective, 4) audio and video from the performers’ perspective, and 5) audio only. While viewing and/or listening to each example, participants rated their perceived expressiveness using the CRDI. Results suggested that expressivity ratings were higher from the performer’s perspective than the audience perspective and that ratings were highest overall in the audio only condition. Peddell urges for more research isolating which conducting behaviors have impact on a listener. Brittin and Duke (1997) measured music and nonmusic majors’ perceptions of musical intensity while listening to recorded excerpts. Means were calculated for on- going (continuous) and overall (summative) responses, revealing that the summative responses for both groups were arithmetically higher than the continuous response scores. Both methods indicated internal consistency, suggesting that the choice of measuring

17 either summative or continuous responses should depend on the suitability towards the research question. Lucas and Teachout (1998) examined the expressiveness ratings of isolated visual and audio performance variables on student perceptions. Participants were college students (N = 89), divided by music major (n = 46) and nonmusic majors (n = 43). Using a Likert-type scale, participants rated the musical expressiveness of twenty-four videotaped excerpts. Performances included a string quartet and a vocal chamber ensemble playing two contrasting pieces under expressive and nonexpressive conditions. Participants watched the videotaped performances under three conditions: audio only, video only, and audio/video combined. Results suggested that observers have a tendency to give higher ratings of expressivity under visual conditions versus audio alone. Perceptions of conductors. Research has suggested that ratings and perceptions of musical performances are often influenced by nonmusical attributes, such as physical attractiveness (Wapnick, Darrow, Kovacs, & Dalrymple, 1997), appropriateness of dress and stage behavior (Wapnick, Mazza, & Darrow, 2000), and the length of time that one spends listening (Wapnick, Ryan, Campbell, Deek, Lemire, & Darrow, 2005). Research also suggests that the time of day, size of school, and type of ensemble may affect ratings received at music festivals (Bergee & Platt, 2003; Bergee & McWhirter, 2005). Other factors that influence a listener’s perceptions of music include music aptitude, academic achievement, ensemble experience, and instruction in and (Marciniak, 1974). Researchers have also examined the effect of seating in an ensemble on audience perception of ensemble sound. Using Soundforge and Adobe software, Murray (2006) manipulated the individual instrumental performances of a Bach chorale to record four virtual wind ensemble formations (random, families, blocked, and center). College music majors (N = 120) listened to pairs of recordings, choosing which version they preferred and stating why. Participants preferred random, families, and blocked seating formations, and this preference was significant; however, there was no significant difference in preference between the top three choices. In another ensemble formation study, Ekholm (2000) examined the effect of random versus “acoustic” seating (a process based on voice matching) on the performance ratings of a collegiate level

18 choir. Ratings from observers (N = 102) and survey results from the choir (N = 22) revealed a significant preference for the “acoustic” seating arrangement. The visual attributes of a conductor also appear to influence how one perceives the sound of an ensemble. This notion would most likely not have resonated with the famous orchestra conductor who stated: As music is for the ear and not for the eye, the visual part of conducting is relatively unimportant. The only visual part essential is for the players to be able to see clearly the notes they are reading, and at the same time to be able to see easily the conductor’s beat and his eyes. (Opperby, 1982, p. 130) While some could argue that the visual attributes of a performer or conductor ought not influence the aural impressions of a performance, research suggest that visual stimuli can positively and negatively affect perceptions (Jones, 1996). Silkebakken (1988) examined the effect of visual conducting attributes on perceived conducting effectiveness. Fifteen band directors were randomly selected to conduct a prerecorded performance of ’s Chester Overture for Band. Each director had three weeks to study the score and practice synchronizing their conducting gestures with the recording. Following the practice period, each conductor was videotaped while simulating a mock performance in front of live musicians who were pretending to play. A panel of expert judges watched the recordings and ranked each conductor using a Likert-type scale that measured “enhancing” and “detracting” visual attributes. The videos of the top three and bottom three ranked conductors were chosen for the larger group observations. Observers (N = 86) were randomly selected and divided into four groups: music majors (n = 30), non-music majors (n = 30), average -goers (n = 16), and a mix of high school and college band directors (n = 10). The observers rated the six conductors on fifteen categories of visual attributes including conducting style, body movement, physical appearance, facial expression, and an overall rating for visual effectiveness. Results indicated that the perceived “expressiveness” of the conductor was the most influential factor on ratings of conducting effectiveness. Price and (2001, 2005) also found that observers’ opinions of conductors were mostly influenced by the conductor expressiveness. However, additional results revealed that expressive conducting does not always elicit an expressive ensemble

19 performance (Price and Chang, 2001). The researchers found similar results in a second study of nine high school ensembles at state festival (Price and Chang, 2005). Undergraduates (N = 89) listened and watched a 60-second video clip of the ensembles, rating the conductor and ensemble expressivity. The bands given a Superior (I) rating at festival received the lowest expression scores, while the bands receiving ratings of Excellent (II) or Good (III) received the highest scores in expression from the undergraduates. Surprised by these results, the researchers noted two major possible contributions: the lack of research in high performance settings of conductors and ensembles, and the effect of verbal instruction in rehearsal given by the conductors who received superior ratings. In the third study of the series, Price (2006) examined the relationship between conductor expressivity and the sound quality of ensembles at state festival. Participants (N = 51) were vocal and instrumental music education or performance majors from three universities. Subjects watched and listened to video-only and audio-only excerpts from state festival band performances. There were nine examples in each video-only and audio-only condition, representing three bands that had each received a Superior (I), Excellent (II), or Good (III) rating at festival. Subjects rated each conductor during the video-only condition and rated the ensemble performance during the audio-only condition on a scale of 1 – 100, ranging from “poor quality” to “excellent”. Results revealed no correlation between the rating of conductors and the festival rating given to the ensemble. However, there was a correlation between the ratings of the ensemble sound quality and the score that the ensembles received at festival, aligning with the numerical ratings assigned to the bands of I, II, and III. Other studies have examined the general effect of conductors on ensemble performance (Price & Mann, 2009). Participants were undergraduate music performance and music education majors (N = 131) who rated seven videotaped conductor and ensemble performances. Unbeknownst to the observers, the audio performance accompanying each conducting clip was the same. Variances between the conductor and performance ratings suggest that the conductor had a significant impact (p < .0001) on the participants’ perceptions. More research is warranted in isolating what elements of the conductor were influential as well as large ensemble performance factors, as

20 suggested by a content analysis of music education research journals (Schmidt & Zdzinski, 1993). Finally, in a recent study, Madsen, Geringer, & Wagner (2007) spliced together five continuous audio segments of the Vienna Orchestra performing Johann Strauss’s Blue Danube Waltz to measure the perceptions of college musicians (N = 108). Selections represented an eighteen-year period of the orchestra under the direction of conductors Willi Boskovsky, , , , and . Participants in the study were music education and music therapy students at a large university in the southern United States. There were four stimulus conditions: audio-video, video-only, audio-only with a verbal cue at the end, and audio-only without a verbal cue. Participants in the two video conditions were shown a title screen at the start of the video with the name of the ensemble, title of the piece, and the names of the conductors. Participants in the two audio-only conditions did not receive any information regarding the piece, ensemble, or the fact that multiple conductors were performing. Results revealed that not a single observer in the audio only conditions recognized that there was a change in conductors. Given the extreme differences in nonverbal gestures of the five conductors, it is surprising that the listeners did not perceive differences in the orchestra’s performance. Expressive versus nonexpressive conducting. Another line of research explores the artistic and expressive qualities of conducting. Results regarding the impact of expressive conducting on the sound of an ensemble are mixed. However, what is clear is that ensembles and audiences alike have strong preferences for expressive conducting versus neutral time beating. Sidoti (1990) examined the effects of expressive and nonexpressive conducting on the performance level of expression markings. Participants (N = 139) were high school band students from ensembles that had received a “Superior” rating at their state . Three days before the experiment, subjects received four melodic practice exercises that were void of any expression markings. The same musical examples were used for the treatment, but with the addition of eight expressive markings: 1) staccato, 2) marcato, 3) legato, 4) crescendo, 5) decrescendo, 6) accelerando, 7) ritardando, and 8) fermata. During the treatment, subjects performed the examples while watching a

21 conductor on videotape. The conductor used both “nonexpressive” conducting gestures, (defined as only showing beat patterns) and “expressive” left hand gestures that coordinated with the expressive marking on the score. Results revealed a significant and positive difference in the performance scores under the “expressive” conducting condition. Krudop (2003) also found that expressive conducting positively affects the performance of an ensemble. Participants were university, high school, and community (N = 8) singing under expressive and nonexpressive conducting conditions. A panel of five expert judges rated the choirs on general and specific emotional responses. Results indicated that where the technical demands of the music were not mastered, the choirs responded with little or no emotional response, despite the expressive gestures given by the conductor. While Krudop notes that technical precision does not guarantee an expressively musical performance, he suggests that “when a mastery of notes and rhythms is present, that a conductor’s use of applied kinesic gestures elicits a higher level of emotionally expressive response from ensembles” (p. 261). Other research suggests that expressive conducting may influence the perceptions of an audience and ensemble more so than the performance quality itself. Price and Winter (1991) examined effects of strict conducting and expressive conducting on the performance quality of an 8th grade band. Results from the student survey indicated that band members preferred the expressive conducting to the strict conducting. However, outside observers who listened to an audio recording and ranked the performance quality of each band performance did not find any significant performance difference between the two conditions. House (1998) found similar results in a study that examined the effect of expressive and nonexpressive conducting gestures on the performance level and perceptions of the musicians. Advanced trumpet players (N = 60) followed a conductor on a television monitor while performing a musical etude. The conductor demonstrated two contrasting styles to the same etude, using either strict time beating or expressive gestures. Following the performance, each participant rated the effectiveness of the conductor’s gestures on their “ability to play expressively.” In addition, expert judges rated the expressiveness of each trumpet performance. Results indicated that the

22 performances under the expressive condition treatment (M = 5.287) were significantly higher than the nonexpressive conducting treatment (M = 4.896). While the mean differences were slight, the performer perceptions toward the conductor were widely spread between the two conditions. Student perceptions under the expressive condition (M = 8.125) were significantly higher than the mean perceptions under the nonexpressive condition (M = 3.767). Interestingly, while Laib (1993) found that expressive conducting affected ensemble perceptions, Laib also suggests that the extent to which an ensemble can positively respond to conducting gestures is based on the level of the ensemble. Participating ensembles represented a mix of college (n = 2) and high school (n = 8) bands with a range of abilities. Each band sightread Frank Erickson’s Air for Band, and John Edmondson’s Greensleeves Rhapsody. The researcher served as the conductor for each example, using either a nonexpressive (neutral face and patterns) or expressive condition (full range of nonverbal gestures). An expert panel of six judges rated the recorded performances. Results indicated there was a significant difference between the conducting conditions (p = 0.0001). A comparison between grade levels of the ensembles revealed no significant difference between treatments in the grade level three and four bands. However, there was a significant difference for the grade five and six bands (p < 0.01) and the university bands (p < 0.10), which favored the expressive condition. Further results also revealed that ensemble members significantly preferred the expressive conducting treatment (p < 0.0001). Conductor and ensemble relationships. The relationship between conductors and their ensembles is often complex. Although limited, there are recent quantitative and qualitative studies that have begun to examine the intertwined relationship between conductor and ensemble. One such study examined the shared performance cues between a conductor and vocalist preparing a movement from Stravinsky’s Cantata (Ginsborg, 2006). The conductor and vocalist prepared both individually and together, talking aloud during their practice sessions. The researcher created a content analysis from the verbal transcripts of each performer. Results revealed that the performers used a myriad of cues to communicate, including basic, structural, interpretive, metacognitive, and

23 performance. These results support other research that has identified categories of performance cues used in memorizing music (Chaffin & Imreh, 2002). Arcaya (1975) also collected transcripts from interviews with three professional orchestral conductors and six orchestral musicians to explore similarities and differences in experiences regarding performance, rehearsal, social expectation, preparation, and choice of music. The shared themes that emerged suggested an interwoven relationship between the conductor, musician, music, and audience. Keller (2001) proposed the theory of Attentional Resource Allocation in Performance (ARAMEP) to help understand the interaction between ensemble musicians, suggesting that “Prioritized integrative attending in ensemble performance is a multifaceted skill composed of sub- skills including tracking multiple sound sources and grouping together their elements in order to derive the aggregate structure” (p. 34). Boerher and Von Streit (2007) examined the relationship between a German orchestra conductor’s transformational leadership and the positive group mood of orchestra members. Transformational leadership was defined as the combination of charisma, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation, while positive group mood was reflected in the orchestra members’ openness, friendliness, and kindness to one another. The survey of orchestra members revealed that while there was a significant positive relationship between the conductor and ensemble, neither transformational leadership nor positive group mood influenced orchestra perceptions when isolated. Positive benefits only occurred when both aspects worked together. Relationships have also been examined between high school ensembles and conductors. Matthews and Kisantas (2007) surveyed high school instrumentalists (N = 91) on their perceptions of the conductor’s support toward the ensemble. Participants were wind and percussion players drawn from three honor bands. Four surveys addressed issues of music ensemble collective efficacy, group environment, perceived motivational climate, and conductor support. Survey results indicated moderate positive correlations between conductor support and task cohesion (r = .39), conductor support and social cohesion (r = .45), conductor support and perceived motivational climate (r = .31), and conductor support and collective efficacy (r = .44). A negative correlation was found between conductor support and the ego-involving orientation (r = -.17). Though not

24 significant, this does suggest that ensembles may tend to view the conductor more negatively if they perceive an environment where the conductor is comparing the skills of players. The effect of conducting on ensemble performance. The degree to which a conductor’s gestures or technique influences the sound of an ensemble is unclear. For example, in an experimental study with nineteen high school choirs, Hawkins (1991) found that both advanced and beginning choirs effectively learned to perform on their own, finding no significant difference (p = .05) between the audio recordings of choirs singing with or without a conductor. Additionally, some research indicates that conducting gestures have little impact on ensemble performance. Skadsem (1997) examined verbal instruction, dynamic markings in music, and conducting gestures on singers’ dynamic response. Conducting gestures included a 4-inch, 14-inch, and 24-inch four pattern shown by the right hand and a neutral face from the conductor. Results indicated that the verbal instruction condition yielded the highest effect in dynamic change. Most interesting is that the conducting condition yielded the least reaction in dynamic response. Other research suggests that certain gestures may actually have negative impacts on the sound quality of the ensemble. Fuelberth (2003) examined a variety of left hand gestures on the vocal tensions of singers, finding that specific gestures increased and decreased vocal tension. Participants in the study were a mix of high school and college singers (N = 103) who were recorded while singing an excerpt and watching a conductor on videotape. The singers repeated the vocal excerpt six times while following along with six different left hand conducting conditions, including 1) palm down, 2) sideways/phrase shaping, 3) no change, 4) palm up, 5) stabbing, and 6) fisted gesture. Results revealed that all conducting conditions, with the exception of palm down, significantly increased vocal tension. The palm down and sideways phrase-shaping gestures elicited the least amount of vocal tension, even less than the no change condition. Additional research has indicated that specific gestures are more effective than others. Fuller (2000) studied the effects of four rehearsal treatments on the precision and expressiveness of choral singers. The treatments included metric conducting patterns, subdivided patterns, managed preparatory gestures (defined by Fuller as “a gesture

25 metrically altered to equal the length of the singers’ breath,” p. iv), and no conducting. Participants (N = 48) were college and community singers divided into three choirs. Two musical excerpts were used, including John Rutter’s “For the Beauty of the Earth” and Bob Kauflin’s “A New Song.” A panel of experienced judges (N = 21) rated each excerpt, examining four categories: 1) precision of releases, 2) unity of breathing, 3) precision of entrances, and 4) expressiveness. Results indicated that in each performance condition, the managed preparatory gesture was significantly more successful in gaining a higher performance level than the other techniques. The choirs also performed with better precision under the no conducting condition versus the metric conducting condition. Lastly, the subdivided beat condition was effective in duple meters but not compound. Isolating the effects of gestures is difficult because of the many variables in nonverbal communication. Gallops (2005) accounted for extraneous variables in a study that examined the effect of gestural conducting information on the performance feedback of musicians. Participants included experienced instrumental conductors (n = 15) and woodwind, brass, and string players (n = 25) randomly selected from four universities. Conductors were videotaped while performing Schubert’s Der Jungling Am Bache under two different interpretative conditions. The face of each conductor was blurred on the videotape in order to maintain anonymity and to remove facial expressions. Watching only the upper torso of each conductor, the selected musicians followed along while playing an unmarked version of the Schubert example. Each musician performed the excerpt three times, once without a conductor (baseline) and two additional times under the “A” and “B” interpretation treatments. Results from the Gestural Response Instrument (GRI), developed by Karpicke (1987), revealed that proficient conductors were able to communicate solely through developed gestures even when the performers lacked verbal and facial cues. Gallops suggests that a social-cultural contract between conductor and musician allows for highly developed nonverbal communication. While research has revealed that pre-conducting gestures can strengthen the overall impression of a conductor (Fredrickson, et.al., 1998), research also indicates that gestures used during a rehearsal have the most impact on an ensemble. Grechesky (1985) was one of the first researchers to examine the effect of conducting behaviors on the

26 performance quality of bands. A random sampling of 200 high school bands in Indiana were asked to send a five to eight minute audio recording of their group that represented their highest level of musical skill. A panel of four judges ranked the ensembles on tone quality, intonation, balance/blend, rhythmic precision, articulation, phrasing, musical expression, and overall performance. Eleven ensembles and conductors were chosen from the sample and videotaped over a two-week period while rehearsing and performing two contrasting movements from Robert K. Clark’s “Brevities.” The researcher reviewed each 40 minute rehearsal and performance tape up to ten times, coding conducting gestures every six seconds. Results revealed that verbal imagery, body movement, approving facial expression, left hand dynamics, and use of emblems and illustrators had a positive effect on ranking order of ensembles. Excessive talking from the conductor, stationary body movement, and disapproving facial expressions had a negative effect on performance ranking.

Teacher/Conductor Effectiveness Conductor traits. Research suggests that teacher effectiveness and nonverbal behaviors are recognizable regardless of language and cultural differences (Johnson, Price, & Tafuri, 2002; Madsen, 2009; Price, Grätzer, Pan, Ogawa, & McPherson, 2000/2001). For example, Johnson (2009) paired video of novice and experienced choral conductors with poor and excellent ensembles, finding that observers from the USA, Europe, South America, and Asia were able to detect the proficient teachers regardless of the ensemble condition. Madsen (2003) also researched elements of teacher effectiveness, examining the perceptions of middle school students, high school students, undergraduate students, and experienced teachers. Results suggested that the participants’ perception of teacher delivery had greater influence on their evaluation scores than did elements of teacher accuracy and student attentiveness. While there may be broad agreement among observers of teacher effectiveness, differences arise when asked to list specific traits of successful teaching. Teachout (1997) surveyed experienced and preservice music teachers, asking them to rank order a list of 40 skills they thought teachers should have to be successful in their first three years of

27 teaching. The top five skills as ranked by experienced teachers were: 1) maintain student behavior, 2) motivate students, 3) be organized, 4) be enthusiastic/energetic, and 5) display confidence. While the preservice teachers’ rankings were different, both groups included the categories of “motivate students” and “display confidence” in their list of top five skills. Both groups also ranked “proficient skills” and “excellent singing skills” in their bottom two rankings. Researchers have also examined conductor traits that are most important to an ensemble. One such study examined the perceptions of adult singers in a community choir using a survey that asked participants to rank thirty-six conducting behaviors (Bell, 2000). Participants in the survey (N = 457) represented a mix of gender and experience levels. Survey results revealed that personal behaviors of the conductor were the most important quality to the ensemble. The top five rated conducting behaviors were: 1) gives clear and easy to understand directions, 2) shows enthusiasm during rehearsal, 3) hears a problem area and corrects the error, 4) selects music to match the group’s ability, and 5) instills confidence in the singers. Woodbury (1955) surveyed musicians (n =103) from eight major symphony and professional conductors (n = 12) regarding nineteen conductor traits. Musicians and conductors alike rated self-confidence, musical integrity, and sincerity in their top five of “necessary traits”. Conductor Motivation. Herkstroeter (2001) examined age, practice, parents, teachers, social, and sociological factors of string education and string performance majors. Survey and interview results revealed that there were more similarities than differences between performance and music education students; however, distinctive trends did emerge. Education students were more likely to have begun music studies in a school setting as opposed to private lessons and performance majors tended to practice more on average. Both majors typically came from supportive and musical families. Teachout (2004) surveyed practicing music educators and recent doctoral graduates to find out what were positive influences and barriers for considering doctoral studies in music. Both groups shared the same top barrier to attending graduate school - financial concerns; however, the top positive response was markedly different. Practicing music educators expressed a “love of learning” as their number one motivation for

28 considering doctoral studies while the recent doctoral graduates listed “relationship with university faculty.” Saunders (2005) surveyed collegiate-level choral ensemble members and conductors regarding motivating factors for enjoying choral settings. Results indicated that both groups had similar reasons for joining their first choir, including a love for music, family influence, and musical background. Lastly, it is interesting to consider the different personality types of conductors. Hunter (2003) examined the relationship between conducting effectiveness and perceptions of a conductor’s interpersonal communication style profile. Based on results from a self-questionnaire, music education majors (N = 30) were grouped into one of three interpersonal communication style profiles: helpful/friendly, understanding, or strict. Ratings of multiple rehearsal excerpts suggested that all subjects improved, however students categorized as having a “helpful/friendly” style had greater improvement of conducting skills over the course of three rehearsals as compared to students grouped in the “strict” or “understanding” personality. Intensity. A line of research explores the connection between teacher effectiveness and teacher intensity (Byo, & Cassidy, 1992; Kaiser, 1998; Madsen & Geringer, 1989; Madsen, Standley, Byo, & Cassidy, 1992; Standley & Madsen, 1987). These findings have strong implications for conductors developing the skills needed to be an effective communicator on the podium. Teacher intensity is defined by Madsen (1989) as “sustained control of the student/teacher interaction with efficient, accurate presentation and correction of the subject matter combined with enthusiastic affect and pacing.” This concept is also expressed in research as teacher enthusiasm, magnitude, and affect. Madsen, Standley, and Cassidy (1989), examined levels of high and low intensity to see if intensity could be taught and demonstrated by student teachers. The study also examined whether outside observers who did not know the operational definition could recognize intensity. Participants in the experimental group were student teachers in music education (n = 20). The three control groups represented a mixture of music education and music therapy majors: freshman (n = 23), seniors (n = 22), and graduate students, (n = 29). The student teachers were given a 1.5 hour training session during which examples

29 of high and low contrasts in teacher intensity were demonstrated by a teacher. Students also received time to practice and model examples of intensity. During the second session, the student teachers taught a musical activity to the class, demonstrating examples of high and low intensity every 15 seconds. Videotapes of the teaching sessions were shown to both the control and experimental groups who rated each 15-second interval based on high or low intensity. Participants also rated each student teacher’s overall intensity on a scale of 1-10 and wrote a definition for teacher intensity. Results revealed statistical significance (W = .81) of agreement for student teachers recognizing contrasts in intensity. More importantly, the control groups had a surprisingly high level of agreement in recognizing intensity, with a statistical significance of W = .99. The overall conclusions of the study indicated that teacher intensity could be taught, demonstrated, and recognized by outside observers. These findings are supported by Byo (1990) who found that novice conductors were capable of demonstrating contrasting styles of intensity through instruction. An undergraduate conducting class (N = 25) watched videotaped examples of low and high intensity models, followed by teacher instruction and practice time in lab settings. Videotapes were made of each student conductor demonstrating four examples of either low or high intensity within a one-minute interval. The conducting class watched and rated each example for high and low intensity, resulting in a 92% correct response rate. Video excerpts were observed by four groups (N = 320), ranging from high school choral students to graduate music majors. Observers marked their opinion of high versus low intensity every 15 seconds, with an overall 77% correct response rate. The impact of this study indicated that novice conductors could demonstrate high intensity and that recognition of this skill had a high reliability rate from both musicians and non- musicians. Yarbrough (1975) also researched the effect of conductor magnitude on the performance, attention, and attitude of mixed choruses. Conductor behaviors were categorized as regular, low, or high magnitude, defined by eye contact, closeness, volume and modulation of voice, gestures, facial expressions, and rehearsal pacing. Subjects (N = 207) were students from 4 mixed choruses who participated in a 16 minute rehearsal and performance on Thompson’s “Alleluia.” Results revealed no significant differences in

30 the performance, attention, or attitude from the three conducting behaviors; however, the high magnitude conductor had the highest percentage of on-task student behavior and greatest student preference. In a study that examined high and low intensity teaching, Kaiser (1998) also found that subjects (N = 480) preferred high intensity teaching regardless of the differences between teaching experience and content. Additional results indicated a .829 correlation between teaching intensity and effectiveness. Approval and disapproval. Rehearsal effectiveness can be greatly impacted by an understanding of the effect of teacher feedback on students. Interpreting feedback may be connected to one’s specific field of expertise. For example, in a study that examined observational techniques of teacher approval and disapproval behavior, Madsen and Duke (1985) found significant differences in the perceptions between music education (n = 59) and music therapy (n = 50) students. All subjects wrongly estimated the total amount of teacher approval and disapproval. Interestingly though, the music education students overestimated the amount of approval (p < .01) while the music therapy students strongly felt that there was not enough approval (p < .02). Zhukov (2008) examined the approval and disapproval behaviors of twelve Australian music teachers, finding that most teachers gave at least 80% approval, which as other research has suggested, is indicative of a positive learning environment (Single, 1991, and Colprit, 2000). Zhukov’s findings also suggested that teachers slightly favored the female students, giving praise that was more general to the females and more specific to the males. Research has also indicated that the context of an environment influences perceptions of teacher feedback. Negative feedback need not necessitate a negative perception if appropriately used. For example, research by Duke and Henninger (2002) investigated the perceptions of negative and directive teacher feedback on outside observers. Results from 51 surveys revealed no significant difference in the preference of teaching excerpts and that both types of feedback were highly regarded. Sequential Patterns. Research suggests that teaching novice conductors how to manage rehearsal time on the podium is a sequenced process. For instance, Bergee (1992) developed a scale to measure student teachers’ rehearsal effectiveness within three categories: Conducting Technique, Teacher-Student Rapport, and Instructional Skills.

31 Mathews (2004) developed a systematic rehearsal program using standard choral repertoire. Pasquale (2008) proposed the Directed Listening Hierarchy system for listening to and rehearsing a band, focusing on pulse (note starts and note endings), body of sound (individual instrument mechanics), symmetry (combination of instrument colors), and musicality (such as style and dynamics). Another line of research has focused on sequential patterns, also referred to as direct/explicit instruction, music teaching unit, or teaching cycle. These patterns employ a three-step process comprised of teacher presentation, student response, and teacher reinforcement. Price (1992) used a systematic approach within three experiments that taught students how to use sequential patterns, finding that not only were students able to successfully demonstrate sequential patterns, but that they significantly increased (p < .01) the number of teaching cycles used in each experiment. Arnold (1995) also found that teachers significantly increased the number of complete sequential patterns in their teaching through self-analysis observation of videotaped teaching clips. Similarly, Goolsby (1997) found that undergraduate students were capable of recognizing and demonstrating teaching cycles. In fact, participants increased their use of complete teaching cycles by three times the baseline percentage. Yarbrough (1993) examined the perceptions of secondary school students of a music teacher using various sequential patterns of teaching. Participants (N = 536) represented a mix of vocal, instrumental, and general music students at the high school (n = 346) and elementary (n = 190) levels. Students rated ten sequential patterns under one of four conditions: audio and video, audio only, video only, and script only. Results indicated the combined audio and video and script conditions were rated higher than the audio and video only conditions. . In a study with elementary education majors (N = 61), Bowers (1997) found that students who were trained in using sequential patterns were able to deliver teacher instruction more succinctly and involve students in longer periods of interaction than students who received the traditional methods course instruction. Just as it is a challenge to provide live experiences for developing conductors, it is also difficult to provide adequate classroom teaching experiences for novice teachers. One way around this dilemma is to provide experiences within the peer/classroom

32 setting. In a study that examined peer versus practicum teaching with preservice elementary education majors, Colwell (1995) found that both settings were effective in significantly improving teaching skills. However, results from an attitude survey indicated that the practicum teaching group rated their experience higher than the peer teaching group, suggesting that practicum teaching settings may be meaningful and useful for novice teachers. Conductor Modeling. Research has suggested that various methods of conductor communication (e.g. instruction, conducting, or modeling) have different influences on an ensemble. Dickey (1991) investigated the difference between verbal and nonverbal instruction on the performance skills of band students. Participants (N = 128) were members of four middle school bands, divided into two control bands (verbal instruction) and two treatment bands (teacher modeling) during a 10-week instruction period. Modeling involved teacher demonstrations of melodic echoes and rhythmic movement. The ensembles received verbal or modeling instruction for at least 90% of the rehearsal feedback. Measurements included three pretest/posttests (Froseth, 1983, 1985a, 1985b,) and the Musical Aptitude Profile (Gordon, 1965). The pretest/posttests measured students’ ability to imitate rhythms, play back melodic patterns, and discriminate in and melodic exercises. Results indicated that students in the modeling group performed significantly better when imitating rhythms and performing melodic patterns than did the control group. There was no significant difference between groups on the music discrimination test. Taylor (1989) examined the effect of “conductor sensitization” on high school bands’ performance ability of articulation styles. Conductor sensitization consisted of the conductor telling the group how he/she would like the articulation played while also demonstrating the conducting gesture that corresponds to the music. Participants were high school bands (N = 20) randomly selected and divided into a control group (n = 10) and experimental group (n = 10). Following a fifteen-week treatment period, all bands performed a sightreading posttest. Section I included articulation marks on both the conductor’s score and ensemble music; section II only included articulation marks on the ensemble’s music and students were told that the conductor would only show neutral time beating; section III only included articulation marks on the conductor’s score and

33 students were told to play the articulations that they interpreted from the conductor’s gestures. Rating of the performances revealed no significant difference in the performance level between the control group and sensitization group. There was, however, a significant difference in the articulation accuracy of the sightreading examples. Surprisingly, band members performed articulations significantly higher under the neutral conductor condition. Rehearsal Techniques. Others have focused on the rehearsal techniques of professional conductors, such as Naderi (1985) who examined the rehearsal techniques of three orchestra conductors. Lyle (2007), examined the work of F. Melius Christiansen (1871-1955), John Finley Williamson (1887-1964), Fred Waring (1900-1984), and (1916-1999) and the effect of their conducting methodologies on the choral sound of American choirs. Others have examined the techniques of specific conductors, such as choral conductor B.R. Henson (Sinclair, 2000). Harris (1999) interviewed twelve experienced conductors, including Frank Battisti, , James Hainlen, Craig Kirchhoff, Stephen Massey, William McManus, Gustav Meier, Weston Noble, Larry Rachleff, Malcolm Rowell, Gunther Schuller, and Stanislow Skrowaczewski. A unifying trend among the conductors was the view that typical collegiate-level conducting courses lack emphasis in imagination and development of aural imagery. Supporting the belief that creativity of the conductor is of utmost importance was Austrian conductor and composer (1905) who stated “Not even the most assiduous rehearsing, so necessary a pre-requisite as this is, can so stimulate the capacities of the players as the force of imagination of the conductor” (p. 56). Research also suggests that expert conductors have similar views on the rehearsal environment. Worthy (2006) compared rehearsal behaviors of three expert wind conductors, finding that they shared “high expectations for musical performance and rehearsal efficiency, and urgency in the execution of the rehearsals and preparation of the repertoire.” Frequency and duration data indicated that the conductors equally balanced the rehearsal time between teacher talking and/or modeling and student performance with quick episodes between the two.

34 One of the roles of a conductor in managing rehearsal time is making priorities of when to stop and rehearse the ensemble and when to allow the ensemble to play continuously. Francisco (1994) examined the effects of three types of teaching techniques demonstrated by a conductor on the performance improvement of high school bands: 1) verbal communication, 2) visual communication, and 3) modeling. Videotaped rehearsal excerpts were collected from twenty-five conductors working with bands at summer music camps. Expert judges viewed the videotaped examples and assigned conducting behaviors to the categories and/or combinations of verbal, modeling, and visual, resulting in five types of behaviors: verbal, visual, verbal/modeling, verbal/visual, and verbal/modeling/visual. In addition to the type of behavior used, the judges identified the rehearsal target for each example, including tone, intonation, rhythm, technique, interpretation, and balance. A different set of expert judges rated the quality of each post performance, assigning a score of improvement, no improvement, or inaudible. Results indicated that the type of teaching technique had a significant effect on the improvement of the ensemble. The most effective technique was the combination of verbal, modeling, and visual communication, which was more likely to improve the level of performance than verbal instruction alone or the combination of only two types of communication. Regarding the targeted rehearsal goals (tone, intonation, rhythm, technique, interpretation, and balance), results indicated that it was significantly easier to improve technique than the other five objectives, and that rhythm was significantly easier to teach than intonation. Other research supports the benefit of balancing between teaching techniques during a rehearsal. Price (1983) examined the effects of conductor academic task presentation, conductor reinforcement, and student practice on ensemble achievement, attentiveness, and attitude. The ensemble was a 48-member nonauditioned band of primarily nonmusic majors. Three treatments (A, B, and C) were given over the course of five band rehearsals. During treatment A, the only verbalizations given by the conductor to the ensemble were instructions of where to start in the music. The ensemble then played a large segment of the music while the conductor maintained a neutral face. For treatment B, the conductor was allowed to verbalize “academic task presentations” (specifics on what to fix or how to perform a selection), but could not give any approving

35 or disapproving remarks to the group. Again, the conductor maintained a neutral face, and split the rehearsal time equally between verbalization and ensemble performance. For treatment C, the conductor limited academic task presentations to 25% of the rehearsal frame, with 50% ensemble performance and 25% conductor reinforcement (defined by animated facial expressions or verbalizations that portrayed approval or disapproval reinforcement). A colored light attached to the stand cued conductors for each condition. For example, a blue light signaled academic task/directions, a white light signaled the ensemble to play, and a green light signaled conductor reinforcement. Conductors chose approving and disapproving comments from two flipcharts provided. Results indicated that while all three treatments significantly improved the performance quality of the ensemble, the combination of all conditions (Treatment C) was the most effective. Survey results indicated that Treatment C was also the most preferred treatment by the students. These results suggest that teacher feedback is a powerful and effective tool in rehearsals. It is also important to examine the experience of the ensemble member during a rehearsal. Often, the conductor’s goal of rehearsing and refining can conflict with the ensemble’s desire to play through large sections of music. One descriptive study examined the perceptions of ensemble members in regards to “optimal experience” and “flow” during a series of rehearsals leading up to a concert (Kraus, 2003). Seven musicians in a collegiate level wind ensemble participated in the study. At different times during the rehearsals, an electronic pager cued participants to describe their psychological state. Results indicated that musicians did experience “flow” in a rehearsal setting, which was most often achieved during long periods of performance and in the rehearsals closer to the concert. Other results revealed that frequent stops by the conductor hindered the “flow” of the rehearsal. Most interesting is that experience and maturity of the ensemble members influenced their perception of “flow”. Those with more experience were able to create personal goals and thus be more patient during rehearsal segments, whereas the less experienced players relied more on the goals of the conductor, which did not always pertain directly to them. Finally, it is important to consider the learning preference of students. In interviews with college and middle school students (N = 12), Owens (1992) found that

36 students preferred to learn through a variety of teaching styles, including kinesthetic/sensory, auditory, and visual learning. Coding rehearsal behaviors. Another line of research examines how conductors use their time during rehearsals, often by measuring the frequency of nonverbal behaviors or comparing the time spent on different concepts. Roshong (1978) observed three college band directors in rehearsal to see if trends appeared in their nonverbal communication during four segments of the rehearsal process: 1) starting the ensemble, 2) stopping the ensemble, 3) conducting sustained music, and 4) giving instruction. Three observers watched videotaped rehearsal segments of the conductors to count and/or rate the following behaviors: facial expression, conducting gestures, eye contact, body movement, vocal quality, silence, and sequence of events. Results revealed trends among the conductors. With regards to facial expression, results indicated that 74% of facial expression was approving. Disapproving facial expression was mostly used during instruction periods. Conductors spent 14% more time using right hand and arm movement than they did left hand and arm movements. The two most observed behaviors using eye contact were flicks towards the groups and gazing at the music. The gazing behavior occurred primarily during starts and stops in the music, while general eye contact with the ensemble occurred during sustained sections in the music and periods of instruction. Body movement towards the ensemble accounted for 77% of all body movement and was used mainly during sections of sustain and starting the ensemble. Lastly, when starting the ensemble, the three conductors used the same sequence of behaviors: speech, eye contact, and conducting gestures. Conductors reversed the sequence of behaviors when stopping the ensemble. Another study examined the conducting behaviors and rehearsal content of eight experienced band conductors (Sherrill, 1986). Videotapes of rehearsals were collected from four junior high school and four high school conductors who were recognized for their consistency of high quality band performances. Frequency data revealed that the conductors spent the most rehearsal time on warm up, intonation, balance, and rhythm. Areas not addressed as frequently included mixed and/or odd meter changes and challenging rhythmic passages. The least demonstrated conducting behaviors were facial expression and eye contact.

37 Using descriptive statistics, Buell (1990) investigated the characteristics of effective teaching from the podium. This case study examined an experienced college band director with twelve years of college teaching experience who regularly rehearsed with a college wind ensemble and symphonic band. The researcher collected information for the study from four sources: 1) videotaped rehearsal footage examining conducting and teaching behavior, 2) interviews with the conductor, 3) interviews with ensemble members, and 4) researcher observations from the rehearsals. Results from data source triangulation revealed several patterns of behavior. The conductor’s verbal instructions were concise, specific, and often paired with nonverbal gestures. In addition, the conductor used demonstration 95% of the time when addressing concepts. The comparison of rehearsal behaviors between the two ensembles was interesting. For example, the conductor’s primary goal for each group was teaching the style of the piece. However, the amount of time needed for accomplishing goals in each group differed. The wind ensemble (consisting of 50% graduate music majors) required fewer stops for instruction than the symphonic band (consisting of 70% undergraduate music majors). The symphonic band also needed more instruction regarding articulations, intonation, and tone. In summary, the researcher found that effective teaching was not the result of any specific behavior, but rather was a result of a variety of factors, including a positive atmosphere, appropriate goals for ensemble, focus on conceptual learning and technical development. Byo and Austin (1994) also analyzed how conductors use their time, comparing the amount of time spent rehearsing versus “active music making.” Results revealed a significant difference between the expert and novice conductors. Of the total rehearsal segment, expert conductors engaged the full ensemble in performance only 44.67% of the time versus the novice conductors who had the ensemble play for 58.67% of the rehearsal. The researchers suggest the difference could be that experienced conductors have a more discerning ear and a specific vision on how the music should sound, thus stopping more to rehearse. This differentiation between time spent rehearsing versus talking could have been impacted by the level of the ensemble or other factors. For example, Goolsby (1996) obtained different results when examining novice teachers, student teachers, and

38 experienced teachers used their rehearsal time. Of the three groups, the novice teachers spoke the most during rehearsal and had the least amount of ensemble performance. Alternately, experienced teachers spoke less, used more nonverbal communication, had the most amount of student on-task behavior, spent over fifty percent of the rehearsal in performance, and demonstrated greater balance between the warm-up exercises and prepared pieces. Goolsby (1999) also compared how expert and novice teachers prepared an identical band composition. Results from 216 hours of observed rehearsal videotapes revealed that novice teachers spent more time talking during rehearsal and had lower performance ratings than the expert teachers, despite using more rehearsal time to prepare. Comparisons of what was rehearsed indicated that expert teachers addressed more issues of articulation, style, and balance, while the novice teachers focused more on correcting wrong notes and rhythms. It is also interesting to consider if conductors change behaviors based on the age- level or experience of the ensemble. Worthy (2003) observed a wind conductor rehearsing the same repertoire with a high school and college honor band. Results indicated that the conductor used faster pacing with the high school band versus the college band. Additional results revealed that the conductor would rehearse multiple goals at once with the college band versus focusing on one task with the high school. The rate of rehearsal pacing is important to the focus and efficiency of a rehearsal. Duke, Prickett, and Jellison (1998) investigated the elements of fast and slow pace instruction, finding that fast paced instruction included frequent teacher-student interactions, twice as many performance opportunities than slow paced instruction, and a larger number of teacher directives versus informational statements. Results also suggested that student observers (N =44) preferred fast paced instruction segments to slow paced instruction. Research has indicated that what a conductor focuses on during a rehearsal changes as the ensemble progressively becomes more proficient with their music. Davis (1998) examined the teaching behaviors of two experienced high school choral directors as they rehearsed their beginning and advanced choirs in preparation for the Florida Vocal Association (FVA) District festival. Variables of verbal instruction, student

39 performance time, teacher conducting, instruction rate, and positive/negative feedback were observed over the course of 83 rehearsals and 4 performances. Despite the differences in performance ability between the groups, several trends emerged. Time spent in instructional sequences and teacher verbalization decreased as the competence level of the groups increased. Also interesting was that teacher pacing was consistent between both the beginning and advanced ensembles.

Conducting Pedagogy Methodology Conducting Theories. Several resources have focused on theories of conducting, such as Labuta’s (1965) theoretical basis for college instrumental conducting courses. Stalter (1996) also examined conducting curriculum and proposed the Conductor’s Process Model, addressing five essential objectives that should be taught in a beginning conducting class: 1) score study, 2) preparation, 3) rehearsal, 4) performance, and 5) evaluation. Koch (2003) stressed the importance of conducting developing its own theoretical basis, stating: conducting cannot be adequately explained with theories designed for other media. It is not an abstract movement experience and therefore only partly related to dance or mime; particular motions of the conductor may be “like” certain things – bowing, fencing, piano playing, directing traffic – but conducting as a whole is not truly analogous to these activities (p. 26). Koch further outlines an approach “toward” a theory for conducting motion, which frames the physical dimensions of gesture through a descriptive level, functional level, and syntactic level. Lewis (1999) also proposed a principle of conducting “shape,” including the conceptual framework, detailed nuance, and conducting the aural image. Lewis describes shape as “that which creatively exposes and actualizes in performance the organization or lack thereof of all intrinsic elements within a given score” (p. 1). Conducting Textbooks. Historically, the idea of formalized study of conducting emerged as the responsibilities of the conductor grew. Originally, if one wanted to learn

40 conducting, they did so through apprenticeship. In fact, the idea that one would take a class in conducting or have a textbook would have seem preposterous to musicians of the 17th, 18th, and early 19th century. For example, Leinsdorf tells a story of German composer and conductor (1864-1949), who was approached by a prospective student asking for conducting instruction. Strauss replied: “What there is to learn I can show you now.” With his right hand he drew a diagram of -beat, then the three-beat, then the two-beat, and finally the six-beat. That, he commented, was all that was teachable. The rest one either acquired by oneself or not at all. (Leinsdorf, p.168) However, as textbooks became more readily available and the number of persons pursuing conducting increased, views started to change. (1897-1970), former conductor of the Cleveland Symphony, was an early proponent of conducting textbooks and systematic study of technique, stating that: In most cases this virtuosity has been achieved through practical apprenticeship and the advice and guidance of experienced colleagues, and through the observation and emulation of distinguished conductors. Consequently it is often assumed that baton technique cannot be taught or learned systematically. For this reason textbooks on conducting have been regarded as inadequate means of instruction. Such an attitude is just as fallacious as would be a similar attitude toward textbooks on surgery. Obviously, no one would consider allowing a surgeon to operate without adequate practical experience. But it is even less conceivable that a student of surgery could dispense with a thorough study of textbooks dealing with his special craft or art. (Rudolf, 1950, p. vii-viii) Several attempts have been made to categorize and analyze conducting texts. One of the earliest annotated lists of conducting resources was by Johnson (1967) who examined textbooks before 1967. Carlton (2003) continued this study with a survey of conducting textbooks between 1967-1997, finding that the most salient theme addressed across the texts was physical movement. Hart (1996) examined trends and topics within choral conducting and music education textbooks from 1939-1995, finding that performance practice and gesture were the two areas that displayed “evolution of thought” (p. 52). Of course, the emphasis in one area assumes the lack of emphasis in

41 other areas. For example, Haynes (1994) examined conducting textbooks from 1972- 1991 and found little mention of issues regarding nonverbal communication. Other research testifies to the wealth of materials available in the field of conducting. While Labuta (1965) only reported six dissertations in 1965 focused on curricular issues in conducting, the number of conducting resources quickly grew. For instance, Fry (1990) reported a bibliographic survey of 90 books and 50 dissertations regarding conducting technique. Runnels (1992) conducted a survey of instrumental conducting teachers in the Upper Midwest of America, finding over 30 textbooks in use for undergraduate conducting. Of course, over time, certain books gain popularity. According to a survey conducted by Romines (2003), the top five books used in conducting classrooms include The Modern Conductor, (Green, 1996), The Art of Conducting, (Hunsberger & Ernst, 1992), Basic Conducting Technique, (Labuta, 2000), The Grammar of Conducting, (Rudolf, 1995), and Guide to Score Study, (Battisti & Garofalo, 1990). Other notable documents include Score and Podium, (Prausnitz, 1983), Wagner on Conducting, (1989), and A History of Orchestral Conducting, (Galkin, 1988), to name a few. Lastly, Hamilton (1994) conducted a survey with the College Band Director’s National Association membership, resulting in a reference list of 170 books for teaching score study. Conducting Curriculum. Other research studies have focused on the curriculum content of undergraduate and graduate level conducting courses. Zirkman (1984) reported one hundred and seventy-three behavioral objectives in conducting gathered from a synthesis of conducting textbooks, conducting research, and a survey completed by conducting teachers. The survey results indicated that the majority of conducting classes used videotaped observations as a form of evaluation. Additional results revealed a pressing concern of conducting pedagogues over the lack of live conducting experiences available for students. Zirkman suggested that additional experiences in conducting curriculum should provide training in , ballet, theater, , and ensembles. Boardman (2000) also examined instructional objectives by surveying conducting teachers to ascertain how much time was spent on specific topics within their curriculum. Results revealed the following rank order of objectives, listed from greatest to least amount of time spent in class: conducting technique (93%), conductor attributes (91%),

42 rehearsal and classroom issues (69%), musical knowledge and skills (68%), ensemble knowledge (59%), and conducting history and careers (39%). Weller (1987) examined the curriculum of nineteen successful instrumental conducting programs across American universities. Similarities among the programs included offering undergraduate conducting in the third year of music studies, conducting instruction for at least three hours per week, and providing outside conducting opportunities. Weller recommended providing an optimal learning setting where students conduct live ensembles and spend at least 60% of class time conducting. Romines (2003) collected 70 survey responses from Schools of Music regarding the curriculum taught in undergraduate instrumental conducting classes. Each college and university was accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music and had at least 200 music students enrolled. The survey included questions about school demographics, the conducting class curriculum, and pedagogical information regarding how the instructors taught concepts. Demographic results indicated that 70% of the respondents had taught for over 20 years, that 62% taught one conducting class a semester, that the majority of classes met for 91-120 minutes each week (39%) and that class sizes ranged from 16-21 students. Chapman (2008) collected surveys from 53 conducting pedagogues regarding curriculum practices in left hand and facial gesture development. Results revealed a variety of teaching approaches including: “(a) nonverbal communication techniques; (b) use of mime and theatre studies, (c) facial expression instruction techniques; (d) left hand expression pedagogy; (e) use of movement theories; (f) score based instruction; and (g) technology based instruction” (p. - abstract). Manfredo (2008) surveyed collegiate level conducting instructors (N = 35) to examine the curriculum in undergraduate and advanced level conducting courses. In the area of meter and pattern, results indicated that undergraduate conducting classes focused primarily on the basic conducting patterns of 2, 3, and 4. Advanced conducting classes split their time between basic, advanced, and asymmetrical patterns. Both levels “highly emphasized” baton technique fundamentals and neither group emphasized miscellaneous conducting techniques, such as left hand gestures, fermata, or cues. Results for score study techniques revealed that undergraduate classes focused more on transpositions and

43 less on arranging and techniques than the advanced classes. Perhaps most revealing was that score study and methodology received the least amount of time spent in both levels. It seems that balancing the developmental areas of conducting gestures, rehearsal technique, and score study remain challenges in the conducting curriculum. Haldeman (2001) also surveyed conducting instructors (N = 1024), finding that only 25% of respondents had received instruction on how to teach conducting. Results revealed a lack of consistency on conducting teaching practices. Most teachers had developed their own curriculum or simply replicated the manner in which they learned conducting. Other researchers have examined conducting curriculum outside the United States. For example, van der Sandt (2001) examined choral conducting programs in South Africa, finding that there was a lack of training opportunities at the university level. Bartle (1990) reported on conducting programs in Australia, Canada, the Soviet Union, the People’s Republic of China, Singapore, and Hong Kong. The curriculum varied between countries and ranged from one to five years of required study. Many of the courses included standard offerings in rehearsal techniques, singing, aural perception, arranging, theory, and history. Several programs emphasized certain topics more than others, with some including as many as five semesters of score study and nine semesters of keyboard training. Other researchers have developed supplemental materials for traditional conducting instruction. One of the earliest examples is by Wyatt (1974) who wrote materials to aid the choral conductor in teaching vocal production to an ensemble. In a similar study, Krause (1983) developed a series of specific conducting gestures to aid in tone production and musical sensitivity of children’s choirs. Other supplemental choral texts include a workbook for developing aural acuity (Wright, 2001), curriculum based on musicianship, creativity, aural imagery, kinesthetic exercises, and score study skills (Spencer, 2000) and a systematic curriculum focused on a variety of styles within the choral repertoire (Head, 2002). Supplemental texts for instrumental conductors include wind-band repertoire to systematically build skills towards conducting competency (Johnston, 1978) and an addendum focused on the intonation issues of wind band instruments (Snow, 2006).

44 Others have taken a cognitive approach to conductor development, such as Lonis’s (1993) conducting curriculum based on Benjamin Bloom’s learning theories, Sheppard’s (1992) Critical Thinking Workbook, and Gaddis’s (1992) skills acquisition taxonomy. While the majority of resources focus on conductor training at the college level, there is an example of conducting curriculum for secondary school students. Neiman (1989) developed a nine-month systematic “preconducting” curriculum for a music class of 10-17 year olds (N = 18). Weekly exercises included the development of independent right and left hand gestures, such as drawing two different geometric shapes on the board simultaneously. Other exercises included conducting patterns while quickly answering questions to improve automaticity of physical movements. Results from teacher observations suggested that 11 of the 18 participants had developed successful motor skills because of the preconducting training. Conducting assessment techniques. Research has indicated that the use of videotaping and self-observation can be an effective teaching tool in both teaching and conducting settings (Osman 1989; Price, 1992; Standley & Madsen, 1991; Yarbrough, 1987; Yarbrough, Wapnick, & Kelly, 1979). Competency-based Music Education (Madsen & Yarbrough, 1980) was one of the first published resources providing forms for systematically observing conductor behaviors. Multiple research studies testify to the positive benefit of using these forms in teaching settings (Johnson & Fredrickson, 1995; Yarbrough, et.al. 1979; Yarbrough, 1987). However, the act of unguided observations does not necessarily yield positive results (Leppla, 1989). Rather, it is through a systematic approach of specific observation that one can effectively improve his/her teaching or conducting behavior. Even within student surveys, research suggests that meaningful responses are the more likely outcome with specific questions versus general (Gumm, 2007). Systematic observation also reveals the object of observers’ attention. Henninger (2002) analyzed the written comments of music education majors (N = 120) observing videotaped teaching episodes. Results revealed that 80% of the responses focused on teacher behavior while 14% of the responses were dedicated to student behavior. Similarly, Madsen and Cassidy (2005) collected responses from observers (N = 78) who watched two videotaped classroom teaching excerpts. Written responses suggested that

45 observers were more focused on the teacher behavior regardless of the video condition. It appears that the process of focusing less on teacher behavior and more on student behavior is one of the marks of an experienced teacher (Standley & Madsen, 1991). Research also suggests that while individuals typically rate themselves higher than peer or instructor evaluation (Bergee 1993, 1997; Bergee & Roberts, 2002; Byo 1990; Colwell 1995; Hewitt 2002), self-assessment generally averages at least 80% accuracy (Yarbrough, 1987). Given that most undergraduate conducting classes contain large class sizes (Romines, 2003) and that many students are favorable towards self- evaluation (Phillips, 1997), it seems that systematic observation ought to be considered as an additional source of valuable feedback in the conducting curriculum. One of the most accessible outlets for self-observation is the use of a video camera. While recording devices today are both widely available and affordable, that was certainly not always the case. For instance, Hunter (1968), who investigated the effect of instant replay television on the development of conducting skills, paid $3,150 for the videotape recorder used in the study. Other pioneers using video cameras for music research were Gonzo and Forsythe (1976), who collected twenty-six hours of videotaped choral rehearsals, and Fleming (1977), who found that students who videotaped their private conducting practice and self-evaluated their progress were rated significantly higher on conducting skills than students who practiced without guided practice materials. Yarbrough, et.al., (1979) continued this line of study by examining the effectiveness of videotape feedback techniques on student conductors. Participants (N = 47) were junior and senior music education majors and assigned to either the experimental conducting class (n = 28) or the control group (n = 21). Over the course of the semester, the experimental group completed two videotaped conducting practica and reviewed each tape for thirty minutes. Conducting students received one of two types of feedback while watching their videotape: guided self-observation (n = 14) using the Music Conductor Observation Form and the Choral Rehearsal Observation Form (Madsen & Yarbrough, 1980) or instructor feedback (n = 14). An audio track that accompanied the self-observation forms guided the student to focus on rehearsal time, verbal responses, and nonverbal behavior with “observe” or “record” verbal cues given

46 every 15 seconds. The instructor feedback group met with the teacher while reviewing the videotape and received instruction similar to a private lesson situation. For the pre- and posttest, all participants were videotaped while conducting to various excerpts. A panel of judges rated the conductors on beat pattern, preparation and release, dynamics, style, tempo, cueing, and eye contact. Results from the conducting tests showed significant gains in the treatment groups compared to the control group, but there were no significant differences between the two types of treatment. These findings suggest that both self-observation and instructor feedback are viable methods for student improvement. A similar study examined the effect of self-assessment on the acquisition of beginning conducting skills (Yarbrough, 1987). Participants (N = 85) were upperclassmen enrolled in an undergraduate conducting method course. Students conducted six videotaped practica over the course of one semester, demonstrating conducting patterns in two, three, four, and six. After each practicum, students watched their videotape and completed an observation form (Madsen &Yarbrough, 1980) with a reliability partner. Students concentrated on up to eight categories of conducting behaviors, including: beat patterns, preparations, releases, tempo, eye contact, dynamics, cueing, and style. Following two of the sessions, students wrote a self-critique. Results from the posttest revealed a significant and positive correlation between the correct answers given on the posttest and the correct responses given on the self-observation form. Reliability of the self-observation forms revealed an 80%-20% ratio of correct to incorrect student responses. Implications of this study suggest that students are able to accurately measure their skill and progress. Research has also suggested that observation can improve diagnostic skills. Scott (1996) developed a training program for an undergraduate conducting class that used visual diagnostic skills as a way to teach posture, baton position, beat patterns, left-hand gestures, legato style, and staccato style. Subjects (N = 30) were divided into an experimental and treatment group. Both groups completed a written and conducting pre- and posttest and five weeks of videotaped conducting instruction. The treatment group also received diagnostic training in recognizing specific conducting techniques. Results indicated a significant improvement in the written test scores for both groups, although

47 these improvements did not transfer to the conducting test. Most importantly, the results suggested that diagnostic training was especially beneficial to those with little or no experience. Perhaps the most effective use of assessment for beginning conductors is a mixture of feedback techniques. For example, Johnson and Fredrickson (1995) examined three types of feedback (aural commentary, written comments, and behavioral self- assessment) in a conducting class of undergraduate and graduate music education students (N = 36). Results revealed a significant difference from the pretest to posttest scores in all three treatments groups, although the most preferred method of the students was instructor feedback. Additional results revealed that students in the aural commentary group watched the videotape at least twice in addition to reviewing portions of the tape, more so than the other conditions.

Physical Skill Development Gestures. The art of conducting is complex because it requires both musical and physical skills. Important questions for conducting teachers to consider include the most effective sequence for the development of physical skills. Should musical and physical skills be isolated (i.e. score study, ear training, conducting patterns, posture)? If so, at what point do you put these areas together? Alternatively, some would argue that both musical and physical aspects develop at the same time and that the ability to master these traits is innate. Before examining best practices in conducting, it is perhaps beneficial to consider the motor development research within other disciplines. For example, prior research has indicated that how a person focuses on learning a new motor skill affects their physical development, referred to as internal and external feedback. Internal feedback focuses on how a motor skill is used while external feedback focuses on the effects of a motor skill. This concept is illustrated in a study by Wulf, Höß, and Prinz (1998) who examined external versus internal feedback on the development of learning motor skills on a ski- simulator and stabilometer. Results indicated that external feedback was more effective in teaching new motor skills. These results are interesting to consider for the development of conductors. Perhaps the goal of a conducting student should be to develop gestural

48 habit strength as quickly as possible so that one can focus on the effects of the conducting motions on the ensemble sound produced, progressing from internal to external feedback. Dease (2007) also examined the effect of external and internal feedback, focusing on the amount of time using a closed hand position (palm facing down) while conducting. Subjects (N = 126) included college instrumental and choral students who were randomly divided into one of two treatment groups (external feedback or internal feedback) or a control group. All subjects were videotaped while conducting an excerpt of America, The Beautiful which served as the pre and posttest. In between the pre and posttest, both experimental groups received their assigned feedback treatment and were instructed “to conduct as musically as possible” using an excerpt of Shenendoah. The control group read a poem relating to Plato and music, which took approximately the same amount of time as the treatment conditions. The external feedback condition involved the conductors placing a coin on their wrist while conducting whereas the conductors in the internal feedback condition received verbal instruction to focus their attention on facing their palms down “while keeping a stable wrist.” Results indicated no significant difference between the three groups based on the pretest, but that there was a significant difference in the posttest based on the treatment received. The conductors who received external feedback spent significantly more time using a closed hand position in the posttest than the other two groups. Results suggest that external feedback can be an effective teaching technique in the development of basic conducting motor skills. Other research in motor development has focused on how various speeds affect skill performance. For example, Dunham, Lemke, and Moran (1991) investigated the effect of practicing at random speeds versus set speeds on a pursuit rotor machine. Posttest results indicated that the set speed group performed significantly higher than the random speed group. Also interesting was that the set speed subjects performed significantly better within the range that they had practiced versus speeds that went outside of the range. Similarly, Duke and Pierce (1991) examined the tempo, rhythm, and pitch accuracy of students playing nine one-measure target tasks. Although subjects had met the performance criterion for each excerpt during their original practice session, the tempo and pitch accuracy significantly declined during alterations of the original

49 performance tempo. The lack of transfer demonstrated on this task warrants further investigation that could be helpful in understanding complex learning processes. These findings also hold importance for the preparation of a conductor, suggesting that gestures are executed most effectively at the tempi in which they were rehearsed. Given that music requires myriad tempi, it seems of utmost importance that a conductor is physically prepared for a variety of tempo and style combinations. Researchers have also examined the relationship between tempo and steady beat. Rohwer (1998) used kinesthetic exercises at multiple tempi with a young ensemble and found that their ability to maintain a steady beat improved. Eastwood (1989) examined the effect of receiving conducting feedback on the development of beat pattern gestures and steadiness of beat. Participants (N = 35) were an undergraduate conducting class divided into two treatment groups and one control group. For nine weeks, both treatments groups practiced beat patterns with a metronome. In addition to the metronome beat, a second click was synchronized with the actual ictus movement of the conductor, serving as the independent variable. One treatment group received the feedback of the additional click for every session (100%), while the other treatment group only received the click every other session (50%). Each participant took a pretest, posttest, and follow up session. Results revealed that both treatment groups significantly reduced the number of errors from pre- to posttest, although the group receiving 100% feedback scored significantly lower than the group receiving 50% feedback. In addition, the 100% feedback group was the only group to significantly decrease in the number of errors from the posttest to the follow-up session. Further research on the effects of practicing and conductor development is needed. Expressivity. The ability to perform with expression is an essential skill for all musicians. However, the process of defining and teaching expressivity is a difficult task. Researcher Plaag (2006) surveyed collegiate choral conducting teachers (N = 24) regarding time spent on dynamics and articulations as well as textbook and supplementary materials used in the curriculum. Results indicated that teachers agreed that expression is an important part of conducting, yet there was little consistency on how and when to teach it. The majority of conductors did not teach expression during the first year of basic conducting and instead focused primarily on fundamentals of technique.

50 Those who did teach expression did so either by introducing expressive gestures along with technique or as an isolated element. Woody (2006) examined three conditions of teacher instruction on the expressive performance skills of pianists. The subjects (N = 36) were collegiate-level pianists divided by ability into competent and advanced groupings. Each of the subjects performed three under three different sets of instructions: aural modeling, specific musical instruction, and mental imagery. Results indicated that the performance accuracy of the pianists was most consistent under the aural modeling condition, however the greatest change in performance occurred under the mental imagery condition. While each mode of instruction influenced unique changes in the musical performance, there were no significant differences between the methods. Results also revealed that performance differences between the competent and advanced pianists increased as layers of expressive playing were added to the performance task. The performance quality of the less experienced pianists decreased as the number of tasks increased. The researcher advises teachers to use all three approaches in teaching and to consider the experience level of the musician that best suits the mode of instruction. It would appear that using various teaching approaches in undergraduate conducting classes would also be beneficial, as there is always a variety of skill levels, even among novice conductors. Porter (2000) designed curriculum for an undergraduate conducting class of “non-conductors.” The exploratory class of novice conductors was compared to a traditional conducting class of music education majors. Empirical and descriptive data were collected to compare the level of expressivity and conducting technique demonstrated by each class. Results revealed that while the traditional class had higher ratings in expressivity and technique, there was not a statistically significant difference between the two groups. This suggests that the curriculum used for the exploratory class was successful and is certainly worth developing for further use. There was also a positive correlation (.57) between conductors with previous experience and the ability to use expressive gestures. Presumably, it was easier for students who already had experience in basic conducting techniques to learn a new skill. Orzolek (2002) also examined the effect of using expressivity exercises in a beginning undergraduate conducting class. Results indicated that students who received

51 imagery and movement exercises improved in their ability to show expression. They also improved their basic conducting skills, even though that was not the focus of the instruction. These results suggest that advanced techniques of expression could be appropriate to introduce in a beginning-level conducting course. Research also indicates that increased eye contact is a nonverbal behavior that can be taught. One such study examined the effectiveness of using visual prompts taped into a score to improve the frequency and duration of conductors’ eye contact (Fredrickson, 1991). Subjects (N = 22) were undergraduate music education majors enrolled in a conducting course. Eye contact was defined as three continuous seconds of looking directly at the ensemble. Before the treatments, a baseline measurement was taken of the subjects’ eye contact frequency and duration while sightreading a score. During the treatment period, students conducted three prepared excerpts, meeting with the instructor after the first performance to isolate goals for improvement. The control group received no further feedback. During the second session, the experimental group received a “LOOK” prompt taped throughout the score. Neither group received intervention for the third session. Results revealed no significant difference in eye contact frequency between the experimental and control group. However, the group using prompts did have an overall higher percentage of eye contact (15.2%) versus the control group (8.6%). Using a tangible method for increasing a desired behavior should be considered for the development of other conducting techniques. Some of the most widely used conducting textbooks are those by conducting and string pedagogue, Elizabeth Green. In the first quantitative study of its kind, Powell (2008) examined the effect of applying Elizabeth Green’s theory of psychological conducting to an undergraduate conducting class. In The Modern Conductor (1987), Green states: Psychological conducting we now define as the process of getting a group of singers or players to respond, on a single pitch throughout, to the messages it receives from the conductor’s hand and baton alone…The terminology implies a transfer of ideas from the conductor’s mind to the performer’s mind through the medium of correct and precise conductorial technique without the use of verbal directions or written notation. (p.116)

52 Participants (N = 32) in the Powell study were students enrolled in one of two sections of an introductory conducting course and served in either the treatment group (n = 16) or the control group (n = 16). A pretest posttest control group design was employed and implemented over the course of one semester. The pretest included four conducted excerpts from Labuta’s Basic Conducting Techniques (2004). Following the pretest, students in the treatment group received 16 class sessions of training using exercises based on Green’s method of psychological conducting. The posttest results revealed no significant difference between groups. Gabrielsson and Juslin (1996) examined the relationship between a performer’s intent of expression and the listener’s interpretation. Descriptions of the listeners’ ratings were generalized to create “expression profiles” for performing with emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, fear, tenderness, solemnity, and no expression. Broomhead (2006) observed three choral directors teaching expressiveness to their ensembles, finding that a range of techniques was used. The researcher suggests that the traditionally used behavior categories of “verbal” and “nonverbal” are not well suited for observing expressive techniques, given that the teachers often used the behaviors in combination. Movement-based exercises. Other areas to consider in physical development are the movement philosophies of those dedicated to the art disciplines. The work of Matthias Alexander (1923/1987, 1931/1985, 1943, 1969; Jones, 1976), Emile Jacques- Dalcroze (1921, 1930), and Rudolf Laban, (1950/1980, 1956/1975), have had monumental impacts on how artists approach movement. In fact, music pedagogue Dalcroze was motivated to develop ideas in eurhythmics partly due to his observed “discrepancy between students’ musical performance and their spontaneous responses while listening to music.” (Labuta & Smith, 1997, p.108) Dalcroze’s philosophy supports the notion that musicians’ instinctive reaction to music is often stifled when performing and that practicing movement-based exercises can help bridge the gap. Indeed, research in movement-based exercises has indicated positive responses in the performance abilities of musicians. In a pretest posttest control group design, McCabe (2004) investigated the effect of movement-based training on middle school instrumentalists (N =81) ability to sight-read rhythms. Both traditional instruction

53 (n = 41) and movement-based groups (n = 40) received 15 minutes per class of rhythm instruction over the course of eighteen weeks. The control group vocalized and performed rhythms on their instruments whereas the experimental group engaged in foot tapping, clapping, and conducting exercises. While both groups showed significant gains from pre to posttest scores, the movement-based group scored significantly higher than the control group. Hayslett (1996) also found positive effects for movement-based exercises in a study that focused on the aural acuity of conductors. Participants (N = 32) included band and orchestra directors and undergraduate and graduate music majors who had completed a college course in conducting. The control group (n = 16) took a pretest and posttest, while the experimental group (n = 16) received 8 sessions over a four-week period that focused on movement-based exercises. The pitch discrimination portion of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents (Seashore, Lewis, & Saetveit, 1960) was administered to all participants as a pretest and posttest. To isolate the movement variable, participants alternated between conducting and standing still while answering test questions. Results from a t-test indicated that the treatment group scored significantly higher (p < .01) on the posttest than the control group, suggesting that movement-based training is a viable method for helping conductors improve aural acuity. Chagnon (2001) observed the rehearsals of five choral directors, finding that movement-based exercises aided in the sound development of the choir, vocal technique, and interpretation of the music. Doebler (1994) also found that movement-based exercises, including foot tapping, clapping, and conducting gestures significantly improved the sight-reading abilities of beginning instrumentalists. Other studies have experimented with non-traditional methods, such as Hayes (1988) who found cinematographic analysis to be effective for evaluating conductor’s gestures and kinesthetic movements. In another interesting study, Dan (2005) used mime exercises, body and face coordination, and drawing exercises to develop conductor’s facial expressions. Running (2008) implemented exercises from the Margolis Method, a theatre based method designed by Kari Margolis (2002) that draws from the philosophies of Jerzy Grotowski, Bertolt Brecht, and Etienne Decroux. Participants (N = 33) were

54 students in an undergraduate conducting class divided into a treatment group (n = 16) and control group (n = 17). The treatment group received theatre based movement exercises for two 50-minute class sessions and two 15-minute follow-up sessions while the treatment group received traditional based conducting curriculum. Videotaped student performances were rated by a panel of expert judges who assessed five areas: expressivity, specificity, confidence, connection of conductor to ensemble, and connection of conductor’s breath and gesture. While there was no significant difference between the treatment and control group, both the traditional approach and Margolis Method proved to be beneficial in the development of conducting skills. Many studies have focused on the movement techniques of Rudolf Laban. Miller (1988) examined the effect of applying techniques of the Laban method on gestural development of undergraduate conductors. Participants (N = 60) were undergraduate students enrolled in a first semester conducting course. The control group (n = 30) received traditional conducting curriculum during the semester while the experimental group (n = 30) learned methods using the Laban movement theory. Videotaped excerpts were made of each student conducting America at the beginning and end of the semester. Judges rated the first conducted excerpt on a scale of high, medium, or low gestural ability. Comparisons of the pre and posttest excerpts indicated no significant difference between the two groups, suggesting that both a traditional approach and methods in Laban technique can be beneficial in the development of conducting gestures. Neidlinger (2003) also examined the effects of Laban training on undergraduate conducting students. Participants (N = 54) represented two sections of an undergraduate conducting class. The control group received traditional training on the history of conducting and score study while the treatment group received four sessions over a two- week period using Laban’s Effort/Shape exercises. Using a modified research design, the researcher administered a pretest, posttest, and re-posttest (administered five weeks after the treatment) to all participants. The posttest included a videotape of twelve examples from four disciplines: conducting, dance, figure skating, and mime. Participants marked the expressivity of each example on a Likert-type scale ranging from a minimal to high level of expressivity. Participants’ answers were compared to an expert panel’s answers, revealing no significant difference between the control and experimental group.

55 However, interesting trends did appear. While the control group answers were closest to the expert panel, the treatment group demonstrated greater range of discernment and displayed an increased awareness of expressivity. Others have also found positive gains in student achievement in relation to Laban training. For example, Holt (1992) found significant performance gains in a choral ensemble that received five hours of Laban effort/shape training. Gambetta (2005) found that after five hours of Laban exercises that student conductors had a wider variety of movements. Yontz (2001) found that Laban-based exercises helped students convey musical intent more so than expressive gesture exercises. Finally, Billingham (2001) developed gestures for choral conducting based on Laban's Eight Effort Elements in Combination, finding that the method was effective in improving six of the eight conducting gestures.

Aural Skill Development Error-detection skills. Competent skills in ear training and error detection are vital for a conductor during score study, rehearsal, and performance. Important questions arise, however, in the sequencing of such skills. For example, how does a conductor go about learning the skills he/she needs? Should aural skills be developed through basic theory classes or conducting courses? What are the most effective methods for teaching ear training? Do certain musical backgrounds provide for better score reading ability than others do? Research has suggested that aural skills develop over time. While research indicates that students in the primary grades are capable of recognizing expressive variations in dynamics (Burnsed, 1998), the ability to hear subtlety nuanced dynamics may increase with age and musical training (Burnsed, 2001). Other aural skills also develop over time. Madsen and Staum (1983) found that subjects were able to recall a with 43% accuracy over the course of multiple hearings and retain a melody for approximately 114 seconds. Gonzo (1971) found that experienced teachers scored significantly higher on an error detection test than did the undergraduate students. In a similar study, Hansen (1961) administered a score reading error detection test to musicians from eight universities (N = 260). Results revealed that subjects with two years

56 of theory training scored significantly higher on the test than subjects with one year of theory training. Also interesting was that subjects with at least six years of piano training were better equipped to read and analyze a full score. Alternatively, Brand and Burnsed (1981) examined five predictor variables on error detection skills in undergraduate students, including the number of instruments played, ensemble experience, music theory grades, sightsinging/ear training grades, and number of years in private instrumental instruction. Results indicated no statistically significant correlations between the predictor variables and error detection abilities. Perhaps error detection aptitude should not be measured by tests alone. For example, in one of the earliest studies using musical aptitude tests, Colwell (1963) administered the Aliferis Music Achievement Test, the Farnum Music Notation Test, and the Knuth Achievement Tests in Music to approximately 4000 students representing grades 5-12. Although results suggested a correlation between intelligence and musical aptitude, Colwell urges caution in using musical aptitude tests to make broad statements of student achievement, finding that the strength of such tests is often in revealing which students are good test takers and not in sophisticated measurements of musical ability. Researchers have also used error-detection tests to assess methods of ear training instruction. Larson (1977) found a strong correlation between error detection, dictation, and sightsinging. The strongest relationship affecting student achievement was error detection and dictation, suggesting that error detection skills be included in traditional theory training. The benefits of error detection skills were also noted by Kostka (2000) who examined the sight-reading abilities of undergraduate keyboard players (N = 69). Students in the error detection skills instruction group demonstrated the highest overall performance gains. In a similar study, Killian (1991) examined the sight-singing skills of junior high choral students (N = 75). Interestingly, students in the low ability sight- singing group were significantly stronger at detecting errors than they were at sight singing. Sight-singing and error detection were also examined by Sheldon (1998) who created a pitch and rhythm error-detection test to evaluate the effectiveness of aural training on undergraduate music education majors. The treatment group received eleven

57 weeks of aural instruction focused on sight-singing and ear-training exercises while the control group received regular instruction in instrumental methods. Test results revealed that the treatment group scored significantly higher than the control group. It seems possible that an error-detection test based solely on pitch and rhythm errors might be an inadequate assessment of the variety of skills employed by a conductor while performing. It is also interesting to consider the effect of different types of errors on a conductor’s ability to recognize them. Blocher (1986) accounted for both ideas through investigating the difficulty level of detecting articulation, dynamic, intonation, note accuracy, phrasing, and rhythm errors between conducting and non-conducting groups. Results suggested no significant difference within the hierarchy of error types. Sheldon (2004) also created a wide-range error-detection test that included six different error categories: articulation, dynamics/balance, intonation, tempo, pitch, and rhythm. Results indicated that the most accurate responses occurred during the first listening and that incorrect responses increased with multiple hearings. The most correct responses given occurred in the top two voices of the scores, suggesting that the participants did not observe the bottom two lines in the staff. Sheldon’s results suggest that novice conductors visually isolate parts of the score. Visually or aurally isolating musical lines could negatively affect the big picture of the music. Hayslett (1991) found that when students isolated their listening to a single musical line, that accuracy in error detection for other parts lessened. Other results revealed that students were more accurate at detecting errors with familiar pieces, suggesting the importance of developing an aural template of a score before rehearsing. Locy (1997) investigated whether or not a conductor’s preference of timbre and the actual timbres present in a musical passage affected the conductor’s ability to hear errors. Undergraduate students from eleven universities who were enrolled in a conducting course participated in the study (N = 147). The research design was a posttest only, which included a written error detection test that took approximately thirty minutes to complete. The examples included two original melodies with seven synthesized timbres and the questions focused on error detection and/or preference of the timbre. Results indicated no significant difference in participants’ ability to detect errors based on timbre preference or instrumental timbre. The researcher suggests that limitations such as

58 monophonic examples and synthesized sounds could have negatively influenced the study and that future research is warranted. Implications of this study are similar to suggestions by Swinehart (1994) who urged teachers to create error detection exercises with a variety of acoustical sounds versus a single synthesized sound source. Detecting errors while performing. Whether during a rehearsal or performance, one of the most important goals of a conductor is to set the tempo of the music. A conductor should also have diagnostic skills in intonation. Examining research in tempo and pitch perception studies may shed insight on how to effectively develop ear-training skills for conductors. Madsen (1979) measured nonmusicians’ and musicians’ (N = 200) ability to recognize the alteration of tempi. Results indicated that all participants were more accurate in perceiving variances between the slow tempi versus the fast tempi. Also interesting is that participants’ perception of the tempo was always heard as slower than the actual speed. In another perception study, Duke, Geringer, and Madsen (1988) found that both music and nonmusic majors (N = 400) were more accurate in distinguishing tempo changes versus pitch changes while listening to altered musical excerpts. Worthy (2000) also examined the perceptions of pitch, finding that participants perceived and performed “bright” tones with sharper intonation and “dark” tones with flatter intonation. Research suggests that aural discrimination is different when performing versus listening as an outside observer. Kepner (1986) found that high school instrumentalists were significantly more accurate in detecting pitch, rhythm, and expression errors while listening to their performance on a recording versus live performance. In a similar study, Bundy (1987) examined the ability of junior high band students to recognize pitch and rhythm errors while performing versus listening to a recording of their performance. Both modes provided advantages in diagnostic listening. While pitch errors were detected with significantly higher accuracy during the performance mode, rhythm errors were detected with significantly higher accuracy during the listening mode. Several studies indicate that students recognize rhythm errors more accurately than pitch errors (Byo, 1997; Hopkins, 1991; Sheldon, 1998). Byo (1997) also found that as musical complexity increases, that students’ accuracy in detecting errors decreases. Williams (1984) also examined diagnostic aural skills of conductors, finding that tempo and dynamics were the most easily recognized attributes.

59 Research suggests that the physical task of conducting can lower the proficiency of aural skills. Stiffler (2004) examined the effect of conducting on error detection ability. Subjects (N = 40) were students in an undergraduate instrumental conducting course divided into a conducting (n = 20) and non-conducting (n = 20) group. Results indicated that error detection skills were significantly more accurate when students were not engaged in conducting. In fact, not only were the students in the conducting group less accurate on the error detection test, but also they labeled a significantly higher number of non-existent errors than the non-conducting group. Perhaps the key to transferring ear-training skills to performance is to practice error-detection in the performance setting. Research has indicated benefits of this in both ensemble and conducting settings. Jones (1990) developed an Error Detection Practice System, finding that student detection of articulation and ensemble errors significantly improved. Stuart (1979) found that both error-detection training away from the podium and rehearsal experience increased students’ ability to detect string technique errors. Lastly, in what appears to be the first study of its kind, DeCarbo (1982) designed an error-detection experiment that compared the effect of programmed materials versus live conducting for students in an undergraduate instrumental conducting class. Students in the programmed material group listened to taped musical examples with pre-recorded errors while students in the conducting group rehearsed a live brass ensemble instructed to make intentional errors. Following the training session, each group received a written and conducting posttest. Results indicated that students in the conducting group scored significantly higher on the conducting error-detection test, although there were no significant differences between groups on the written test. Programmed instruction. One of the most important and overlooked skills of a conductor is the ability to study and understand the musical score. Developing a musical goal for a score is one of the most important roles of the conductor. The conductor expressed in an interview that a conductor should have a “pre-existing auditory model” before rehearsing a piece of music and that “until this ideal auditory model has been attained – until what you hear coincides with the auditory idea as closely as possible – then you simply have to work at it” (Vermeil, 1996, p. 64).

60 Achieving an auditory model is no small feat. In fact, for many novice conductors, the process of hearing the ensemble from the podium versus their assigned place in the group is a new sensation. William Wallace (1924) notes that through a variety of training experiences, a student should be “enabled to hear what the orchestra sounds like at the conductor’s desk – a very different affair from the sound that reaches him as one of the audience” (p. 785). Many researchers have developed videotaped materials to aid in the development of physical conducting skills (Fry, 1992; Grose, 1970; Jordan, 1980; Keller, 1979) while others have investigated techniques in aural skills using programmed instruction. One of the first programmed instruction studies was by Costanza (1971), who developed an eight-week curriculum for undergraduate music students focused on melodic and harmonic error-detection. The listening examples included standard band works that were condensed into scores for brass or clarinet quartets. The posttest scores were significantly higher than the pretest scores for both melodic and harmonic error-detection, suggesting that students successfully made transfers from the training sessions and improved their ear training skills. Ramsey (1979) also found positive gains in ear training skills for undergraduate music students who completed a programmed instruction using full band scores. Likewise, Malone (1985) found positive gains for students using programmed instruction to recognize pitch errors. Other researchers have developed computer-based programs for developing error- detection skills. Deal (1985) examined the effect of two computed-based programs on error detection skills of undergraduate music majors (N = 65). Results revealed that subjects in each group demonstrated significant gains in error detection skills, suggesting that both computer programs are viable for error detection development. In another study, Gruner (1993) found that undergraduate conducting students who completed 8 hours of computer-assisted error detection training significantly improved in pretest to posttest scores (p = .007) while the control group showed no significant gains (p = .232). Similarly, Hudson (1996) found that students completing a computerized programmed instruction in score study scored significantly higher on a score analysis test than did the control group.

61 Score study methods. Researchers have also used error-detection tests to measure the effectiveness of different score study methods. Many of the studies examine the silent score study method compared to other aural methods such as listening to a recording, playing the piano, or singing. Hopkins (1991) compared four approaches to score study: 1) studying with a piano, 2) listening to a recording of the score, 3) singing with the aid of a piano or recording, and 4) studying silently. Results revealed that the most effective method was studying while listening to a recording of the score. The recording method was also significantly higher than score study with a piano (the lowest ranked method). Crowe (1996) found similar results which indicated that subjects who listened to a recording had significantly higher error-detection test scores than the silent score study group. Alternatively, Hochkeppel (1993) examined similar score study methods but found that students who used the silent score study method had significantly higher test scores than those with aural models (keyboard or singing). Oyen and Nierman (1998) also compared silent score study to the recording method. Subjects (N = 47) were undergraduate music majors and divided into a control group, an extended silent analysis group, or extended analysis group with recorded music examples. Results from an error detection test revealed no significant difference between the score study groups. The researchers suggest that listening to a recording does not provide stronger aural acuity and that investigating additional methods in ear training and score study are needed to better equip student conductors for error detection skills. However, research also suggests positive effects from listening to a recording. For example, Morrison, Montemayor, and Wiltshire (2004) examined the effect of listening to professional recordings on the performance ability, self-evaluation, and preference for the music of high school (n = 2) and middle school (n = 3) bands. The treatment period lasted for five weeks, during which students rehearsed in their regular band setting and completed weekly questionnaires that included a combination of free response questions and Likert-type ratings. Each band rehearsed two selections, which used either a recorded model or no model condition. Results from evaluated pre and post performances indicated no significant difference in performance gains between treatments; however, results from the questionnaires revealed that bands that listened to the professional recordings demonstrated a more modest self-evaluation over time than the bands without

62 a model. Also interesting is that the ratings from the middle school students were significantly more positive in their preference toward the pieces that used recordings. Treviño (2008) found that listening to recordings might positively affect students’ ability to conduct expressively. Subjects (N = 30) were undergraduate instrumental music majors from four universities and enrolled in a second semester conducting course. Participants were randomly assigned to the control group or the experimental “aural model” group. Both groups were given a score excerpt from Percy Grainger’s The Immovable Do and guided through several steps of score study. The experimental group listened and/or conducted to a recording of the score as part of their study sequence while the control group remained in silent study. Following the study session, all participants were videotaped while conducting the excerpt, once with a recording and once without. An expert panel of three judges rated the videos based on seven criteria: 1) the overall rhythmic feel, 2) expressive playing, 3) gestural contrast, 4) sustain in the legato sections, 5) embodiment of expression, 6) consistent style, 7) and suitable interpretation of style. Results revealed a significant difference between the groups’ ability to show expression, favoring the treatment group. While long-term implications of listening to a recording during score preparation are unknown, the study suggests that hearing a piece of music in the initial stages of preparation provides an aural framework for the conductor that is beneficial for demonstrating expression. Perhaps the learning style of the student should guide which score study method is used. For instance, Grunow (1980) found that three modes of score study were effective in improving visual-aural discrimination skills in undergraduate and graduate conductors. The modes included silent score study, score study with recorded examples, and study with only the recorded examples. Results revealed no significant difference between three methods, suggesting that each one may be a viable tool for students. Regardless of the score study method employed, the desired result should be a deep knowledge of the music. Advances in brain research may prove helpful as results suggest that there are observable physiological differences between knowing something well and having a surface level understanding. For example, Belkofer and Lukasz (2008) observed the EEG readings of an artist engaged in painting and drawings. Results indicated a significant difference (p < .05) in brain wave activity between pre and post

63 art-making. In a similar study, Hoffman (2002) took electroencephalograph (EEG) readings of six collegiate level conductors while studying a score. Results indicated that brain activity differed between subjects reading a “learned” score versus subjects “sight- reading” a score. Teaching for transfer. Madsen and Prickett (1987) suggest that students do not naturally make connections between subjects unless taught to do so. The researchers compared essays between undergraduate and graduate students, finding that both groups were equally capable of making broad transfers, regardless of experience. These results suggest that novice teachers could benefit from learning how to transfer skills acquired in college to the secondary classroom. For example, in a one-year qualitative study, Schmidt (2005) found that pre-student teachers did not make transfers from previous method classes when creating lesson plans, and that students’ impressions of teaching was that lessons were created “on the fly.” Although student teachers spend time observing experienced teachers in action, they rarely see the preparation behind the lesson. Schimdt stresses the need for teachers to train students in transferring skills they have learned in method classes to teaching settings. In music settings, there can often be a lack of transfer of music theory and history knowledge to other music classes, such as conducting and ensembles. This was demonstrated in a study that compared the musical quality rankings of music scores between expert conductors and an undergraduate conducting class (Fiese, 1990). A panel of five expert conductors and/or ranked four unfamiliar wind band works in order of musical quality. An undergraduate conducting class (N = 45) also ranked the same four scores, but unbeknownst to them, the nonmusical cues (i.e. title, composer, and date) were altered. The judges’ first and second ranked scores were replaced with names of unknown composers (Kennedy and Schlemyle), while their third and fourth ranked scores were replaced with names of prominent composers (Strauss and Beethoven). The results from the undergraduate student rankings surprisingly revealed the counterfeit Beethoven and Strauss examples were rated the highest in musical quality, although the panel of experts rated these as the lowest. Results suggest that students were biased towards the nonmusical cues of the score, relying on their assumptions about the well- known composers versus judging the content of the music.

64 Teaching for transfer could also be beneficial to conductors, as observed by Strouse (1987) who developed a score study approach that included both musical analysis and development of appropriate conducting gestures. Other research indicates that students need intentional training on how to connect subject matter. Lane (2006) interviewed undergraduate music education students while they practiced a solo on their instrument and studied a full band score. Results from the transcripts revealed that students in the high achievement group addressed more elements of expression and detail than the low achievement group. Most interesting was that neither group demonstrated a transfer of prior knowledge of the composer and musical style.

Conducting Technology History. Analysis of conducting gestures began in the 1970s when Harrer and Harrer (1977) performed a set of four experiments with the famous orchestral conductor, Herbert von Karajan. The first experiment measured the breathing and heart rate of Karajan and his student while listening to a recording of Beethoven’s Leonore Overture. The experimental treatment measured their physiological reactions under three conditions: no music, listening to a recording, and listening to a recording while tranquilized. Results revealed that the peak of activity in breathing and heart rate occurred while listening to the music without sedation. The most compelling finding was that patterns of the physiological responses corresponded with the structural patterns in the music. During the second experiment, Karajan’s physiological responses were measured while he described and analyzed aloud Beethoven’s Leonore Overture. For the third experiment, the researchers measured Karajan’s heart rate, pulse, temperature, and breathing while he conducted Leonore Overture with the Orchestra. The comparison of physiological responses between experiments two and three revealed that both the discussion and conducting conditions mirrored similar patterns of physiological responses. These results suggest that Karajan’s interactions with the music were just as strong while describing the music as they were while conducting. Lastly, the measurements of Karajan’s heart rate were compared under two conditions: flying an aircraft and conducting a live ensemble. Despite Karajan executing

65 dangerous maneuvers while flying, his heart rate only reached 115bpm. In fascinating contrast, Karajan’s points of greatest musical emotion peaked at 150bpm while conducting. Since the Harrer and Harrer (1970) study, there have been numerous measurement devices developed to analyze conducting gestures and physiological responses of conductors. Max Mathews, who was a former Bell Labs researcher and Stanford professor, is considered the “Father of Computer Music” (Marrin, 2001). He began work on baton measuring devices in the 1960’s, eventually designing the “Daton” in 1989 (Mathews, 1989, 1991). This mechanical instrument measured the direction of a baton while participants struck a metal plate. Redesigned in 1991, his “Radio Baton” tracked motion from the baton tip via radio signals and a flat receiver panel. Each device was able to measure tempo, loudness, and balance. Mathews also developed the “Conductor Program” which was inspired by conductor and composer Pierre Boulez who asked Mathews to develop a way to play a tape while manipulating the tempo yet maintaining pitches and timbres (Boulanger, Mathews, Vercoe, & Dannenberg, 1990). Although Mathews’ work began in the 1960s, it was not until the 1980s that other measuring devices for conductors were developed. Early inventions focused on measuring tempo through analysis of baton movement. Devices in the 1990s began to measure a wider variety of gestures, including the Light Baton, which used a computer to communicate conducting gestures sent to live musicians (Bertini & Carosi, 1992). The most extensive development during the 1990s was the Conductor’s Jacket, developed by a team of engineers at MIT (Marrin & Picard, 1998). Heading this project was Teresa Marrin, founder of Immersion Music, who combined her musical background with engineering devices to empirically measure the processes used by musicians (Marrin, 2000). The Conductor’s Jacket allows for real-life rehearsal or performance settings for conductors, unlike previous inventions that required participants to be in a laboratory to simulate rehearsals. The jacket consists of a black lycra suit fitted with 16 sensors, which collect physiological and gestural information that is interpreted by the musical software Gesture Construction. In addition, it was the first system to measure muscle tension from the arms (Marrin, 2002).

66 Six conductors participated in the first Conductor’s Jacket experiment. Results revealed that muscle tension and respiration were closely connected to conductor expressivity. Also indicated were patterns of right to left hand motion, ‘flatlining’ effects, and gestural tendencies. A more recent experiment with the Conductor’s Jacket was launched in 2006 with conductor Keith Lockhart and the Boston Pops Orchestra. In addition to the measurements of the conductor’s jacket, physiological responses were taken of 5 orchestra members and 50 audience members (Elton, 2006). Educational uses. Perhaps some of the most promising research for the study of conducting is connected to the world’s first digital conducting laboratory, launched in the School of Music at Arizona State University (Marrin, 2000). Founded by Gary Hill, the lab uses a Digital Conducting Feedback system developed by Teresa Marrin, which uses the Mathew’s “Radio Baton” and Motion Capture Technology developed by Kun (2004). Two experimental studies have analyzed the effects of the Digital Conducting Feedback System on the development of undergraduate conducting skills. The first study (Kraus, Gonzalez, Hill, & Humphreys, 2004) examined the effects of a Digital Conducting System (DCS) versus verbal instruction on four basic conducting skills: 1) preparatory beat, ictus, and release gestures, 2) legato style, 3) tenuto style, and 4) staccato style. Participants (N = 52) were music majors enrolled in an undergraduate conducting class that met twice a week. The class was divided into three groups: the DCS group (n = 16), the instructor group (n = 18), and the control group (n = 18). Subjects in the DCS group received training on the computer equipment and one session per week practicing the assigned excerpt with the DCS, which measured the “magnitude of the muscle movements” by way of “two electromyography signal-conditioning electrodes, attached to the right bicep and forearm.” The instructor group met with the teacher once a week and received feedback by way of verbal instruction and modeling. The control group only received the normal instruction provided in the class and did not attend additional sessions. Over the course of four weeks, all subjects learned and conducted four musical excerpts. A pre- and posttest videotape was made of each conducted excerpt and rated by an expert panel of judges. ANCOVA results revealed that the DCS group scored significantly higher that the control group in the excerpt measuring preparatory, ictus, and release gestures. There was no significant difference between the two treatment

67 groups and control group for the remaining three conducting skills. Although further replication of this study is needed, the results suggest that a computer feedback system could be beneficial for the development of basic conducting skills and a timesaving aid for teachers. A second study with the Digital Conducting Feedback System examined 33 undergraduate beginning conductors and the effects of the digital lab versus self-practice (Hollinger & Sullivan, 2005). Staccato conducting, legato conducting, and tempo were measured. The results indicated a significant improvement in legato conducting for those students in the digital lab treatment. Staccato conducting and tempo did not yield a significant difference between groups. There are also helpful technology resources for teachers and students. For example, Dennis (2003) developed a computer-based program that allowed students to conduct a “virtual rehearsal” while practicing diagnostic skills in intonation. Other research (Orman, 2007) has examined the effect of “virtual reality” exposure on student’s performance anxiety level in private lessons, finding that student anxiety significantly decreased throughout the semester (p < .05). Holder (2007) designed an undergraduate conducting course using Blackboard as the means for students to view their in-class videotaped conducting excerpts. Holder’s dissertation provides a detailed task-analysis on how to use the Blackboard website and download video clips. Holder also discusses suggested equipment and various editing programs. Another study (Robinson & Parisi, 2009) used Blackboard for collecting student online evaluations of a recorded rehearsal, finding that the use of technology was a valid method for collecting reflective responses. Lastly, the “You’re the Conductor” interactive exhibit housed at the Children’s Museum in Boston (Lee, Marrin, Borchers, 2004) was specifically designed for children four to eleven years old. It includes a large screen with a video of the Boston Pops Orchestra and an infrared baton for the participant. A sound track is played of the orchestra tuning. Once the baton is picked up, the orchestra starts playing the Sousa march “Stars and Stripes Forever.” Using real-time technology, the conductor can direct the piece as fast or slow as desired. Synchronization Studies. Other conducting technology research has focused on synchronization studies. Dunlap (1910) was the first to examine synchronization with

68 rhythmic stimuli. Vos, Mates, and van Kruysbergen (1995) suggest that people tend to anticipate the onset of the beat, a phenomenon termed “negative asynchrony.” These researchers found that the negative asynchrony was reduced under conditions of longer stimulus durations, suggesting that people rely on the “perceptual centre” of a beat versus the initial start of sound to determine pulse. Serrano (1993) simulated conducting motions on a computer screen and measured subjects’ perceptions of beat placement. Results indicated that subjects had the highest level of agreement on beat placement when the conducting motion followed an accelerated downbeat, and decelerated upbeat, as opposed to an even and constant motion. In a perception study of beat modulation, Brittin (1992) found that nonmusic majors (n = 100) detected accelerated beats of a conductor more so than the music majors (n = 100) and that music majors detected points of deceleration more so than the nonmusic majors. Luck and Toiviainen (2006) examined the synchronization between a conductor and ensemble by developing an automatic movement feature extraction, which allowed the researchers to analyze the data between the ensemble’s audio and conductor’s gestures. Participants included 1 conductor, 26 orchestra members, and 16 choral singers from the Sibelius Academy in Finland. The ensemble was recorded for twenty minutes while rehearsing excerpts of Mozart’s Requiem. The conductor had nine reflective markers attached to his body and one marker attached to the tip of the baton which communicated with a three-camera optical motion-capture system. Four rehearsal excerpts were chosen for analysis – two each that represented high and low clarity from the conductor. Results revealed that in both conditions, there was a lag between the musicians and conductor, and that the duration of the lag was the longest during the low clarity condition. Luck and Sloboda (2007) also examined musicians’ synchronization to conducting beat patterns. Using a reflective marker on the fingertip, a novice and experienced conductor performed a variety of conducting patterns that were translated into point light representations. Observers watched the life size conducting patterns on a screen and tapped along to the perceived point of ictus. Although all participants were musicians, results indicated that those with conducting experience were more

69 synchronized with the pulse than the musicians with no conducting experience. The researchers suggest that conducting training for all musicians could result in better ensemble performance. Finally, in one of the first experiments of its kind, Luck and Nte (2008) examined the curvature of a conductor’s beat pattern and the synchronization response of the participants. Because there is little research in this area, the researchers wanted to control as many variables as possible, and thus ran the experiment in a laboratory setting versus a real-life rehearsal or performance venue. Two conductors were chosen, one novice and one experienced, to each conduct three single-beat gestures. The gestures fell into three measurement categories: small (3.75cm), medium (7.5cm), and large (15cm). A reflective marker was placed on the index finger of each conductor so that the movements could be recorded by a 3D motion-tracking system. The tracking system measured the diameter of the bottom portion of each ictus/gesture. Participants were divided into three groups, conductor (n = 5), musician (n = 7), or non-musician (n = 12), to see if experience level would affect the consistency of synchronization with the conductor’s beat. The experiment was set up at a computer with a black screen and a white stimulus that represented the conducting gesture although the participants did not know that they were watching a conductor’s beat pattern. Their directions were to press the space bar on the computer at the point they thought it would synchronize with the white stimulus. Results revealed that the participants with conducting experience were significantly more consistent in synchronizing with the white stimulus than the musicians or non-musicians. Most interesting is that the non-musicians and musicians performed equally well, suggesting that those with experience in an ensemble watching a conductor did not transfer synchronization experience to this study. These results support other studies that have found conducting instruction to improve ensemble rhythmic accuracy (Cofer, 1998; Kelly, 1997). Best-evidence Synthesis Meta-Analytic Techniques As the body of research has grown substantially, it has become necessary to develop ways of summarizing the results of a large number of studies. The technique that has emerged is meta-analysis. Measurements for combining statistical results of multiple

70 studies were first developed by the pioneering efforts of statisticians L.H.C. Tippett (1931), R.A. Fisher (1932), and K. Pearson (1933) (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). However, the use of meta-analytic techniques in educational and psychological research is largely attributed to the pioneering efforts of Gene Glass and his contemporaries (Glass, 1976, 1977, 1980; Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981; Smith & Glass, 1977; Smith, Glass, & Miller, 1980). Glass (1976) outlines three levels of analysis: Primary analysis is the original analysis of data in a search study…Secondary analysis is the re-analysis of data for the purpose of answering the original research question with better statistical techniques or answering new questions with old data…Meta-analysis refers to the analysis of analyses…the statistical analysis of a large collection of analysis results from individual studies for the purpose of integrating the findings. It connotes a rigorous alternative to the casual, narrative discussion of research studies which typify our attempts to make sense of the rapidly expanding research literature. (p. 3) Meta-analytic techniques also developed as an alternative perspective to the traditional methods of presenting results, such as narrative reviews. Light and Smith (1971) express the limitations of a narrative review, stating: “Little headway can be made by pooling the words in the conclusions of a set of studies. Rather, progress will only come when we are able to pool, in a systematic manner, the original data from the studies” (p. 443). Narrative reviews can be highly subjective and easily biased by the reviewer’s opinions. Meta-analyses attempt to bring objective measures to strengthen the review of a body of literature. While there are many benefits of a meta-analysis, there are valid criticisms to consider. The main criticism of meta-analytic techniques is that the comparison of studies with different techniques and research designs can present mixed results – the old adage of “mixing apples and oranges.” Meta-analyses average overall effect sizes of studies within a similar topic, which does not account for poorly designed studies, overestimated results, or specific criteria within a treatment (Wolf, 1986). Another criticism is that meta-analyses inherently perpetuate publication bias given the probability that studies reporting non-significance would not be published and thus would not be included in the overall effect size of a treatment (Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981). Lastly, there is little

71 agreement on which calculations to use for computation of effect sizes. Without careful attention to statistical procedures, inconsistencies within the effect sizes occur (Hedges & Olkin, 1985).

Effect Size Additional benefits of a meta-analysis are that results are based on a “mathematical synthesis of the statistical results of the previous studies” (Patten, 2007, p.141). To examine the effectiveness of a group of studies, there must first be a common metric that can be universally reported across the studies, regardless of the differences in sample size or research design. The early syntheses of Tippett, Fisher, and Pearson used statistical significance (p-values) as the unifying measurement. (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). However, only presenting the significant difference can be misleading for two reasons. First, the definition of the word “significant” has developed over time. Whereas the modern definition connotes levels of meaning or worth, the original term simply meant to “signify” (Grissom & Kim, 2005, p. 3). In statistical terms, significant difference signifies that there is a statistical difference between the means of two groups and one can thus reject the null hypothesis with a pre-determined level of certainty, referred to as the alpha level (!). The second reason that reporting significant difference can be misleading is because it does not reveal to what degree a treatment is beneficial. An alternative approach is to report the effect size (ES), which is a common metric calculated in meta-analyses. Effect size allows for comparisons of studies with similar treatments. By reporting effect size with significant difference, a more descriptive analysis of the study is available. Slavin (2007) defines effect size as “the difference between the experimental group’s mean and the control group’s mean divided by the control group’s standard deviation:

Me Mc ES = sc where: ES = effect size

Me = mean of the experimental group

Mc = mean of the control group

Sc = standard deviation of the control group (p. 280)

72 Additionally, a variety of effect size computations have been developed for determining a common metric from a wide variety of research designs and statistical tests. Methods have been developed to derive effect size within the sciences (Cohen, 1977) social research (Glass, et.al.,1981; Rosenthal, 1984), quantitative methods (Wolf 1986), and ANOVA designs (Cortina & Nouri, 2000). Other resources include multiple calculations for comprehensive uses (Grissom & Kim, 2005; Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Mullen & Rosenthal, 1985; Mullen 1989;) and for correcting error (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Common ways of reporting effect size, referred to as indices, include estimates within the “r” family, labeled as r, p, and Z, and estimates within the “d ” family, such as Hedges's g, Glass’s D, and Cohen’s d and h (Cooper & Hedges, 1994, p. 234). Interpreting effect size can be especially beneficial to the fields of education where evidence-based reform guides curricular decisions. Results of effect size not only provide statistical information, but also “can inform a judgment about practical significance” (Grisson & Kim, 2005, p. 4). Cohen (1977) provided three operational definitions for interpreting effect sizes, although cautioned that the definitions “are arbitrary” (p. 12) and should be interpreted within the context of the study. The following definitions are suggested by Cohen as guidelines: Small effect size: d = .2; medium effect size: d = .5; large effect size: d = .8.

Principles of a Best-Evidence Synthesis Ten years after the introduction of Glass’s (1976) meta-analysis, Robert Slavin (1986) introduced “best-evidence synthesis” as an alternative technique in literature reviews. Although similar to a meta-analysis, it includes narrative descriptions of the studies along with the statistics and uses a priori inclusion criteria for the selection of studies, providing for a more stringent selection process. Slavin (1986) suggests three guiding principles for including studies in a best- evidence synthesis: 1) Germaneness to the issue at hand 2) Methodological adequacy of studies must be evaluated primarily on the basis of the extent to which the study design minimized bias

73 3) External validity should be valued at least as highly as internal validity in selecting studies (p. 7). While Slavin (1986) urges researchers to choose studies that implement “random assignment to experimental or control groups,” he also suggests to consider “carefully matched or statistically controlled studies” (p. 7). Unique to a best-evidence synthesis is the inclusion of dissertations, unpublished reports and studies that do not contain adequate statistics for calculating the effect size. Slavin (1986) suggests that a narrative review of the study will suffice if there is not enough information to compute an effect size. Lastly, it is important that a best-evidence synthesis give the reader as much information regarding the reviewed research as possible. In addition to providing detail on the selected studies, Slavin (1986) suggests to include descriptions of quality experiments that “just missed” the inclusion criteria (p. 8). Critical to a best-evidence synthesis is the establishment of a priori inclusion criteria. Slavin (1987b) proposes that inclusion criteria should only be determined after completing a broad search of the literature and gaining a solid understanding of the evidence and research designs presented. For instance, a researcher could naively set inclusion criteria before understanding the research, only to find that standards were set too high and thus eliminating the bulk of the research. Slavin urges researchers to carefully balance high standards of inclusion criteria with what is appropriate for the evidence collected. Slavin (1986) suggests the following format for organizing a best-evidence synthesis: Introduction, Methods, Best-Evidence Criteria, Studies Selected, Studies Not Selected, Literature Synthesis, and Conclusions (p. 9-10). He also suggests eight categories to be included in the table of study characteristics: “names of the studies, sample size, duration, research design, subject matter, grade levels, treatment compared, and effect size(s)” (p. 9).

Uses of Best-Evidence Synthesis In examining the larger picture of education as a whole, it becomes apparent that questions regarding curricular content, pedagogical practices, and skill sequencing should be considered. Slavin (2008) argues that all too often, decisions in adopting educational

74 programs are made on a “pendulum swing of fashion” (p. 5) lending to the continuous starts and stops of programs. Slavin contends that the medicine and agriculture fields use evidence-based research to guide their practices and make changes. The field of education, however, tends to use research to support practices and beliefs already in place. Slavin urges educators to be more disciplined in their process of adopting programs and advocates for “evidence-based reform, the movement toward the use of programs and practices found to be effective in rigorous research” (p. 5). Best-evidence syntheses include a broad range of topics, including teacher mentoring programs for first year teachers (Cernetic, 2002), elementary school retention (Pawlowski, 1995), education programs for preschool-aged students (Gruber, 1990), multiple intelligence instructional approaches (Hodge, 2005), accelerative programs (Rogers, 1991), group-based mastery learning (Anderson, 1988; Price, 1992), reading programs (Slavin & Cheung, 2005; Slavin, Cheung, Groff, & Lake, 2008a), achievement ability grouping (Slavin, 1990) and effective educational research (Slavin, 2004, 2008b). In educational research, a best-evidence synthesis is often used to report the overall effect of a particular treatment within a large group of studies. For example, in a study focused on ability grouping and student achievement (Slavin,1987a), the effect size indicated that isolated classes based on student ability were not effective (median ES = .00). However, effect size also revealed that reading classes that implemented cross-grade ability grouping (median ES = +0.45) and mathematics classes that used within-class ability grouping (median ES = +0.34) were highly effective means for student achievement. These examples reflect one of the main purposes of a best-evidence synthesis – to provide a narrative explanation with the reported effect size, indicating both statistical and practical value.

75 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Need for the Study Researchers in all fields are faced with the challenge of synthesizing results from a large body of findings. Whether through the techniques of narrative review, cataloguing lines of interest, or meta-analysis, the idea is that systematic inquiry helps to examine findings objectively. The aesthetic nature inherent to the field of music does not exclude it from such inspection. For instance, Richard Colwell (1970) wrote that systematic evaluation “can contribute to better music programs in the schools and, in time, to a more musically literate public” (p. viii). Robert Duke further illuminates on this, stating: Systematic research in any discipline is a slow and painstaking enterprise, perhaps especially in education. Seldom do the results of individual investigations solve problems or provide complete explanations of phenomena not clearly understood. Instead, aggregated findings from multiple studies contribute to a larger picture that more closely resembles human experience. (Duke, 1999/2000, p. 1) There are several beneficial resources that help define the research interests in music. Such overviews in the field of music include a review of six influential music education journals (Hamann & Lucas, 1998), an anthology of the earliest and most prominent researchers published in JRME, (Price, 1998), a education and therapy research journals (Price, 2004), and content analyses of research articles in JRME (Yarbrough, 1984, 1996, 2002). Music research has also benefited from the techniques of meta-analysis. Folkestad (2004) examined qualitative studies in music education using meta-analytic techniques, suggesting that such approaches could benefit the field and aid in formulating theories within the discipline. Jayne Standley was the first to conduct a meta-analysis in the field of music. Standley (1996) explains the benefits, stating: It is a valuable resource in the array or research skills, and it has the potential to demonstrate to us what we may have already learned about the field of music research. Understanding and dissemination of the existing body of research

76 literature in music education/therapy would seem to benefit greatly from the application of meta-analysis. (p. 103) Meta-analyses in the field of music have been conducted on the topics of music and persuasion (Brentar, 2001), music therapy and mental illnesses (Cercone, 2007), music and spatial processes (Hetland, 2000), background music (Garlin & Owen, 2006), music and reinforcement (Standley, 1996), music therapy and premature infants (Standley, 2002), music and medical/dental treatment (Standley, 1986), and music and wind band repertoire (Slagley, 1992). Also pertinent to music is Hall’s (2005) meta- analysis on nonverbal communication. The burgeoning interest in conducting research has produced a substantial number of studies. One of the challenges of building on research knowledge is the ability to synthesize the overall results and see where strengths and weaknesses are in the literature. To the researcher’s knowledge, there are currently no meta-analyses in the field of conducting. It seems that an overall synthesis and the beginnings of an in-depth examination would be beneficial to summarize what has been done and to provide focus for future endeavors. Given the large number of students enrolled in undergraduate conducting courses and the large number of teachers called upon to teach conducting, it also seems that systematic inquiry would inform the development of conducting curricula.

Purpose of the Study The first purpose of this study is to ascertain what lines of experimental and descriptive research have focused on the field of conducting. Ostling (1976) was the first to examine lines of research in conducting and nonverbal communication, followed by Vallo (1990), who reported a wide-array of conducting research within music education. Given that research in conducting has continued to expand, this study hopes to provide an overall synthesis of recent lines of inquiries and ascertain what areas warrant further investigation. The second purpose of this study is to methodically investigate one of the research lines in-depth using the meta-analytic techniques of a best-evidence synthesis. Studies that focused on the effect of a conductor on performance skills of an ensemble

77 were chosen for further review. Considering the paucity of research and mixed findings regarding this topic, it seemed of value to explore this area. Additionally, this line of research was chosen because having a better understanding of practical conductor application could fuel improvements in both the performance of conducting and teaching of novice conductors.

Research Questions 1. What are the lines of experimental and descriptive research in the field of conducting? 2. Are there specific areas in conducting research that are lacking emphasis? 3. Do nonverbal gestures of a conductor impact the performance of an ensemble? 4. What is the performance impact on an ensemble of expressive versus nonexpressive gestures? 5. Are there specific gestures that improve or hinder an ensemble? 6. What is the effect of conducting-gesture instruction on ensembles? 7. What is the relationship between nonverbal and verbal methods of rehearsing? 8. What is the relationship between conducting and ensemble synchronization?

78 CHAPTER 3 METHOD Literature Search Procedures The following databases and search engines were used to find relevant research in the field of conducting: JSTOR, MESS (Music Education Search System), ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), PsycINFO, and Dissertation Abstracts International. In addition, the table of contents of three music journals were searched from the date of their inception to the current date, including Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education (1963 – Winter 2009), Journal of Research in Music Education, (1953 – April 2009), and Psychology of Music (1973 – April 2009). Journal article and dissertation references also revealed relevant citations. Every attempt was made to find original sources. Keyword descriptors included pairing conductor and conducting with the following: music, ensemble performance, perceptions of ensembles, rehearsals, score study, programmed instruction, novice, experienced, technique, assessment, and technology. The initial search revealed hundreds of articles representing numerous modes of research inquiry. Keeping with the guidelines established for conducting a best-evidence synthesis, priority was given to experimental and descriptive research. This excluded many of the valuable resources found in anecdotal, philosophical, and historical articles. Of the numerous articles examined, relatively few satisfied the inclusion criteria. The overall literature synthesis resulted in 346 articles related to conducting research. The conducting articles were grouped by category and discussed in the review of literature. A best-evidence synthesis was conducted for one category - the effect of conducting on the performance quality of ensembles. This emerging line of research seems to be promising and an area that can greatly benefit from an overall understanding of trends and patterns. Studies that did not pertain to the effect of conducting on ensemble performance were excluded, resulting in 23 studies that met inclusion criteria. These studies were organized into five categories: 1) expressive and nonexpressive conducting, 2) specific conducting gestures, 3) conducting-gestures instruction, 4) nonverbal and verbal

79 methods, and 5) synchronization. Effect sizes were calculated when possible as well as overall means for each category.

Effect Size Computations Effect sizes were computed individually for each study using the calculations presented by Glass, McGaw, and Smith (1981) paired with a “correction for sampling size” as formulated by Hedges (1981; Hedges & Olkin, 1985). In studies where the exact sample size for individual groups was not reported, estimations were by dividing the total n by the number of groups (Perry, 1997). The software DSTAT (Johnson, 1989) was used for the effect size calculations of each study. The advantage of using DSTAT was that it had the ability to compute for a variety of statistics, including: “(a) means and standard deviations, (b) t-tests, (c) F-tests, (d) r-values, (e) chi-square (!2) values, and (f) significance levels (p-values)” (p. 51). When available, the means and standard deviations of experimental control groups were used to calculate effect sizes. Most calculations used pooled SD, however, when pooled SD could not be calculated due to insufficient data, the SD of the experimental group was used. Also, procedures described by Arvey, Cole, Hazucha, and Hartanto (1985) were used to estimate effect sizes in a randomized experimental study that reported ANCOVA results, with the assumption that covariate means were equal, allowing for the standardized difference of posttest means to be compared (Cortina, 2000). Effect sizes were not calculated for pre-posttest gain scores unless standard deviations were available. Other procedures included converting Pearson’s correlational coefficient (r) into Hedges g in studies that compared multiple methods for effectiveness. Calculating effect sizes from F-test values is challenging. While techniques do exist for calculating effect size from F-tests (Cortina, 2000), other researchers strongly argue that that results are not reliable because of variance violations (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). The method for this study used a conservative approach and only analyzed effect sizes for F test’s and Chi-Square’s with one degree of freedom in the numerator as suggested by Mullen (1989). Interpretations of effect sizes were based on Cohen’s (1977) operational definitions: small effect size: d = .2; medium effect size: d = .5; large effect size: d = .8.

80 Criteria for Inclusion 1. The independent variable had to relate to conducting and/or nonverbal communication. 2. The dependent variables had to be related to the performance differences in ensemble or individual musicians. Performance skills could include a variety of musical elements, such as dynamics, articulation, rhythm, synchronization of ensemble, tone, or expression. 3. Musician participants were both instrumental and choral from a variety of age groups, ranging from elementary to college-aged students. 4. Studies with randomization and a control group were favored, although carefully designed quasi-experimental studies design were also included. 5. Studies could have been conducted anywhere across the world, but results needed to be available in English.

81 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS

The following chapter provides the best-evidence synthesis results of the twenty- three studies that met the inclusion criteria. Results were organized by five categories: 1) Expressive versus Nonexpressive, 2) Conductor-gesture Instruction, 3) Specific Conducting Gestures, 4), Nonverbal and verbal method, and 5) Synchronization. Narrative summaries were given for studies where effect sizes were not calculable. Overall results are found in Tables 1 and 2.

Expressive versus Nonexpressive The results regarding the impact of expressive conducting on ensemble performance are mixed. The House (1998) and Sidoti (1990) studies had effect sizes of +0.24 in favor of the expressive conducting condition, which falls into the “small” category for effect size. Caution is urged when interpreting “small”, because in the context of music making, any positive change in expressive playing could be regarded as beneficial. Alternately, Price (2006) and Price and Chang (2005) had negative effect sizes, -0.04 and -0.43, respectively. Both of these studies were examining the effect of expressive conducting on ensemble performance ratings. A “negative” effect size in this case does not signify that there was harm done by the expressive conducting condition. Rather is reflects that there was no effect from the expressive condition on ensemble ratings. Both Laib (1993) and Price (1991) reported no significant performance differences between expressive and nonexpressive conducting conditions. However, both studies found that students in the ensembles highly preferred the expressive conducting treatment. Lastly, Krudop (2003) found that expressive conducting did aid in ensemble performance, but only when ensemble members were proficient in their technical demands of the music.

82 Specific Conducting Gestures The overall results from the four studies in this category suggest that specific gestures do have an impact on ensemble performance in both positive and negative ways. Fuelberth (2003) investigated six conducting gestures on vocal tension. Note that in this case, the higher the effect size, the more effective that gesture was in eliciting vocal tension. The fisted (+1.32), stabbing (+1.10), and palm up (+0.99) gestures resulted in a large effect size, while the no change condition had a medium effect (+0.37). The two gestures that aided in producing the least amount of vocal tension, and falling in the small effect size range, were sideways (+0.22) and palm down (+.04) gestures. Fuller (2000) also examined specific conducting gestures on choral performances. Four gestures were isolated: managed preparatory gesture, subdivided patterns, metric conducting patterns, and no conducting. For purposes of computing effect sizes, the no conducting condition was used as the control group. In addition, the reported effect sizes reflect the overall effect of each gesture measured across eight conducting examples with four musical qualities (entrances, releases, unity of breathing, and expressiveness). Results indicated that the managed preparatory gesture (alignment with the singers’ breath) was consistently the most effective gesture and had a large effect size (+0.89). The subdivided and metric conducting patterns both had negative effect sizes (-0.09, 0.27). Given that the no conducting condition served as the control, the negative effect size suggests that the subdivided and metric gestures actually negatively impacted performer qualities. Other gestures that yield negative performance feedback are stationary body movement and disapproving facial expressions, as suggested by Grechesky (1985). Lastly, Gallops (2005) found that conductors with a highly developed gestural vocabulary were able to positively impact the sound of the ensemble, even when facial expressions and verbal instructions were not present. Interestingly, experience did not always correlate with a strong command of conducting technique. Further investigation is needed to isolate specific conducting gestures employed by advanced conductors, and the effectiveness of those gestures.

83 Conductor-gesture Instruction Results from Kelly’s (1997) study strongly suggest the positive benefits of explaining conducting gestures to young band students indicating large effect sizes for the rhythm (+1.73) and phrasing (+0.90) performance variables. Calculations of effect size were taken from the mean and SD of the posttest for the rhythm and phrasing performance variables. Although results for the main effects and covariates were given for the four performance variables, the researcher reported that only rhythm and phrasing indicated significant difference. Therefore, only the rhythm and phrasing posttests were compared for effect size. Cofer’s study (1998) also suggests that conducting-gesture instruction with young ensembles positively affects performance. Large effect sizes were present for both the pencil and paper (+1.45) and performance (+1.61) posttest. Results from univariate t-tests indicated that the performance execution of piano, forte, subito piano, subito forte, crescendo, decrescendo, and staccato were significantly better under the treatment condition. The results of the Taylor (1989) study should be interpreted with caution. Although the improvement of marcato, staccato, and legato articulations indicated large effect sizes, the study reported no significant difference between the control and treatment group, which suggests unreliable effect sizes.

Nonverbal and verbal methods Five studies focused on the effect of nonverbal (conducting) and verbal instructional methods. While several of these studies focus on rehearsal techniques, they also isolate the effect of conducting gestures on performance variables, and thus satisfy the inclusion criteria. For example, the Francisco (1994) study suggests that conducting gestures are effective in rehearsal, but within the context of verbal instruction and modeling (+0.37). The findings from Price (1983) also support that demonstration of a variety of techniques, including conducting, is the most effective rehearsal treatment. The remaining studies suggest mixed results. The Dickey (1991) study focused on verbal and nonverbal instruction on performance skills. While one of the treatment groups indicated a large effect size (+0.99) in favor of the nonverbal condition, the other

84 treatment group demonstrated a negative effect (-0.30). This of course could have been due to a number of variables, such as different students and conductors, so results should be interpreted with caution. Yarbrough (1975) found that while students preferred conductors with high magnitude, there was no significant difference in performance skills between conductors of high and low magnitude. Skadsem (1997) also found neutral effects for conducting gestures, suggesting that verbal instructions were more effective in eliciting dynamic changes from the ensemble than conducting.

Synchronization Results from the synchronization studies illuminate the nonverbal communication between conductor and ensemble. Results from the Hawkins (1991) study suggest that when trained to do so, choirs were able to sing equally well with and without a conductor. However, the Fredrickson (1994) study isolated visual and aural variables, finding that students performed best when they could both see the conductor and hear the ensemble. Lastly, Luck and Sloboda (2007) and Luck and Nte (2008) isolated participants’ ability to synchronize with conducting patterns. Interestingly, participants with conducting experience were more accurately aligned with the conductors’ beats than the musicians without conducting experience.

85 TABLE 1 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information and effect sizes for qualifying studies. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size EXPRESSIVE AND NONEXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING House (1998) Posttest-only 1 session 60 Advanced level The effect of expressive Performances and Expressive randomized collegiate and nonexpressive attitudes were rated Conducting: trumpet conducting on significantly higher +0.24 players performance and under the expressive attitude of condition. instrumentalists

Sidoti (1990) All-groups-all 4 days 139 High school band The effect of expressive Significant difference Expressive treatments students and nonexpressive in the performance Conducting: posttest only drawn from 4 conducting on the scores favoring the +0.24 "superior" performance of 8 expressive ranked bands expressive markings conducting condition. The diminuendo gesture was the least accurately performed expression while the fermata was the most accurate.

Price (2006) Posttest only, 1 session 51 Undergraduate The perception of No significant Relationship Likert-type music majors, conductor and relationship found between response form, mix of vocal ensemble performance between the conductor and post hoc and expressivity compared expressivity of the ensemble instrumental to state festival ratings conductors and the rating: students quality of the -0.04 ensemble performances.

86 (continued)

TABLE 1 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information and effect sizes for qualifying studies. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Price & Chang Posttest only, 1 session 89 College students The perception of No significant Relationship (2005) Likert-type enrolled in conductor and relationship found between response form, either a ensemble performance between the conductor and post hoc conducting, expressivity compared expressivity of the ensemble band to state festival ratings conductors’ and the rating: repertoire, or quality of the -0.43 instrumental ensemble techniques performances. class

SPECIFIC CONDUCTING GESTURES Fuelberth (2003) Quasi-experiment, 1 day 103 Mix of high The effect of six left All but one condition, Palm Down: baseline/ school, hand conducting palm down, resulted +0.04 observation undergraduate, conditions on in significantly Sideways: (6 times) and graduate inappropriate vocal higher vocal tension +0.22 vocal students tension from singers. No Change: +0.37 Palm Up: +0.99 Stabbing: +1.10 Fisted: +1.32

87 (continued)

TABLE 1 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information and effect sizes for qualifying studies. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Fuller (2000) Posttest-only 1 session 48 Three choirs of The effect of metric The managed Managed randomized college and conducting patterns, preparatory gesture Preparatory community subdivided patterns, (alignment with the Gesture: singers managed preparatory breath) was the most +0.89 gestures, and no effective technique conducting on for all four Subdivided expressiveness and performance Patterns: precision of release, conditions. -0.09 breath, and new entrance Metric Conducting Patterns: -0.27

CONDUCTING-GESTURE INSTRUCTION Kelly (1997) Pretest-posttest 10 weeks 151 Fifth-grade The effect of conducting Experimental groups Rhythm: randomized beginning instruction on four demonstrated +1.73 band students performance skills significant divided improvement in Phrasing: between 8 performing rhythms +.90 bands and phrasing.

88 (continued)

TABLE 1 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information and effect sizes for qualifying studies. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Cofer (1998) Posttest-only 5 days 60 Seventh grade The effect of conducting- Students who received Paper/Pencil: randomized band students gesture instruction on conducting +1.45 a written and instruction scored Performance: performance test significantly higher +1.61 on written and playing test.

Taylor (1989) Posttest-only 3 weeks 20 High school The effect of conductor No significant Marcato: randomized bands sensitization difference in the +0.85 (describing desired performance ability Staccato: articulation while between the control +0.81 demonstrating and experimental Legato: conducting gesture) groups. All groups +0.96 on the performance sightread accuracy of articulations more Note: articulations accurately during Large effect the neutral sizes, but no conducting significant condition. difference in study

89 (continued) TABLE 1 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information and effect sizes for qualifying studies. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size NONVERBAL AND VERBAL METHODS Francisco (1994) Observational, 1 session 25 Conductors The effect of conductor The combination of Combined behavior working with rehearsal techniques verbal, modeling, Method: frequencies and bands at on the performance and visual +0.37 post-hoc judging summer music improvement of bands communication was ratings camps the most effective technique for improved performance.

Dickey (1991) Pre-Posttest 10 weeks 128 4 middle school The effect of verbal and Students in the Nonverbal bands nonverbal instruction modeling group Group 1: on performance skills performed +0.99 significantly higher on rhythms and Nonverbal melodic patterns test Group 2: than did the control -0.30 group.

90 TABLE 2 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information for qualifying studies with noncalculable effect sizes.

Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size EXPRESSIVE AND NONEXPRESSIVE CONDUCTING Laib (1993) All-groups-all 1 session 10 High school (8) The effect of expressive The expressive Not Calculable treatments and college (2) and nonexpressive condition was posttest only concert bands conducting on the significantly performance level and preferred by judges perceptions of band for the advanced members high school and college bands. Ensemble members significantly preferred performing under the expressive conducting condition.

Price (1991) Posttest only, quasi- 2 weeks 52 8th grade band The effect of strict and There was no Not Calculable experiment students, expressive conducting significant representing 1 on ensemble difference in the band performance and performance quality opinions between strict and expressive conducting, however, students favored the expressive condition.

91 (continued) TABLE 2 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information for qualifying studies with noncalculable effect sizes. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Krudop (2003) Quasi-experiment, 1 session 8 University, high The effect of expressive The use of expressive Not Calculable posttest-only school, and and nonexpressive gestures only aided community conducting on the ensemble when choirs ensemble performance the technical demands of the music were mastered by the ensemble. SPECIFIC CONDUCTING GESTURES Grechesky Baseline, posttest, 2 weeks 11 High school The effect of various Various conducting Not Calculable (1985) randomized bands and conducting behaviors behaviors had a conductors on the performance positive impact on from Indiana rankings of ensembles the performance rankings while excessive talking from the conductor, stationary body movement, and disapproving facial expressions had a negative impact.

92 (continued) TABLE 2 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information for qualifying studies with noncalculable effect sizes. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Gallops (2005) Baseline, posttest, 1 session 40 Conductors (15) The effect of conducting Conductors with a Not Calculable randomized included band gestures on the highly developed and orchestra musical responses of gestural vocabulary directors at the performers successfully high school, impacted the college, and performances, even professional with the absence of level; facial and verbal Musicians cues. (25) were college brass, woodwind, and string players

NONVERBAL AND VERBAL METHODS Price (1983) Pretest-posttest, 4 weeks 48 Nonauditioned The effect of academic The combination of Not Calculable quasi-experiment college band task presentation, instruction, of nonmusic conductor performance, and majors reinforcement, and feedback resulted in ensemble practice on the highest musical achievement, performance gains attentiveness, and of the band and was attitude the most preferred method of students.

93 (continued) TABLE 2 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information for qualifying studies with noncalculable effect sizes. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Yarbrough Observational 3 days 207 4 mixed choruses The effect of conductor No significant Not Calculable (1975) (1 university, magnitude on the differences in the 3 high performance, performance, schools) attention, and attitude attention, or attitude. of mixed choruses The high magnitude conductor had the highest percentage of on-task student behavior and was the most preferred condition by students. Skadsem (1997) Quasi-experiment, 1 session 144 Mix of high The effect of conductor Verbal instructions Not Calculable baseline/nine school, verbalization, were significantly conditions, post undergraduate, dynamic markings, more effective in hoc and graduate conductor gestures, eliciting dynamic singers and choir dynamic responses than the level on singers’ other conditions. dynamic responses

SYNCHRONIZATION Hawkins (1991) Posttest-only 6 weeks 19 High school The performance level No significant Not Calculable randomized choirs, of choirs singing with difference between advanced and and without a the two conditions. beginning conductor levels

94 (continued) TABLE 2 The effect of conducting on ensemble performance: Descriptive information for qualifying studies with noncalculable effect sizes. Sample Independent and Study Design Duration N Characteristics Dependent Variables Results Effect Size Fredrickson Posttest-only 1 session 120 Collegiate-level The effect of loss of The control group Not Calculable (1994) randomized band students visual/aural stimuli maintained eye on performance contact with the accuracy and eye conductor roughly contact of 28% of the time, instrumentalists averaging 1 second per glance, Students who lost the audio stimulus had a tendency to rush.

Luck & Sloboda Posttest-only 1 session 24 University The effect of experience Students with Not Calculable (2007) randomized undergraduates on ability to conducting (conductors, synchronize with experience had musicians, and traditional conducting higher levels of non-musicians) beat patterns. synchronization with the patterns than musicians and non-musicians.

Luck & Nte Posttest-only 1 session 24 University The effect of experience Students with Not Calculable (2008) randomized undergraduates on ability to conducting (conductors, synchronize with experience had musicians, and different sized higher levels of non-musicians) conducting patterns. synchronization with the patterns than musicians and non-musicians.

95 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION

Synthesis of Results Review of Literature The many flourishing lines of inquiry in conducting research suggest that conductor competence requires a complex skill-set. There is not a single ability that defines a “great” conductor, but rather a myriad of musicianship, score study, conducting technique, and people skills. Max Rudolf (1950), author of the well-known conducting textbook The Grammar of Conducting, further illuminates this, stating: But all his musicianship and thorough study of scores will help him little unless he knows how to talk to people, work with them, and get results in a quick and direct manner… Musicianship and knowledge of psychology, however, still do not make a conductor. There is a technique of conducting just as there is a technique of playing the piano. (p.1) The purpose of the following exposition is to provide focus in revealing what areas of conducting competencies have been isolated and best methods for teaching conducting. Further discussion is given regarding the results of the best-evidence synthesis as well as implications for future research. Conducting Competencies. Research in nonverbal communication has suggested that nonverbal elements often work as a whole in expressing thoughts and emotions to others (Burgoon, Buller, Hale, & deTurck, 1984; Kurkul, 2007; Motley, 1993). However, research has also isolated specific nonverbal gestures in hopes of better understanding each element. The study of eye contact has received considerable attention in music. In conductor/teacher and ensemble/student relationships, research suggests that eye contact increases student attentiveness (Fredrickson, 1992, 1994; Yarbrough, Wapnick, & Kelly, 1979; Yarbrough & Madsen, 1998). Research also suggests that the amount of conductor eye contact impacts observers’ perceptions of the conductors (Harden, 2000; VanWeelden, 2007). However, gestures, posture, and overall effectiveness also seem to influence perceptions (Johnson, Fredrickson, Achey, & Gentry, 2003; VanWeelden, 2002). Lastly, conductor eye contact with the ensemble does not necessarily elicit eye

96 contact from the ensemble (Byo & Lethco, 2001), nor is it always beneficial. Research suggests that musicians will use less or no eye contact where technical demands of the music are challenging (Krudop, 2003). Additional research has focused on defining and coding conducting behaviors. Trends reveal that expert conductors possess a greater range of gestural vocabulary and use less stationary and disapproving behaviors than novice conductors (Byo & Austin, 1994; Grechesky 1985; Johnson, et.al. 2003; Karpicke, 1988). Research also indicated that an ensemble ability to interpret nonverbal gestures, whether from a novice or experienced conductor, is correlated to age and experience. Sousa (1998) found that of 55 conducting gestures, junior high students recognized the least amount of gestures while college student recognized the most. However, through conducting gesture-instruction, younger students’ ability to communicate effectively in a rehearsal significantly improves (Cofer 1998; Kelly 1997). Conducting Pedagogy. The development of conducting, which at one time was only learned through apprenticeship or experience, has found its place among many college and university programs as a requirement of musical studies. While several conducting textbooks have emerged as standards in the classroom, (Battisti & Garofalo 1990; Green 1996; Hunsberger & Ernst 1992; Labuta 2000; Rudolf 1995;) conducting curricula and sequencing methods seem to vary across the country (Boardman 2000; Chapman 2008; Haldeman 2001; Manfredo 2008; Romines 2003; Weller 1987; Zirkman 1984). However, one of the consistent methods across conducting programs is the use of videotaping. Research has indicated that systematic self-observation accompanied with videotaped feedback is especially beneficial for student improvement (Johnson & Fredrickson, 1995; Madsen & Yarbrough, 1980; Osman, 1989; Price, 1992; Standley & Madsen, 1991; Yarbrough et.al., 1979; Yarbrough, 1987). Considering the large number of students typically enrolled in a conducting course (Romines, 2003), self-observation techniques can be an additional resource to teacher feedback. Other pedagogical concerns include the development of a conductor’s physical and aural skills. Evidence suggests that most college instructors teach physical gestures through the practice of traditional conducting patterns while other classes develop skills

97 through kinesthetic exercises. Movement-based classes often draw on the principles of either Alexander (1923/1987), Dalcroze (1921), or Laban (1950/1980), or instructor designed exercises in expressivity or movement (Chagnon, 2001; Doebler, 1994; Hayes, 1988; Orzolek, 2002; Porter, 2000). Many resources have been developed to assist in the aural development of conductors. Error detection and programmed instruction methods have seen positive development of diagnostic skills in melodic and harmonic detection (Costanza, 1971; Malone, 1985; Ramsey, 1979) pitch and rhythm (Sheldon, 1998), and expression markings, intonation, and tempo (Sheldon, 2004). Others have developed error detection programs to be used while conducting (DeCarbo, 1982; Jones, 1990; Stuart, 1979; Spradling, 2009). Research has also examined effective methods of score study. Results indicate a variety of useful techniques including listening to a recording (Crowe, 1996; Hopkins, 1991), and silent score study (Hochkeppel, 1993). Lastly, the most recent line of conducting research has focused on the use of technology. This line of research began in the 1960’s by Max Mathews who eventually developed baton measuring devices such as the “Daton”(1989) and “Radio Baton” (1991). Current technology measures the synchronization between ensemble tempo and conducting gestures (Luck & Sloboda, 2007; Luck & Nte, 2008) as well as muscle tension, gesture tendencies, and physiological responses of conductors (Marrin & Picard, 1998). With respect to conducting pedagogy, the Digital Conducting Laboratory has been developed at Arizona State University (Marrin, 2000) and “virtual rehearsal” software (Dennis, 2003) has been made available. Also, it has been suggested that Blackboard, an educational collaboration software platform, is useful for viewing and evaluating videotaped conducting performances.

Best-Evidence Synthesis Expressive versus Nonexpressive. With considerable emphasis being placed on developing expressive conducting gestures, it is notable that the performance effects of artistic conducting technique are mixed. Only two of the six studies in the best-evidence synthesis revealed a positive, yet small, effect toward the expressive conducting condition. Interestingly, the Madsen, et. al. (2007) study revealed that not a single

98 observer listening to audio excerpts of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra realized that the performance was actually five splices of different performances under five different professional conductors, spanning a 15 year period. Considering the varying style, leadership, and charisma of the conductors, it is remarkable that participants did not perceive noticeable performance differences. These results do not suggest that expressive conducting is not important. It could be that researchers are still working to define and measure the nuances of expressive conducting. Also important to consider is that all of the expressive conducting studies included in the best-evidence synthesis employed a posttest-only design. Further research is needed to explore the benefits of expressive conducting over longer periods of time. It is possible that expressive conducting positively affects a variety of performance elements, including an ensemble’s conceptual framework of a piece of music, listening skills, and focus of attention to the most relevant musical ideas. Also, it is valuable to consider the Krudop (2003) study, which illuminated one of the most important variables in performance – the ensemble’s technical and musical proficiency. Measuring the preparedness of an ensemble may be a way to strengthen research designs when examining the effect of expressive conducting. While the actual impact on musical performance may not be clear, evidence does strongly suggest that outside observers, audience and ensemble members are positively influenced by what they perceive as expressive conducting (Harden, 2000; House, 1998; Laib, 1993; Price & Chang, 2001, 2005; Price & Mann, 2009; Price & Winter, 1991; Silkebakken, 1988; VanWeelden, 2007; Yarbrough, 1975). Research also suggests that perceptions are influenced by nonmusical attributes, including physical attractiveness (Wapnick, et.al.,1997), and performance order at festival (Bergee & Platt, 2003; Bergee & McWhirter, 2005). Specific Conducting Gestures. Results indicate that specific gestures can positively and negatively impact ensemble performance. These findings have critical implications for both performance and pedagogical fields. Of all the studies regarding the effect of the conductor on ensemble performance, the ability to demonstrate gestures was the variable most associated with influencing the sound of ensemble.

99 Most interesting is that many of these gestures would fall under the “advanced” conducting technique umbrella, which as research indicates, is not part of most undergraduate conducting classes. Not only does this require the physical coordination of a conductor, but the aural engagement to interact with an ensemble. While both of these elements are advanced techniques, it still seems necessary that the building towards these skills begins with novice conductors. Having a more focused idea of which skills are most useful could dramatically transform conducting classes. Conductor-gesture Instruction. The combination of large effect size and significant difference in the Kelly (1997) and Cofer (1998) studies strongly suggests that conductor-gesture instruction with young ensembles positively improves the performance of rhythm, phrasing, and expression markings. The importance of young musicians’ comprehension of the gestures and communication with the conductor should not be underestimated. Particularly with younger ensembles, performance improvement may be less a function of the conductor’s ability to show a particular gesture but rather the musicians’ understanding and interpretation of the gestures given. The potential impact of conductor instruction on student development is tremendous. However, while the positive results of the studies in this area are promising, there were only three studies found at the time of the literature search. More research is needed in this area to investigate the effect of long-term conducting instruction and the effect of instruction on other musical variables. Nonverbal and verbal methods. The purpose of the articles in this category was to isolate the effect of conducting on ensemble performance. However, the nature of the studies also examined other techniques within a rehearsal, such as verbal instruction, modeling, and qualities of high magnitude. The overall results suggested that in a rehearsal setting, nonverbal qualities of conducting are most effective when included as a part of other rehearsal techniques. These results may seem obvious to an experienced conductor who already possesses a variety of rehearsal skills in addition to their conducting. However, how does a novice conductor gain skills in the multiple areas needed for running an effective rehearsal? The skills shown to be effective are not part of the general undergraduate conducting curriculum. These results raise questions as to where in the curriculum to include rehearsal techniques. Should it be addressed in

100 conducting classes, music education classes, or experienced for the first time during a student teaching or practicum experience? It seems that building the whole picture of the conductor would be most beneficial to students and that ample opportunities be provided for building habit strength and effective teaching skills. Synchronization. Synchronization studies are a valuable contribution to the field, because they measure the actual response from ensemble member to conductor. Before asking questions regarding the impact of conductor expressiveness, it is important to investigate the fundamentals of how an ensemble and a conductor communicate. The Luck and Sloboda (2007) and Luck and Nte (2008) studies examined musicians’ tempo synchronization to conductors’ beat patterns. The finding that musicians with previous conducting experience had the most consistent tempo suggests that conducting instruction could aid in better ensemble communication. Also interesting is that while the Fredrickson (1994) study did find that students performed best under the conducting and audio condition, it also measured the amount of eye contact from the ensemble. In the best cases, it appears that ensemble members only watch a conductor 28% of the time. This leaves over 70% of communication unaccounted. Further investigation on interactions within an ensemble while performing is warranted.

Methodology Answers to Research Questions 1. What are the lines of experimental and descriptive research in the field of conducting? 1) Nonverbal conducting behaviors 2) Perceptions of conductors 3) Conductor/ensemble performance 4) Conductor teaching effectiveness 5) Conducting pedagogy 6) Conducting technology 2. Are there specific areas in conducting research that are lacking emphasis?

101 Yes, conductor/ensemble performance, conducting technology, and perceptions of conductors are relatively recent research interests that could benefit from further inquiry. 3. Do nonverbal gestures of a conductor impact the performance of an ensemble? Yes, although it depends on the gestural vocabulary of the conductor, the experience of the ensemble, and the preparedness of the ensemble on their music. 4. What is the performance impact on an ensemble of expressive versus nonexpressive gestures? Results are mixed. Of the six studies, two reported small effect sizes, two reported negative effect sizes, and two reported no significant difference between the expressive and nonexpressive condition. Additional results reveal that regardless of performance improvement, that observers and ensemble members prefer expressive conducting. 5. Are there specific gestures that improve or hinder an ensemble? Yes, managed preparatory gestures were highly effective in improving choral performance with respect to entrances, releases, unity of breathing, and expressiveness. Interestingly, the absence of conducting was more effective than subdivided and metric conducting patterns, suggesting that those gestures hinder communication with the ensemble. Additionally, fisted, stabbing, and palm up gestures were highly effective in producing vocal tension of singers, while sideways and palm down gestures produced the least amount of tension. Lastly, stationary body movement and disapproving facial expressions produced negative effects on ensemble performance. 6. Is there an effect of conducting-gesture instruction on ensembles? Yes, the research revealed that teaching young ensembles how to interpret conducting gestures is highly effective on performance skills and comprehension of the ensemble. Performance variables that significantly improved were rhythm, phrasing, and the execution of seven expression markings.

102 7. Is there a relationship between nonverbal and verbal methods of rehearsing? Yes, within a rehearsal environment, results suggest that the most effective environments include a combination of conducting, verbal instruction, and modeling. Skills in both conducting, aural and diagnostic skills are required of a conductor. 8. Is there a relationship between conducting and ensemble synchronization? Yes, although research has just begun to isolate the variables. Overall results suggests that ensembles do perform better with the aid of a conductor, that ensemble members give eye contact 28% of the time during performance, and that conducting instruction may improve ensemble tempo and communication with the conductor.

Implications/Suggestions for Further Research. Further research is needed for both conducting competencies and conducting pedagogy. While many unanswered questions remain, there is a rich body of research that offers classifications and coding procedures for skills of expert conductors. Understanding models of effectiveness can then guide how pedagogues sequence the teaching of such skills. Further discerning the learning processes of physical and aural skill development could strengthen methods of sequencing. It is also interesting to note that while many useful error detection and programmed instruction programs exist, they are not widely accessible. The publication of such resources could be of great benefit for undergraduate and graduate conducting classes as well as individual conductor development. The same can be said for advances in technology. While tremendously innovative digital and virtual reality labs have been created, these are certainly not broadly available nor extensively used. In general, as research continues to define, measure, and discover ways to improve what we know about conducting, practical resources need to also develop. It is also important that different types of research inquiry compliment one another. As suggested by Colwell (1967): Without philosophical research, without consensus and clearly defined goals, experimental research work on total programs and methods of instruction music wait. For it is not the job of experimental research to formulate objectives and

103 give directions: its job is to improve the methods and procedures for arriving at the desired end products. (p. 75) More efforts need to be made to bridge the knowledge gap between conducting practitioners and researchers. It seems that a combined effort would serve to strengthen both the performance technique of conductors as well as pedagogical sequencing.

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139 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Name: Amy I. Acklin

Birthplace: Albany, GA

Birthyear: September 21, 1976

Higher Education: Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida Major: Music Education/Wind Conducting Degree: Ph.D. (2009)

University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky Major: Instrumental Conducting Degree: MM (2000)

University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky Major: Music Education Degree: BM (1998)

Experience: University of Louisville Louisville, Kentucky Fall 2009 Assistant Director of Bands & Assistant Professor of Music Education

Etiwanda Intermediate School Etiwanda, California 2004-2006 Band (5-8)

Rancho Cucamonga High School Rancho Cucamonga, California 2001-2004 Band (9-12)

Bolsa Grande High School Garden Grove, California 2000-2001 Band & Orchestra (9-12)

140