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Phoenicians in Cilicia During the Middle Iron Age: the Scope of Their Presence

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Y APRAKKISMET OKUR PHOENICIANS IN CILICIA DURING THE MIDDLE IRON AGE: PHOENICIANSIN CIL THE SCOPE OF THEIR PRESENCE A Master's Thesis by I CIA YAPRAK KISMET OKUR DURINGTHEMIDDLE IRON Department of Archaeology AGE İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University Ankara June 2020 Bilken t t University 2020 To İpek and Ergün PHOENICIANS IN CILICIA DURING THE MIDDLE IRON AGE: THE SCOPE OF THEIR PRESENCE The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by YAPRAK KISMET OKUR In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BİLKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA June 2020 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology. ---------------------------------- Assoc. Prof. Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology. ---------------------------------- Asst. Prof. Dr. Charles Gates Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology. ---------------------------------- Prof. Dr. Gunnar Lehmann Examining Committee Member Approval of the Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences ----------------------------------- Prof. Dr. Halime Demirkan. Director ABSTRACT PHOENICIANS IN CILICIA DURING THE MIDDLE IRON AGE: THE SCOPE OF THEIR PRESENCE Kısmet Okur, Yaprak M.A., Department of Archaeology Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates June 2020 This thesis is a study on the use of Phoenician language for the monumental inscriptions which were set up in Plain Cilicia, and dated to the mid 8th c. BC. This thesis aims to assess the hypothesis that Phoenician, as the "trade language" of the eastern Mediterranean and the ancient Near East, became the lingua franca of the period, for the settlements in Plain Cilicia. In order to follow this hypothesis, the political structure and trade network of the period are presented. On the one hand, by proposing what motivated the local rulers in using Phoenician as the second written language, and on the other hand, based on the analysis of the archaeological and historical evidence, this thesis also questions the interest and the presence of the Phoenicians in Cilicia during the Middle Iron Age. Keywords: Eastern Mediterranean, Inscription, Iron Age Cilicia, Phoenicians, Trade. iii ÖZET ORTA DEMİR ÇAĞI'NDA KİLİKYA'DA FENİKELİLER: VARLIĞININ İZLERİ Kısmet Okur, Yaprak Yüksek Lisans, Arkeoloji Bölümü Tez Danışmanı: Doç. Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates Haziran 2020 Bu tez Ovalık Kilikya'da dikilen ve MÖ 8. yy. ortalarına tarihlenen anıt yazıtlarda Fenike dilinin kullanılması üzerine yapılan bir çalışmadır. Bu tezin amacı Fenike dilinin Akdeniz'in doğusunda ve Yakın Doğu'da "ticaret dili" olarak kullanılmasından dolayı söz konusu dönemin "ortak iletişim dili" olarak benimsendiği hipotezini Ovalık Kilikya'da bulunan yerleşimler için değerlendirmektir. Bu hipotezi takip etmek için, dönemin politik yapısı ve ticaret ağı ortaya konmuştur. Tez, yerel yöneticilerin ikinci yazılı dili olarak Fenike dilini kullanmalarında kendilerini motive eden unsurları önerirken; aynı zamanda, arkeolojik ve tarihsel kanıtlara dayanarak, Orta Demir Çağı'nda Fenikelilerin Kilikya'ya olan ilgilerini ve Kilikya'daki varlıklarını da sorgulamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Demir Çağı Kilikyası, Doğu Akdeniz, Fenikeliler, Ticaret, Yazıt. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the efforts, contributions and blessings of the following people, to whom I'm deeply grateful: My thesis supervisor Mrs. Marie-Henriette Gates, for her generous teaching and most assiduous guidance. She's a gem of a teacher; it has been a joy to learn from her and a privilege to have had her perpetual support and guidance. Mr. Charles Gates and Mr. Gunnar Lehmann, for their valuable insights and helpful reading recommendations. Presenting my thesis to a jury with so many members to look up to was a challenging yet a remarkably gratifying experience to be cherished for long. Mrs. Dominique Kassab Tezgör, Mr. Julian Bennett, Mr. Jacques Morin and Mr. Thomas Zimmermann, for their dedicated teaching of skills and knowledge to such an extent as to make a thesis in Archaeology possible for a former economist. Mrs. Tezgör, head of the Department, for creating such a peaceful study environment. My fellow students at Bilkent University, for their friendship and the joy they have given me. Mrs. Pınar Aparı Çelik and Mrs. Bilge Kat Biancofiore, for their assistance in the library. My father Şükrü Kısmet, for his everlasting love, support and encouragement. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ iii ÖZET ................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF PLAIN CILICIA IN THE MIDDLE IRON AGE ............................................................................ 7 2.1. Surveys and Excavations ......................................................................... 8 2.2. Archaeological Evidence from the Excavated Sites ................................ 8 2.2.1. Pottery ............................................................................................ 8 2.2.1.1. Sirkeli Höyük ................................................................... 9 2.2.1.2. Karatepe ......................................................................... 11 2.2.1.3. Kinet Höyük ................................................................... 12 2.2.1.4. Tepebağ Höyük .............................................................. 13 2.2.1.5. Yumuktepe ..................................................................... 14 2.2.1.6. Tarsus-Gözlükule ........................................................... 14 2.2.1.7. Misis ............................................................................... 15 2.2.2. Phoenician Amphorae .................................................................. 15 2.2.3. Burial Places/ Necropoli .............................................................. 16 2.2.4. Sanctuaries ................................................................................... 16 vi 2.2.5. Inscriptions .................................................................................. 17 2.2.5.1. Monumental Phoenician Inscriptions ............................ 17 2.2.5.2. Other Phoenician Inscriptions ........................................ 18 2.2.6. Reliefs .......................................................................................... 19 2.3. Evaluation of Plain Cilicia: Potential Factors Attracting Phoenician Interest in the Area ................................................................................ 22 2.3.1. Metal Ores ................................................................................... 23 2.3.1.1. Silver .............................................................................. 25 2.3.1.2. Iron ................................................................................. 27 2.3.2. Natron ........................................................................................ 28 2.3.3. Salt .............................................................................................. 30 2.3.4. Wood/Timber .............................................................................. 31 2.3.5. Plants ........................................................................................... 33 2.3.6. Wool ............................................................................................ 34 2.3.7. Ivory ............................................................................................ 35 CHAPTER 3: A HISTORICAL EVALUATION OF PLAIN CILICIA IN THE MIDDLE IRON AGE .......................................................................... 38 3.1. The Presence of Assyrians in Cilicia .................................................... 39 3.1.1. The Northwestern Front .............................................................. 40 3.1.2. The Western Front ...................................................................... 43 3.2. The Presence of Greeks in Cilicia ........................................................ 46 3.3. Phoenicians in Cilicia and in their larger eastern Mediterranean Context .................................................................................................. 56 vii CHAPTER 4: MEDITERRANEAN: ON ITS OWN AND OTHERS AS CONNECTORS ........................................................................................... 66 4.1. Maritime Trade ..................................................................................... 66 4.2. Harbors ................................................................................................
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