Aquaculture Asia, vol. 12, no. 2, pp.1-50, April-June 2007

Item Type monograph

Publisher Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific

Download date 29/09/2021 15:03:23

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/18372 ISSN 0859-600X Volume XII No. 2 April-June 2007

Towards sustainable monodon culture in Sri Lanka Optimal nutrition for marine fish

Development of green mussel cultivation in Thailand Producing high-quality fish seed

Aquaculture of sea-pineapple in Japan Selective breeding of river catfish Aquaculture Asia Volume XII No. 2 ISSN 0859-600X is an autonomous publication April-June 2007 that gives people in developing countries a voice. The views and opinions expressed herein are Capacity needed in broodstock management those of the contributors and do not represent the policies or There are indications that the seed quality of some important cultured freshwater position of NACA. fi sh species in Asia have declined. The cause of the decline in seed quality is unknown, but there is a perception amongst government technical agencies that poor broodstock management practices (genetic and husbandry) are a contributing factor. Few public or private sector hatcheries in the region have Editor effective broodstock management plans in place. Seed production is often based Simon Wilkinson on a handful of fi sh that may have been imported in some cases decades ago, [email protected] creating considerable potential for genetic deterioration if broodstock have not been carefully managed.

When problems with seed quality are observed such as reduced growth rate the Editorial Consultant most common coping strategy is to try and introduce ‘fresh’ broodstock from an Pedro Bueno outside supplier, which may be no better managed, and frequently by requesting assistance from another country. A ‘quick fi x’ perhaps, assuming that the source stock are actually in better condition (they may not be), but not really a sustainable solution as it does not address the underlying problem of the need for better NACA broodstock management practices. An intergovernmental organization that promotes The translocation of broodstock within the region also has its own risks. Firstly, rural development through there is a substantial risk of homogenizing genetically distinct fi sh populations. sustainable aquaculture. NACA Accidental escapes from aquaculture facilities happen with monotonous regularity, seeks to improve rural income, and the deliberate restocking of public waters is frequently undertaken without increase food production and reference to the genetic diversity of receiving populations. It also creates the risk foreign exchange earnings and of introducing serious exotic pathogens into key seed supplies, an event that has to diversify farm production. The frequently occurred throughout the aquaculture sector leading in some cases to ultimate benefi ciaries of NACA massive and ongoing economic losses throughout the region. activities are farmers and rural communities. There is a real need to identify issues and strategies for building capacity in broodstock management that will assist countries in the region to sustain quality seed production. This is not only a prerequisite for reducing reliance on imported broodstock and seed, it will also underpin the possibility of selecting representative Contact broodstock for restocking public waters and developing or maintaining genetically The Editor, Aquaculture Asia improved strains for farming purposes. Look to this to become increasingly a PO Box 1040 burning issue in future. Kasetsart Post Offi ce Bangkok 10903, Thailand Starting this issue you’ll fi nd a new section on the last page, the ‘NACA Bookshelf’. Tel +66-2 561 1728 The purpose of this section is to highlight key publications of interest to readers Fax +66-2 561 1727 who may not have regular internet access, and who may not be able to visit www. Email: enaca.org often. We hope that this section will help raise awareness of some of the [email protected] fantastic publications that are available for free download on the NACA website, Website http://www.enaca.org and maybe encourage the occasional visit to an internet cafe to obtain them, and some of the other 780 or so publications that are available there. In this fi rst printing of the ‘bookshelf’, we have focussed on some of NACA’s fl agship and most popular publications from the last couple of years, which should be on the ‘bookshelf’ of every serious aquaculturist. Future issues will emphasise new publications as they are published on the web. Printed by

Scand-Media Co., Ltd.

1 In this issue

Sustainable aquaculture

Towards sustainability of black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon farming in Sri Lanka 3 D.E.M. Weerakoon

An economic analysis of stock enhancement of Persian sturgeon Acipenser persicus in Iran 8 Opposite. Hassan Salehi

Aquaculture and environmental sustainability in Thailand: Food or fi nancial security? 12 Jamie Stewart and Ram C. Bhujel People in aquaculture

Cage fi sh culture - successful income generation in manmade reservoir Kulekhani, Markhu, Nepal 16 Page 8. Ash Kumar Rai and Suresh Kumar Wagle

Peter Edwards writes on rural aquaculture: Diversifi cation of rice farming alleviates poverty in a Bangladesh village 18 Research and farming techniques

Aquaculture of sea-pineapple, Halocynthia roretzi in Japan 21 TTT. Nguyen, N. Taniguchi, M. Nakajima, U. Na-Nakorn, N. Sukumasavin, K. Yamamoto Page 18. Development of green mussel cultivation in Thailand: Sriracha Bay, Chonburi Province 24 Suriyan Tunkijjanukij and Alongot Intarachart

Selective breeding for growth and fi llet yield of river catfi sh Pangasianodon hypophthalmus in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam 26 Nguyen Van Sang, Nguyen Van Hao, Dinh Hung, Pham Dinh Khoi, Bui Thi Lien Ha, Vu Hai Dinh, Nguyen Dien

Page 21. Genetics and biodiversity

Fish for life: Producing high quality fi sh seed in rural areas of Asia 28 David C. Little, Benoy K. Barman and Corinne Critchlow-Watton Asia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network Magazine

Utilisation of local feed ingredients in tiger grouper grow out moist diets 33 Usman, Rachmansyah, Neltje N. Palinggi and Taufi k Ahmad Page 24.

Optimal nutrition for marine fi sh 37 Arjen Roem

SEAFDEC tests its feed formulations for marine fi shes 38

NACA Newsletter 42

Page 33.

2 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture

Towards sustainability of black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) farming in Sri Lanka D.E.M. Weerakoon PhD

Director General, National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka

In the early 1980s, a number of local entrepreneurs and a few multinational companies embarked on culture of Penaeus monodon (black tiger shrimp) in ponds along the North Western coastal belt from Madampe to Puttalam, responding to initiatives by the government to develop shrimp farming for the export trade. The shrimp aquaculture industry in Sri Lanka originally commenced in Batticaloa in the eastern coast in the late 1970’s and fi nally concentrated in the northwestern coastal belt covering with 1,344 farms covering an area of more than 4,500 ha, around 3,000 ha of which comprised actual grow out ponds. This industry also triggered the development of about 120 hatcheries catering to the post larval needs of the farmers. In Batticaloa District, where shrimp farming fi rst The Dutch Canal, an important shared water source for the shrimp farming industry. began and was later abandoned due to civil unrest, farming activities have quantity of processed (headless) shrimp namely, closed systems, semi-closed recommenced in recent years. Over exported in the year 2004 was 2,462 MT systems and re-circulation systems for 60 small scale farms with an average earning a total export value of Rs. 2359 culture. However, up to the year 2003, farm extent of 1-2 ha were in operation million (Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic as there was inadequate monitoring and by the end of 2002, with a total pond Resources, 2005). This fall has been as regulation of the industry, uncontrolled area of 155 ha. However, during the a result of the advent of ‘white spot’ viral farming practices utilizing substandard recent tsunami that swept the North, disease which sprang up intermittently culture techniques and post larvae, North-Eastern and Southern coasts of from 1996 onwards. especially by small scale unauthorized Sri Lanka, most if not all shrimp farms shrimp farmers, brought about an on the eastern coast were affected or Shrimp farmers originally practiced the unprecedented escalation of the white destroyed. ‘open system’ aquaculture technique spot disease resulting in a near total in earthen ponds, until the white spot collapse of the industry in 2004. Shrimp farming has been the most virus and yellow head viral diseases lucrative commercial aquaculture devastated the industry, fi rstly in 1996 In 2003, the National Aquaculture Devel- activity in Sri Lanka since it commenced and subsequently in 2003. This caused opment Authority (NAQDA) along with in mid eighties. The industry recorded serious economic losses to the industry the Fisheries Ministry of the Wayamba its peak economic performance in the and its stakeholders. After these Provincial Council, spearheaded a year 2000, earning Rs. 5,041 million disease outbreaks, the farmers adopted comprehensive program for control of in foreign exchange. However, the reduced water exchange systems, the disease spread and rehabilitation of the shrimp farming industry in the Analysis of Shrimp Export Earnings from 1985-2005 5500 NWP. The initial steps taken by NAQDA were so fi rm and decisive that it led to a 5000 series of events, amidst stiff opposition 4500 from some stakeholders with vested 4000 interests effectively counteracted by 3500 NAQDA, culminating in the formulation 3000 of ‘Crop Calendars’ resulting in effec- 2500 Value (Rs. Mn) tive control of the spread of disease 2000 amongst shrimp farms. The Sri Lanka 1500 Aquaculture Development Alliance 1000 (SLADA), which was established in 500 mid 2004, subsequently extended their

0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 assistance in implementing this control Year mechanism initiated and implemented

April-June 2007 3 Sustainable aquaculture

by NAQDA. At present, the spread of culminated in the latter period of 2003. Table 1. Details of Hatchery the white spot disease is effectively Total processed shrimp exports dropped Regularization. controlled. This article describes the to 2,400 MT in 2004 compared to 4,300 activities undertaken by NAQDA which MT in the year 2003. Total led to control of the disease spread. Hatcheries inspected 91 Approved hatcheries 54 Establishment of a Illegal hatcheries 37 Certifi cation of shrimp Shrimp Farm Monitoring & No. regularized 30 hatcheries Extension Unit No close down 43 No. licensed 49

During the hey days of shrimp farming The very fi rst action initiated by NAQDA above, have helped NAQDA to control in Sri Lanka, the lending institutions was to establish a Shrimp Farm Moni- the outbreak of the WSDV to a signifi - made the initial mistake of dishing toring and Extension Unit (SFM&EU) cant extent. out loans to shrimp farmers without in Chilaw with a well trained technical evaluating the pros and cons of this staff. The staff comprised of two groups; industry vis a vis: a) the carrying one group to monitor the activities of the Disinfecting shrimp ponds capacity of the Dutch Canal for example shrimp hatcheries and the second group infected with white spot determining the number of shrimp farms to monitor the activities of the shrimp disease that the water in the Dutch Canal can farms. sustain without bringing about changes in the ecosystem, b) the quantity of post A committee comprising various stake Another action initiated by the SFE&MU larvae needed to stock all the shrimp holders of the industry, including offi cials offi cers was to act immediately on farms and c) the number of hatcheries from the Fisheries Ministry of the WPC, receiving information about disease available to cater to the needed the Wayamba Central Environmental occurrence in shrimp farms. In this requirement. As the total number of Authority, Coast conservation Depart- instance, the offi cers, on arriving at shrimp farms, both authorized and ment, NARA, the District Secretariat, the affected site, would inform the unauthorized began to grow (unauthor- the Department of Fisheries & Aquatic shrimp farmers to harvest non-infected ized shrimp farms mushroomed Resources and NAQDA, was appointed shrimps from the pond using nets. The during the mid 90’s with the change to visit each and every shrimp offi cers would assist in this process by in government), the number of shrimp hatchery operating in the Puttalam making available the drag nets from hatcheries also grew rapidly to cater to district with the view to inspect and the SFE&MU in Chilaw. Every attempt the much needed post larvae of shrimp. examine whether the hatcheries were was made to prevent the farmers from These backyard hatcheries which operating in accordance with previously discharging the contaminated waters lacked basic standard requirements established guidelines and requirement into the environment. After the non were set up by villagers who did not criteria. Non compliant hatcheries infected shrimps were harvested, the have the basic technical know how and were given adequate time to make the SFE&MU offi cers disinfected the water standards required for operating shrimp necessary structural changes necessary in the affected ponds using a chemical, hatcheries. Due to the lucrative returns and to obtain equipment critical for the which destroyed the diseased shrimp from operating a shrimp hatchery - the production of quality post larvae. Hatch- in the pond. After 4 to 7 days the price of a post larva at the time ranged eries that met the prerequisites were water was released to the surrounding between Rs. 0.60 to Rs. 1.25 - some certifi ed and issued with Management sedimentation canals. This process is villagers borrowed from banks while Licenses and non-complying hatcheries still continued by the SFE&MU offi cers others sold their personal assets in were closed down. At present, only based in Chilaw to the best of their order to set up shrimp hatcheries on 50 of the former 130 hatcheries are ability. However, there are some errant the advice provided by the so called operating in the Puttalam district. These farmers who discharge the contami- consultants who were aplenty at the are regularly monitored by the offi cers of nated waters to the Dutch Canal on the time. The author is personally aware the SFM&EU in Chilaw. sly. Awareness programs have been of some boat owners of the fi shing conducted by the SFE&MU offi cers on industry, who sold their assets (boats) to the detrimental effects of such actions set up shrimp hatcheries. Testing shrimp broodstock and in certain sub-zones the shrimp for white spot disease farmers themselves are taking action to Up to the year 2004, there were 130 prevent the contaminated waters being shrimp hatcheries operating in the discharged in to the canal, once they Puttalam district. A majority of these The next action initiated by NAQDA was detect such disease occurrences in lacked the basic requirements, with the to test the incoming brood stock and farms in and around their own facilities. owners adopting substandard methods the hatched post larvae of shrimps in SFE&MU offi cers will also inform the to produce post larvae to supply the hatcheries for white spot viral infections. other shrimp farmers in an affected area shrimp farmers. After the disease This was carried out by NAQDA using through mobile public address systems, outbreak, the demand for shrimp post polymerase chain reaction (PCR) about the location of the diseased farm larvae gradually dropped and some facilities of the Fisheries Ministry of and urging the farmers to restrain from hatchery owners also dropped the price the WPC, and is still being carried out pumping water from the Dutch Canal to a fi gure as low as Rs. 0.10 to Rs. today as a service to the industry. This, into their ponds until the crisis period 0.20 per post larva. This resulted in the together with the actions described is over. This action however, has now production of low quality post larvae and the escalation of the disease which

4 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture waned as the need for such does no Replanting destroyed small scale farms did not have the longer arise due to lower incidence of mangrove areas along the capacity to re-circulate the water within disease. Dutch Canal the ponds without adhering to water exchange with the Dutch Canal. Some shrimp farmers who had the capacity to Regularizing unauthorized Along with the demarcation of the engage in closed farming systems were shrimp farms reservation along the canal, steps have allowed to crop two times per year with also been taken to replant the bounda- the concurrence of the Shrimp Farmers’ ries along the canal and other mangrove Association, to which those particular After 1995, with the then government areas which have been destroyed due farmers belonged, and with the approval change, a large number of shrimp farms to illegal constructions with mangrove of NAQDA. without proper government approvals plants in collaboration with the Forest mushroomed from Thoduwawa to Department. A 10 acre stretch has One drawback in this practice was a Puttalam in the NWP. Some of these already been planted with mangroves reduction in the total farm production unauthorized shrimp ponds/farms were during 2005 with the assistance of the output per year which had a direct effect constructed in reservations provided Fisheries Ministry of the NWPC. on export volume. In the year 2005, the under the law by the authorized shrimp quantity of processed shrimp exported farms, some in wetlands and some was 1,800 MT down from 2,400 MT of others in the dried up areas of the Dutch Implementation of ‘Crop processed shrimp exported in 2004, the Canal itself. These farms increased the Calendars’ year in which the industry experienced pressure on the Dutch Canal and also the biggest loss in production, a result led to fl oods during the rainy season, of the worst disease outbreak in the which were the main cause of the The implementation of the ‘Crop latter half of the year 2003, as was proliferation of diseases in the sector Calendar’ came in to being in the year mentioned earlier. However, NAQDA is over a period of time. 2004. As mentioned earlier, this was confi dent that this drawback is only a necessitated by events leading to a total temporary one and that the industry will Under the rehabilitation of the shrimp collapse of the shrimp farming industry pickup once NAQDA completes its most farming industry program, another in late 2003. Although there was stiff ambitious program, with regard to the action initiated by NAQDA is to regu- opposition to this decision by various rehabilitation of the Dutch Canal, ever to larize these unauthorized ponds/farms. stakeholders with vested interests, be undertaken up by an institution. This is done not by closing them down NAQDA stood fi rm in its decision to in their entirety, which would result implement this ‘Crop Calendar’. in immense social problems, but by Rehabilitation of the undertaking an inspection of these The principle underlining the ‘Crop Dutch Canal unauthorized shrimp ponds/farms by Calendar’ was to divide the shrimp a committee specially appointed for farm area in the Puttalam district from the purpose. The main task of this Thoduwawa to Kalpitiya and Puttalam One of the most ambitious projects committee is to determine the areas of in to sub-zones and next devise a to be undertaken by NAQDA after its the Dutch Canal and other reservations calendar with the participation of the establishment in 1998 by an Act of that have been encroached upon and to stakeholders (shrimp farmers, proces- Parliament was to de-silt/dredge the take action to have those ponds within sors, hatchery operators and shrimp Dutch Canal, based on a study carried the reservations demolished, after feed importers), to enable shrimp out by a private consultancy. The major informing the illegal operators. farmers in particular sub-zones to farm reason for white spot disease escalation and crop within a particular time frame. from its inception in the year 1996, to its As a fi rst step in implementing this This method prevented all shrimp worst attack in 2003, was the pollution activity, NAQDA has taken steps to farmers from engaging in farming and in the Dutch Canal brought about by obtain the services of the Department of cropping at the same time and also years of silting which prevented the Surveys to demarcate the boundaries prevented haphazard stocking of shrimp free fl ow of water in the canal. The on either side of the Dutch Canal which ponds by errant farmers. This calendar discharge of used water from the shrimp are predetermined reservations and to was streamlined over the next two years ponds back to the canal took along mark the boundaries using standard and at present there are three cropping with it unutilized shrimp feed, pond concrete posts used by the Department periods, vis-à-vis, ‘Pera Yala’, ‘Yala’ bottom wastes and a nutrient load which for such purposes. About two kilometers and ‘Maha’ during which periods shrimp compounded this problem resulting in have been already surveyed and farmers in selected sub-zones are the intermittent disease outbreak and its marked and the work is in progress. A allowed to farm and crop. This process escalation to other farms as well. 60 km stretch along the Dutch Canal reduced the number of farms being is earmarked to be measured and stocked at any given time to a minimum, The Dutch Canal or Hamilton Canal permanently marked using concrete so reducing the pressure on the Dutch was built during the Dutch occupation posts, during 2006/2007. Canal which provided the water to the of Sri Lanka from the seventeenth to shrimp farms. This also prevented all eighteenth century. This canal was farms from cropping two times a year built by connecting the lagoons in the as was practiced earlier resulting in the North Western and Western coastal escalation of the disease among the zones with the objective of developing shrimp farms. This was essential as a waterway from the Puttalam Lagoon most farms could not practice closed right up to the Negombo Lagoon to farming system approaches as the facilitate the transportation of goods

April-June 2007 5 Sustainable aquaculture

from Puttalam to Colombo for trading purposes. Various proposals were put forward by the Ministry of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources to dredge this canal where it was most silted, but failed due to the lack of funds needed for the purpose. However, in the Year 2004, after presenting the facts on the relationship of the silting of this canal to escalation of the white spot disease in shrimp in the NWP to Treasury offi cials by NAQDA and the Shrimp Farmer’s Consortium, for the fi rst time in the history of the Dutch Canal, funds were provided by the Treasury to commence de-silting the canal at designated areas.

The de-silting of the Dutch Canal is expected to improve its water fl ow, thus bringing about a fl ushing of the spent water from the shrimp farms. It is Maintenance of the Dutch Canal - years of accumulated silt must be removed. envisaged that this cleaning up opera- tion and the increase in the fl ow rate Formulation of Best • Chemicals imports and their usage would enhance the carrying capacity of Management Practices the water in the canal, thus making it (BMPs) Shrimp farmers/hatchery managers/ possible for more farms to be stocked broodstock collectors/feed & chemical during a particular crop cycle. With the importers are expected under Aqua- increase in the number of farms being NAQDA has formulated BMPs for the culture Regulations to adhere to the activated in a particular crop cycle, following activities with the concurrence above BMPs. Failure to comply with there will be a gradual increase in the of NARA, shrimp industry stakeholders, regulations will result in prosecution and farmed output, contributing to an overall Dept. of Animal Production & Health, if found guilty, operators will be liable increase in the quantum of processed Central Environmental Authority of the for a substantial fi ne and/or a term of shrimps exported per year. With the NWPC, Faculty of Veterinary Science, imprisonment. farmer confi dence returning, as a result SLSI, Quality Control Unit of the Dept. of less incidence of diseases affl icting of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources and With the afore mentioned activities shrimp production, with other factors the University of Wayamba: initiated by NAQDA to rehabilitate and remaining unchanged (international sustain the shrimp farming industry market price and cost of imported • Shrimp farm management in the NWP, it has been possible to shrimp feed), its only a matter of time effectively control the proliferation of before the industry ca reach the export • Shrimp hatchery management the white spot disease and at present, production levels recorded prior to there is a general awareness among the year 2004. That is, to generate an • Shrimp brood stock collection the shrimp farmers who have grouped export production of 3,000mt to 4,500mt themselves together to form asso- per annum from the NWP only. • Shrimp feed imports ciations in each sub-zone about Good Management Practices (GMPs), which is the key to long term sustainability of this industry. However, over the last few years, the international market for processed shrimps has been subject to fl uctuations due to various reasons, which have resulted in drastic reduc- tions in prices paid by importers for processed shrimps in the major markets such as Japan and the USA. EU prices have always been below the Japanese and US prices for processed raw shrimp, as the market there is mainly for value added cooked products. Other factors affecting future production

The very fi rst major market to drop prices was Japan way back in the late Pumping sediment from the Dutch canal. ‘90s, particularly around 1998. During

6 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture this and subsequent years, exports The ‘vannamei factor’ and discussions held with various of processed raw shrimps to the US stake holders before even thinking of market increased, although only grade Penaeus vannamei, better known as introducing P. vannamei to Sri Lanka. 2 quality was exported to that country. white shrimp was fi rst farmed in South The grade 1 product always went to America. Due to uncontrolled farming Japan but at much reduced prices activities in those countries the entire Prospects for the future compared to prices prior to 1998. industry was devastated with the advent The farm gate prices which enjoyed a of another viral disease called the Taura With the gradual increase in production minimum profi t of nearly Rs. 200-250 Syndrome. The industry has not recov- of farmed shrimp as a result of the going up to Rs 350-400 per kg prior to ered fully from the earlier onslaught in rehabilitation work carried out by 1998, depending on market demand, countries such as Ecuador. However, NAQDA, prospects for shrimp farming gradually dropped between 1998 and extensive research has been carried out are still good for Sri Lanka if we stick 2006. Today, with rapid fl uctuations in in Hawaii and today the scientists there to P. monodon as a niche will develop international prices and high cost of have developed a Specifi c Pathogen for this product in major markets with inputs, such as imported shrimp feed Free (SPF) P. vannamei. reasonable prices. The major producing which swallows up about 60% of the countries are now fi nding it diffi cult to cost of production, and present day high With the decline in farm production of P. revert to P. monodon culture due to cost of energy, the farmers are lucky monodon (tiger Shrimp, which is farmed various reasons. However, due to exten- if they can generate a profi t margin of in Sri Lanka) the world over, countries sive research being done in especially Rs. 50 to Rs. 75 per kg for their farmed such as the People’s Republic of China, Thailand, with the involvement of product when the international prices Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia the universities and the Department are down. However this may rise to started producing P. vannamei and of Fisheries in that country, they are about Rs. 100 to Rs.150-200 when within no time the major importing in a position to overcome problems market prices increases. countries, Japan and USA started to through technological advances and import P. vannamei due to a dearth the development of improved farming From 1998, the major market Japan has in the production of P. monodon. The practices. been under a cloud of economic reces- high production capacities in the above sion which has forced consumers to mentioned producing countries and NAQDA is encouraging shrimp farmers stop spending on luxurious items such the quantities exported, succeeded in to carry out alternate cropping using as exotic and expensive food and to offsetting the comparatively lower profi t fi sh varieties such as milk fi sh (Chanos conserve their savings. At the time, the margins for P. vannamei. This tempted chanos, known in Sinhala as ‘wekkaya’), Japanese major importers and whole- the producers in the above mentioned a brackish water fi sh, and tilapia, a fresh salers had enough buffer stocks which producing countries to increase stocking water fi sh that can be acclimatized to were moving out slowly, while several densities beyond recommended limits slightly brackish waters with salinity container loads of processed and value in order to increase production. The levels of 10 to 15 ppm. Milkfi sh is a added shrimp from various exporting production of P. vannamei in these brackish water fi sh which is very tasty countries were in the water at any countries was next hit by the Taura when cooked; the only draw back is given time making their way to either syndrome viral disease, however, the that it has a lot of small bones which Tokyo or Osaka. In such a situation, availability of SPF P. vannamei by is a non-starter for Sri Lankan cuisine. the Japanese importers/wholesalers that time, enabled some farmers in However, NAQDA with the assistance found it diffi cult to move their products these countries to resolve the disease of the Asian Development Bank funded and the end result was a reduction in problem to a certain extent by farming Aquatic Resource Development & wholesale prices to encourage sales. SPF P. vannamei. Quality Improvement Project (ARDQIP), This is happening even today. To add to have demonstrated to stakeholders this, occasional political disturbances in The special characteristics of P. the method of removing bones by the region such as weapons testing and vannamei are that i) it is less expensive engaging a Philippines de-boning similar issues have lead the Japanese to culture, ii) it can be stocked at high expert and very soon boneless whole consumer to adopt a more protective stocking densities compared to P. fi sh fi llets will appear in super market attitude and conserve their savings. monodon and iii) it only grows to a chains. Apart from the usage of milkfi sh maximum commercial size of around 20 as a consumer product, another Similarly, the demand for luxury g. The only drawback is that the inter- market exists for milkfi sh juveniles consumer products such as for national market price for P. vannamei as bait for the tuna long line industry. processed shrimp among many others, is comparatively lower and therefore Discussions are underway with the started to decline in the US after the larger scale production of this species Ceylon Fishery Harbours Corporation attack on the World Trade Centre in is necessary in order to generate a to introduce milkfi sh to long line tuna New York and continues to fl uctuate in decent profi t. Countries with vast areas catching vessels, both local and foreign. response to changes in the regional and available for culture such as China, Alternate farming and cropping of global political environment. Prices have Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand are at shrimp with milkfi sh and tilapia would barely reached the earlier highs, but a tremendous advantage compared to a result in the long term sustainability have varied at reasonable levels that small country like Sri Lanka. Based on of shrimp farming in Sri Lanka. With have sustained the industry in producing these two issues, vis-à-vis the possible planned shrimp farming activities yet to countries. introduction of a new disease (Taura commence in the east, Sri Lanka could syndrome) and lack of economies of act as a role model for P. monodon scale, careful thought has to be given farming in the region.

April-June 2007 7 Sustainable aquaculture

An economic analysis of stock enhancement of Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus) in Iran Hassan Salehi Assistant Professor and Head of Economic Group, Iranian Fisheries Research Organization, No. 279 West Fatemi Ave, Tehran, Iran. Email [email protected].

It is essential to the successful develop- the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf enhancement plans in Iran playing a key ment and management of a sturgeon annually (Bartley, 1995, Shehadeh, role in the protection of the population. farm to know the production costs and 1996, Bartley and Rana, 1998, Over the last decade, the quality and their evolution, showing the main items Abdolhay, 1998, Tahori, 1998 and quantity of Persian sturgeon fi ngerling on which cost reduction is worth the Salehi, 2002, 2005) (Figure 1). production has increased in Iran, and effort. Production factor costs analysis reached more than 18 million fi ngerlings of a sturgeon hatchery may also helps As Fushimi (2001) noted, the main by 2004 (Abdolhay, 1998; Tahory, the manager in decision making and issues that should be considered 1998; Salehi, 2001, 2002 and 2005b; in adjusting to changes. Basically the in any stock enhancement plan are PDD, 2004). This study could present production cost comprises all expenses those dealing with fi ngerling quality a developing policy for increasing the incurred during the production process. and economic aspects. The economic productivity and breeding procedure According to Jolly and Clonts (1993), advantages of stock enhancement like of hatchery production of Persian production may be defi ned as the other aspects of population rehabilita- sturgeon in Southern parts of Caspian process of combining resources and tion have been considered in recent Sea in Iran, on which the Iran Fisheries forces in the creation of some valuable years, as noted by (Bartley, 1995, 1999; Organization has made a huge invest- good or services, and the purpose of Sreenivasan, 1998; Hansson, et al., ment over the last two decades, and production is to satisfy human wants 1997; Ahmad et al., 1998; Lorenzen et which needs more investment for future and needs. The primary interest in most al., 1998; Gateway,1999, Salehi, 1999, development. sectors is directed toward establishing 2002, 2005b; Kitada, 1999) and some viable industries for the purpose of researchers have emphasized the domestic consumption, export, employ- profi tability of stock enhancement and Study methods ment opportunities, income distribution, stressed that in some species the rate or a combination of these objectives of return of investment can be very high To determine the costs of production for (Shang, 1981). As Shang (1990) noted, (Hansson, et al., 1997; Ahmad, et al., Persian sturgeon fi ngerlings in the year elements such as biology, technology, 1998; Lorenzen et al., 1998, Lorenzen 2003, a questionnaire was prepared in feed and nutrition, engineering, fi sh et al., 2001, and Gateway, 1999). 2004. A study of fi ngerling production of pathology, and institutional factors all Persian sturgeon, input costs and the affect the economics of production. The analysis of the economics of all contribution of cost factors was carried From a micro-economic view point the aspects of stock enhancement for out to help clarify sturgeon fi ngerling primary motivation of a fi sh farm may be species such as Persian sturgeon production costs. An expert team profi t making, but sometimes there can is a very complicated undertaking comprising of economists, statisticians be other considerations such as stock while also being expensive and taking and aquaculturists completed the enhancement (Salehi 2003). long time to gain satisfactory returns. questionnaire, while referring to all Therefore, accurate programming, may sturgeon centers. To improve accuracy, Research on the economics of sturgeon have to play a key role on improving the experts referred to documents avail- culture will play an important role in its the productivity of stock enhancement able in different sections of the Fisheries future development. It is clear now, that while enhancement activity serving the Organization, especially offi ces involved to overcome the problem of declining conservation of the species has to be in accounting, budgeting and stock Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus) judged on other grounds rather than on enhancement. Data were entered into stocks the promotion of hatcheries to economics. The natural maturation of all a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and produce large quantities of fi ngerlings species of sturgeons in the Caspian Sea methods for classifi cation, summarizing, for stock enhancement is certainly has faced serious problems. As noted averaging, and for other functions were going to be an important strategy. by Vlasenkov (1995) the contribution used for analysis. Stock enhancement is practiced in from hatchery production in the northern many countries with different methods Caspian Sea landings were estimated and various objectives, not the least of to be almost 7.5% for Acipencer Results which is the reconstruction of stocks guldensteadi, 30.1% for A. stellatus, of economically important species. For and 91.5% for Huso huso. By consid- Over the 1981-2005 periods, the example, Japan has a long history in ering the background data on stock hatchery production of Persian sturgeon using stock enhancement to support enhancement of sturgeon species and is shown in Figure 2. As Table 1 and rehabilitate almost 80 species the results of fi shing data, it seems the shows, in 2003, it is obvious that A. (Matsuda, 2000) with varying results. increase of the contribution of Persian persicus accounted for almost 80% of Iran contributes to these efforts through sturgeon in total catch in Iran was most total sturgeon fi ngerlings production the reproduction and enhancement probably affected by the stock enhance- while other species were of much less of ten main native species, releasing ment programme. Keyvan (2002) noted signifi cance in this activity. more than 250 million fi ngerlings into the current situation of Persian sturgeon

8 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture

Among various expenditures, cost of many advantages claimed by several Iran. As shown in this study, the major labor and salary have the greatest share authors with regard to stock enhance- costs in hatchery operations are labor of the overall costs with 41% while costs ment programmes, one of the key (temporarily hired workers) and salary of fertilized eggs and their incubation factors that determine the economics (permanent staff). The average costs for accounts for 29%, and depreciation of such operations is the real costs both amounts to 820 Rials (almost 0.1 for 12%, feed and fertilizer only 5% incurred in producing the juveniles. It US$) for each fi ngerling produced. This and maintenance 5% as the important is for this reason that this study was is really a high cost item and in terms of factors (Table 2). Results also show that designed to acquire some basic insight large-scale production one would expect on average the costs of the production in the cost structure of hatcheries to see the prices are coming down with of a single fi ngerling of Persian sturgeon operations as a fi rst step in assessing increasing production level. There are was 2,000 Rials and this takes into the opportunities to improve effi ciency many reasons why these costs are so account the year 2003 data only. The for Persian sturgeon enhancement in high. One is certainly the seasonality cost of labor and salaries had a great share in total expenditures, which is Figure 1. Number of fi ngerlings of all valued species were produced in Iran mainly due to the seasonal activity of over the period between 1995 and 2004 (modifi ed PDD, 2006 and Abdolhay, the centers with little work to do for 2006). permanent staff during almost 6 months. 400000 Discussion 300000 In Iran, there are many economic and environmental issues associated with 200000 any ranching and stock enhancement 1,000 programme (Razavi Sayyad, 1995; Abdolhay, 1998 & 2006; Hosseini, 100000 1998; Parafkandeh & Rezvani, 2005; Pourkazemi 2000 & 2006). Overall, 0 the question on economic returns of 5 6 7 8 9 0 2 3 4 e 9 9 9 9 9 0 01 0 0 0 g hatchery release programmes have also 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 a 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 20 2 r been extensively discussed (Bartley ve A 1995, 1999; Hansson et al., 1997; Sreenivasan, 1988; Salehi 1999, 2002 & 2005b; Ahmad et al, 1998). Despite the

Demand for caviar has placed enormous pressure on stocks of several sturgeon species in the Caspian Sea. Above, surgical removal of eggs from captive broodstock to support restocking activities.

April-June 2007 9 Sustainable aquaculture

Figure 2: Number of Persian sturgeon fi ngerlings produced in hatcheries for obtaining fertilized eggs and for over the 1981-2004 (modifi ed PDD, 2006, Abdolhay, 2006 and Salehi, 2005b). egg incubation, the costs for labor and salary may increase to more than 50%.

21000000 Figure 4. The cost sensitivity of 17000000 fi ngerling production of Persian 13000000 sturgeon for the year 2003 in Iran. 9000000 Number 5000000 The cost sensitivity of hatchery production of Persian sturgeon in the 1000000 year 2003 shows labor and salary 6 1 6 0 1 2 3 4 81 8 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 4 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 -0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 6 are the most sensitive items, followed 9 9 e1 by fertilized eggs (Figure 4). Current ag er v production and enhancement of Persian A sturgeon populations in the Caspian Sea needs many more fi ngerlings to be released then is presently practiced in Figure 3. Average costs factors (Rials per fi ngerling production) of Persian order to be successful in conservation sturgeon in 2003 in Iran. L&S: Labour and salary, FE: Fertilized eggs, F&F: of sturgeon species and it is anticipated Feed and fertilizer, M: Maintenance, W&E: Water & energy, D: Depreciation, O: that a lot of investment will have to be Other. made by the fi sheries authorities of Iran to reach the objective. It is suggested 900 820 800 that this sector might become increas- 700 ingly important in coming years. The 580 600 present study also shows that there 500 is a high variability in cost effi ciency 400 between various hatcheries in Iran. Rials. 300 240 Therefore, there is an urgent need to 200 100 100 120 analyze in more detail the reasons why 100 40 such differences exist and the measures 0 that can be taken to bring fi ngerling L & SFEF & FMW & ED O production costs down. Certainly, the ability to obtain reliable brood fi sh from the Caspian Sea is one factor that Table 1. Approximate number of sturgeon fi ngerlings produced in Iranian contributes to cost variability, expanding hatcheries by species in the years 2003-2004. hatchery operations to include other species is another way of reducing Species 2003 2004 % of total 2003 % of total 2004 expenditures per fi ngerling produced. Huso huso 42,100 1,464,832 0.2 7 Overall, the sturgeon rehabilitation A. persicus 18,420,200 17,412,529 91.8 82 industry may benefi t from research A. stellatus 196,000 314,913 1 2 aimed at developing technically viable A. nudiventris 1,414,000 1,311,726 7 6 production and enhancement systems A. gueldenstaedtii - 617,562 - 3 that deal with reasons to reduce early Total 20,072,300 21,121,562 100 100 egg and larval mortality, develop Modifi ed PDD, 2006, Abdolhay, 2006 and Salehi,2005b. adequate nutrition for juveniles, prevent infectious diseases and culture strate- of the operation which does not trout farming, 17% for shrimp farming, gies that improve fi tness for survival, allow year-round effi cient operational 26% for shrimp hatcheries due to use of engage in genetic improvement, effectiveness of employees. One option foreign experts, and 12% for sturgeon and adaptive industry management. to overcome this economic drawback farming in the USA (Katherine et al., Considering a 1% fi ngerling return for would be to seek for alternative work 1985). When incorporating the costs Persian sturgeon (Pourkazemi (2003) during the off-season, including estimated 0.86% for this return), aged extended hatchery and enhancement 16 for Persian sturgeon, female/male programmes with other species for Table 2. Average costs factors (Rials 1:2.4, (Moghim, 1999) it might be which the breeding season falls exactly per fi ngerling production) of Persian expected that between 57,000 to into the non-reproductive period of sturgeon in 2003 in Iran. 70,000 female Persian sturgeon will sturgeons. The second most important be returned from 2018-2020, and with cost items are the operational costs for Cost factors Rials % 4.5 kg caviar for each fi sh (Moghim, obtaining fertilized eggs and to cover Fertilized eggs 580 29 1999). This might result in total caviar the incubation period, averaging 580 Feed & Fertilizer 100 5 production from enhancement of around Rials (29% of total costs). Compared to Water and energy 40 2 256-315 tonnes. This caviar would other aquaculture activities, the share Labor & salary 820 41 come from almost 5 tonnes of fertilized of labor and salary in hatcheries (41% Maintenance 100 5 eggs, the amount that was used over of total costs) are very high, as noted by Depreciation 240 12 the year 2003. The questions are, is Salehi (1999, 2003, 2005a and 2005b) Miscellaneous 120 6 the sea safe and clean for Persian being 12% for carp farming, 13% for Total costs 2000 100 sturgeon and what needs to be done to

10 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture

reduce the pollution load (nationally and References Fushimi, H., 2001: Production of juvenile fi nfi sh for internationally)? Who will be responsible stock enhancement in Japan, Aquaculture 200, for the common management of the sea Abdolhay, H., 1998: Artifi cal hatching for stock pp33-53. fi sheries? Are the assumptions made rehabilitation , 7th National Fisheries confer- correct so that the estimated 265-315 ences, Responsible Fisheries, Shilat, Tehran, Gateway, J., 1999: Small water body fi sheries and tonnes yield of caviar is attainable? Iran, p187-205. [In Persian]. the potential for community-led enhancement: Interdisciplinary research is needed with case study from the Lao PDR, PhD Thesis, new concepts and scientifi c working Abdolhay H. 2006, Fingerling production and University of London, 414 p. hypothesis to answer these questions. release for stock enhancement in the Southern Caspian Sea: an overview, Journal of Applied Hansson, S.; Arrhenius, F.; Nellbring, S., 1997: Key opportunities for regional coopera- Ichthyology, Dec. 2006- Vol. 22, p 125-131. Benefi ts from fi sh stocking-experiences from tion arise from pro-active approaches to stocking young-of-the year Pikeperch, to a bay regional comparative studies, including Ahmed, I.; Bland, S.J.R.; Price, C.P.; Kershaw, in the Baltic Sea. Fish, Res. 32, 123-132. identifi cation of key issues to design R., 1998: Openwater stocking in Bangladesh, national and international programmes experiences from the Third fi sheries Project. Hosseini, M., 1998: The end of unresponsible for collection and analysis of regional FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. No. 374, 351-370. sturgeon Fishing, 7th National Fisheries data. conferences, Responsible Fisheries, Shilat, Bartley, M.D., 1995: Marine and coastal area Tehran, Iran, pp. 115-128. [In Persian]. Acknowledgment hatchery enhancement programmes: Food security and Conservation of Biological Jolly C. M. and H. A.Clonts. 1993. Economics of We would like to gratefully acknowledge Diversity, Paper prepared for Japanese/FAO Aquaculture. Haworth Press. Inc. Binghamton. the assistance of the Fisheries Organi- Conference on Fisheries and Food security New York. 319p. sation of Iran and its affi liated depart- Kyoto, Japan, Dec. 1995, p15. ments, the Fisheries Research Institute, Katherine, J.; Shigekawa, S.; Logan, S., 1985: International Sturgeon Research Bartley, M.D.; K. Rana, 1998: Stocking inland Economic analysis of commercial hatchery Institute and especially Mr Akhonzadeh, waters of the Islamic Republic of Iran, FAO, 5p. production of sturgeon. Aquaculture, 51, Mr Abdoulhy, Mr Mogaddsi, Mr Amini, pp299-312. Mr Tahori, Mr. Soltani, Mr. Fakhreddini, Bartley, M.D., 1999: Marine ranching : current Mr. Ansari, and Mr. Khosravi. issues, constraints and opportunities. In Marine ranching; FAO Fish. Circ., No. 943, pp28-43.

Iran is producing hatchery-bred fi ngerlings of several species of sturgeon, including beluga (Huso huso), Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus), stellate sturgeon (A. stellatus) and others.

April-June 2007 11 Sustainable aquaculture

Keyvan, A., 2002: Introduction on biotechnology PDD, 2006, Fishing data information, Shiat, (in Salehi H. 2005a , An Economic analysis of trout of cultured sturgeon, Azad University, Lahijan, Persian, unpublished),Tehran, Iran, 35p. farming production in Iran, World aquaculture Iran, 270 p. [In Persian]. 2005, May 2005, Bali- Indonesia, unpublished, Pourkazemi, M., 2000: Management and enhance- 35p. Kitada, S., 1999: Contribution of hatchery enhance- ment of sustainable resource, Aquaculture ment and comperehesive fi shery resource Department, Shilat, Tehran, Iran, No. 18. Salehi H. 2005b, An economic analysis of fi ngerling management: from Japanese experience. p17-30. [In Persian]. production of sturgeon in the south Caspian In Marine ranching: global perspective with Sea over the years 2002-03, 5th International emphasis on the Japanese experience, FAO. Pourkazemi, M., 2003; The sturgeon resources of Symposium on sturgeon, ramsar, 9-13 May., Fish. Circ. 943, pp98-130. Caspian Sea, High commission on sturgeons, Iran. p.319-324.Shang Y. C. 1981. Aquaculture Shilat, Iran, [In Persian], 35p. economics: Basic concepts and methods of Lorenzen, K.; Juntana, J.; Tourongruang, D., analysis. Croom Helm Ltd. London. 153p. 1998: Assessing culture fi sheries practices in Purkazemi, M., 2006, Caspian Sea sturgeon small water bodies: a study of village fi sheries Conservation and Fisheries: Past, Present and Shang Y. C. 1990. Aquaculture economics analysis: in Northeast Thailand, Aquaculture Res. 29, future, Journal of Applied Ichthyology, Dec. An introduction. Advances in world aquaculture. 211-224. 2006- Vol. 22, P 12-16. Volume 2. The world aquaculture society. USA. Louisiona state university. Baten Rouge. 211p. Lorenzen, K.; Amarasinghe, U.S.; Bartley, D.M.; Razavi Sayyad, B., 1995: Kutum fi sh, IFRO. Bell, J.D.; Bilio, M.; de Silva, S.S.; Gateway, Tehran, Iran, 165 pp. [In Persian]. Shehadeh, Z.H., 1996: Major trends in global J.C.; Hartmann, W.D.; Kapetsky, J.M.; Laleye, aquaculture production and summary overview P.; Moreau, J.; Sugunan, V.V.; Swar, D.B., Salehi, H., 1999: A strategic analysis of carp culture of the Gulfs (Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman) 2001: Strategic review of enhancements and development in Iran, PhD.Thesis, University of area (1984 to 1994), TOFC Committee for culture- based fi sheries, Aquaculture in the third Stirling. Stirling, UK, 328 pp. development and management of the fi shery millennium, Subasinghe R., Bueno P., Phillips resources of the Gulfs, Cairo, Egypt, 1-3 M., Hough C., McGladdery S. and Arthur R., Salehi, H., 2001: Economics analysis of sturgeon October, 8 p. NACA/ FAO, Bangkok, Thailand 2001, p. fi ngerlings production in Iran, Paper presented 221-237. in Second national conferences, Zibakenar, Shilat, 2004: Fisheries statistics, Shilat, Tehran, Rasht, Iran, 5 pp. [unpublished document; in Iran, 65 pp. [In Persian]. Matsuda Y., 2000: Recent development on stock Persian]. enhancement in Japan, cited by Tahori, 1998, Sreenivasan, A., 1988: Fish stock enhancement in Aquaculture Department, Shilat, Tehran, Iran, Salehi, H., 2002: Economics Analysis of Kutum larger Indo- Pacifi c inland water bodies using No. 18. p73-109. (Rutilus frisii kutum) Fingerling Production carps and tilapias, FAO Fish. Rep. No. 405, pp. and Releasing In Iran, 10 pp. (unpublished 6-33. Moghim, M., 1999: Final report of statistics and document, in Persian). biologic of sturgeon fi sh, Mazandaran Research Tahori, B.H., 1998: Sturgeon hatching in South centre. [local document; in Persian]. Salehi, H., 2003: The needs of research on Caspian Sea, 7th National Fisheries confer- aquaculture economics in Iran, Iranian Journal ences, Responsible Fisheries, (in Persian), Parafkandeh F. & Rezvani. S., 2005, Status of of Fisheries Sciences, IFRO., (in Persian), Shilat, Tehran, Iran, pp. 221-244. [In Persian]. sturgeon stocks in the south of caspian Sea, 5th Tehran, Iran, p75-96. International Symposium on sturgeon, ramsar, Vlasenkov, 1995: cited in Tahori, 1998 [citation see 9-13 May., Iran. p.302-304. Salehi, H., 2004: An economic analysis of carp above]. culture production costs in Iran, Iranian Journal PDD, 2004: Annual report of Shilat, Shiat, Tehran, of Fisheries Sciences, IFRO., Tehran, Iran, Iran, 40 pp. [In Persian]. pp1-24.

Aquaculture and environmental sustainability in Thailand: Food or fi nancial security? By Jamie Stewart and Ram C. Bhujel

The rise of aquaculture mouth, the practice spread into Thailand relatively little outlay and maintenance. and throughout South East Asia, where As advances in knowledge and practice Aquaculture is a worldwide tradition aquaculture has been practiced for slowly began to gather pace, the rise in that is thought to trace its roots back around 400 years. production predictably gathered pace. roughly 4,000 years, when early fi sh husbandry techniques were developed The practice continued, with production According to fi gures provided by in China. The knowledge of early, small steadily rising throughout the 1900’s. the Fisheries Global Information back yard aquaculture techniques was Aquaculture quickly provided a cost- System (FIGIS), the national total for carried and passed on to neighboring effective source of protein for the small- aquaculture production in Thailand countries by emigrating Chinese, and scale farmers throughout rural Thailand, was only about 24,000 tons in 1950 through the age old medium of word of with back yard pond culture requiring with a sharp increase in 1960 followed

12 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture by another increase in the late 80’s. Total fi sh production has increased 800% over the past 20 years. In 2004, the most recent year for which fi gures are available, aquaculture production in Thailand neared 1.2 million tons which has maintained the country’s position at 7th largest aquaculture producer in the world (Table 1) and lead to Thailand becoming a hub of aquaculture development/business. By comparison, wild fi sh catch in Thailand has risen unpredictably since the 1950’s, and has stagnated since the mid 90’s. Throughout Thailand, the main species produced through aquaculture are shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), snakehead (Channa spp.), catfi sh (Clarias spp.), and tilapia (Oroechromis niloticus). Thailand is one of the world’s leading shrimp producers with exports valued at about US$2 billion. Nile Cage culture of tilapia in Klong 13, Central Thailand. tilapia has become the main farmed species produced for consumption FAO data for 2004 shows that nearly is enclosed, and / or integrated into within Thailand. This is due to its ease half of total fi sh consumed worldwide existing farming systems, for example, of breeding, fast growth rate, taste and are produced by aquaculture, the paddy fi eld culture. Recirculatory resistance to disease amongst other fastest growing food production sector. tanks also help to minimize impacts factors. In addition, the government, This production is anticipated to further through their effi cient use of water. NGO’s, and the private sector are accelerate to meet the increasing As production shifts towards more playing an important role in promoting demand for seafood, because more intensive forms of aquaculture, however, tilapia to the people as a cheap source and more people are shifting towards particularly in the case of cage culture, of protein. However, this scale of mass seafood and small animal meat from which by its nature is an open system, production does not come without its red meat, and as the chicken industry releasing waste products directly into cost to the natural environment. Large often suffers problems such as bird surrounding waters, the environmental areas of mangrove forest have been fl u. To further complicate the issue of impact inevitably increase alongside. destroyed, some of which to construct food security in the future, recently For aquaculture production to continue shrimp farms, in the ongoing push for researchers have predicted increasing to grow over the coming years, as it increased production. collapses of marine fi sheries by 2048, must in order to keep pace with growing should the current trends continue. This world wide protein demand, its growth The rise in aquaculture production in means that if we want to have fi sh in our must be controlled within an environ- Thailand, mirroring the steady rise meals, we will increasingly need to grow mentally sustainable framework. If the across Asia and worldwide, results from them by ourselves! ecosystems that are utilized to support the series of technological advances aquaculture and the surrounding relevant to the practice, allowing for ecosystems are diminished due to an more and more intensive farming Environmental concern inability to contain the impacts of human practice plus growing world wide activities then the potential for aquacul- population and the inevitable increase As with any practice that interacts ture to grow, or even to continue at its in the demand for food security that this with the surrounding eco-systems, present rate, will be lost for generations. growth brings. The combined population as the practice becomes more and of Asia was estimated at 3.95 billion more widespread, and increases in in 2006, according to UN fi gures. This intensity on an international scale, so Global reaction accounts for roughly 60% of world the environmental impact increases. population, with this fi gure expected to The types of the environmental impacts The global reaction to the need continue on its current growth trend. of aquaculture are well researched for environmental sustainability in It is in the developing nations of Asia, and documented. They range from aquaculture has manifested itself Thailand among them, that the need the discharge of effl uents and waste in the development of a variety of for food security is paramount. Hence, products containing high nitrogen (N), environmental management systems. the introduction of aquaculture and its Phosphorous (P) and chemical residues Most notably, nations have adopted rise in production and intensity as a into surrounding waterways leading to various levels of Environmental Impact cost effective answer to the worldwide changes in natural ecosystems, to the Assessment (EIA) for new aquaculture protein shortage. Figures from the effects of chemicals on the surrounding developments. These range in severity Food and Agriculture Organization natural environment, to confl icts over from EIA as a legal necessity for all (FAO) show that nine out of the top 10 water and land use. With regards to the coastal aquaculture (Australia, the USA, aquaculture producing countries are practicalities of aquaculture systems, and many European countries), to no from Asia (Table 1). the effect on the surrounding environ- EIA requirements, as was previously the ment can be minimized if the system case in Thailand. Generally, countries

April-June 2007 13 Sustainable aquaculture

have adopted EIA as a requirement Table 1. Top ten aquaculture producers in 2004 (Source: State of World for developments of a certain size and Aquaculture, 2006, FAO). intensity. However, as is the case in a capitalist society in which people run Country Production volume Global Production value Global after the profi ts, where there is a need Million tonnes % (Billion US$) % for change and a need for development/ China 41.33 69.6 35.997 51.2 improvement, there is an opportunity India 2.47 4.2 2.936 4.2 for those who can provide the means Philippines 1.72 2.9 0.794 1.1 for change, to profi t through their Indonesia 1.47 2.5 2.163 3.1 practices. As a result, Good Aquaculture Japan 1.26 2.1 4.242 6.0 Practices (GAP) and Good Manage- Vietnam 1.23 2.1 2.459 3.5 ment Practices (GMP) have recently Thailand 1.17 2.0 1.587 2.3 been developed in various countries S. Korea 0.95 1.6 1.212 1.7 including Thailand and laws/regulations Bangladesh 0.91 1.5 1.363 1.9 related to these have been enforced, Chile 0.69 1.2 2.815 4.0 especially for shrimp culture. Not only for the culture systems, there are also along with the loss of economic decision effective, and possible to develop on a mechanisms of quarantine in place in making freedom which that status mass scale. The system is, however, each country for the control of trans- brings. It is fair to say that farmers have protected by legalities regarding the boundary movement of fi sh species and the right of refusal before signing their laws of patenting. In order to seek disease causing organisms associated economic freedom away, and that there protection from those who may wish with them. can be benefi ts to such arrangements, to profi t from their competitors ideas, it however, it is diffi cult for small-scale is standard practice for a company to farmers to otherwise compete with protect any new invention by reporting Profi teering through the large companies unless they band to and fi ling with their countries corre- development of aquaculture together. In Pathumthani the formation sponding patent offi ce. This allows the - whose right? of a cooperative of some 50 members company the opportunity to recoup any enabled participating farmers to make necessary fi nancial outlay expended the break to fi nancial independence. during the research and development The confl icts over profi teering through Once a major corporation is removed stages of their product or idea, by giving aquaculture arise as a result of the from the equation, the profi t margins them the sole rights to the market over original reasons for the development of the corporation, with sound fi nancial a given period of time. It also gives of aquaculture, and the distribution management, can be fed back into the them the right to charge, by licensing of skills around the world; the original local community, so working towards the agreement, those who wish to develop intention being to provide food security original good intentions of aquaculture and make use of their product or idea, to the small scale farmer, thus reducing development. thus limiting access to those who can poverty on a global scale. From a afford to pay. socio-cultural viewpoint, aquaculture It is also possible for companies or has taken massive steps toward this individuals to profi t through the develop- goal. However, the need for progres- ment of technologies necessary to limit Public versus private sively intensive farming methods in the impact of aquaculture on the envi- development some areas has led to small scale ronment without limiting production if farmers, providing a source of protein the research and development is carried to the local community, seeing their out as part of a private enterprise. For Technological developments in any source of income threatened, or being example, in Mbour, 80km from Dakar, fi eld can benefi t the particular industry put out of business altogether. Intensive Senegal, a French company, ‘Institut de as a whole if they are made within methods of farming require higher levels recherche por le Developpement’ (IRD), the public sector, as opposed to the of technological input, and amenities has designed and built a prototype of a private. By way of example, research beyond that which the small scale fully enclosed, self recycling aquaculture into the technological advancement of farmer can afford. system, breeding tilapia. The system aquaculture is continually carried out is a commendable example to the rest at the Asian Institute of Technology There are also cases whereby major of the world. Unused feed and the (AIT) some 40 km north of Bangkok, corporations, on the hunt for the profi t wastes from the fi sh are mineralized affi liated to government agencies, margins that intensive aquaculture can and used as nutrients by phytoplankton. international organizations and private bring with it have placed local farmers The phytoplankton is consumed by sector partners among others. While under contract offering in return an inad- zooplankton, these are in turn recycled funds are often hard to come by in the equate income. For example, in central to feed the juvenile tilapia. The system public sector, some advancement has Thailand, farmers along Klong 13 (Fig. is entitled ‘SARI’, (Systeme Aquacole been made to benefi t the aquaculture 2), one of the many canals that cut Recyclage Integral). SARI requires industry on a huge scale. Such develop- through the province, were contracted only a small amount of fi sh feed, emits ments include the artifi cial incubation by a major corporation to purchase their no effl uents, and protects the fi sh of tilapia eggs and rearing of fry from fry from the company, and to sell them from the dangers of contamination in the fertilization stage, which contributed back to the company once they had surrounding waters. SARI could prove to increased production of tilapia, reached marketable size, at a price set to be a huge step in the right direction to which are otherwise unsuitable for high by the company, virtually turning whole the food security of the worlds growing intensity aquaculture, to a suitable farming communities into employees population. It is reported to be cost level; and the development of all male

14 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Sustainable aquaculture

Tilapia on sale in the market place, Thailand. offspring through the use of methyltesto- Conclusions Along with these measures to protect sterone, a sex reversal hormone. In the the natural environment, aquaculture case of tilapia farming, all male offspring Over the past two decades, global must also be managed from a socio- are preferable, as tilapia reproduce from aquaculture production has risen from cultural perspective. Though it is not a very early stage raising competition 13 million tons, to 60 million tons, and possible to impede upon the perfectly for food and so limiting the number of the practice maintains an increasingly legal involvement of major corporations stock that grow to market size. Males vital role in the future of food security for in aquaculture, it would benefi t local also grow around 25% faster than an ever-expanding global population. If communities, and the relations of females. Though methyltestosterone the growth of aquaculture in Thailand communities with those corporations, has had its critics of an environmental and across the world is to continue, if a greater degree of profi t margin was nature, research carried out has then frameworks to support and sustain channeled back into the communi- shown the impact to be minimal in the the surrounding natural environments ties responsible for production. For extreme. Since such advancements fi rst need to be put in place, in countries example, profi ts could be used to fund were achieved in the public sector, the where they have not already been locally conducted research in order to technology is currently widespread, applied. maximize aquaculture production within throughout Thailand and beyond. As a particular area or community, within research within public institutions is Environmental Impact Assessment is the aforementioned environmentally funded by the public along with various not a costly exercise and, provided the sustainable framework, so benefi ting the donors there are no research and system by which new developments corporation in question, and the local development costs to be refunded, as are assessed is effi cient and accurate, community at present, and for future there is within the private sector. Hence the long term benefi ts could turn out generations. the technology, though it must still be to be invaluable. Aquaculture cannot protected from those who could profi t continue to grow at its current rate, Developmental programs should also from it within the private sector when in funded by those eager to profi t from be undertaken, in communities where its early stages of development can be a cost effective source of protein they have not already been instigated, made available to all upon its comple- production, completely unrestrained by to bring the practice of aquaculture to tion and recommendation. environmental concerns. If it does, then the poor, through enclosed back yard we risk destroying the very capacity for pond systems, taking aquaculture back growth and development of the industry to its original roots, and allowing the altogether. rural poor a self replenishing source of protein. Such programs have been

April-June 2007 15 People in aquaculture

undertaken throughout Bangladesh, and in other developing countries across Cage fi sh culture - a successful Asia and Africa by non-profi t organiza- tions such as the Food and Agriculture income generation in manmade Organization (FAO), with a great degree of success. reservoir Kulekhani, Markhu, Nepal Finally, technological advances in aqua- Ash Kumar Rai*, Suresh Kumar Wagle** culture, that benefi t the growing need for food security of an ever expanding *Resources Himalaya Foundation, Kumaripati, Lalitpur, Nepal, email akrai@akrai. population but do not adversely affect wlink.com.np; **Fisheries Research centre, Pokhara the natural environment, should be made available on an international scale. Though it pays to bear in mind, Nepal is very rich in its water, Water quality parameters that if private sector companies were possessing about 2.27% of the world not permitted to profi t from their water resources (CBS 2005). Out of The annual water temperature in the enterprise via legal frameworks such as total 818,500 ha of total water surface reservoir ranges from 12.0ºC during the patent system then much research area, fi sh ponds cover about 6,500 ha January/February to 25.5ºC during and development would never be under- producing about 20,000 metric tonnes July/August. Dissolved oxygen does not taken in the fi rst place. Research and annually (DoFD 2061/’62). Aquaculture fl uctuate signifi cantly and distribution development within the private sector is development has concentrated on ranges from above 7.0 to 8.7 mg/L in benefi cial, if less so than public sector pond fi sh culture particularly in the surface waters to below 60 m depth research, and should continue, as must southern region. Of the lakes and during January/February; however, the the fi nancial incentives that encourage reservoirs, most fi shery developments fl uctuation is very high, ranging from such research. Therefore, more funding have occurred in the Pokhara valley 0 to 11.2 mg/l, during May, June, July, should be provided for research and lakes and the Kulekhani reservoir in the and August. Transparency ranges from development within the public sector, central of the mid-hill region. 1.2-3.4 m in June to January/February. through affi liated governments or private Alkalinity ranged from above 28.6 to sector companies who themselves may Reservoir coverage in Nepal is about 80.0 mg/l between the surface and the stand to profi t from public advance- 1,500 hectares. Kulekhani reservoir (a bottom. The annual pH remained in the ments in aquaculture technology. Such 126 km2 catchment) was impounded range 7.5-9.8. Total hardness ranges profi ts could then be channeled back in 1982 by damming main Kulekhani from 30-66 mg/l. Carbon production into public research and development, river and its tributaries at an elevation ranged from 350 mg/m2/day during and / or local aquaculture community of 1,430 meters above sea level. It October to 3,000 mg/m2/day in April (Rai development. When combined, these is located about 83 km south-west of 1989). systems benefi t all environments within Kathmandu city in Markhu, Makwanpur which we operate including natural, district. This was the fi rst large-sized Eleven zooplankton species have socio-cultural, and socio-economic. reservoir constructed in the hilly region been identifi ed the most dominant of Nepal, and was established for being Keratella (about 51%) followed Mr. Jamie Stewart, a trainee journalist, electricity generation. The reservoir is by Cyclops spp. (14%) abundant in was in Thailand as a short-term intern characterized by a draw down of about July to September and least abundant working with Ram C. Bhujel, PhD, 54 m resulting in a surface area ranging during December and March (Pradhan Senior Research Scientist and Affi liated between 75 to 220 h, a range of 220 ha 1986/87). Total zooplankton density Faculty at Aquaculture and Aquatic to 75 ha. was about 682 individuals/liter and Resources Management (AARM), Asian was highest during October and lowest Institute of Technology (AIT), Klong Kulekhani reservoir is the fi rst man about 131/liter during December. Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand. made reservoir in Nepal in which Cyclops density was highest (35/liter) For more information email to: Bhujel@ aquaculture development has been during October followed by nauplius ait.ac.th). explored as a means of providing (244/liter). Eighteen phytoplankton livelihoods to displaced people living in species have been identifi ed the most the vicinity. This development program prominent being Peridinium, Anabaena, was initiated by the government with Melosira, Synedra and Staurastrum technical assistance from the Interna- (Pradhan 1986/87). Phytoplankton tional Development Research Centre was most abundant during May, June, (IDRC), Canada, in 1984. The project July, October and September and least was visualized to assess the feasibility during January, and February. for a fi sheries development program by gathering in-depth information on the limnological/biological parameters and Fish catch composition also to help layout the foundation for the future reservoir fi sheries development The three main fi sh species available programs in the country. in Kulekhani reservoir are Katle Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis ranging from 41-89% of total catch followed by Karange Puntius chilinoides (11-69.9% of total catch) and Asla Schizothorax

16 Aquaculture Asia Magazine People in aquaculture spp. (0.5-7%). Sahar Tor putitora was g/day with highest growth rate about 8.4 from NRs 7,167/ha m2 for cereal crops, very rare. The total fi sh catch from the g/day during April to May but some loss NRs 5,611/ha m2 for oilseeds and NRs reservoir is about 3-4 tonnes during in weight during January/February when 19,784/ha m2 for potato, respectively June/July and was mostly Katle (Rai water temperature falls below 14ºC (Rai while in cage fi sh culture, the net return 1989). Katle catch was higher during 1989/90). was NRs 2,644/18m3 (NRs 147 per September, January, and June and cubic meter of cage volume) (Adhikari lower during July, April and December. Cage culture gradually became 1995). However, the available land area Katle can be up to 2.9 kg in weight, successful in the reservoir providing job is decreasing due to increasing human with males smaller than females and opportunities to the local people and population in the area. Cage fi sh culture maturing during June to August at about uplifting incomes and supporting their activities will be the best alternative 700 g size. Karange catch was higher livelihoods. Now there are 212 farmers source for supporting livelihoods of the during July, April, and May. Karange (100 females and 112 males) involved people living around the reservoir. sizes range from 13-900 g. Karange in cage fi sh culture using 32,024 m3 for spawns during January to March and production and 7,104 m3 for nursery References spawns in fl owing water exposing half and grow-out (Fig. 2). About 166 the body out of the water. Asla catch members are involved in 10 fi shermen Adhikari, N. 1995. Impact of Inland Fisheries was highest in May but has decreased associations. In addition, about 2,024 Project on Farmers Living around Indrasarobar year by year. The size of asla ranged m3 production cages and 1,021 nursery Reservoir, Kulekhani, Makawanpur District, from 15-200 g; this species matures and rearing cages are used by the Nepal. Submitted to International SDevelop- twice per year in December/January public sector, as demonstration and ment Research Centre, Canada. 121 pp. and April/may and spawns in fl owing fry to fi ngerling rearing for distribution clear water. The exotic fi sh silver carp to prospective farmers. Accordingly, Adhikari, N. 1988.A study on the socio-economics and bighead carp favour the conditions a total cage volume of 34,048 m3 of farmers living around Indrasarobar Reservoir, in the reservoir and grow well. These in the reservoir produces more than Makwanpur, district, Nepal. grow up to about 9 kg within 3 years. 136 tonnes of fi sh annually which is The indigenous carp rohu (Labeo rohita) equivalent to NRs 10,880,000.00 (@ CBS, 2005. Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Cetral and bhakur (Catla catla) also showed NRs 80/kg) = US$ 155,429.00). Bureau of Statistics. HMG/N, NPC., Secre- better growth but less than silver and tariate, Ramshah Path, Thapathali, Kathmandu, bighead carps. Rohu attained 1.6 kg Kulekhani reservoir is eutrophic. Nepal. 460 pp. in 4 years and bhakur 1.5 kg within 3 Organic fertilizers, primarily from years. domestic animals, enters via run off DoFD, 2061/’62. Annual Progress Report HMG, during the rainy season from the MoAC, DoA, Fisheries Development Directo- The local fi sh species katle, karange surrounding villages and makes the rate, Balaju. 96 pp. and asla were affected greatly after reservoir fertile. The resulting phyto- damming of the Kulekhani river. Before and zooplankton provide a rich food Pradhan, B.R. 1986/’87. Annual Progress Report damming Kulekhani was famous source for the cultured fi sh species like (1986/’87). Inland Fisheries Project, Indfra- for asla, an algal feeder, but after silver and bighead carps. The growth sarobar Kulekhani, Fisheries Development damming population has decreased of caged fi sh depends entirely on the Division, HMG, Nepal. 42 pp. due to environmental changes and natural food developed within the disturbances to the breeding grounds. reservoir. Fish growth is better above Rai, A.K. 1989/90. Annual Progress report (16 Katle and karange are omnivorous and 20ºC when plankton population also is July 1989 – 15 July 1990). Inland Fisheries are suitable for developing a fi shery high. Growth of silver and bighead carps Project, Indrasarobar, Kulekhani, Fisheries supported by a well planned stock shows a direct relationship to the water Development Divison, Dept.Agri. MoA, HMG, enhancement strategy. Asla on the temperature and the plankton density. Nepal. 25 pp. other hand, do not perform well in the Indigenous carps rohu and bhakur also reservoir due to lack of running fresh show favorable growth in the reservoir Rai, A.K. 1989. Final Progress Report (16 July water and preferred habitats with stones although they perform better in open 1984- 31 December 1989). Inland Fisheries covered with algal mats. water than in cages. About 49% of Project, Fisheries Development Division, people living around the reservoir have National Agricultural Research and Service benefi ted directly from cage culture Centre, MoA, HMG, Nepal. 73 pp. Cage fi sh culture in the reservoir, which provides their livelihoods and better incomes than they Cage fi sh culture started using silver had previously. and bighead carps during late 1980s on an experimental scale. The cage culture technology has been developed in the Socio-economics lakes of Pokhara valley in Nepal and the technology was applied success- The average family size living around fully by the farmers in the valley. This the reservoir is 6.5 people. The average technology was applied in Kulekhani size of a family land holding was 0.77 reservoir. Cage culture production was ha, with an average of 3 large and 6 high at about 5 kg/m3 with silver and small livestock but with only 0.12 ha bighead carps together cultured singly of per capita available cultivated land (4 kg/m3) (Rai 1989), indicating better (Adhikari 1988). The cost and return utilization of available natural food evaluated from the crop and vegetable items. The average growth rate was 2.8 shows that the average net return varied

April-June 2007 17 People in aquaculture

Diversifi cation of rice farming Dr Edwards is a consultant and Emeritus Professor at the Asian Institute alleviates poverty in a of Technology in Thailand where he founded the aquaculture program. He has over 30 years experience in Bangladesh village aquaculture education, research and development in the Asian region. Email: [email protected].

example of the kind of changes that are required to lift villagers out of poverty. Some of the village rice fi elds are being converted into fi sh ponds, which is increasingly taking place in Bangladesh today, but in addition crops are grown on fi sh pond dikes in a few villages in the area, which is uncommon in the country. These relatively new farming practices have lifted the villagers out of poverty; they generate income as well as providing the villagers with an improved diet.

Damgao was one of the villages studied by Dr. Manjurul Karim of the WorldFish Center, Bangladesh in his doctoral thesis, ‘The livelihood impacts of fi shponds integrated within farming systems in Mymensingh District, Pond/dike preparation. Bangladesh’. His study was part of the PondLive project funded by the Bangladesh is among the poorest of rice continues to increase, its price EC to the University of Stirling and countries in the world with about 50% remains low making it diffi cult for most Wageningen University with Bangladesh of the population below the national small-scale farming households to Agricultural University as a local partner. poverty line with insuffi cient food to eat. escape from poverty. However, there Dr Karim kindly guided me to the village Although the contribution of agriculture is an increasing consumer demand in so I could witness the villagers’ experi- to GDP is only about 20% and declining, the country as the economy grows for ence in agricultural diversifi cation and it employs over 60% of the labor force. higher value food items such as animal intensifi cation. Most of the poor live in rural areas products (fi sh and livestock, and fruits and depend directly or indirectly on and vegetables) which farmers can I interviewed a group of four to fi ve agriculture for their livelihoods, mainly produce to raise their standard of living. villagers who recalled how diversifi ca- rice farming. Bangladesh is also one of Agricultural diversifi cation as well as tion of their rice farms, fi rst through the most densely populated countries intensifi cation is required to help to lift introduction of fi sh culture and later in the world with over 1,000 persons/ farmers out of poverty and to satisfy vegetables, had considerable improved km2. Increasing agricultural productivity increasing consumer demand for fi sh their welfare In the words of the villagers or intensifi cation is therefore essential and vegetables. ‘they were really poor in the past’ and for reducing poverty as well as ensuring were not even able to eat three meals a national food security. day. In those days when the village was A visit to Damgao village a subsistence economy, households Rice is the most strategic commodity consumed all the rice they grew in the Bangladesh economy as it is During a recent trip to Bangladesh, although it was still insuffi cient to satisfy the main national food staple as well I visited Damgao village in Gouripur their consumption needs and in addition as the largest overall contributor to sub-district, 22 km from Mymensingh caught small wild fi sh and bought farm income. Although the production district city. The village provides a good vegetables at the market.

18 Aquaculture Asia Magazine People in aquaculture

Some of the fi sh and vegetables raised on the farm are consumed by households but mostly they are sold to generate income. All the rice produced is still consumed by the village households but today about 75% of the household need for rice is purchased from earnings from more profi table fi sh and vegetable production.

The farmers interviewed reported that they produce about Tk. 25-26,000 (US$1 = Tk. 69) worth of fi sh, 85-90% of which is sold, and Tk. 15-18,000 worth of vegetables, almost all of which is sold, a total value of Tk. 40-44,000 (US$580-638). The farmers produce about 500-520 kg of fi sh from their approximately 1,000 m2 fi sh ponds. This extrapolates to an impressive 4.6-4.8 tonnes/ha, even higher than the 3.1 tonnes/ha achieved by small-scale farming households in nearby Kishore- ganj district (see my column on ‘Small- scale pond culture in Bangladesh’, Diversifi cation and As the villagers increasingly appreciated Aquaculture Asia Vol. X, No.4, p.5-7, intensifi cation the benefi ts of fi sh culture, some of the 2005). Through producing their own fi sh rice fi elds began to be converted into and vegetables and being able to buy fi sh ponds starting about a decade ago suffi cient rice, the farming households The village comprises about 200 as the older fi sh ponds were insuffi cient are now above the national poverty line households which all integrate pond fi sh to meet the villagers growing involve- which is defi ned by the total consump- culture with vegetable cultivation on the ment in fi sh culture. Wild fi sh have tion or income at which households pond dikes. Rice fi elds are ploughed declined markedly in amount over time satisfy their nutritional requirement of by tractor but 50% of households have as farmers now use pesticides, have 2,122 calories/person/day. a couple of dairy cows and sell milk. raised the dikes around the rice fi elds All households have 6-7 scavenging and have reduced the area of rice fi elds Knowledge of fi sh culture came from the poultry and 20% have 1-2 goats. The through conversion into fi sh ponds. villagers’ neighbors in other villages who average land holding in Damgao village Rather than wild fi sh, fl ood waters now themselves learned from the owner of is 50 decimals (1decimal = 40 m2) or are more likely to bring cultured fi sh into Jhalak fi sh hatchery in the sub-district 2,000 m2 although 60-65 households the fi elds. who attended a training course in have less than 20 decimals (800 m2) of land. One absentee landlord holds 10 ha. More than 50 households have to lease land or ponds. In an average land holding of 50 decimals, 10 is taken up by the household, 13 is for the rice fi eld and the largest area (27 or 1,080 m2) is for the fi sh pond.

Some of the fi sh ponds in the village are very old as they were originally dug as borrow pits to provide soil to raise the level of the houses and surrounding area above the fl ood plain to minimize fl ooding. This is the origin of older fi sh ponds in many areas in the low lying country. Stocking fi sh in the ponds in the village began 17-19 years ago. Many of the ponds were ‘derelict’ (shallow with the pond surface covered by water hyacinth) but they have been deepened by the villagers and cleared of fl oating weeds as they are aware that they consume nutrients. Water hyacinth now occurs mainly in the large beel (peren- nial water body) adjacent to the village. Mixed cropping on pond dykes.

April-June 2007 19 People in aquaculture

amon or monsoon season rice crop from July-November. A third crop called aus is not cultivated in the village due to lack of water following the boro crop. Boro is a high yielding crop at 6 maunds/10 decimals (1 maund = about 37 kg) or about 5.6 tonnes/ha while amon yields only half this amount at 3-4 maunds/10 decimals. Boro is a HYV (high yielding variety) that responds well to irrigation and fertilizers in the sunny winter-dry season.

The future?

I asked the villagers to imagine their situation 10 years into the future? They expect their production of fi sh and vegetables to be even higher than today from the introduction of new technology but they expressed concerns about increasing costs as well as increasing population. They also believe that they could increase their fi sh pond area Thailand 10-12 years ago. The idea to July- September but during my visit in further from conversion of rice fi elds. To grow crops on the pond dikes came November gourds were in season. Pond help to maintain their rice production, shortly after the introduction of fi sh water is used to irrigate the vegetables they added that they could grow rice in culture, about 16 years ago, also from and pond mud is removed annually as the fi sh pond during the 3-4 month boro a neighboring village. The introduction a fertilizer. Most vegetables are now rice season, followed by 2 months with of both improved fi sh culture and grown on pond dikes in spite of the the pond empty due to insuffi cient water, vegetable farming into the village considerable amount of labor required and then a 6 month period of growing indicates the importance of farmer-to- to remove pond sediments. However, it fi sh in the pond following the start of the farmer dissemination of technology, remains to be seen if this practice, rare monsoon with plenty of water for fi sh once farmers are convinced that it is elsewhere in Bangladesh and in other culture. relevant for them. countries, continues and spreads. Continued on page 27. Villagers stock a polyculture of up Villagers still grow two crops of rice to seven species of fi sh: indigenous each year, the boro or winter-dry catla (Catla catla), mrigal (Cirrhinus season crop from December–January mrigala) and rohu (Labeo rohita); and to March–April which is irrigated by exotic common carp (Cyprinus carpio), surface water and tube wells; and the Chinese silver carp (Hypophthalmich- thys nobilis), Thai puti or silver barb (Barbichthys gonionotus) and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Ponds are fertilized with cow manure compost and chemical fertilizers (urea and TSP) to produce natural food and fi sh are also fed with rice bran and mustard oil cake. Only cow manure and 30% of the rice bran are sourced from the farm with other inputs being purchased.

Farmers fi rst grew cucumber when it was introduced into the village on level land. The current practice of cultivating vegetables on fi sh pond dikes was initiated by one farmer who observed a signifi cant increase in production of cucumber planted on a dike repaired with pond bottom mud. A range of dike crops is grown: beans, brinjal or egg plant, chili, cucumber, lady’s fi ngers or okra, and bottle gourd. Cucumber is the main crop with a peak from

20 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

Aquaculture of sea-pineapple, Halocynthia roretzi in Japan

T.T.T. Nguyen1, N. Taniguchi2, M. Nakajima2, U. Na-Nakorn3, N. Sukumasavin4, K. Yamamoto1

1. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacifi c, Bangkok, Thailand; 2. GradutateSchool of Agriculture Science, Tohoku Univeristy, Japan; 3. Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart Univeristy, Thailand; 4. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Thailand.

Sea pineapple attached to rope, cultured in Shizugama Bay, Japan.

More often than not in aquaculture we sea squirts attaches to the substrata known worldwide, around 100 of which tend to pay more attention on species and adopt a sedentary habit. At this are distributed around the Japanese that are produced in high volume point the tail, along with the notochord coastline, principally occurring from the such as fi nfi sh species, molluscs, and neural tube, is reabsorbed, however rocky subtidal areas to the deep sea crustaceans among others. Added to this transient feature is one reason why bottom. all these are certain species that are Ascidiaceans fall under the sub-phylum produced in relatively small quantities Urochordata, commonly known as The culture of sea squirts is localized but which are of high value and relished “urochordates” (uro = tail): they are and consumption is also restricted to by certain communities. Generally, the thought to exhibit characteristics of the a few countries, principally Japan and culture of such species is often confi ned evolutionary ancestors of chordates Korea, where they are considered a to localized areas. One of such group and vertebrates. Sea squirts are delicacy. Although small, world sea are the Ascidians, commonly known as hermaphroditic and live in shallow squirt aquaculture production has sea squirts. coastal waters. They typically feed on been increasing steadily (Figure 1), plankton and detritus that they fi lter Total world sea squirt production has Sea quirts are sac-like marine fi lter- from the seawater. They are character- increased from about 14,000 tonnes in feeding animals of the class Ascidiacea ized by a tough outer “tunic” made 2000 to around 21,500 tonnes worth (phylum Chordata). During metamor- of the polysaccharide tunicin. More around US$18 million (FAO, 2006). phosis, the planktonic larval phase of than 3,000 species of Ascidiacea are Aquaculture currently accounts for

April-June 2007 21 Research & farming techniques

Oyster and sea pineapple culture in the Shizugama Bay, Japan. Settled sea pineapple are visible as approximately 90% of total world sea Wild grape vines were initially used as white dots on the ropes around April squirt production. In Japan in 2006 a a settlement substrate for the larvae in and begin to acquire a red color around total of 16,000 tonnes of cultured sea the initial culture practice. Since culture May to June, reaching 5-10 mm during pineapple was produced worth around takes three to four years, it is important the fi rst year. On completion of the US$ 9 million, with 12,163 tonnes from to use a substrate that will not rot easily. settlement the ropes are cleaned of Miyagi Prefecture, 3,037 tonnes from Iwate Prefecture, 536 tonnes from Modern seed collection is achieved Aomori Prefecture and 264 tonnes from using dark colored ropes with oyster elsewhere in Japan. Production is on shells installed at 0.5 meter intervals the increase due to increasing demand to facilitate settlement of the metamor- from Korea. phosed larvae, in a manner similar to that commonly used to collect the seed In Japan the popularly cultured species of oysters, mussels and other bivalve is Halocinthya roretzi, commonly molluscs. The settlement ropes are set referred to as ‘sea pineapple’, or in rocky coastal areas at a depth of 6 ‘hoya’ or ‘maboya’ in Japanese. Sea to 10 metres. The length of a typical pineapple spawn in the winter from late horizontal rope is about 90 meters with November to early March when the vertical ropes at 30 to 80 cm intervals. water temperature is 10-11ºC. Eggs Each vertical rope is 4 to 6 meters in hatch after two days with larvae entering length and has 60 to 70 areas of settle- a free-swimming larval phase lasting a ment substrate. The intervals between few days before settling. settlement substrates on the vertical ropes can be changed according to Mariculture of the sea pineapple began the growth of the attached seed. It is in 1908 in Japan. The culture method important to set the ropes at the right developed from the observation of sea time and water temperature otherwise squirts attached to wild grape vines that the ropes will be settled by another fi shermen in Miyagi prefecture were (non-edible) sea squirt Ciona savignyi. using as anchor ropes on their ships. View of a whole sea squirt.

22 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

Above and below: Sea squirt ready for consumption - it is prepared in many different ways. other sessile organisms and of exces- sive numbers of juvenile sea pineapple seed. The ropes are cut and attached to grow out ropes around September to the middle of October, which are then maintained for a further three to four years when the animals are ready for harvesting, having grown into ball- shaped masses with individual animals having reached approximately 15 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter and a meat weight of 200-300 g. Three-year old animals are mainly used for proc- essed foods, while four-year old animals area mainly eaten raw as sashimi.

The culture of sea pineapple is an environmentally friendly culture activity; it does not involve any feeding. In general, and in Japan, sea pineapple culture sites are often mixed with those for oysters and fi n fi sh cage culture in semi-enclosed bays.

Historical literature indicates the are accustomed to it, especially those of Japan, please order maboya in the consumption of sea pineapple started who like to drink Japanese sake, which Japanese tavern style and enjoy this at least since 800 AD. It is considered is a traditional Japanese alcoholic drink. special taste of Japan. highly nutritious seafood. Consumption The most general method to eat sea just after harvest is favoured for the best pineapple is raw as sashimi. The animal fl avour as a metallic taste may become is cut vertically and removed from the evident as the product becomes less shell and the internal organs removed. fresh. Pieces are cut to a suitable size and served with vinegar soy sauce. Other Sea pineapple is a food that evokes methods of preparation include salted strong reactions because of its unusual (Bakurai in Japanese), smoked, grilled, fl avour, which is caused by one of its deep fried or dried. All of these methods minor constituents called cynthiaol, are good when served with sake. If you an unsaturated alcohol present at low have a chance to visit the northern part levels. The peculiar fl avour of sea pineapple is very attractive to those who

April-June 2007 23 Research & farming techniques Development of green mussel cultivation in Thailand: Sriracha Bay, Chonburi Province Suriyan Tunkijjanukij1,2 and Alongot Intarachart1

1. Sriracha Fisheries Research Station, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Chonburi Province 20110, Thailand; E-mail: ffi [email protected]; 2. Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand.

Mussel rafts viewed over the bay.

Chonburi is a coastal province situated it could not be conducted on hard Raft culture of mussels is now well in the eastern region of Thailand, about substrates, the bamboo was vulnerable adopted in areas where bamboo pole 100 km from Bangkok. Its 157 km coast- to damage by wave and wind action, culture is not possible, ie. places with line is well known for a vibrant tourism which could lead to production loss, and hard substrates or that are exposed to industry, port development, fi sheries and theft. This lead the Sriracha Fisheries the open sea. The raft culture system is mariculture. Within Chonburi, Sriracha Research Station (SFRS) to support predominantly made from polypropylene Bay is a famous area for aquaculture of development of a new raft culture and/or polyethylene components, mostly the green mussel, Perna viridis, which method for green mussel production obtained second-hand from industry is produced using a raft culture method. using recycled materials. The end and old trawl nets respectively. These Mussel culture in Thailand relies entirely result of long years of work are a more have the advantage of lasting much on the collection of natural spat using convenient and comfortable to harvest longer for bamboo, enduring for several ropes and bamboo poles as settlement system that is resistant to wind and years, making mussel raft culture more substrates. The raft culture method has wave action and provides some of the profi table and viable than the bamboo been studied and developed since 1994 benefi ts of artifi cial reefs. pole culture method. For example, to by the Sriracha Fisheries Research Station of Kasetsart University through funding from the Kasetsart University Initiatives Project (KIP). Three different kinds of mussel culture methods have been examined through this research and raft culture has been found to be both the most profi table method and the easiest. Thai national production of green mussels stands at around 297,000 tonnes per year.

Mussel raft culture

In the past the predominant method of mussel culture in Sriracha Bay was bamboo culture. However, this method had many problems, for example, Mussel raft constructed from recycled materials.

24 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques make 1,600 m2 of mussel raft, 50 m lengths of 16 mm polypropylene rope are tied together to create a grid 40 meters in length and width with ropes spaced at 1 meter intervals. The outside perimeter of the raft is tied with 20 mm polypropylene rope. Sealed plastic containers (20-30 liter) are tightly tied to each knot in the grid with 6-8 mm polypropylene rope, to provide fl otation for the raft.

In Sriracha Bay area, during July- September 2005 there was a total of 235 mussel rafts under culture, repre- senting 140 Rai (approx. 25 hectares) (Seekao, 2006).

Harvesting and marketing of green mussels

Mussel raft culture can harvest using small boats, allowing selection of mussels of suitable size to be sold. After eight months of culture the average of shell length of mussels is around 6.55 cm, shell width is 3.18 cm, total weight 20.57 g, shell weight 7.06 g, fresh meat weight 5.89 g and dry meat weight 0.89 g. The density of green mussels Harvested mussels are cleaned and sorted on shore. was around 240 pieces per meter with a survival rate of around 19.46%. The Conclusion Seekao, C. 2006. Application of Geographic average increase in shell length was Information System and remote sensing for 0.74 cm/month. The total production The potential for successful mussel green mussel culture zoning in Sriracha Bay, of raft culture method was 57,800 kg raft culture in Sriracha Bay, Chonburi Chonburi Province. Master degree’s thesis, which converted to 346,800 baht per rai Province has been demonstrated Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. (Alongot and Poramet, 2002). Mussel through expansion of this culture raft culture is currently expanding due method in both Sriracha and other Sriracha Fisheries Research Station. 2003. to a favorable ex-farm price of around coastal areas in Thailand. However, Intensive culture of the green mussel. pp.43-53. 10-12 baht/kilogram, with current yields some minor adjustment to the system In Project on Potential Development in standing at around 30,000 kg/rai and may be required in areas that have Aquaculture and Economic Fish Processing in rafts having a useful lifespan of 6-8 higher seas. Complete Cycle. Sriracha Fisheries Research years. Station, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart Acknowledgement University, Chonburi Province Thailand.

Benefi t of mussel raft We are grateful to all farmers and staff culture to local fi shermen that are associated with and that have been instrumental in making mussel raft culture in Sriracha Bay a success. In addition to its direct economic Thanks are also due to Kasetsart benefi t, mussel rafts provide additional University Research and Development benefi ts to the fi shers of Sriracha Bay, Institute (KURDI) for providing funds for in that they provide an area of artifi cial fi sheries research and to the Faculty habitat that provides food and shelter of Fisheries, Kasetsart University and to other marine animals of economic Sriracha Municipality for their kind importance, as well as protection from support. trawling operations. Areas surrounding mussel rafts have become favored by References fi shers for operation of crab traps and gill nets. Poosiripinyo, R. 1984. The green mussel (Perna viridis) marketing system of provinces in the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand, 1982. Master degree’s thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.

April-June 2007 25 Research & farming techniques

Selective breeding for growth and fi llet yield of river catfi sh (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam Nguyen Van Sang, Nguyen Van Hao, Dinh Hung, Pham Dinh Khoi, Bui Thi Lien Ha, Vu Hai Dinh, Nguyen Dien

Research Institute for Aquaculture No.2 (RIA2), Nguyen Dinh Chieu Street, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Email: [email protected]

Aquaculture production

River catfi sh is distributed in the Mekong River system through Laos, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. In Vietnam, induced breeding of the river catfi sh was attempted in 1978 but successful completion of the life cycle was achieved only in 1997. River catfi sh is the most important species in freshwater aquaculture in South Vietnam. Catfi sh are farmed in ponds, cages and river-net pens. Production of this species was about 90,000 tonnes in 2000, and thereafter increased somewhat dramatically to 300,000 tonnes and 400,000 tonnes in 2004 and 2005, respectively. The great bulk of farmed catfi sh is exported, currently to about 50 countries, primarily the EU and the US.

Research requirements Harvesting eggs for hatchery production of river catfi sh.

The absolute fecundity of this species The selective breeding program for fi sh hatcheries in Mekong Delta in is very high at around 300,000 eggs improving some economically important Vietnam. Each stock was collected from per kg body weight and normally the traits commenced in Vietnam under different periods over 1999-2001 from fry from a few pairs of brooders can the auspices of the program “Support the farms in An Giang, Vinh Long, Dong provide suffi cient seed for rearing and for Freshwater Aquaculture” (SUFA) Thap, Tien Giang, Long An provinces in grow-out. If the hatchery managers by DANIDA (2001-2005), and was Mekong Delta (Southwest of Vietnam) choose fi sh from farms as broodstock, carried out by the Research Institute for and Binh Duong province in Southeast the chances of increasing inbreeding is Aquaculture No.2. Breeding programs to of Vietnam. The fry for fi ngerling rearing signifi cantly high. A breeding program select for growth in two year-class popu- were collected at different times of the based on an optimum design utilizing lations 2001 and 2002 was commenced year in Mekong River in Vietnam. Thus, a maximum number of families for using individual selection, and for fi llet the base population for each year class different populations can reduce the yield and body weight in year-class is considered to have a high genetic rate of inbreeding. Although the fi llet population 2003 using combined variability. yield of catfi sh is relatively low (33 individual and family selection. Like in %) the main export product is fi llets. other species, the breeding program The fi rst generation (F1) of family Accordingly, a fi llet yield together with a fi rst started with growth rate, the trait selected 2001 year class fi sh were high growth rate will be most desirable preferred by producer, and fi llet yield produced in 2005 from 462 fi sh in the traits for maximizing the cost benefi ts was included later. This program is now selected line and 120 randomly selected in catfi sh farming. Thus, estimates of being continued through funding from fi sh in the control line. The partial the magnitude of genetic variation for the Vietnamese Ministry of Fisheries factorial mating design, 2n males mating fi llet weight and fi llet yield, and their (2006-2008). with 2n females was used. A total of genetic correlation with growth rate are 95 males mated with 97 females to crucial for determining the objectives establish 162 full-sib families within one and planning of an effi cient breeding Experimental design month. Fertilized eggs were incubated program. in separate net-jars in the same Base populations for each experiment cement tank. Fry of each family was were selected from three different reared separately in fi berglass tanks stocks from three different freshwater and in hapas in ponds until tagging.

26 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Research & farming techniques

On average, 75 individuals from each fi sh grow 13% faster than non-selected Kause, A., Ritola, O., Paananen, T., Mäntysaari, E. full-sib family were randomly selected fi sh (the control) after one generation of & Eskelinen, U., 2002. Coupling body weight and marked with passive integrated selection. and its composition: a quantitative genetic transponder tags (PIT) that were analysis in rainbow trout. Aquaculture, 211: implanted into the back of the fi sh of 10 65-79. g weight in December 2005 (about 170 Dissemination of improved days). Tagged fi sh were communally seed Neira, R., Lhorente, J.P., Araneda, C., Díaz, N., stocked in ponds of 2000 m2 at the Bustos, E. & Alert, A., 2004. Studies on carcass Southern National Breeding Center for quality traits in two populations of Coho salmon Freshwater Aquaculture – Research Primary dissemination shows that (Oncorhynchus kisutch): phenotypic and Institute for Aquaculture No.2 (RIA2). selected fry has higher survival and genetic parameters. Aquaculture, 241, 1-4: Fish were fed in excess a commercial faster growth and selected fi ngerling 117-131. pelleted feed of 22% protein. In August have performed better than the 2006 some 2,767 surviving fi sh of non-selected fi sh at farms. This is an Rutten, M.J.M., Bovenhuis, H., Komen, H., 2005. 279 days age were sampled, with an excellent initial result for our improved Modeling fi llet traits based on body measure- average weight of around 1 kg. Body lines. We have been establishing ments in three Nile tilapia strains (Oreochromis weight, fi llet weight and fi llet yield were multiplier and dissemination networks niloticus L.) Aquaculture, 231, 1-4: 113-122 . recorded. The number of fi sh each to assist in rapid dissemination of our full-sib family was drawn until it reached product. To speed up the dissemination Sang, N. V., 2004. Genetic parameters and an average of 17.5. program, we provide all life stages genotype by environment interaction of carcass including mature broodstock, reserved quality traits in rainbow trout in Norway. MSc broodstock, fi ngerling and fry to Thesis. Statistical analyses hatcheries, rearing and grow-out farms in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The linear mixed animal model and restricted maximum likelihood method Peter Edwards writes on rural were used to estimate the variance and Conclusion aquaculture co-variance of recorded traits in order to acquire heritability and genetic correla- The selective breeding program will Continued from page 20. tion. A multi-trait analysis and ASReml acquire a medium to high response package were used for analysing the for growth and a rather low genetic The Bangladesh government is data. The expected genetic response response for fi llet yield, respectively. concerned that conversion of rice fi elds for growth and fi llet yield, and realized In conclusion, we strongly recommend to fi sh ponds might threaten national genetic response for growth were that selective breeding programs for food security. The current population of calculated. this commercially important species 148 million is predicted to increase by be implemented with the expansion in about 70% to a maximum of 250 million multipliers and dissemination networks towards the end of this century before it Phenotypic and genetic to satisfy farmers demand for better begins to decline. However, conversion parameters quality seed. of some rice fi elds to fi sh ponds and the promotion of intensifi ed aquaculture Acknowledgements and cultivation of vegetables on pond Very high coeffi cients of variation (CV) dikes holds great promise to provide were observed for harvest weight and The research was supported by SUFA more nutritional food for a population fi llet weight, 40.02% and 35.54%, (Support for Freshwater Aquaculture), of increasing socio-economic status, respectively. The estimated heritabilities DANIDA and managed by the as well as to provide a better diet and were quite high for body weight and Vietnamese Ministry of Fisheries, higher income for farming households fi llet weight, 0.39 and 0.40, respectively 2001-2005. It is currently funded by who comprise the bulk of the population and low for fi llet yield, 0.08. The genetic the Vietnamese Ministry of Fisheries, as well as the poor. Bangladesh has correlation between body weight and 2006-2008. reached self suffi ciency in rice with fi llet weight was very high (0.98) while production increasing at an average that between body weight and fi llet yield References annual rate of 3.6% over the last 25 was nearly zero. With the heritability years, higher than the annual population and genetic correlation shown above Gjedrem, T., 2000. Genetic improvement of growth rate which has declined from it is diffi cult to select for body weight cold-water species. Aquaculture research, 31: about 3% in the 60s to 2% in the 90s to alone in order to acquire a correlated 25-33. today’s 1.6%. The challenge is clearly response for fi llet yield. Thus, the to increase the productivity and profi t- selection index of these two traits will Gjerde, B., Gjøen, H.M., Villanueva, B. (1996). ability of farming to feed an expanding be applied to improve for both traits. Optimum designs for fi sh breeding programs population, to provide it with a more The predicted response for body weight with constraint inbreeding: mass selection for diversifi ed diet and to give farmers a and fi llet yield are about 25% and 2.5%, normally distributed trait. Livestock production more profi table livelihood than rice respectively if each trait is selected Science, 47: 59-72. farming alone. separately. The realized genetic response for body weight per generation is 13%. This means that the selected

April-June 2007 27 Genetics & biodiversity

Fish for life: Producing high quality fi sh seed in rural areas of Asia David C. Little1, Benoy K. Barman2 and Corinne Critchlow-Watton1

1: Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA; 2: WorldFish Center, Bangladesh and South Asia Offi ce, House 22B, Road 7, Block F, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh.

Setting the scene producers to rural fi sh farmers. Ready be produced by different people who availability of juvenile fi sh or ‘seed’ purchase hatchlings and then nurse Aquaculture has expanded rapidly in has been a key factor in aquaculture them to a larger size in earthen ponds. many areas of Asia and this can be becoming successfully established. These producers sell the nursed seed related to rapidly changing conditions Maintaining or improving the quality of through networks of traders to food- in both rural and urbanising parts of the seed reaching farmers is now believed fi sh farmers who are typically widely region. As human population growth to be critical for both aquaculture dispersed. This situation has resulted has ensured that demand for aquatic development and rural livelihoods. in more competition between producers products has increased, wild stocks of and over time, has reduced profi tability. fi sh and other aquatic products have Most fi sh species produced and stocked Both hatcheries and nurseries have typically declined. The rural poor have in Asia are riverine carps. Traditionally, become more effi cient producing been badly affected by this trend in wild hatcheries have been located close to increased numbers of smaller seed to stocks but cultured fi sh are becoming natural sources of hatchlings and now enhance cash fl ows and profi tability. an affordable substitute. In addition often occur as clusters around these These effi ciencies have however, often to providing an alternative fi sh supply, resources or where the promoters of been achieved at the expense of seed aquaculture also creates many employ- aquaculture focused their initial efforts. quality. ment opportunities. Importantly, even Hatcheries typically specialise in the poor people derive benefi ts as they production of eggs from ripe breeding The size of juvenile fi sh that can be are often important actors in the supply fi sh held in concrete tanks. Fry, or supplied to a food fi sh farmer is the networks of fi sh seed that connect seed larger juvenile fi sh (fi ngerlings), tend to single most important indicator of

Private sector seed networks often locate around Government investment such as here in Cai Be, Mekong Delta, Viet Nam where an entrepreneur is selling fi ngerlings in front of major new Government fi nanced National Broodstock Centre.

28 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Genetics & biodiversity quality. A larger seed will survive better and grow to marketable size faster than a smaller fi sh produced under the same conditions. However, under current conditions it is diffi cult for hatcheries to produce large seed economically; as a result they are expensive for rural farmers or simply unavailable. Fish seed are fragile and often damaged during long distance transportation. Smaller-sized seed can be moved more effi ciently but typically survival after stocking in farmers’ ponds is poor. Small seed are also more susceptible to predation after stocking.

Alternative approaches to seed supply

Local production and use of seed can benefi t food-fi sh farmers and their neighbours directly; additionally interme- diaries and consumers may also gain. Improved availability of larger fi ngerlings when and where required means that quality seed is more accessible to rural farmers. Production and distribution of seed closer to food-fi sh farmers should also reduce risks, and increase opportunities for poorer people in the marketing network.

This view on how to improve seed quality is contrary to accepted wisdom. Currently the main strategy for enhancing seed quality is through the production and maintenance of geneti- cally ‘improved’ seed in centralised facilities. This approach allows the intro- duction and application of technology at key locations, but requires considerable initial and long term investment. This “techno-centric” approach follows a well established trend for plant and Private sector investment in seed production can be rapid if the climate is right livestock breeding which has had mixed such as here in Dong Thap, Mekong Delta, Viet Nam, where Pangasius hatcheries success in Asia. Major problems include developed rapidly over thre last few years and supported major aqauculture inequitable access to improved seed development. and its associated benefi ts and negative impacts on biodiversity. Maintaining or 2. The production of juveniles, relatively total produced. Some governments and enhancing links between the users and independent of external support, donors have attempted to promote a producers of improved species and close to the area in which they will be less centralised approach with mixed strains of fi sh is likely to be critical to sold/used. success. their sustained success. Centralised hatching In the private sector, the production of Here we outline some alternative and nursing fi sh seed in clusters of hatcheries and approaches to seed supply. We nurseries is a common phenomenon. contrast ‘centralised’ with two different This has many advantages. Concentra- approaches to ‘decentralised’ produc- Conventionally centralised fi sh seed tions of seed producers usually have tion: production has been associated with good access to specialised equipment public sector investment. In reality and consumables which may be diffi cult 1. The local nursing of seed originally due to the rapid growth of the private to obtain elsewhere. It is easier for obtained from centralised hatcheries; sector, the volume of seed produced specialised knowledge to spread, espe- and by most governments in Asia now cially among people who are relatives or represents only a small fraction of the neighbours. This know-how, such as the

April-June 2007 29 Genetics & biodiversity

Private sector seed producers in the region tend to family based enterprises that involve family labour such as this Pangasius hatchery in Dong Thap, Mekong Delta, Viet Nam.

methods used to prepare and manage producers are located in clusters, but There are two ‘types’ of decentralised earthen ponds for nursing riverine in practice the benefi ts are not often nursing: i) conventional earthen pond hatchlings, has sometimes developed realised for a variety of reasons. nursing; and ii) alternative methods over time. Government extension staff based on nursing in hapas or in rice may have acted as catalysts in this fi elds. process by introducing key information Decentralised nursing such as how to use hormones to induce Pond-based nursing has been heavily mature fi sh to spawn. Decentralised nursing is integrated with promoted by grass-roots organisations and reliant on the centralised hatcheries with mixed success. Young fry are In common with marketing other described above. Under a decentralised stocked at high densities in carefully perishable products, the close proximity nursing system fry are transported from prepared shallow earthen ponds. of numerous, competing producers is a hatchery to dispersed nurseries in This system tends to produce large complementary for traders. A ‘cluster’ of order to produce larger juveniles close numbers of seed in each production enterprises provides traders with greater to the areas of high demand (i.e. the cycle and requires specialised technical choice and availability. In turn, large production areas). Local ‘advanced’ and market knowledge. Such nursing numbers of hatcheries and nurseries nursing can provide larger high quality is resource intense and technically located close together strengthens the juveniles to farmers in isolated areas complex. It is also risky, especially as role of ‘distributors’. Such middlemen where choice of fi sh seed is limited. The local demand may be unpredictable. trade seed from hatchery to nursery and production of large fi ngerlings during Despite these constraints, nursing in between nurseries to food-fi sh farmers periods of cooler weather (overwintered ponds has developed without formal that may be located over large areas. seed) and between food-fi sh culture institutional support in some areas, cycles appears to have great potential. particularly as aquaculture becomes Concentrations of seed producers Overwintered seed available locally at well established. Farmers who have should allow close contact and strong the beginning of the season enhances adopted pond nursing tend to be more linkages between government and productivity and profi tability of food-fi sh experienced and nursing often becomes non-government service providers. In culture. Commercial level nursing may a major source of revenue. They are practice these linkages may have never encourage farms to buy directly from also aware of the potential benefi ts of existed or have weakened as private hatcheries but the livelihoods of poorer improving the quality of their seed. and government sectors have grown traders may be enhanced by servicing apart. In theory the dissemination of a larger and more dispersed network of Making the benefi ts of decentralised improved strains and new species smaller producers. nursing available to a larger and more should be easier and less costly if the diverse group of people is a challenge. Less risky, smaller-scale systems

30 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Genetics & biodiversity based on fewer seed is one alternative. Promising approaches include stocking small fry in irrigated rice fi elds or fi ne mesh cages (hapas). Both methods can be adopted by landless and resource- poor people as initial investment costs are low, culture cycles are short and cash-fl ow tends to be high. Although the production achieved per household may be low, the total numbers of large seed from many small producers can be very high. While the contribution to household income may not be economi- cally attractive for better-off people, producing large seed in rice fi elds or hapas can be very worthwhile for poorer households.

Stocking fry in irrigated rice fi elds has spread rapidly with little external Nile tilapia seed produced in irrigated ricefi elds is a decentralised approach to promotion in several parts of Asia. A seed supply that can benefi t even poorer housholds directly as producers. These strong local demand for large fi ngerlings practices are spreading among farmers in rural areas of NW Bangladesh after is a key factor for success. Using rice their introduction several years ago and having numerous benefi ts to the seed fi elds as fi sh nurseries improves their producers, their customers and various poor intermediaries. overall productivity with little additional investment. Such integration has also preparation of ponds. Additionally, Decentralised spawning, led to a reduction in the use of chemical hapas can be suspended in community hatching and nursing pesticides. water bodies or placed in ponds. There- locally fore only access to these resources Advanced nursing of juveniles in hapas is required rather than ownership. In suspended in water bodies has been recent years the improved availability Some species of fi sh such as Nile promoted in several places in Asia. of suitable synthetic mesh material has tilapia and common carp can reproduce This is a simple method as it does not made nursing in hapas possible in many without specialised facilities and may require expensive and complicated places.

April-June 2007 31 Genetics & biodiversity

be suitable for local spawning. These Local availability of large seed • Ensuring that the origin of fi sh is species are produced in specialised enhances employment opportunities considered and adequate numbers of clusters of hatcheries in some places, for the poor. Traders suffer less risk if fi sh are supplied during initial trans- but where riverine carps dominate supplies of high quality seed are locally fers to communities. This is critical culture such as in Northern Vietnam and available. Experience has shown that to ensure adequate diversity of stock Bangladesh such systems are unde- traders, most of whom are particularly initially and to avoid rapid deteriora- veloped. Nile tilapia and common carp poor, can become involved in aspects tion in quality of fi sh. seed are more diffi cult to mass produce of seed production as well. Furthermore • Profi ling of target communities is than riverine carp and seed production their role as informal promoters of seed important to ensure that resources costs are higher. Paradoxically both production is critical to the practice and a need for decentralised seed species are easy to produce in relatively spreading. production exist. small numbers as they breed naturally • Seed production for cash generation in ponds, hapas or even in shallow Issues for promoting decentralised seed as opposed to meeting subsistence ricefi elds. Resource poor people may production needs alone, appears to be an impor- have a relative advantage in producing tant driver for adoption amongst the seed of these species on a small-holder • Successful extension of decentral- poor with access to land. basis provided quality is maintained. ised seed production requires that • Selection of fi sh species is also im- grass-roots promoters understand portant. The promotion of Nile tilapia Demand for fi sh seed peaks with the the value of larger seed available in addition to common carp stimu- onset of monsoon in much of Asia. An locally. Organisations that promote lated the rapid spread of decentral- important advantage of local production decentralised seed supply also need ised seed production from farmer to of common carp and Nile tilapia seed to have the capacity to support farm- farmer in Northwest Bangladesh. is that both the quality and timing of ers in a practical way. seed availability will correspond to local • After introduction into communities, This article was based on fi eld and demand. Large seed can be produced decentralised production of Nile policy development work conducted in irrigated rice fi elds and hapas ahead tilapia and common carp seed can by the authors with funding from of the main season of demand; they spread rapidly from farmer to farmer. the UK Government Department for are then available locally as the rains fi ll Promoting fi sh seed production as International Development’s (DFID) seasonal water bodies. In comparison, part of integrated pest management Aquaculture and Fish Genetics seed from centralised systems reaching of rice through farmer fi eld schools Research Programme (AFGRP). The rural communities at this time is often has proved effective. conclusions of this policy brief refl ect smaller and long distance transportation • Maintaining positive linkages longstanding collaboration of the results in poorer survival after stocking. between rural seed producers and authors with fi eld-based colleagues. In centralised promoters is a challenge. particular those at the Asian Institute Creating some type of local producer of Technology Aquaculture Outreach, Benefi ts of locally produced ‘clubs’ as a focus for interaction is DFID Bangladesh Fisheries programme seed, fry and juveniles one approach. and the MOFI/DANIDA SUFA Project in Vietnam are acknowledged.

Fish seed produced in decentralised systems is unlikely to replace seed produced in centralised, specialised hatcheries. The two systems are complementary. For example in Bangladesh, farmers producing their own Nile tilapia and common carp seed in ricefi elds, also tend to begin stocking and nursing riverine carps. This is related to farmers’ preference for polyculture and therefore a variety of fi sh species.

The ready availability of seed from ricefi elds stimulates the production of food-fi sh in nearby seasonal or peren- nial water bodies. This has resulted in higher levels of local fi sh consump- tion. Seed producing households can increase their food security by directly consuming larger fi ngerlings or restocking for later consumption. Local sales of tilapia and common carp seed enhance the productivity of local riverine carp polyculture, benefi ting both producers and consumers.

32 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

AAsia-Pacisia-Pacifi c MarineMarine FinFinfi shsh AAquaculturequaculture NNetworketwork MMagazineagazine

Utilisation of local feed ingredients in tiger grouper grow out moist diets Usman1, Rachmansyah1, Neltje N. Palinggi1 and Taufi k Ahmad2

1. Research Institute for Coastal Aquaculture, Jl. Makmur Dg. Sitakka, No. 129, Maros, Sulawesi Selatan, 90512, Indonesia, E-mail: [email protected]; 2. Research Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia.

The development of tiger grouper it is expensive and its sometimes dry or moist feeds for tiger grouper. The (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus) culture limited availability mean that locally fi ndings from the work are summarized faces several problems, among which available protein alternatives should be in Table 1. is the reliance on trash fi sh availability. considered as they may provide a more Compared to artifi cial diets, the assured source of supply. Tiger grouper digested the animal availability of trash fi sh is seasonal, it feed ingredients more effi ciently than quickly decomposes, and can be the plant feed ingredients with DM, CP, source of serious pathogens. Ideally, Digestibility of selected TL and energy ADCs generally being commercial grouper culture should not feed ingredients for tiger signifi cantly higher. Of the animal rely only on trash fi sh but instead have grouper, Epinephelus meals, golden snail meal was the least a continuous supply of good quality feed fuscoguttatus digestible while the fi ber-rich rice bran throughout the year. In practical terms, had the lowest DM, CP and energy a continuous supply of good quality feed digestibility of the plant meals. However, can only be assured by using pelleted Apart from considerations of palatability the lipid digestibility of the rice bran was feed that is well accepted by the fi sh and anti-nutritional factors, the apparent comparatively high, much higher than and that provides all of the nutrients digestibility of an ingredient determines all other plant meals and equivalent necessary for rapid growth and develop- how much of the nutrients it contains to that of golden snail meal. The low ment at least cost. can be utilized by the animal. The ADCs of these plant ingredients were higher the digestibility of the ingredient, probably due to their high content of Commercially-manufactured dry pellets the more of its nutrient content will be nitrogen free extract (NFE), particularly for groupers are available but they available to support growth and other the complex carbohydrate components may not always be the best alternative metabolic functions. Consequently, of seeds, which are poorly digested by to feeding trash fi sh. Because of their the digestibility of an ingredient is an piscivorous fi sh. cost, including both manufacture and important measure of its nutritional freight, farmers may fi nd the commercial quality. The study has shown that tiger grouper dry pellets to be too expensive to effi ciently digest animal feed ingredi- use. Morever, wild-caught and less The most commonly available alterna- ents, indicating that the ingredients have well-adapted hatchery-bred tiger tive sources of protein in Indonesia are potential to be used as dietary replace- grouper fry may not readily accept poultry offal, golden snail, green mussel ments for fi sh meal. Some caution is dry pellets. Fortunately, tiger grouper and mysid meal. Yellow and white corn advised for golden snail meal since its will readily accept and grow well on meal, rice bran and sorghum meal overall digestibility was inexplicably appropriately formulated moist pellets are carbohydrate sources that are in poor, perhaps indicating that unknown where most of the ingredients can be plentiful supply in Indonesia. Therefore, factors may be affecting its nutritional sourced locally. Being a carnivorous an experiment was carried out to value. While the plant meals were not fi sh, tiger grouper requires a diet with determine the apparent digestibility of easily digested, nevertheless, they are a high protein content of 45-50% on a these feed ingredients because of their an integral part of compounded diets dry matter basis. While imported fi sh potential as ingredients in cost-effective and data on their digestibility are impor- meal is an excellent source of protein, tant when formulating diets to satisfy

April-June 2007 33 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Tiger grouper fed moist pellet in fl oating net cage.

the animals requirements for digestible and meals made from them are a Increasing the amount of golden snail nutrients. However, steam conditioning potential fi sh meal substitute in fi sh meal in the diet resulted in a slight of these meals prior to pelleting or using diets. Collecting golden snails in paddy curvilinear deterioration in growth rate, hot extrusion manufacturing procedures fi elds also provides additional social and FCR and nitrogen retention with the may increase their digestibility for tiger economic benefi ts through provision of adverse effects most noticeable at inclu- grouper. The high digestibility of green additional job opportunities. Because of sion rates greater then 20% (Fig. 1). mussel suggests its polyculture with fi sh these potential advantages, the use of Survival rates were high (> 94%) on all may provide an additional local source golden snail meal as a source of protein treatments. There were no differences of protein for the fi sh while helping to for fi sh diets was assessed. between treatments in the chemical alleviate nutrient output from farms. composition of the fi sh at the end of the Until more eco-friendly pelleted feeds Snails were collected from a rice fi eld experiment. Golden snail meal contains become commercially available, such in Maros Regency, boiled at 100ºC for less methionine than tiger grouper integrated systems may be an effective about 15 minutes, sun dried until they carcass (Table 2) and this may be why way of reducing the environmental contained less than 10 % water and high inclusion rates of the meal resulted impacts of cage aquaculture. then pulverized to produce the golden in reduced growth of the fi sh. However, snail meal. The proximate composition other unknown anti-nutritional factors in (% DM) of golden snail meal was: crude golden snail meal may have contributed Substitution of fi sh meal protein 56.9%; lipid 5.2%; ash 11.2%; to the poorer performance of the fi sh fed with golden snail meal and crude fi ber 2.8%. Test diets were the high golden snail meal diets. This (Pomacea sp.) in tiger prepared containing fi ve different levels experiment has shown that golden snail grouper grow-out diets of golden snail meal (0%, 10%, 20%, meal can be used at inclusion rates 30% and 40% ) substituting for a similar of up to 20% of the DM content of the amount of fi sh meal protein. The test diet to replace fi sh meal protein without Golden snail, considered a pest in diets were made as moist pellets (42% adversely affecting the performance of paddy fi elds, is a potential fi shmeal water content) and all had the same tiger grouper. replacement; it contains 50-54 % protein protein (45% DM) and energy (19.8 on a dry matter basis with essential MJ/kg) content. Trash fi sh was used at a amino acid index (EAAI) about 0.84. constant inclusion rate in all diets. (Table 2). Golden snails are plentiful

34 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Farm-made moist pellet. Golden apple snail and other alternative feed ingredients.

Utilization of poultry offal limited resource. Replacement of fi sh partially digested product that is rich in silage meal (POSM) in tiger meal with more sustainable terrestrial protein, polypeptides and free amino grouper feed ingredients is a high priority for all acids. The acidity of the product aids in aqua feeds. An alternative ingredient, retarding microbial growth. The product which has potential to replace fi sh meal can be incorporated as wet product for Being a piscivorous fi sh, tiger grouper in grouper feeds, is poultry by-product moist diets or conventionally dried for have a relatively short digestive tract meal (PBM), also known as poultry offal dry pellet formulation. Typical analysis and low digestive enzyme capacity meal (POM). In South Sulawesi, raw (% dry matter) of the POSM is: crude for carbohydrate-rich food. Thus, they poultry waste product is available but protein 65.6%; total lipid 18.1%; crude grow best when fed on formulated diets there is no commercial manufacture fi bre 0.2%; ash 4.7%, nitrogen free that contain high amounts of protein of this material into POM. At a farm extract 11.4%; and gross energy 24.57 >45% but only moderate amounts of scale, poultry waste product can be MJ/kg. To assess the extent to which lipid (<15%). To meet this high protein ensiled with organic acids to produce POSM could replace fi sh meal in diets specifi cation, diets typically contain 50% a poultry offal silage meal (POSM). for groupers, fi ve diets with the same fi sh meal. At an FCR of about 2.5:1 and POSM is produced by acidifying (3% crude protein (45%, dry matter) and a 4:1 conversion of low-value fi sh into formic acid and a similar amount of energy (20 MJ/kg, dry matter) content fi sh meal, some 6 kg of low-value fi sh propionic acid) chicken viscera and were formulated in which POSM was is required for every 1 kg weight gain other abattoir waste to activate the included at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15 or 20% of of the cultured fi sh. Clearly, this is not endogenous proteolytic enzymes in the diet as isonitrogenous substitutes of a very effi cient or appropriate use of a the material. In turn, this results in a fi sh meal. All dry ingredients were mixed

Figure 1. Effect of dietary inclusion level of golden snail meal (GSM) on tiger grouper average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and N retention coeffi cient (NR).

2.4

R 2 = 0.99 2.0 FCR (g:g)

1.6 ADG (g/d) R 2 = 0.95 onse

p 1.2 Res 0.8

NR (decimal) 0.4 R 2 = 0.93 0 0 10 20 30 40 GSM inclusion (%)

April-June 2007 35 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

together after which the minced raw Table 1. The dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), total lipid (TL) and gross trash fi sh and oil were added to produce energy (GE) apparent digestibility of the test feed ingredients. a dough of approximately 40% moisture. Essential amino acids Fish meal Golden snail meal Whole body of tiger Survival rate during the 20-week (CP: 61.7%) (CP: 56.9%) grouper (CP: 62.2%) experiment was high for all treatments, Arginine 3.96 3.67 3.63 averaging 97%. Fish grew well on all Histidine 1.77 1.05 1.02 diets with biomass gains averaging Isoleucine 2.86 2.60 2.42 303% of initial weight. There were Leucine 5.00 4.31 3.99 no signifi cant differences between Lysine 5.03 3.14 3.77 treatments for any of the measured Methionine + cysteine 1.36 0.32 0.47 biological traits (Table 3). Thus, the Phenylalanine 2.71 2.19 2.04 addition of POSM at dietary inclusion Threonine 2.97 2.35 2.47 rates of up to 20% and equivalent to a Valine 3.20 2.61 2.64 37% replacement of fi sh meal protein Tryptophan na na na was well accepted by the fi sh without Note: na=non-analysed any adverse effects on fi sh productivity. Compared to fi sh meal, POM contains Table 2. Essential amino acid composition of fi sh meal, golden snail meal and lower amounts of the essential amino whole body of tiger grouper (% dry matter). acids methionine, histidine and lysine. Essential amino acids Fish meal Golden snail meal Whole body of tiger A digestibility experiment (Table 4) (CP: 61.7%) (CP: 56.9%) grouper (CP: 62.2%) showed only a slight decrease in dry Arginine 3.96 3.67 3.63 matter, protein and lipid apparent Histidine 1.77 1.05 1.02 digestibility as the amount of POSM Isoleucine 2.86 2.60 2.42 increased. The progressive decrease Leucine 5.00 4.31 3.99 in dietary digestibility with increasing Lysine 5.03 3.14 3.77 POSM inclusion is most likely due to the Methionine + cysteine 1.36 0.32 0.47 higher content of poorly digested poultry Phenylalanine 2.71 2.19 2.04 feather fi bre. Threonine 2.97 2.35 2.47 Valine 3.20 2.61 2.64 Locally available sources of protein Tryptophan na na na such as GSM and POSM can be Note: na=non-analysed cost-effective substitutes for fi sh meal in tiger grouper diets. However, careful Table 3. Biological responses of tiger grouper fed different levels of poultry handling of the raw ingredients during offal silage meal (POSM) in diets. collection, storage and processing is critical to ensure that only the best Response trait Poultry offal silage meal levels (%) quality product is used in grouper feeds. 0 5 10 15 20 Further, it is not profi table to produce Initial weight (g/fi sh) 63.8 63.6 64.2 65.1 64.3 moist pellets on a large scale because Final weight (g/fi sh) 262.3 253.9 261.0 256.0 261.6 they have to be used on the same day Weight gain (%) 311.3 299.2 306.5 293.2 306.8 of manufacture unless cold storage Survival rate (%) 97.9 95.8 97.9 95.8 97.9 is available to extend their shelf life. Daily growth rate (%/d) 1.02 1.00 1.02 0.99 1.02 Developing on farm-moist feed pellet Daily feed consumption (%/d) 3.75 3.88 3.89 3.85 3.82 production is a real need for the grouper Feed conversion ratio 3.4 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.5 farmers to help develop a sustainable Protein effi ciency ratio 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 tiger grouper farm. The use of small Protein retention (%) 20.13 18.9 19.2 18.4 19.7 scale feed production machinery would Differences between treatments were not signifi cant (P > 0.05) for all traits. help tiger grouper farmers to become more self suffi cient in on-farm moist Table 4. Apparent digestibility coeffi cient (ADC) of diets containing different feed production. levels of POSM when fed to tiger grouper.

ADC Poultry offal silage meal levels (%) 05101520 Dry matter (%) 79.0 77.9 74.2 66.5 62. 5 Crude protein (%) 92.3 92.0 92.2 91.5 89.4 Total lipid (%) 95.9 95.4 94.5 92.6 91.2

36 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Optimal nutrition for marine fi sh

Dr. Arjen Roem, Skretting Asia

Traditionally marine fi sh farmers have The open porous structure of the pellet, maximum growth and feed effi ciency, used locally caught trash fi sh as a feed which is a protein-starch matrix, allows topped with the right energy level. for their fi sh, often ground into a moist for the pellets to be coated with oils. Recently, Skretting have launched a pellet. The advantages have been the Both fi sh/animal oil and vegetable oils complete feed range for marine fi sh in (daily) availability of trash fi sh, good can be used for this coating. Oil is the Asia. palatability and the low price per kg. best energy source for marine fi sh and Current trash fi sh prices can range from has the highest energy concentration 0.2-0.4 USD per kg depending on the (calories/gram). The end-result is an Starter diets region. On the other hand there are also extruded pellet with the optimal protein- a number of disadvantages to using to-energy ratio for fi sh. Research has Perla is a starter diet for juvenile marine trash fi sh: shown that this optimal protein/energy fi sh. It comes in eight sizes: fi rst four ratio leads to better growth rates, lower extruded crumbles for weaning them • The price of a kg feed or trash fi sh is feed conversions and contributes to from live feeds like rotifers, copepods not a good parameter for fi sh farm- farm economy. and Artemia. Perla contains high ing. Instead one should calculate protein levels are especially suited what is the production cost per kg Skretting has invested a lot in R&D to for this lifestage. Phospholipids have farmed fi sh or even better what is the defi ne the optimal protein-to-energy been included to improve larval total profi tability. Feed conversion ratios for marine fi sh species for development, quality and survival. ratios (kg feed/kg weight gain) are different sizes and under different Thereafter, four minipellets are available typically 8-10 for trash fi sh feeding environmental conditions like salinity for pre-growing. The minipellets come which is very high. and temperature. Moreover, crude with AquasoftTM technology. Aquasoft • Feeding trash fi sh or moist pellets protein is not always digestible protein. stands for a new form of extrusion leads often to lower water quality The REAL dietary requirement of fi sh is that allows for fast water absorption. (dirty water). Moist feeds do not bind for amino acids which are the building In 10-15 minutes these minipellets will so well, integrate easily and give a blocks of protein (rather than for protein absorb up to 100% or more water. The high organic load in and around the per se). This has led to new insights pellets become more soft and spongy farm. That increases the risks for in replacing fi sh meal with alternative which improves the weaning process. oxygen depletion and/or outbreak of protein feedstuffs like soya, glutens and Another advantage of Aquasoft is that it diseases when water currents are animal proteins. Skretting called this is possible for the farmer to add special low. the AminoBalanceTM concept. It means ingredients on-site. Farmers can simply • Fisheries for trash fi sh are seldom that all diets have been formulated to add them to the water that is mixed well regulated and may not be sus- meet the digestible amino acid require- and absorbed by the feed. Aquasoft is tainable in the future. There are great ments of a particular fi sh species and proven technology from Japan. All Perla worries about global overfi shing and particular size class and temperature for catching large volumes of often small juvenile fi sh for use as feed, and this Higher inclusions of phospholipids in starterfeeds improve larval survival practice may be banned in the com- and reduce the rate of deformities (Ifremer, 2000). ing years in some parts of the world. 80 However, the most important reason Survival. % to consider dry extruded feeds for 70 marine fi sh has to do with providing Malformation, % optimal nutrition. Fish have a high 60 requirement for protein and at the same time for energy. Trash fi sh is normally low in energy content. A high 50 protein-to-energy ratio can only be provided by modern dry feeds made 40 with extrusion technology. The extrusion process is optimal for fi sh nutrition. The combination of high temperature, 30 high pressure and high shear forces gelatinise the carbohydrates (starch) in 20 the formulation. Thereby, a very stable pellet is formed which minimises the risk for feeding losses and water pollution. 10 Moreover, the gelatinised starch is more digestible and available to the fi sh, so 0 more energy is accessible for growth. PL3 PL6 PL9 PL12

April-June 2007 37 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

sizes contain special immunostimulants to support health status and produce SEAFDEC tests its feed formulations robust fi ngerlings for on-growing. for marine fi shes Grower diets Feeds and feed management are After Perla farmers have a choice in important issues that these can spell grower diets depending on the fi sh the success or failure of an aquaculture species and other demands: venture, typically accounting for 60-70% of the recurring cost of a fi sh farm. Good 1. Marine is a grower feed designed feed formulation and feed management for species like pompano, croaker can also be seen as an opportunity, and some grouper species. Like all providing a window to reduce this grower diets the protein-to-energy recurring cost signifi cantly. ratio is adapted according to fi sh size (pellet size) to refl ect that larger fi sh Researchers working on nutrition and have a lower requirement for most feed development must fi rst fi nd a nutrients compared to smaller fi sh. balance between cost reduction and 2. Marine Red is a grower feed de- a formulation designed to comply signed for red snapper, red seabream with the nutritional requirement of and some grouper species like the the cultured stock. Then, they must coral trout. All those species are lay out a feed management scheme valued for their (red) skin condition. that has minimal environmental Marine Red contains a special blend impacts. The experiences of the tiger of pigments for enhanced coloration. shrimp industry has taught farmers Pellet production. 3. Excel is a high energy feed designed prudence and responsibility, lessons for species like seabass and cobia. that the marine fi sh industry must take • Seabass, grouper, red snapper, and These species are fast-growing, es- into consideration. Accordingly, the milkfi sh diets for larviculture in the pecially cobia which can grow up to Aquaculture Department (AQD) of the AQD hatcheries in Tigbauan, Iloilo; several kg per year, and this requires Southeast Asian Fisheries Development • Grouper diet for grow-out at AQD’s an even higher protein-to-energy ra- Center (SEAFDEC) located in Iloilo, marine station in Igang, Guimaras tio compared to other species. Excel west central Philippines ensures that its island; is a fl oating feed for easy feeding feed development program incorporates • Milkfi sh diet in marine grow-out and feed management. Use of this environmental considerations. cages in Bolinao, Pangasinan, in feed requires a fl oating collar on the cooperation with the private sector; surface to prevent feed from dispers- and ing/fl oating out of the cages. What feeds, and what is • Mud crab diet for pond grow-out at 4. Active is a grower diet for turbot, unique about these? Dumangas. fl ounder and other fl atfi shes. Most fl atfi shes are very sensitive to senso- What is unique in these feeds? The ric qualities of the feed. This means In developing feeds for marine fi shes, feed profi les have been developed to that fi sh meal freshness and raw SEAFDEC/AQD has evaluated the match the nutritional requirements of material quality require special atten- nutrient requirements of seabass each species, increasing the possibility tion from a feed supplier. Palatability (Lates calcarifer), grouper (Epinephelus of the feed ingredients being effectively agents can improve feed intake and coioides), snapper (Lutjanus argen- utilized by the stock. Also, locally the performance of fl atfi sh signifi - timaculatus), and milkfi sh (Chanos available ingredients were selected, cantly. chanos) (Tables 1a and 1b ). On the where possible, to make it easy for basis of these requirements, diets for farmers who may opt to make their own Together these diets provide a complete carnivorous species (grouper, snapper, feeds on farm. range of modern dry extruded feeds for seabass) were formulated (Table 2a). marine fi sh species commonly farmed In addition, feed requirements of the Fish do not feed when the temperature in Asia. These modern diets are better rabbitfi sh Siganus guttatus have also and dissolved oxygen are too low, or for the fi sh, better for the environment, been studied, and formulated feeds for when temperature is too high. Stock better for the farm economy and better different life stages of the brackishwater should not be fed during transportation. for farmers. milkfi sh have been made available As unconsumed fi sh feed can cause (Table 2b). eutrophication, which leads to the For more information on fi sh nutrition or rapid increase of plankton populations one of Skretting diets you can contact The following formulated feeds are now followed by die-offs and oxygen the author at arjen.roem@skretting. being verifi ed by SEAFDEC/AQD: depletion as they decompose, wastage com or our sales managers Hiro in of feed should be avoided in order to South East Asia hiroyoshi.matsumoto@ • Seabass, grouper, and red snapper reduce the risk of stress, disease and skretting.com (+60 88 251302) and Tie diets for pond grow-out at AQD’s mortality of the stock. in North East Asia tie.tecklok@skretting. brackishwater station in Dumangas, com (+81 90 31874239). Iloilo;

38 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Table 1a. Summary of known nutrient requirements of seabass Lates calcarifer. From Feed Development Section. 1994. Feeds and Feeding of Milkfi sh, Nile Tilapia, Asian Sea Bass, and Tiger Shrimp. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 21, SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines. 97 pp.

Nutrient Requirement by dry weight? Reference Protein1 43% for juvenile VR Alava, personal communication 50% protein : energy MR Catacutan, unpublished

Essential amino acids2 RM Coloso et al., unpublished Arginine 3.6% Lysine 4.5 Methionine 2.35 (cystine, 0.7) Tryptophan 0.5

Lipid1 10% MR Catacutan, unpublished

Borlongan & Parazo (1991) Israeli Journal of Aquaculture Essential fatty acids1 0.5% n-3 PUFA (Bamidgeh) 43 (p 95-102) 0.5% n-6 PUFA

Carbohydrate1 20-25% MR Catacutan, unpublished

1. Requirement as percent of dry weight; 2. Requirement as percent of protein

Table 1b. Summary of known nutrient requirements of grouper Epinephelus coioides, red snapper Lutjanus argentimaculatus, and milkfi sh Chanos chanos.

Species Nutrient requirement Reference Grouper 40-50% protein Teng et al. 1978 Aquaculture 15 (p 257-271); Millamena & Golez 1 n-3 HUFA 1999 Aquaculture Asia 4 (1) p 47 Red snapper 44% protein Catacutan et al. 2001 Aquaculture Research 32 (p 811-818) Milkfi sh 30-40% protein; 24% protein for milkfi sh Lim et al. 1979 Aquaculture 17 (p 195-201); Pascual 1989 Proceed- raised in ponds ings of an IFS Seminar on Aquaculture (p 228-236) 7-10% lipid 25% carbohydrates 2,500-3,500 kcal/kg of digestible energy 1-1.5 n-3 PUFA

Igang Mariculture Park.

April-June 2007 39 Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Generally speaking, the larger the fi sh marine cages and ponds, must also and/or κ-carageenan as binders. AQD the lower is their protein requirement. have different feed types in their diets. researchers never stop looking for alter- For this reason, fi sh in the fry and The feeding habit (surface, pelagic or natives, substituting leaf meals such as fi ngerling stages are in the most need bottom) and digestive physiology of cassava, swamp cabbage, sweet potato of “quality” protein sources, while fi sh fi shes also infl uence the most appro- for fi sh meal, or cowpea meal and feed in the grow-out stage can make do with priate diet type. pea for the more-expensive soybean feedstuffs that contain a lower protein meal. content. Feed ingredients have to meet certain criteria, which include their nutritional Bloodmeal, poultry by-products, and And then there’s the question of content, digestibility, absence of anti- snail meat have the potential to partially delivery: to fl oat or not to fl oat? nutritional factors, cost and availability. replace fi sh meal as a protein source. Generally speaking, sinking feeds are With these in mind, SEAFDEC/AQD One ingredient that did not make the list appropriate for crustaceans and bottom researchers have formulated feeds that was the formerly popular meat and bone feeders, while fl oating feeds are more are composed mostly of fi sh meal, squid meal, now shunned due to the scare of suitable for fi sh; however, fl oating meal, and soybean meal as protein mad cow disease. feeds are not usually used for marine sources. Other ingredients include species. Furthermore, the same species rice bran, cod liver oil, soybean oil, raised in different environments, e.g., and wheat fl our, bread fl our, cellulose

Table 2a. Formulated diets (g/kg dry diet) for grouper (Epinephelus coioides), red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus), rabbitfi sh (Siganus guttatus), and seabass (Lates calcarifer). From OM Millamena et al. (eds). 2002. Nutrition in Tropical Aquaculture. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines. 221 pp.

Ingredients Grouper Snapper Rabbitfi sh Seabass Grow-out Grow-out Grow-out Broodstock Nursery Grow-out (offshore cages) (cages in ponds) Fish meal - - - 100 145 420 Chilean fi sh meal 80 200 - - - - Peruvian fi sh meal - - 430 - - - Meat and bone meal, local 200 - - - - Meat and bone meal, imported 320 - - - - - Shrimp meal (Acetes sp.) - - 54 - 145 100 Squid meal 10 10 80 100 134 50 Shrimp meal 100 100 - 100 - - Soybean meal 60 60 - 80 - 90 Defatted soybean meal - - 80 - - - Blood meal 80 80 - - - - Corn gluten meal - - - 80 - - Wheat germ - - - 80 - - Wheat fl our 150 150 - - - - Brewer’s yeast - - - 60 - - Cellulose - - - 187.3 28.5 - Bread fl our - - 200 22.5 376 77.5 Rice bran 70 70 58 - - - k-carrageenan - - - - 50 - Cod liver oil 60 60 38 100 71 - Soybean oil - - - 15 - - Cod liver oil / soybean oil (1:1) - - - - 57.5 Soybean lecithin - - 5 45 - - Vitamin mix 40 40 - 20 30 40 Mineral mix 30 30 - 10 20 20 Vitamin and mineral mix - - 50 - - - Butylated hydroxytoluene - - - 0.2 0.5 - DHA-Selco ------Dicalphos - - 5 - - - Ascorbyl monophosphate - - 0.2 - - - Cellufi l - - - - - 145

Proximate composition (% dry matter): Crude protein 44 44 44 38.4 39.2 43.2 Crude fat 11.5 11.5 10 17.4 9.9 9.3 Crude fi ber 1.8 1.8 - 13.1 5.5 - Nitrogen-free extract 25.8 25.8 - 23.6 37.8 - Ash 16.9 16.9 - 7.5 7.6 - Carbohydrate - - 26.5 - - - Energy (MK/kg diet) - - 18.9 - - -

40 Aquaculture Asia Magazine Marine Finfi sh Aquaculture Network

Table 2b. Formulated diet (g/kg dry diet) for milkfi sh (Chanos chanos) at immediately after weaning from Artemia various stages of culture. From Millamena OM et al. (eds). 2002. Nutrition in and prior to feeding minced fi sh or Tropical Aquaculture. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines. formulated diets. 221 pp. Another species found to be viable Ingredients Broodstock Larval Fry Fry Growout for this purpose is the brackishwater (freshwater) (seawater) cladoceran Diaphanosoma celebensis, Fish meal 200 330 566 300 110 noted for its high population growth Soybean meal 430 180 114 200 308 rate, and high crude protein and crude Squid meal - 100 - - fat contents. Both Moina and Diaph- Shrimp meal (Acetes sp.) - 120 90 - - anosoma are viable options to partially Shrimp head meal - - - 160 - or completely replace Artemia as feed Soybean meal - - - - - for seabass larvae. These species are Corn gluten meal - - - - - collected and cultured like Brachionus, Copra meal - - - - - but at a lower cost. Ipil-ipil meal - - - - - Rice bran 255 87 115 492 Further, SEAFDEC/AQD is doing mass Bread fl our 40 66.9 150 50 culture of copepods and mysids in Cassava fl our - - - - - earthen ponds as alternative live food Sago palm starch - - 50 - - for seabass, grouper, and snapper fry. Starch - - - - - k-carrageenan 50 - - Finally, another alternative to reduce Cod liver oil 20 80 25 30 20 the dependence on live food in the Soybean oil 25 - 20 hatchery is the development of artifi cial Vegetable oil - - - - - larval diet(s). Microbound larval diets Lecithin - 10 - - - are fl aked in a drum dryer, ground and Vitamin mix 15 30 6.9 10 - passed through a graded series of b-carotene - 2.5 - - sieves to obtain particles sizes, and DL-a-tocopherol acetate - 0.1 - - then fed to larvae at increasing sizes as Mineral mix - 30 36 35 - the fi sh grow. Vitamin-mineral mix - - - - - Dicalcium phosphate 40 - - - - Butylated hydroxytoluene - 0.5 0.4 - - Collaboration

Proximate composition Continuing research and application, (% dry matter) and collaboration of stakeholders hold Crude protein 37.6 46.3 43.9 37.6 26.7 the key for a more productive aquacul- Crude fat 8.7 11.4 10.3 8.7 10.9 ture sector. SEAFDEC/AQD wishes to Crude fi ber 3.9 5.6 3.6 3.9 8.4 put out a call to partners who can help Nitrogen-free extract 36.4 27.3 16.8 36.4 45.1 commercialize its feed formulations Ash 13.4 9.4 16.2 13.4 8.9 under mutually acceptable terms.

For more information about SEAFDEC/ Whatever the main ingredient, all fi sh Live feed substitutes in the AQD’s feed development R&D for should be provided with protein, lipids, hatchery marine fi shes visit the SEAFDEC/AQD carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, website at www.seafdec.org.ph, or which are essential to promote growth, contact: and according to their particular Of course, in a culture environment, fi sh requirements. do not live on formulated diets alone. • Dr. Neila Sumagaysay-Chavoso This is particularly true among fi sh in ([email protected]), SEAFDEC/AQD assists fi sh farmers to the early stages of development, and Head of Technology Generation Divi- formulate feeds based on ingredients over-reliance on live feed results in sion; or readily available to them. All they need increased costs, especially due to the • Dr. Joebert Toledo (jdtoledo@aqd. to do is send in samples of their raw maintenance cost of more facilities in seafdec.org.ph), Chief of SEAFDEC ingredients to have their proximate the hatchery. Aquaculture Department. composition analyzed; and from there, the formulation can be done. Feed SEAFDEC/AQD conducted studies to milling may also be requested at AQD fi nd substitutes, or at least shorten the which operates a feed mill located in need for brine shrimp Artemia and the Tigbauan, Iloilo, of 1 ton capacity per rotifer Brachionus, two expensive live day. feed types given to marine fi sh larvae. The freshwater cladoceran Moina macrocopa is an acceptable live food that can replace Artemia in the larval rearing of seabass. It is used as feed

April-June 2007 41 NACA News

NACA Newsletter ISSN 0115-8503 Published by the Network of Aquaculture Centres Volume XXII, No. 2 in Asia-Pacifi c, Bangkok, Thailand April-June 2007

Expert Workshop on Guidelines for Aquaculture Certifi cation

An expert workshop convened in certifi cation schemes have resulted for systems, practices or products. The Bangkok from 27-30 March to start in higher costs for producers without workshop was a fi rst step in bringing a process for the development of delivering signifi cant price benefi ts, together stakeholders to examine the guidelines on aquaculture certifi cation. most severely affecting small-scale key issues concerning aquaculture The guidelines were requested by farmers, who are already among the certifi cation, to build consensus on the member governments at the COFI Sub- most disadvantaged. The proliferation scope of certifi cation guidelines and to Committee on Aquaculture (SCA), at its of a wide range of certifi cation schemes lay the groundwork for their develop- third session in New Delhi, September and accreditation bodies has the ment. The workshop also discussed 2006. potential to create confusion amongst certifi cation issues that are specifi c to producers and consumers alike. There the Asian region, the outcomes of which The need for the guidelines stems from are also serious concerns about the will complement a regional analysis for the fact that aquaculture is currently the potential for certifi cation schemes to be Latin America that will be conducted in a fastest growing agricultural sector in misused as a new form of trade barrier. workshop in Brazil, in July 2007. the world, currently contributing around 45% of the global supply of fi sheries SCA stated that there is a need for more The workshop, hosted by the Depart- products. Driven by concerns over globally accepted norms for aquaculture ment of Fisheries of Thailand, and food safety and the environmental and production that can serve as a basis for co-organized by FAO and NACA social sustainability of rapidly expanding improved harmonization of certifi cation, brought together 72 participants, aquaculture production, there have thereby facilitating mutual recognition including experts from certifi cation been many attempts to introduce and equivalence of aquaculture bodies, aquaculture farmer associa- certifi cation schemes for various certifi cation schemes. tions, governments, major buyers and aspects of aquaculture. More than 30 other stakeholders from 20 countries schemes in place today. The objective of the workshop, which across the worlds largest aquaculture was requested by SCA, was not to producing and importing regions. While certifi cation schemes are gener- develop an aquaculture certifi cation ally intended to improve some aspect scheme per se. Rather it was to This wide range of stakeholders from of the performance of aquaculture, begin scoping out general guidelines producing and importing countries concerns have been expressed about around which aquaculture certifi cation addressed many of the key issues their potential negative impacts. Many schemes can be built, whether they be around the growing interest in certifi ca-

42 Aquaculture Asia Magazine NACA News tion of aquaculture products. The status and trends in aquaculture, experiences Responsible movement of live food in certifi cation of aquaculture products, certifi cation standards, harmonization fi nfi sh within ASEAN: and equivalence among certifi cation schemes, stakeholder involvement and ownership, costs and benefi ts, and the Cebu Workshop fi nalizes the standard participation of small-scale farmers were among the wide ranging issues operating procedures discussed during the workshop.

The outcomes from the Expert The Second Policy Workshop under the implement the guidelines is very Workshop included consensus on AADCP-RPS 370-018 project “Opera- important. In this direction, ASEAN has many key points to be addressed in tionalise Guidelines on Responsible taken a small step forward. In order to the preparation of global guidelines Movement of Live Food Finfi sh within enhance the bio-security of food fi nfi sh on aquaculture certifi cation to be ASEAN” was held at the Costabella industries, ASEAN Member Countries considered for international agreement; Tropical Beach Hotel, Cebu City, have come together under an AusAid such as the need for core standards, Philippines from 12-13 February 2007. supported project to develop standard procedures for certifi cation, an approach AusVet, NACA, and ASEC organized operating procedures (SOPs) for health to harmonization among different the workshop in collaboration with certifi cation and quarantine measures schemes, stakeholder participation, and BFAR, Philippines. The objective of the for responsible movement of live food others. The aquaculture certifi cation workshop was to develop the fi nal draft fi nfi sh (LFF) within ASEAN. These guidelines were also recommended of the Standard Operating Procedures SOPs have been developed under the to give special attention to the needs (SOPs) for Health Certifi cation and AADCP:RPS project 370-018, Opera- of small-scale farmers in developing Quarantine Measures for the Respon- tionalise Guidelines on Responsible countries. sible Movement of Live Food Finfi sh Movement of Live Food Finfi sh. This within ASEAN. The workshop was project is coordinated by ASEC, NACA The participants agreed to continue attended by 21 government nominated and AusVet for Cardno ACIL who to cooperate to share information and representatives from all the 10 ASEAN manage the AADCP:RPS program for experiences to develop the aquaculture countries and 5 Resource experts from ASEC and AusAID. certifi cation guidelines. The next formal partner organizations (ASEC, AusVet, workshops to continue the work of FAO and NACA). A goal of the Vientiane Action Program guideline development will be held in (VAP) is to develop, harmonise and Brazil and India in July and November International trade in live aquatic adopt quality standards and regula- 2007. The draft guidelines are expected animals and their products is growing at tions for food, agriculture and forestry to be ready for international consensus a phenomenal rate. This is in fact very products. The workplan for this goal by the end of 2008. Additional consulta- essential to support the development of further specifi es the need to collect tions and feedback sessions are also sustainable and profi table aquaculture. and compile national fi sheries SPS expected during the next year. However, with trade comes the risk of measures and regulations; harmonisa- introduction and spread of pathogens. tion of national sanitary measures The Expert Workshop report will be Various global and regional instruments into an ASEAN sanitary measure and available soon. Existing workshop docu- and standards provide guidance to publication of the harmonised ASEAN ments and presentations, including an trading partners to minimize the risk of sanitary fi sheries measures. The MP3 recording of the opening address introduction and spread of dangerous ASEAN Sectoral Working Group on and comments on certifi cation by aquatic animal pathogens. Developing Fisheries (ASWGFi) and the Senior NACA’s Director General, are available operational strategies to effectively for download from: http://www.enaca.org/modules/tinyd11/ index.php?id=16.

780 aquaculture publications...

...free download

• www.enaca.org •

Participants in the workshop.

April-June 2007 43 NACA News

Offi cial Meeting for ASEAN Ministers on of procedures for the implementation of 2006 at which the fi rst draft of the SOPs Agriculture and Forestry (SOM-AMAF) the TG (2001). The OIE Aquatic Animal were developed. This draft was circu- are responsible for this initiative. Health Code (Ninth Edition, 2006) and lated to members of the work groups Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic for consideration and comment and A Regional Seminar on Harmonisation Animals (Fifth Edition, 2006) have been members of ASWGFi for information of Quarantine Procedures for Live Fish used in the development of the SOPs. before a second policy workshop which among ASEAN Member Countries in The SOPs complement national respon- was held in Cebu City in Philippines February 2003 in Penang, Malaysia sibilities under existing international in February 2007 and agreed on the resulted in draft guidelines for the standards for management of food Final Draft SOPs. It is expected that the international movement of live fi sh. The safety and residues (for instance, Codex ASEC will place it before the ASWGFi draft guidelines was presented and Alimentarius) and other environmental for formal review and endorsement. agreed at the 11th Meeting of ASWGFi considerations (for instance, CITES). in May 2003 in Vientiane, Lao PDR. The These SOPs are a set of documents Meeting agreed that the scope and title The fi rst step in developing the SOPs for health certifi cation and quarantine of the guidelines be changed to General was to develop an inventory of coun- measures to be used by CA for the Guidelines on Responsible Movement tries’ current practices in early 2006 responsible movement of LFF by land, of Live Food Fin Fish and that compre- and to hold a First Policy Workshop sea and air among ASEAN Member hensive procedures for implementation in Bangkok, Thailand in April 2006 at Countries. The SOPs recognise the of the Guidelines at the operational level which all 10 ASEAN countries were existing variation in capacity among should be developed. The SOPs have represented. The workshop developed ASEAN Member Countries but the built on the recommendations of the a draft Table of Contents for the SOPs SOPs have been designed so that they Guidelines. and allocated tasks and selected the can be adopted and implemented within leaders and members of four working the specifi c policy and legal framework They also are consistent with the groups. ASEC and NACA briefed of each country. These SOPs have been Asia regional technical guidelines on ASWGFi on progress at its meeting in written to help manage the movement health management for the responsible Manila, the Philippines in June 2006. of LFF for immediate consumption as movement of live aquatic animals and The leaders communicated with their human food. the Beijing consensus and implementa- group members to prepare for a leaders’ tion strategy, 2000 (TG) and the Manual workshop in Johor Bahru in September

Information and capacity requirements for maintaining aquatic animal biosecurity identifi ed

FAO and NACA in collaboration health certifi cation and quarantine with BFAR, Philippines organized a (c) general principles of risk analysis three day workshop on Information and (4) Principles of epidemiological Requirements for Maintaining Aquatic surveillance and reporting by resource Animal Biosecurity from 15-17 February experts. Following resource paper 2007, in Park Lane Hotel, Cebu City, presentations and general discussions, Philippines. The objective of the the participants worked in three working workshop was to increase awareness groups on the following themes: and build capacity on general principles of biosecurity and to deliberate on key • Risk analysis. information required for maintaining • Diagnosis, health certifi cation and aquatic animal biosecurity focusing on quarantine. aspects of risk analysis; diagnostics, • Surveillance and reporting. Participating countries were pleased health certifi cation and quarantine; with the outcomes and were of the and epidemiological surveillance and Guidelines for the working group opinion that the information and reporting. The workshop was attended were provided and resource experts capacity building requirements identifi ed by fourteen delegates from seven facilitated the working group discussions in the workshop would enable them to ASEAN countries, four delegates from and assisted the groups to come up with initiate specifi c actions to implement SAARC, one from China and twelve a list of key information and capacity programs in some of the identifi ed delegates from local host institution building requirements for practical thematic areas. A fi nal workshop report BFAR. Resource persons from FAO, implementation of the three identifi ed is being prepared by FAO and NACA AusVet, NACA and SEAFDEC partici- themes. The working group fi ndings and will include recommendations for pated in the workshop. were presented at the plenary session, implementation of workshop fi ndings. reviewed, and discussed by participants In brief, the workshop involved and resource persons. presentation of resource papers (a) General principles of Biosecurity (b) General principles of diagnostics,

44 Aquaculture Asia Magazine NACA News

China-ASEAN efforts to minimize risk of spread of aquatic pathogens

The General Administration of Quality delivered by CV Mohan of NACA. The quarantine system, discuss issues that Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine presentation dealt in detail various affect trade and identify areas that need of the P.R. China (AQSIQ) organized guidance (international agreements future collaboration and cooperation. the “China-ASEAN Symposium on and standards; regional agreements, import and export aquatic animal safety” technical guidelines and SOPs; national As a symposium outcome, the from 1-2 March 2007 at Grand Hotel, strategies; farm level strategies) and delegates produced a resolution Kylin Villa, Shenzen. The Shenzen implementation tools (diagnostics; risk calling for further strengthening the Entry-Exit Inspection and Quarantine analysis; health certifi cation; quarantine; cooperation between China and ASEAN Bureau of the PR China (SZCIQ) surveillance and reporting; contingency and identifi ed some key areas. The co-sponsored the event. The objective planning; farm level disease control workshop agreed that the resolution of the symposium was to strengthen strategies) available to minimize the would be submitted to MOA, PR China China-ASEAN cooperation in aquatic aquatic animal health risks, which are and ASEAN Secretariat for initiating animal inspection and quarantine, and an inherent part of aquaculture and some follow up actions. facilitate aquatic animal trade between trade. China-ASEAN. The symposium was attended by government nominated Three important presentations from INDAQUA 2007 in Chennai, India representatives from nine ASEAN China (a) Control of aquatic animal countries, representatives from Macao; diseases in China by Prof Jiang Yulin NACA was well represented at the Hong Kong; representatives from from the Key lab of Aquatic animal INDAQUA 2007 meeting held in key provinces in China (Yunnan CIQ; diseases, Shenzen CIQ, (b) Aquatic Chennai, India from 11-13 January. Hainan CIQ; Guangxi CIQ; Hubei CIQ; animal epidemic prevention in China by More than 600 participants attended, Zhejiang CIQ; Jiangsu CIQ; Beijing CIQ; Dr Chen Jiayong, Bureau of Fisheries, comprising planners, developers, Shanghai CIQ; Xiamen CIQ; Fujian CIQ; MOA and (c) Introduction on inspection private sector representatives and most Liaoning CIQ; Jinan CIQ; Shenzen CIQ; and quarantine of import and export of all farmers. The primary focus of Zhuhai CIQ; Tianjin CIQ; Guangdong of aquatic animal in China by Dr the meeting was on shrimp culture. In CIQ), and representatives from key You Zhongming, AQSIQ, provided particular, the meeting showcased the national institutions (Department of very useful information to workshop improvements that have been brought Animal and Plant Supervision and participants. The General Administration about through the adoption of Better Quarantine,-AQSIQ; Department of of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Management Practices (BMPs), espe- International Cooperation-AQSIQ; The Quarantine of the P.R. China (AQSIQ) cially to small-scale farmers, with the National Fishery Technical Extension is a ministerial administrative organ Marine Products Export Development Center-MOA; Division of Aquaculture, directly under the state Council of the Authority (MPEDA) and NACA jointly Bureau of Fisheries-MOA; Zhejiang PR China in charge of national quality, organizing a special session to present Freshwater Aquaculture Institute). entry-exit commodity inspection, entry- the latest results from the MPEDA exit health quarantine, entry-exit animal village demonstration programme, The Symposium was formally opened and plant quarantine, import-export food information on the newly established by Dr You Zhongming, Director from safety, certifi cation and accreditation, NACSA (National Centre for Sustainable the Department of Animal and Plant standardization as well as administrative Aquaculture), and experiences in BMP Quarantine Supervision, AQSIQ. In his law enforcement. AQSIQ has set up implementation from Indonesia and opening remarks he highlighted the 35 entry-exit inspection and quarantine Thailand. increasing trade in live aquatic animals bureaus (CIQ) in China’s 31 provinces, and their products between China and near 300 branches, and more than 200 In addition to shrimp farming, Indaqua ASEAN and stressed the need for better local offi ces across the country with 2007 also dealt with common issues health management to minimize the risk employees over 30,000 at sea ports, such as species selection, risk assess- of spread of trans-boundary pathogens. land ports and airports. ment related to species introduction and The need for developing and adopting market development. The increasing harmonized approaches in inspection, Representatives from six ASEAN coun- importance of organic aquaculture was certifi cation and quarantine, amongst tries (Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, exemplifi ed by MPEDA entering an trading partners was recognized as Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia) agreement with a Swiss food importer. important to promote trade. Welcome provided overviews of Quarantine and speech was given by Mr Qu Haifeng, disease control systems for import and The presentations from the session Deputy Director General from Shenzen export of aquatic animals and their are available in PDF format from CIQ. products in their respective countries. the publication section of the NACA The symposium provided an excellent website: Dr You Zhongming, Director Biosecurity opportunity for delegates from China Chaired the technical sessions. The and ASEAN to exchange information, http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdown- key note presentation titled “Trade understand each others inspection and loads/singlefi le.php?cid=71&lid=788. in aquatic animals: tools to minimize aquatic animal health risks” was

April-June 2007 45 NACA News

National Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture inaugurated

The National Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture (NaCSA), the fi rst of its kind in India, was inaugurated in Kakinada on the 3rd March 2007 with an impressive line up of senior Indian government offi cials. The Union Minister of State for Commerce Jairam Ramesh inaugurated the centre, saying it would pave the way for empowerment of farmers by extending necessary extension services and keeping them abreast with latest advancements in the fi eld. The Union Minister of State for Defence Pallamraju, who presided over the programme, stressed the need for adopting scientifi c farming techniques so as to achieve better production and earn good profi ts.

The new centre, an outcome of the recent MPEDA/NACA cooperative project on shrimp disease control and promotion of better management prac- tices, is registered as a Society under the Society Registration Act of Andhra Pradesh. NaCSA’s Headquarters are at Kakinada, with Regional Units planned in various coastal States.

The long term objective of NaCSA as stated in the newly released NaCSA brochure for sustainable aquaculture is “to enable aquaculture farmers to adopt sustainable and environmentally friendly farming practices to produce quality and safe aquatic products such as shrimps, scampi and fi sh for export and domestic markets”. NaCSA is intended to facilitate links between aquaculture stakeholders and strengthen aquaculture farmers to organize into self-help groups, or farmer societies. The approach, a The MPEDA/NACA project team outside the new Centre in Kakinada. pioneering one in the region, is intended to strengthen farmers problem solving, v. Technology transfer and diversifi ca- Centre, M. Vijaya Guptha, MLAs - M planning and management abilities tion to other commercially important Gopalakrishna and A. Bulleabbai Reddy and the capacity of farmers to adopt species. also participated in the ceremony. Also and develop new and appropriate vi. Supporting improved food security present were a number of pioneering technologies/innovations. NaCSA’s and sustainable livelihoods in aquac- farmer societies, formed under the main objectives are: ulture communities. MPEDA/NACA project, members of the Andhra Pradesh Shrimp Farmers i. Promoting better management prac- The inauguration also included a Association, Seafood Exporters tices to improve aquaculture produc- distribution of Registration certifi cates Association of India and All India Shrimp tivity and profi ts. to six MPEDA registered societies and Hatchery Association representative. ii. Capacity-building and empowerment release of the NaCSA brochure for of primary producers and improving Sustainable Aquaculture. services. iii. Facilitating improved service provi- The MPEDA Chairman G. Mohan sion. Kumar, Collector M. Subrahmanyam, iv. Connecting farmers to markets to Commissioner of Fisheries N. receive a better price for quality prod- Narasimha Rao, Dr Michael Phillips of uct. NACA Deputy Director-General, ICAR, S. Ayyappan, former ADG, World Fish

46 Aquaculture Asia Magazine NACA News

NACA Better Management Practices program expands in Indonesia

In cooperation with WWF, a new part- and WWF and their implementation will aquafarmers, providing both incentives nership was established on 17 March be supported by two locally recruited for better management of aquaculture with aquaculture farmers in Mesjid and trained Acehnese aquaculture and and improved farmer incomes from sale Utue village, Pidie district of Aceh, community mobilization specialists, of quality product to premium markets. Indonesia. The partnership will assist 70 linked to the small but growing NACA villagers to implement a set of “better network of BMP specialists and farmers NACA is contracted by the Asian Devel- management practices” developed for across Asia. opment Bank to support implementation the shrimp and milkfi sh farming systems of the “Earthquake and Tsunami in this tsunami affected village of Aceh. Market studies supported through the Emergency Assistance Project”, for NACA and WWF, supported by a grant David and Lucile Packard Foundation rehabilitation and reconstruction of from the David and Lucile Packard grant, showed considerable buyer aquaculture and fi sheries sector in Foundation, will provide technical interest in the high quality “udang Aceh and Nias. NACA also works with assistance to the villagers to adopt a windu” or Penaeus monodon, of Aceh a number of national and international set of better management practices and further efforts will be made during partners, including ACIAR, ADB, BRR, designed to enhance farm sustainability, 2007 to “connect” farmers with markets FAO, GTZ, IFC, MMAF and WWF, to reduce shrimp disease risk and improve for high quality Acehnese shrimp. Whilst support responsible rehabilitation and shrimp quality and profi ts. Some the extended and fragmented market better management of aquaculture in support for provision of key quality chains, and lack of many essential Aceh and Nias. pond inputs is also provided. The BMPs services, are signifi cant challenges, were developed through a participatory successful “connection” could bring process involving village farmers, NACA substantial benefi ts to Acehnese

Manual on Application of Molecular Tools in Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries Management

NACA is pleased to announce the Protocols, Data Management and Na-Nakorn from Kasetsart University, release of a new manual on the applica- Analysis provides step-by-step protocols Thailand; Dr Wongpathom Kamonrat, tion of molecular tools in aquaculture of the most commonly used molecular Department of Fisheries, Thailand and inland fi sheries management. genetic techniques utilised in population and Dr Devin Bartley, FAO. Financial The aim of the manual is to provide a genetics and systematic studies. In support for publication of the manual comprehensive, practical tool for the addition, a brief discussion and explana- was provided by FAO and the Mekong generation and analysis of genetic data tion of how these data are managed is River Commission. for subsequent application in aquatic also included. resources management, in relation to Part 1 available from: genetic stock identifi cation in inland This manual is expected to enable fi sheries and aquaculture. The material NACA member country personnel to be • http://www.enaca.org/mod- provides a general background on trained to undertake molecular genetic ules/wfdownloads/singlefi le. genetics in relation to aquaculture and studies in their own institutions, and php?cid=63&lid=799. fi sheries resource management, the as such is aimed at middle and higher techniques and relevant methods of level technical grades. The manual can Part 2 available from: data analysis that are commonly used also provide useful teaching material for to address questions relating to genetic specialised advanced level university • http://www.enaca.org/mod- resource characterisation and popula- courses in the region and postgraduate ules/wfdownloads/singlefi le. tion genetic analyses. The manual is students. The manual has gone through php?cid=63&lid=800. available for free download from the two development/improvement stages. links below. The initial material was tested at a For more information about the manual regional workshop and at the second please contact [email protected]. The manual includes two ‘standalone’ stage feedback from participants was parts: Part 1 - Conceptual Basis used to imprve the contents. Please see the NACA website for these of Population Genetic Approaches and many more great aquaculture provides a basic foundation on genetics The manual was co-written by NACA’s publications, www.enaca.org. in general and concepts of population Dr Thuy Nguyen; Dr David Hurwood genetics. Issues on the choice of and Associate Prof. Peter Mather molecular markers and project design from the Queensland University of are also discussed. Part 2 - Laboratory Technology, Australia; Prof. Uthairat

April-June 2007 47 NACA News

Research Needs to Sustain Asia- Network of Aquaculture Pacifi c Aquaculture to 2025 Centres in Asia-Pacifi c and Beyond Mailing address: Arrangements have been fi nalized • Aquaculture resource demands P.O. Box 1040, by NACA to hold a workshop on the including water, space, and biological Kasetsart University “Research Needs to Sustain Asia- resources such as fi sh meal/ fi sh oil. Post Offi ce, Pacifi c Aquaculture to Year 2025 and • Events such as “bird fl u’/new dis- Ladyao, Jatujak, Beyond”, at Rayong, Thailand, 4-7 June eases and other potential non-fi sh Bangkok 10903, 2007, with funding support from the pathogens on aquaculture. Thailand International Development Research • Poverty and employment changes in center, Canada (IDRC). The workshop relation to aquaculture; rural, urban, Phone +66 (2) 561 1728 is essentially a brainstorming session large scale. Fax +66 (2) 561 1727 that will bring together 25 to 30 leading • Role of GMOs on aquaculture usage Email: [email protected] aquaculturists from the region. Some of and ethical issues in the region. Website: www.enaca.org the issues that will be addressed are: • Application of gene technology in aquaculture. NACA is a network composed of • Background material on predicted • Aquaculture impacts on biodiversity; 17 member governments in the population and relevant demographic alien species; what are the strategies Asia-Pacifi c Region. changes and consumer demand for Changes in polyculture technology? aquatic foods. • Tilapia culture; lessons learnt from • Investment in fi shery/aquaculture the Philippines in relation to rural research; potential changes in trade; development. impacts on these on socio-economic • GIFT: lessons learnt. aspects and livelihoods and required • Giant freshwater prawn - successes Copyright NACA 2007. policy changes. in Thailand. Published under a Creative • Effect of climate change including Commons Attribution license. monsoonal rain patterns on aquacul- For further details contact: You may copy and distribute this ture, breeding and reproduction. [email protected]. publication with attribution of NACA as the original source.

Endemic freshwater fi nfi sh of Asia: Distribution and conservation status

This article has been published in endemic species. Nation-wise the most cally endangered. However, the bulk of Diversity and Distributions (2007) 13, number of endemic freshwater fi nfi sh these species (83.7%) were cave- and 172–184. species occur in India (191), followed or lake-dwelling fi sh. However, nation- by China (88), Indonesia (84), and wise, the endemic freshwater fi nfi sh Sena S. De Silva, Nigel W. Abery and Myanmar (60). In India, the endemic fauna of the Philippines and Sri Lanka, Thuy T. T. Nguyen species accounted for 26.4% of the based on the imperilment index, were native freshwater fi sh fauna, followed by found to be in a highly vulnerable state. Keywords: Asia, native species South Korea (16.9%), the Philippines, Among river basins, the Mekong Basin richness, endemic species, river basins, (16.3%) and Myanmar (15.7%). had the highest number of endemic conservation status, habitat. species (31.3%). The discrepancies Statistically signifi cant relationships between databases are highlighted and Abstract: Freshwater fi nfi sh species discerned between the number of the need to consolidate information richness and level of endemism in indigenous and endemic species among databases is discussed. It is East, and South and South-East Asia richness to land area (Xla in 103 km2) suggested that the Mekong Basin be that included 17 nations were studied of the nations in the region were, considered as a biodiversity hotspot, using available databases, and included Yin = 218.961 Ln(Xla) – 843.1 (R2 = and appropriate management strategies nation-wise distribution, habitat types, 0.735; P < 0.001) and Ye = 28.445 Ln be introduced in this regard. and conservation status. The number Xla - 134.47 (R2 = 0.534; P < 0.01), of endemic fi nfi sh species in the region respectively, and between indigenous For full content of the article, email: was 559, belonging to 47 families. and endemic species richness was Ye = [email protected]. Families Cyprinidae and Balitoridae 0.079Xn - 1.558 (R2 = 0.235; P < 0.05). accounted for 43.5% and 16.2% of the total number of endemic species The overall conservation status of in the region, respectively, followed by endemic fi nfi sh in Asia was satisfactory Sisoridae (25), Gobiidae (20), Melano- in that only 92 species were in some taeniidae (19), and Bagridae (16), and state of vulnerability, of which 37 the other 41 families had at least one species (6.6%) are endangered or criti-

48 Aquaculture Asia Magazine NACA Bookshelf: Highlighted publications

Manual on the Application of Molecular Tools in Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries Management

The aim of this manual is to provide a comprehensive practical tool for the generation and analysis of genetic data for subsequent application in aquatic resources management in relation to genetic stock identifi cation in inland fi sheries and aquaculture. It provides general background on genetics in relation to aquaculture and fi sheries resource management, the techniques and relevant methods of data analysis that are commonly used to address questions relating to genetic resource characterisation and population genetic analyses. Published in two parts, the fi rst dealing with concepts, and the second lab protocols:

• Download Part 1: http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefi le.php?cid=63&lid=799 • Download Part 2: http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefi le.php?cid=63&lid=800

Better-practice approaches for culture based fi sheries development in Asia

The primary objective of this manual is to provide guidelines for attaining better practices in culture-based fi sheries, an emerging practice in rural areas in the Asian region. It deals will the principles of culture- based fi shery practices, primarily based on relatively long-term experiences in Sri Lanka and Vietnam. It is not only targeted at researchers per se, but also at stakeholders at the grass root levels, as well as planners and policy developers, particularly those of Asian nations embarking on culture-based fi sheries as a strategy to enhance fi sh food production in rural areas. The manual is divided into two parts: Part 1 provides general information on what is called ‘better-practice approaches’ to culture-based fi sheries; and Part 2 provides experiences from Sri Lanka and Vietnam and includes a marketing study.

• Download: http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefi le.php?cid=3&lid=709

A guide to small-scale marine fi nfi sh hatchery technology

Recent improvements in hatchery production technology for high-value marine fi nfi sh species such as groupers have led to an increased interest in setting up hatcheries to produce fi ngerlings for aquaculture. Small-scale hatcheries make this technology available to poor people in developing countries. Capital costs for small-scale hatcheries are relatively low, and the profi tability of these ventures ensures rapid payback of capital investment. This guide provides an outline of the requirements to establish a small-scale marine fi nfi sh hatchery, particularly the economic aspects. It is intended to provide suffi cient information for potential investors to decide whether investment in such ventures is appropriate for them.

• Download: http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefi le.php?cid=75&lid=582

Asia Diagnostic Guide to Aquatic Animal Diseases

Simply the most comprehensive aquatic disease guide ever published in the region, and the single most popular NACA publication ever! With contributions from recognised experts in the fi eld from all over the world, the guide covers economically signifi cant diseases of molluscs, fi sh and crustaceans. Contains information on laboratory and diagnostic techniques, causative agents and distribution, host range, clinical aspects, screening methods, diagnostic procedures, modes of transmission, control measures. The guide includes contact details for technical support services throughout the region and national health coordina- tors. It is an important supporting document for the Technical Guidelines on the Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals. 237 pages.

• Download: http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefi le.php?cid=10&lid=7

Shrimp health management extension manual

This extension manual summarizes farm level risk factors and practical management practices that can be used to reduce risks of shrimp disease outbreaks and improve farm production. The recommendations are based on a study conducted in Andhra Pradesh, India. The publication is therefore of particular relevance to Andhra Pradesh, but many recommendations are still of use to farmers from other areas. The study was conducted by NACA, MPEDA, the Aquatic Animal Health Research Institute (Thailand), Siam Natural Resources and AusVet Animal Health Services and ACIAR. (1MB, 46 pages)

• Download: http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefi le.php?cid=10&lid=55