Title Problems in the Maintenance and Sustainable Use of Forest Resources in Priamurye in the

Author(s) Zyryanova, Olga A.; Yaborov, Victor T.; Abaimov, Anatoly P.; Koike, Takayoshi; Sasa, Kaichiro; Terazawa, Minoru

Citation Eurasian Journal of Forest Research, 8(1), 53-64

Issue Date 2005-02

Doc URL http://hdl.handle.net/2115/22190

Type bulletin (article)

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Hokkaido University Collection of Scholarly and Academic Papers : HUSCAP Eurasian J. For. Res. 8-1: 53-64,2005 © Hokkaido University Forests, EFRC

Problems in the Maintenance and Sustainable Use of Forest Resources in Priamurye in the Russian Far East

ZYRYANOVA Olga A.!,2 *, YABOROV Victor T?, ABAIMOV Anatoly p.z, 1 4 KOIKE Takayoshi\ SASA Kaichiro and TERAZAWA Minoru

I Hokkaido University Forests, FSC, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0809, 2 V.N.Sukachev Institute of Forest SB RAS, Academgorodok, Krasnoyarsk, 660036, Russia 3 Far Eastern State Agricultural University, Blagoveshchensk, 675005, Russia 4 Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan

Abstract The forests of Priamurye, located in the southwestern part of the Russian Far East, are of great environmental and social importance. They are diverse in space, time and species composition and have large wood stock, which was traditionally exploited for timber harvesting. They are also a source of medicinal, food and technical resources, as well as being a location for hunting. In recent decades the productivity of the forests has been decreasing. This is a result of forest policy based on profit­ making from timber selling, and unsustainable methods of wood harvesting as well as on the disastrous impact of natural calamities such as forest fires, insect outbreaks and fungi infestations. In addition, the local forestry have faced a lack of co-ordination of federal and regional legislation, inadequate fmancing and the destruction of the forest management system during the period of reforms and the transition to a market-based economy. For sustainable use of the forest resources in Priamurye, a new system incorporating principles of practical forestry and forest management should be developed. The primary issues include: 1) the determination of the forms of forest ownership through the adoption of a new Forest Code of the Russian Federation; 2) the determination of sources and mechanisms for forestry fmancing, especially through forest resource lease; 3) the development of regional permanent forest surveying, fire protection and forest health monitoring systems.

Key words: Priamurye, forest resources, biodiversity threats, sustainable use and management

Introduction former tightly controlled management, based The territory of the Priamurye occupies the upper and exclusively on national ownership of forest resources, middle Amur River basin and is almost fully coincident is ineffective under these changing conditions. Thus with the Amurskaya administrative district, located in forestry faces negative consequences such as low cost the southwestern part of the Russian Far East (Fig. 1). of wooden resources and uncertainty in land ownership This is one of the most forested areas of the Russian (The First State Report 1997). Government and local Federation. The forests cover 31.64 mIn. hectares, authorities follow direct use forest policy, seeking which make up about 64% of the district's territory mainly to derive profit from timber selling. They fail to (Yaborov 2000) and 26.6% of the total Far Eastern estimate indirect use value, option value or, moreover, forested area (Tagil'tsev et al. 2004). The wood stock non-use value of the forests and forest ecosystems. of Priamurye is estimated to be 2.03 billion m\ which Recently, wood harvesting and processing, as well as equates to 17% of the total wood stock in the Russian reforestation activities have declined. This has resulted Far East. These forests are also rich in various foods in worsening social conditions and has created negative and medicinal and provide technical resources changes in the structure and dynamics of the forests and recreational possibilities, all of which have the (Korovin 1995, Perevertaylo 2004, Yaborov 2000). potential for local industrial development and export Urgent action is required in order to stabilize forestry commodities in the future (Kolesnikova et al. 2001, and forest purchasing enterprises, and to conserve the Kolomytsev 2004, Koryakin and Romanova 2001, forest environment and its resource potential. National Kurlovich 2001, Sukhomirov 2001, Philip'ev et al. programs of reforestation and forest protection 2001, Tagil'tsev et al. 2001, 2004). In order to conserve highlighted this need for action, but there has been these forests as a viable natural resource, effective insufficient financial allocation to fulfill this need methods of forest management and sustainable use must (Korovin 1995). be established. In this report, we summarize the current state of the At present, whilst Russia is in transition to a market­ forests in the Amurskaya administrative district, provide economy it is also in a major economic crisis. The a short history of their usage and dynamics, describe the

(Received; Jan. 21, 2005: Accepted; Feb. 16,2005) * Corresponding author: [email protected] 54 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 8-\ (2005)

600

Okhotsk sea

Fig. 1. Location ofPriamurye (Amurskaya administrative district) in the Russian Far East.

main threats under changing economic conditions and stands have a history of fire. By the mature age the fire outline the perspectives of forest maintenance and can influence larch stand 2-3 times. Pinus sylvestris rehabilitation. New proposed methods of forest stands occur on drier or sandy sites (Qian et al. 2003) management are also discussed. and are more abundant in the central and northwestern We follow the nomenclature of Latin names of both regions (Yaborov 2000). Picea ajanensis accompanied species and pest-insect names established by with Larix gmelinii, Abies nephrolepis and Betula Czerepanov (1985) and Baranchikov et al. (2002), platyphylla stands appear as small patches on different respectively. slopes throughout the region, usually near the timberline (Qian et al. 2003, Yaborov 2000). Mixed spruce-fir Forests of Priamurye and the main tree species forests are distributed, mainly, in the mountainous north Natural condition: This region is composed of and northeast. The vertical zonation involves Larix different geomorphological units. The northern and gmelinii reaching 900-1000 m, Pinus pumila from 900 western parts are mountainous, with elevations ranging to 1300 m, and alpine tundra above 1300 m. In the from 50 m in the Amur River Valley to 2412 m in the south, on southerly slopes, broadleaved Quercus Stanovoy range. The eastern part of the region is mostly mongolica forests at 300-500 m may interrupt the larch lowlands, whilst the southern part includes extensive forests and dark-conifer Picea ajanensis forests at 400- wet plains in the central Amur River Valley. 800m. The configuration of the relief strongly affects the Broadleaved and mixed cool temperate forests climatic features. In the north and west the climate is represent the zonal vegetation in the south, particularly continental with severe winters, whilst towards the east in the Amur lowlands (Qian et al. 2003). Pinus the climate changes to subcontinental with cold winters koraiensis, Quercus mongolica, TWa amurensis, Betula and warm summers. The mean temperature of the davurica_and B. costata are major components of these warmest month (July) ranges from 15 to 20°C, and that forests. Despite physiognomic differences in zonal of the coldest month (January) from -25 to -32°C vegetation types, the presence of temperate species in (Zhakov 1982). Even though this is an interior region, it the boreal forests is a characteristic feature of the region. is influenced by Pacific air masses that go up the Amur Azonal vegetation in the region includes the extensive River Valley in summer. In winter the extensive grass meadows in the Amur valley. Broadleaved forests Siberian anticyclone controls the northwestern part of dominated by Ulmus japonica, Fraxinus mandshurica the region. Annual precipitation ranges from 400 mm in and mandshurica as well as Populus the west to 650 mm in the east, most of which falls in suaveolens, Chosenia arbutifolia, Salix rorida and S. summer (Zhakov 1982). udensis occur widely in the valleys of the various Amur Vegetation: The large topographic and climatic tributaries (Qian et al. 2003, Yaborov 2000). differences result in diverse vegetation. The zonal Natural forests absolutely dominate in the forest vegetation of the northern and western parts of the cover with man-made forests being equal to 0.2% in region is boreal forest, represented by various types of area (Yaborov 2000). Endemic vascular species in the Larix gmelinii forest (Qian et al. 2003). It occupies 60- region include 13 plants (Qian et al. 2003). 80 % of the forested area (Yaborov 2000). Most forest Forest resources in Russian Far East 55

Characteristics of tree species cold soil, its anatomical structure and metabolic Larch (Larix gmelinil) adaptation of the fine roots, its tolerance of very low There is confusion over which Larix species occupies winter temperatures, its shallow root system and its the Priamurye, owing to the great variability in its ability to develop adventitious roots above the root morphological features. Dylis (1961, 1981) considers collar (Abaimov et al. 1996, 1997, 1998a,b, 2000). the western race of Larix dahurica to occupy the Under favorable soil conditions larch trees can reach Amurskaya district. Other researchers (Bobrov 1972, 30-35 m in height and 1 m in diameter at breast height 1978, Koropachinskiy and Vstovskaya 2002) consider while near the timberline it usually gets prostrate dwarf that both Larix gmelinii and L. cajanderi larch species form. Larch performs best on gentle, moderately to occur and easily hybridize in this region. Some poorly drained slopes or flats with fine-textured clayey scientists consider all Far Eastern larch species and podzolic soils under mesic and hydric soil moisture their hybrids under the specific epithets of "gmelinii" regimes (Abaimov et al. 1996, 1997, Yaborov 2000). (Kurahashi 1988, Ishizuka et al. 1994, Martinsson 1995, Mountainous larch forests dominated by dwarf-shrubs Schmidt 1995, et al.) or "dahurica" (Krestov 2003). Ledum palustre and Vaccinium vitis-idaea have Based on our own research, we hypothesize that the maximal productivity of 270 m3 per hectare. hybrids of Larix gmelinii and L. cajanderi prevail in Whilst Larix gmelinii can live 500 years or more, its Priamurye. However both parents' species also occur longevity in the region usually does not exceed 250-300 (Abaimov 1980, Abaimov and Koropachinskiy 1984, years because of fungi diseases. The fungi infestation Abaimov et al. 1998a). Acknowledging that this increases with aging, and the losses of harvesting wood requires further research and that the hybrids greatly from the decay begin to exceed annual tree stock resemble their parents, in order to avoid any confusion increment after 110 years (Ageienko and Klintsov in this report we present the parent's Larix gmelinii as 1969). For this reason, 100-120-year old larch stands the main tree species in Priamurye. are considered the best to cut (Yaborov 2000). Gmelin larch is widely distributed over the district Larch trees begin to produce seeds at 10 years of age, territory, occurring on various site types from the and an abundant seed crop occurs every 2 years bottom of the river valleys to the timberline in the (Yaborov 2000). Natural restoration is successful in all mountains (Photo 1). This species makes up a large logged areas, except those covered with sedge or percentage of the local forests both in area and in wood wheatgrass species. For successful regeneration to occur, stock (Table 1). The wide ecological range of larch can the groups of larch trees are left uncut. It is necessary be explained by several of its eco-biological features, condition to get viable, i.e. with developed embryo, such as an ability to take up water even from relatively seeds due to cross-pollination inside tree groups.

Table 1. Distribution area and wood stock of the main tree species (Yaborov, 2000: data for January 0lst, 1998).

Area Wood stock Tree species Thousand ha % Conifers Gmelin larch (Larix gmelinii) 13,428.3 72.070 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) 685.3 2.740 Spruce (Picea ajanensis and P. obovata) 449.0 3.700 Fir (Abies nephrolepis) 47.1 0.370 Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) 7.9 0.060 Hardwood species Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica) 431.8 0.850 Stone birch (Betula ermanii) 53.2 0.180 Elm ( Ulmus japonica ) 1.3 0.007 Ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) 0.5 0.002 Amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense ) 0.1 0.002 Softwood species Birches (Betula platyphylla, B. costata, B. davurica) 4,932.1 15.890 Trembling poplar (Populus tremula) 163.3 0.820 Poplar (Populus suaveolens) 24.5 0.230 Basswood (Tilia amurensis) 19.0 0.120 Willows (Salix sp. ) 18.7 0.080 Alder (Alnus hirsuta) 5.8 0.009 Shrubs 2,191.9 2.870 Totally 22,460.1 100.000

Note. In Russian forestry hardwood species are considered to have wood hardness of>40 MPa, while the hardness of softwood species does not exceed 40 MPa (Forest encyclopedia 1986). 56 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian 1. For. Res. 8-1 (2005)

Larch stands, especially in the south of the region, poorly differentiated strata. Pure fir stands are rare, were significantly exploited by industrial fellings during occuring in small patches on 0.2 % of the forested area the last 120 years. Additionally, fires, occuring every 3- (Yaborov 2000). 5 years, killed larch saplings, resulting in changes to the Spruce trees can reach 30 m in height and 100 cm in tree species composition and even replacement of larch diameter and live to 350 years. They begin to produce forests by secondary Betula platyphylla forests. Since seeds after 15-20 years in the outer space and after 30- the beginning of the 20th Century the total area of larch 40 years in the stand. Because of shallow rootage and forests has decreased threefold (Yaborov 2000). thin bark, ground fires easily damage the lower branches and abundant flammable epiphytic lichens Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) provide crown fires in spruce forests. All post-fire Despite insignificant distribution, of only 3.1 % of the succession in the area of dark-conifer forest results in forested area (Table 1), Scots pine forests are of greater the formation of spruce stands, but various factors may commercial importance than larch forests. Pine stands deflect succession from the standard sequence (Krestov are distributed, mainly, in the central and northwestern 2003). part of the Amur administrative district while in the east Mixed spruce-fir-Iarch forests with green moss cover, they occur in small patches on well-drained soils on the occupying different slopes and highlands, have the flats (Yaborov 2000). Pine trees form both pure and highest productivity. Their natural regeneration is also mixed stands with Larix gmelinii, Quercus mongolica successful. High mountainous spruce stands, and Betula platyphylla. Picea ajanensis, Populus accompanied usually by Larix gmelinii, have low suaveolens and P. tremula rarely occur as canopy trees. productivity and sparse canopy. Dense shrub and herb On the most productive sites pine reaches a height of layers prevent natural regeneration, and the number of 30-35 m and a diameter of 60-80 cm, living a maximum seedlings is insufficient. These forests are of great of 300-350 years (Photo 2). High productivity (200 m3 protective significance. Regular catastrophic fires result per hectare) is a characteristic of mountainous pine in their replacement by larch-birch forests as well as in forest with Vaccinium vitis-idaea dominant in the the development of tall-shrub vegetation. Fires also dwarf-shrub layer (Yaborov 2000). Pine is a fast­ destroy the thin soil layer. The post-fire development of growing species which begins to produce seeds after 8- spruce forests through the larch stage remains poorly 12 years. The natural regeneration of Scots pine forests investigated in the Russian Far East (Krestov 2003). is considered to be successful, although the influence of Spruce forests in the river valley have environmental fire is great. importance only for water and soil protection. Besides naturally regenerated forests, pine plantations were created on 87 thou hectares in the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) southeastern part of the region (Yaborov 2000). Despite both small wood stock and distribution However, the impact of forest fires, flooding, excessive (Table I), pine forests from Pinus koraiensis have a soil moisture and wild animals caused 50% mortality of particular status in Priamurye (Photo 3). They possess the pine trees on these plantations. high quality wood, provide a habitat for wild animals, During the last century, demand for timber resulted in produce nutritive-rich pine nuts and unique medicinal extensive felling of pine forests. Disastrous fires also plants as well as regulate and protect water levels and, strongly affected the composition and structure of pine indirectly, fish resources in the rivers (Yaborov 2000). stands. Both the fellings and the fires have led to the The total wood stock of Korean pine is located in the exhaustion of commercially valuable pine wood stock most southeastern part of the region, near the border and to the replacement of high-productive stands by with . secondary birch and oak forests or shrub vegetation as Under favorable conditions Pinus koraiensis reaches well as to the decrease of their area. Since 1913, the 35-40 m in height and 120 cm in diameter and lives to total area has been halved (Yaborov 2000). The scale of 400 years. Pure tree stands do not occur. Mixed disturbance is so great that discussion of a possible total (broadleaved-Korean pine) forests perform best on prohibition of Scots pine felling in the region is lower and middle slopes from sea level up to 800-900 m, considered to be most urgent. coexisting and closely interacting with spruce, larch and oak forests (Krestov 2003). Mixed forests occupy the Spruce (Picea ajanensis and P. obovata) and fir drained sites with nutrient-rich soils and mesic moisture (Abies nephrolepis) species regimes. Mixed fir-spruce forests are the most significant The mixed forests (various broadleaved trees and from an industrial viewpoint. They occupy about 2 % of Korean pine) are of great scientific and conservational the forested area (Table 1) in the mountainous north and importance. They include the elements of both nemoral northeast regions. and boreal vegetation due to their climatic position as Picea ajanensis (Ayan spruce or Yezo spruce) forms well as to their non-glaciated history (Krestov 2003). pure or fir-mixed stands on all mesic well-drained sites. The diversity and the community structure of the mixed Due to their great shade tolerance, spruce trees usually forests are really complex in space and time. In dominate in such mixed stands, prevailing both in the Priamurye the broadleaved-Korean pine forests upper layer and in the wood stock. Ayan spruce usually represent the westernmost limit of the special Pan­ forms structurally simple one or two-layer stands with Mixed Conifer-Broadleaved Forest zone (Tatewaki Forest resources in Russian Far East 57

1954-57, 1958) that also include the Hokkaido forests significance. Like white birch, B. costata is harvested in (Matsuda et al. 2002). Priamurye. This tree species is more warmth and soil Having many strong competitors, the mixed moisture demanding than the B. platyphylla. It also broadleaved-Korean pine forests are characterized by occupies burned areas successfully, but it is quite fue­ very complex natural dynamics, even over the lifespan intolerant (Yaborov 2000). B. davurica is an important of one generation of pine tree, being controlled by composer of broad leaved and mixed cool temperate different ecological factors (Krestov 2003). The forests. It can accompany white birch in larch forests. development of a mixed tree stand goes through eight sequential stages (Kolesnikov 1956). Korean pine can Representative species regenerate intensively every 35-40 years (the so-called (Quercus mongolica, Fraxinus mandshurica, TWa explosive regeneration), (Ivashkevich 1933, Solovyov amurensis, Phellodendron amurense) 1958), even under the canopy. But only gap formation Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica) is one of the due to the natural death of old trees permits saplings to many broadleaved trees in Priamurye (Table 1), which develop further. The basal area and total volume of are of commercial value due to high quality wood. Korean pine in the stands increase up to 300 years and Under favorable conditions oak trees reach 25 m in then decrease (Krestov 2003). Under such stable height and 80 cm in diameter. They usually form pure conditions providing the possibility to both shade­ stands or mixed with Betula davurica. All components tolerant nemoral species as well as the light-demanding of the forest communities are drought and frost tolerant species to complete their life cycles species diversity of as well as fire resistant. mixed forests is maintained at a certain level. Owing to high sprout ability this oak is evident in Wood harvesting and fires are the most important burned and logged areas. Considering the easy disturbance factors in cool temperate forests. The collection of the seeds (acorns) it is recommended as a pattern of tree stand development after cutting has soil protective forest tree after completion of coal similar dynamics to that of natural stand development. mining activity, especially in the south of the However, fire is a complicating factor that effects Amurskaya district (Yaborov 2000). diversity in different ways, but always decreases it over Ash (Fraxinus mandshurica}, basswood (Tilia the long term (Krestov 2003). Wildfires resulted in the am urens is}, Amur cork tree (Phellodendron development of stable secondary forests, dominated by amurense), elm (Ulmusjaponica) as well as Mongolian self-regenerating long-living Larix gmelinii, or by fire oak and Manchurian nut tree (Juglans mandshurica) tolerant pure Quercus mongolica stands. The latter are are the main composers of the broadleaved forest. widespread in the densely populated areas where human Moreover, they have their northern and northwestern activity insures regular fires. range limits within the territory (Krestov 2003). All Due to industrial harvesting and periodic fires the these species are of high commercial value due to wood area of Korean pine forests have decreased 70 times quality, medicinal and edible properties (Berkutenko since the beginning of the 20th Century (Yaborov 2000). and Virek 1995, Gukov and Lichman 2004, Kadaev and At present wood harvesting of the pine trees is totally Fruentov 1968, Sukhomirov 1986, Tagil'tsev et al. prohibited in the Amurskaya district. To conserve these 2004). They are conserved in state protective areas. All forests and to promote natural regeneration, Korean felling of Amur cork tree, basswood and Manchurian pine seedlings grown from seeds in nurseries are nut tree is prohibited in the territory of the Amurskaya planted on drained fertile soils. district (Yaborov 2000).

Birch species Shrubs and Hanas (Betula platyphylla, B. ermanii, B. costata, B. The shrub layer in Priamurye forests is rich and davurica) diverse. The most widespread species are Aralia elata, White birch (Betula platyphylla) has the largest area Crataegus dahurica, Eleutherococcus senticosus, among light-demanding species (Table 1). Being of low Padus avium, Rhododendron dauricum, Rosa commercial value (Koike 1995), this tree is one of the acicularis, Salix caprea, Sorbus sibirica, and Viburnum composers of mixed forests and seral species in sargentii. All these species have wide usage in official reforestation after clear cuttings and wildfires (Photo 4). medicine (State pharmaceutical indices 1989, State list Due to fast vegetative propagation on logged and of medicines 1993) and, especially, in folk medicine burned sites the area of birch forests has increased 60 (Krebel' 1958, Vostrikova 1971). Some of them times since the beginning of the 20th Century, a trend (Eleutherococcus senticosus, Viburnum sargentii) are that is continuing (Yaborov 2000). of high decorative value (Koropachinskiy and On the fertile soils white birch reaches 27 m in height Vstovskaya 2002) while wild berries of the others and 50 cm in diameter and lives to 120 years. It is a (Crataegus dahurica, Sorb us sibirica} are used to fast-growing tree species reaching harvesting age by 50- produce different saps and jams (Izmodenov 2001). 60 years. B. platyphylla is expected to be utilized for Actinidia kolomikta, Schisandra chinensis (Photo 5a) medical purposes in the future (Tagil'tsev et al. 2004). represent inter-layer plants in forest communities as Stone birch (Betula ermanii) forests form the belt lianas. They are known mainly as medicinal and ranging from 800 to 1100 m and are of soil-protective decorative plants (Ageienko and Komissarenko 1960, 58 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 8-1 (2005)

Table 2. The resources of wild berries and nuts (Yaborov, 2000).

Total area, Possible harvesting area, Resource species thousand ha thousandha Nut species

Siberian dwarf-pine (Pinus pumila) 95.3 95.3

Corylus mandshurica 13.7 0.7

Berry species

Red berry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) 305.5 305.5

Blue berry (Vaccinium uliginosum) 136.6 132.0

Laptev 1971). export products to countries such as Japan and . It was estimated that the resource stocks of these Non-use value of the forests and forest ecosystems is species range from just a few tons to several hundred of special significance for the local citizens. Sixty hot tons (Tagil'tsev et al. 2004). However, both total stock springs with unique mineral water are located in the and its harvesting share is not exactly known. It is one Amurskaya district. In such areas and in the forests of the urgent problems facing forestry and forest surrounding large cities the anthropogenic activity is management in the region. getting higher year by year, leading to the destruction of the precious forests ofPriamurye. Other forest resources Herb medicinal plants, excluding wooden plants, are Short history of forest consumption and dynamics also numerous in Priamurye. Of the 140 herb species Local aboriginals (nanaitsy, ul'chi, daury, nivkhi, traditionally used in official or folk medicine or recently etc.) traditionally used wood for their skills' promotion. permitted for official usage (Kile 2004, Tagil'tsev et al. However, they never damaged the forests, instead 2004), 62 species are harvested in the Amurskaya caring for them as their natural habitats. district (Yaborov 2000). Species such as Panax ginseng The first reports of anthropogenic influences causing (Photo 5b), (Photo 5c), Inula japonica, severe forest fires were during the Mongol invasion are the endemics of the Russian Far East and are (1210-1235). During that period of time per capita considered significant medicinal plants (Tagil'tsev et al. forest was equal to 5m3 while total forest consumption 2004). over the Far East was estimated at 2.5-3 min. m3 The forests are rich in wild berries and nut resources (Yaborov 2000). (Table 2) as well as in mushrooms (200 species) and From the 13th to the 17th centuries, natural edible herbs (140 species). There are also many wild restoration of the forest and shrub vegetation occurred animals with such species as the sable, squirrel, fox, elk without visible human impact. Annual logging for and reindeer being of the highest commercial value construction and local population needs made up about (Report on the environmental situation in Amurskaya 300 thou. m3 by the mid 1600's (Yaborov 2000). At 1998). About 200 bee plants provide the base for forest that time Russian people began to occupy vast bee farming. Honey, fern and red berry are important territories near the Amur River. They built towns and

1913 1923 1934 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1988 1990 1995 1998

years Fig. 2. Logged wood stock in Amurskaya administrative district throughout the 20th Century (Yaborov, 2000). Forest resources in Russian Far East 59 villages and created arable land by slash-and-burn transportation (Photo 7). methods. In the 19th Century fire occurrence Insufficient cutting of softwood species, especially significantly increased with severe forest fires occurring white birch, has led to the increase in their distribution every 10-30 years. They absolutely destroyed mountain by 2.7% since 1966 while preferable harvesting of the dark coniferous forests and steppe vegetation in the conifers has resulted in the decrease of their area by southern part of the region. 12.8% over the same period of time (Yaborov 2000). At the end of 19th Century the construction of the Overall, since 1978 only the forested area has been Amur railway accelerated the development of the local increasing. This is a reflection of the changing forest industry, in particular selective cutting. Since approaches to forestry which began in the early 1970's, 1km of the railway track required 300 m3 of wood, with increasing emphasis on forest management and forest harvesting increased in 1913 (Fig. 2). The reduction in the levels of the commercial harvest number of forest fires also increased. Both the cuttings (Sheingauz 1996). All other parameters of forest and the fires led to deforestation and the decrease of the productivity had worsened since 1966 (Table 4). This conifers' share in the total stock. was as a result of the previous forest policy, existing In the 20th Century there were three more periods methods of clear cuttings and periodic forest fires as (1940, 1950 and 1988) of heightened forest harvesting well as of natural features of the forests. For example, closely related with periods of increased wood needs total wood stock of the mature and overmature stands 3 (Fig. 2 Photo 6). But actual wood volume harvested decreased by 474 min. m . Of these the commercial, annually was always 1.8-3.5 times less than annual mainly conifer, wood made up 149.6 min. m3 while allowable stock being sharply decreased by 9.2-18.7 average wood losses during harvesting were estimated times over the last decade (Table 3). The level of the to be 25 % or 37.4 min. m3 (Yaborov 2000). Thus, 287 utilization was very low: only 3-73% of the annual min. m3 of the stock in the mature and overmature allowable wood stock was cut and delivered to the stands were destroyed by fires, insect outbreaks and consumers at different years, declining regularly, fungi infestations. Additionally, destruction of young especially by 1995-1998 (Table 3). The conifers are conifer forests by fires can result in the essential usually utilized more thoroughly (11-55%) than the decrease of wood harvesting in the near future. Areas other species (Table 3). Such large wood losses such as the traditionally exploited forested areas happened due to existing methods of harvesting and surrounding the Trans-Siberian railway, as well as in

Table 3. Forest logging and utilization over the period of 1965-1998 (Yaborov, 2000).

Annual allowable stock, thou cubic meters Wood volume harvested, thou cubic meters Level of wood utilization, % Years Hardwood Softwood Hardwood Softwood Hardwood Softwood Total Conifers Total Conifers Total Conifers species species species species species species 1965 11997.0 8955.0 457.0 2585.0 3436.0 3101.0 29.0 306.0 29.0 35.0 6.0 12.0 1980 11494.0 7798.0 200.0 3496.0 4801.0 4544.0 13.0 239.0 43.0 58.0 7.0 7.0 1985 10915.0 7663.0 200.0 3052.0 5695.0 5320.0 51.0 324.0 52.0 68.0 21.0 11.0 1990 10915.0 7663.0 200.0 3052.0 6057.0 5572.0 18.0 467.0 55.0 73.0 9.0 15.0 1995 15838.0 11555.0 53.0 4230.0 1715.0 1595.0 2.0 118.0 11.0 14.0 4.0 3.0 1998 15838.0 11585.0 53.0 4230.0 848.2 743.5 2.8 102.0 5.4 6.4 5.2 2.4

Note. The definition "level of wood utilization" in Russian forestry means the share of actually harvested wood compared to the total allowable stock and is calculated as the ratio of these two parameters (in percent).

Table 4. Forest productivity dynamics over the period of 1966-1998 (Yaborov, 2000).

Years Parameters of productivity 1966 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 Forested area, thousand hectare 19,351.9 19,948.0 20,851.2 21,244.2 21,777.0 21,852.9 22,460.1 Total wood stock, million cubic meters 2,098.55 1,813.43 971.57 1,938.67 1,986.02 1,953.84 1,991.97

Mean age of the stands, years 84 83 85 70 80 79 77

Wood stock of the mature and overmature stands, 1,474.01 1,081.98 489.40 1,004.50 987.56 955.66 999.94 million cubic meters

Average wood stock per I hectare of the forested 108 94 97 98 97 89 89 area, cubic meters

Average wood stock per I hectare of the mature 134 128 132 133 131 130 130 and overmature stands, cubic meters

Average wood stock increment per 1 hectare of the 1.34 1.23 1.40 1.39 1.38 1.36 1.20 forested area, cubic meters 60 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian 1. For. Res. 8-1 (2005)

the Amur, Zeya and Bureya river basins will be affected chrysoloma and Fomitopsis pinicola also resulted in by this (Yaborov 2000). significant (15-19%) losses of wood. It is reported that of the total forested area in the Amurskaya district, The main threats to the forests and forest 324.6 thou hectares with 5.4 mIn. m3 of wood stock was biodiversity infected by pest-insects and different diseases by the At present, in addition to the disastrous methods of beginning of 1999 (Yaborov 2000). This situation is the wood harvesting, a criminalization of timber felling result of inadequate funding, damaging harvesting may also cause severe ecological and environmental techniques and the lack of both sanitary logging and disasters. According to estimations, about 50% of the permanent forest health monitoring. harvested timber in the region is illegal (The First State Report 1997). Protected wood trees, such as Further considerations Phellodendron amurense, Pinus koraiensis, Tilia The Priamurye territory of the Russian Far East is amurensis represent the most valuable and are cut first one of the richest forest resource regions in the Russian (Progunkov 2004). A lack of good country roads leads Federation. The forested area makes up 22460.1 to the concentration of clear-cutting areas using heavy thousand hectares and the total wood stock is equal to machinery just near arterial roads. 1991.97 million cubic meters. The per capita forest Moreover, local people gather wild forest berries, stock is estimated to be 1.9 thousand m3 in an area of mushrooms, ferns and nuts, resulting in an increase in 21.8 hectares (Yaborov 2000). Non-timber resources fire occurrence and damage to wildlife habitats and non-use value of the forests are also essential. (Izmodenov 2001, Lysoon 2004, Yaborov 2000). But in the last 30 years all the main parameters of Amateur hunters go poaching in the Amur Taiga for forest productivity have been regularly decreasing due bears, whose paws are considered a delicacy by to natural calamities and anthropogenic activities. And southeastern people (Skripova 2001), as well as for only an insignificant part of the forests - 0.6% of their tigers, whose bone, together with bear's bile, are total area - is conserved in state reserves (Yaborov important components of Tibetan medicines (Bazaron et 2000). al. 1984). What should be undertaken to maintain and to Insufficient fmancial support from the Federal improve these precious natural forests? Studies of the government leads to the situation where natural forest responses of tree species to the timing and severity of conditions are not accurately and systematically natural and anthropogenic disturbances should be monitored. Numerous wildfires (43% of the total undertaken in order to predict their growth accurately number) made by forest visitors cannot be detected at (Bazzaz 1979, Mooney and Gulmon 1983). This is an the onset, and spread over vast territories. The important task for the forest scientists and plant Amurskaya district is considered to be one of the most ecologists whose role is underestimated under existing fire-dangerous regions in Russia (The First State Report economical conditions (Korovin 1995). Moreover, the 1997, Yaborov 2000), with 17,793 wildfires in an area system and principles of practical forestry and forest of 1338 thousand hectares registered over a fifty-year management, which remain unsolved despite adopting period (1949-1998) (Yaborov 2000). This equates to an the Principles of Forest Legislation (Regulations 1993), average of 356 fires annually with the mean area of should be changed. The most urgent among these are each fire estimated at 75 hectares (Yaborov 2000). issues connected with the legal status of the forests, There are two fire-dangerous periods a year: late spring such as the mechanism of forestry fmancing and the (April-May) and early autumn (August-September). The development of national forest regulation. The first step area of burned stands is estimated to be 4-5 (Sheingauz in the decision is to adopt, as soon as possible, a new 1996) or even 7.5 times higher (Korovin 1995) than the Forest Code of the Russian Federation that must harvested area. delineate a clear conception of the legislative status of Both illegal clear-cuttings and scattered forest fires the forests and forms of property ownership. resulted in the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. The previous regime of central financing of forestry Vulnerable and rare species, such as Panax ginseng, as an expense of the national budget seems to be kept in Gastrodia elata, Rhodiola rosea, are threatened with part, replaced by a multichannel system of fmancing, extinction. based on forest revenue. One of the most acceptable Insect pests and fungi infestations are also severe mechanisms for economic forest utilization is natural calamities in the forests of Priamurye (The First recognized to be through forest resource leases State Report 1997). Periodic outbreaks of Siberian (Regulations 1993). According to this document, lease­ moth (Dendrolimus superans sibiricus), gypsy moth holders are the legal owners (which may include foreign (Lymantria dispar) and nun moth (Lymantria monacha) parties or individuals) and have the rights to forest result in the death of tree stands while such wood utilization. The forest leases can be extended up to 50 boring pests as black fir sawyer beetle (Monochamus years and may be renewed. State regulation of forest urussovi) and spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus) activities and the management of forests must be carried usually infest fire and insect-weakened or overmature out by specially authorized state agencies, that are not trees, greatly decreasing wood quality (Ageienko and connected to the production activity (Korovin 1995). Klintsov 1969). Stem fungi infestation by Phaeolus To provide effective forest management, an schweinitzii, Phellinnus hartigii, Porodaedalea information database documenting the state and Forest resources in Russian Far East 61 dynamics of the forests, their growth and yield patterns Russian Far East. Moscow, Lesnaya Promyshlennost as well as information on ecosystem responses to the Press, USSR, 389 p. (in Russian) anthropogenic and natural disturbances should be Ageienko, AS. & B.T. Komissarenko (1960) developed in the Amurskaya administrative district. Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. and its Raising the level of forest fIre protection requires medicinal usage. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, USSR, 40 p. solving a series of urgent problems, such as (in Russian) strengthening aviation and ground forest fIre services, Baranchikov, Yu.N. & D.R. Kucera (2002) Russian­ increasing manpower assignments for fIre fIghting English Lexicon of Forest Entomology. Agriculture crews and extending the area of fIre-controlled territory Handbook. 723 U.S. Department Agriculture Forest (Yaborov 2000). A forest health monitoring system Service. Washington, DC, 298 p. should also be developed in the region. Bazaron, E.G. & T.A. Aseeva (1984) Vaidurjiya-onbo Thus, a new system of forest management in - the book of indo-Tibetan medicine. Novosibirsk, Priamurye, which combines market mechanisms and Russia, 118p. (in Russian) national regulation in areas of forest utilization, Bazzaz, F.A. (1979) Physiological ecology of plant regeneration and protection, is closely dependent on its succession. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 11: 351-371. creation in Russia. The development of such a system is Berkutenko, AN. & E.G. Virek (1995) Medicinal and a very long and complex process that requires changes food plants of Alaska and Russian Far East. not only in legislation, but also in economic and social Vladivostok, Russia, 192 p. (in Russian) structures. Bobrov E.G. (1972) The history and systematics of larch species. Leningrad, USSR, 96 p. (in Russian) Acknowledgements Bobrov E.G. (1978) The forestforming conifers of the We wish to thank Dr. Yu. N. Baranchikov for USSR. Leningrad, USSR, 189 p. (in Russian) collecting literature of the Latin names of pest-insects Czerepanov, S.K. (1985) Vascular plants of Russia and and fungi diseases and Zyryanov Vyacheslav for the adjacent states (the former USSR). Cambridge Univ. preparation of the fIgures. Financial support in part by Press, UK, 516 p. Joint Grant of Siberian and Far East Branches of the Dylis N.V. (1961) The larch species of Eastern Siberia Russian Academy of Sciences n. 53 is greatly and Far East. Moscow, USSR, 210 p. (in Russian) acknowledged. Dylis N.V. (1981) The larch. Moscow, USSR, 96 p. (in Russian) References Forest encyclopedia (1986), v.2. Moscow, USSR, 631 p. Abaimov A.P. (1980) Gmelin and Cajander larch (in Rusian) species (, distribution, variability, Gukov, G.V. & AYu. Lichman (2004) Complex use of hybridization). Abstract of PhD thesis. Krasnoyarsk, Juglans mandshurica Maxim. In the south of the Far Russia, 24 p. (in Russian) East. In: Materials of the 2nd Intern. Confer. "Forest Abaimov A.P. & I.Yu. Koropachinskiy (1984) Gmelin bioactive resources", Khabarovsk, September 21-23, and Cajander larch species. Novosibirsk, Russia, 2004. Khabarovsk, Russia: 233-236. (in Russian 120 p. 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Photo 1. Larch forests of Larix gmelinil Photo 2. Scots pine forest in winter. dominate in the forest cover of Priamurye. (Photo by V.T. Yaborov) (Photo by V.T. Yaborov)

Photo 3. Pinus koraiensis forest growing in the protective area. (Photo by V.T. Yaborov) Photo 4. Secondary birch forest of Betula platyphylla with the fern as the mam component of the herb layer. (Photo by V.T. Yaborov) 64 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian 1. For. Res. 8-1 (2005)

b a c

Photo 5. Schisandra chinensis (a), Panax ginseng (b), Gastrodia elata (c) belong to the group of the most important medicinal plants. (Photos by: (a) HP free photo, (b) H. Mamiya, (c) M. Yamanouchi)

Photo 6. Industrial wood harvesting in the southeast of Priamurye. (Photo by V.T. Yaborov)

Photo 7. Losses of the wood during the harvesting: the wood, logged and left on the cutting area (a), and the wood, lost during the transportation (b) . Adopted from Yaborov (2000)