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Emperor in the Afterlife

Jennifer Wolff

Writing 20 (Spring 2007): The Archaeology of Death Professor Christine Beaule

After taking Dr. Christine Beaule’s archaeology based writing class, I f the many great archaeological finds in the 20th century, one of the learned to appreciate all that we can grandest is the discovery of Qin Shihuangdi’s terracotta learn from burial sites. The artifacts at army. The ruler of the state of Qin, King Cheng, proclaimed him- a grave site can tell us what an ancient self the First Emperor of in 221 BC taking the name culture found important in life and Shihuangdi (first sovereign). After hundreds of years of open war- what they believed about death. With fareO between the different feudal lords, referred to as the this in mind, I chose a case study that (475-221 BC) (Capon 1983), the state of Qin raised an army that conquered presented me with the opportunity them all and seized power (Cotterell 1981; Treasure! Tomb of the Terracotta to explore the past. Until I did the Warriors 1998). A monument of some 7,000 clay officers, soldiers, horses, research for this project, all I knew and chariots was found underground just outside Mount in about the terracotta figures was that China, the legendary resting place of the First Emperor. The question that they were found in China and that still puzzles scholars and archaeologists is why Emperor Qin had this army there were a lot of them. I wanted to of pottery constructed. The answer may lie with the other items found in his learn who the army was created for, tomb in addition to the terracotta warriors. why it was made, and what it could Very little of the tomb has actually been excavated, but the writings of the tell us of ancient Chinese beliefs in scholar Qian (145–c. 90 BC) provide us with the only record of the afterlife. what the tomb of the First Emperor may contain. At present, we do not have As the final project for my class, the technology that would allow archaeologists to safely open the tomb to veri- this piece challenged my abilities to fy these writings without exposing the tomb’s contents to the air which could do effective research and to report it quickly corrode the ancient artifacts. In this essay I contend that Qin’s elaborate in a clear and academic way. I spent the semester learning how to use the tomb and its guardians reflect the parts of life that the Emperor thought were of great- resources available to me to success- est importance to him, and those things which he wanted to take with him into death fully write, revise, and present an and the afterlife. This desire for a reconstruction of certain aspects of his surround- essay. With these tools, writing about ings in his final resting place may have stemmed from his obsession with immortality. the proved to be an Edmund Capon’s book on the terracotta army not only gives a detailed account intellectually rewarding experience. of the archaeological findings at the excavation site, but it also gives the reader an introduction to the man for whom this grandiose burial was completed. From Capon’s book we can learn the political and philosophical climate of the time and Qin’s place in it. He ruled his by employing the philosophy of Legalism (Capon 1983), a revolutionary approach to governing that condemned the old ways and relied heavily on his army. As the head of his new empire, Qin disband- ed the feudal system, centralized the State, and unified China under his banner. However, his Legalist policies and contempt for the old philosophical views of The question that still puzzles scholars and archaeologists is why Emperor Qin had this army of pottery constructed.

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Confucianism lead him to facilitate a book capital city to work on his final resting place. The burning of all the (Capon 1983). He work on the tomb and the terracotta warriors is esti- also rounded up many of China’s leading mated to have spanned 38 to 39 years, and took a philosophers and had them executed (Trea- great toll on the Chinese population (Capon 1983). sure! Tomb of the Terracotta Warriors 1998). Just as Qin had control of everything around him, he Qin’s Legalist policy did not suit the newly would also have control of how he entered the after- unified Chinese nation the way it suited the life and how he would pass his time in the next earlier state of Qin in its quest for complete world. rule of China. Later Han scholars attributed The discovery of the terracotta warriors outside the early downfall of the Qin Empire to this Qin’s tomb was made by chance while a farmer was lack of policy change (Lewis 2007). digging a well in Shaanxi Province in 1974. The Nevertheless, the First Emperor brought entire archaeological site now covers 56.25 km2 and many changes to China. He standard- includes four main pits and numerous satellite pits ized writing, language, measurements, and burials. Three of the main pits contain both currency, and trade (Treasure! warriors and horses, but the fourth was left unfin- Tomb of the Terracotta War- ished and empty by the original artisans. The ex- riors 1998). He also improved cavation has shown that there the roadways to make travel were columns in the pits that Qin’s harsh policies made easier and commissioned supported a roof and layers of the connecting and filling earth that reached up to ground him many enemies, espe- in of the disjointed sec- level and the floors were paved tions of what would be- with highly durable bricks cially among the feudal come the Great Wall of (Tianchou 1985). China (Kuwayama 1987). The warriors and pits are lords he had conquered, Despite the advances arranged in a fashion that sug- Qin made for China, he gests to scholars that they repre- and at least three assassi- was a ruthless and tyran- sented the different sections of nical ruler. He delivered Qin’s real army. For example, Pit nation attempts were punishments of unparal- No. 1 is the largest of the pits. leled cruelty to those who It contains an estimated 6,000 made on his life. These committed treason or any warriors, mainly infantrymen, other crime. Qin’s harsh and six chariots, each drawn by attempts on Qin’s life policies made him many ene- four horses (Capon 1983). Renbo mies, especially among the feu- Wang of the Shaanxi Provincial were responsible for his dal lords he had conquered, and Museum suggests that the mem- at least three assassination attempts bers of this pit represent the paranoia about death were made on his life (Cotterell Right Army of the Imperial 1981). These attempts on Qin’s life Guard. This section of the army and his obsession with were responsible for his paranoia would not have worn helmets about death and his obsession with (only Qin officers had those) finding the route to finding the route to immortality. and always took the offensive. Qin Shihuangdi also commis- The lack of heavy armor on the immortality. sioned the building of hundreds Qin foot soldiers allowed them of palaces both for himself and to attack quickly and with an unrivaled ferocity the lords upon whom he wanted (Cotterell 1981). Pit No. 2 is smaller and “L” shaped, to keep a close watch. From the containing an estimated 1,000 clay soldiers, 400 day he took the in 221 horses, and 80 chariots (Tianchou 1985). Most of BC, he began construction on these soldiers were members of the cavalry, along his tomb and the terracotta with archers belonging to the Left Army of the Qin army that would rest just out- . From the descriptions of the type of side of it in Shaanxi Province, just soldiers found in Pits 1 and 2 we see that the tradi- as the Egyptian pharaohs started tional Qin Right and Left armies are infantry and s construction on their tombs at the cavalry, respectively. beginning of their reigns. Hundreds The third pit is the smallest and in the shape of a of artisans and thousands of convict- “U”. It appears to be the command post, with 68 ed laborers from all of the various warriors, one chariot, and only four horses (Capon regions of China were brought to Qin’s 1983; Tianchou 1985). The number of officers in this 11 108534_TXT 11/8/07 1:24 PM Page 12

pit and its well protected position in the north- Chinese mortuary rituals have been many From the day he took west corner of the overall formation (Capon and varied throughout , yet there is lit- 1983, pp. 41), with the two larger parts of the tle written about the beliefs and practices that the throne in 221 BC, army in front of it, suggest this was indeed the surrounded death during the Warring States he began construction general’s headquarters. Additionally, some of (481-221 BC) and Qin (221-206 BC) periods. on his tomb and the the weapons recovered from this pit were It was believed at this time that the soul was meant more for ceremonial use than practical divided into two parts: one that would stay terracotta army that use in battle (Cotterell 1981). Altogether it with the body, earthbound, and one that would rest just outside seems that command over the entire 7,000 man would ascend to after death. This army was to rest with the general or high com- belief accounts for attempts made to preserve of it in Shaanxi mander, who is missing from the third pit. the body after death (Brown 2002). It is cer- Province... Finally, Wang (1987) hypothesizes that the tain, however, that there was a common belief fourth and uncompleted pit may have been in a life after death among the Chinese, and intended for the Central Army; however it is many death rituals were performed to ensure There is, however, a good place in the after- life. We know from ar- great debate over Table 1.Table Summarizing the terracotta army and how it relates to Qin’s real army (Capon 1983;Wang 1987). chaeological evidence that whether or not the the practice of human sac- soldiers were modeled Pit Number Type of Warrior Real Life Correlate rifice played a big role in the funerary rituals for Pit No. 1 Infantrymen, Charioteers Right Army on the actual members members of the elite in the of Qin’s army, or if Pit No. 2 Infantrymen, Charioteers, Left Army time before Qin ascended Cavalrymen, Archers to the throne (Dien 1987). there were general Pit No. 3 Officers (1 Chariot with General’s Headquarters Albert . Dien tells us patterns that the Charioteers) how the belief in the af- terlife manifested itself in Pit No. 4 (empty) Central Army artists of the terracotta the tombs, grave goods, and army followed. N/A Stable master, stable boys Imperial Stables sometimes human skele- tons that accompanied the unclear what types of soldiers made up this sec- dead into the next world. He also mentions It was believed at this tion of the Imperial Guard. Table 1 summarizes that the practice of was on time that the soul was the contents of the terracotta army. the decline by the time of the unification of Instead of all of the soldiers being created China, and figures or statues were increasingly divided into two parts: from one model, each warrior is individual- used as substitutes for actual human victims one that would stay ized (see Figure 1). Although there appears to (Dien 1987). be a number of basic head shapes for the war- With this knowledge we might be tempted with the body, earth- riors, their expressions vary, showing happi- to say that Qin’s terracotta warriors were bound, and one that ness, concentration, anger, and many other meant to represent the army that otherwise emotions (Capon 1983; Tianchou 1985). There would have been sacrificed when Qin died. This would ascend to heav- is, however, great debate over whether or not may be a convincing explanation for the cre- en after death. the soldiers were modeled on the actual mem- ation of the terracotta army when we take into bers of Qin’s army, or if there were general pat- account the meaning of mingqi, or “spirit ves- terns that the artists of the terracotta army fol- sels,” which were substitutes for real objects, The practice of human lowed (Kresner 1995). The armor and clothing such as people, that could not be placed in the sacrifice played a big of the warriors are carefully recreated with grave (Kresner 1995). However, Kresner argues folds or individual plates of armor and are dif- that the clay figures that comprise the army are role in the funerary ferent depending on the particular post of the not modeled after individual people, which sup- rituals for members of warrior in the overall army. ports her claim that the army was not made Additionally, every soldier and horse was with the intention of being mingqi (Kresner the elite in the time originally painted with plant pigments that 1995). Given that the clay figures, in this case, before Qin ascended have worn away with time. The army was al- represent an army of thousands, it is not feasi- so equipped with high quality real bronze ble that the entire army would be sacrificed to to the throne. weapons that had been chrome plated to pre- appease the Emperor. Additionally the real war- serve the sharpness of the weapons (Capon riors would have had to stay behind to help 1983; Treasure! Tomb of the Terracotta Warriors guard and control the empire. Without its 1998). The precision of the weapons again famous army, the dynasty that Qin Shihuangdi adds a level of reality to the pottery army. started to build would be left vulnerable, and 12 108534_TXT 11/8/07 1:24 PM Page 13

Figure 1. Only part of the vast burial complex in Shaanxi Province has been uncovered (photo by Alan Crawford).

Qin’s descendants would not have been able to keep The Shi (Records of the Grand ) by order. Thus it seems that the real army was never (Capon 1983; Thorp 1987) provides evi- meant to be sacrificed; therefore the terracotta replica dence that Qin’s tomb reflects his fixation with im- must have served some other purpose than that of mortality. This document tells us what actually rests in mingqi. the tomb with the Emperor’s body. Although Qian’s Qin Shihuangdi was known for his vast army and for account of what is in the tomb may not yet be verified commanding it with ruthless efficiency. His army was by visual evidence, the fact that the remarkable terra- certainly an important tool not only in overcoming the cotta army was not just legend lends some credence to many warring feudal lords, but also for keeping order what Qian claims. If we hypothesize that Emperor among his new subjects and enforcing his Legalist views. Qin had his elaborate burial constructed so that he Based on how much the Emperor relied on his army, it is would have his priorities reflected in the afterlife, we logical to assume that his army was among his highest expect to see that Qin’s army was invaluable to him in priorities. We also expect to see other recreations of life and that its terracotta replica should be recon- things that were important to Qin in his tomb. For ex- structed with a great deal of accuracy to properly rep- ample we might expect to see some of his larger building resent its living counterpart. projects replicated in his tomb, such as palaces or the Qin’s military conquest of China made his army Great Wall. There would also be items that showed his and its war horses an essential part of the Qin Empire. wealth and stature such as precious stones or expensive The number of horses and chariots that have been artwork. All of these elements contribute to the recre- found in the excavations lets us know the strength of ation of Qin’s true life in the afterlife and allow him to Qin’s army—that is, if we accept the argument that achieve immortality by being able to experience a con- the terracotta army truly does represent Qin’s living tinuation of the same life in the next world. army. Tianchou says that “war chariots and horses 13 108534_TXT 11/8/07 1:24 PM Page 14

were the principal criterion for measuring the military the differing visages on the clay soldiers than if they strength of a and constituted the main heavy were all identical. Again this sense of reality leads weaponry of an army” (Tianchou 1985, pp. 89). The us back to the idea of immortality. By having a ability to fight from horseback or from horse-drawn guardian army for his tomb that is so life-like, down chariot was an improvement over fighting on foot and to the stable workers that attend to the horses, Qin showed a development in the evolution of war. The is increasing the length of his “life” by bringing upkeep of so many horses, which were just as valuable those things that he thought most important with to the army as the human beings, had to be organized. him to the next world. Just as in real life there are stable masters to take care If Qin wanted such an exact replication of his of such matters, terracotta figures were found in a army outside of his tomb, it is reasonable to say that satellite pit that were to carry out this same task in the he probably wanted equal reality within his tomb afterlife (Wang 1987). where his body would actually be. Not only would A group of pits found to the east of Mount Li con- the opulence of the Emperor’s life follow him to the tained the stables for the army’s war horses (Wang grave in the form of jewels and other expensive fur- 1987), which only adds to the sense that the arrange- nishings, the Chinese historian Sima Qian tells us ment of terracotta warriors mirrored the real forma- what else accompanied the emperor into death tion and components of the Imperial Guard. These (Capon 1983, pp. 24): pits had more pottery figures which represented the They dug through three subterranean streams stable masters and the stable boys (Wang 1987). All and poured molten copper for the outer coffin, of this careful attention to detail concerning the loca- and the tomb was fitted with models of palaces, tion of the different parts of the army, and the detail pavilions and offices, as well as fine vessels, pre- in their clothing and the superiority of their weapons, cious stones and rarities. Artisans were ordered supports the claim that these figures accurately repre- to fix up crossbows so that any thief breaking in sented Qin’s real army. The high degree of variation would be shot. All the country’s streams, the in the facial features of the warriors also contributes and the were reproduced in to this effect. Even if the warriors were not modeled on real people, as Kresner (1995) claims, there is a greater sense of reality created by

Tests on the soil near and under Mount Li have shown unusually high concentrations of mercury. 14 108534_TXT 11/8/07 1:24 PM Page 15

quicksilver and by some mechanical means placed high priority with him in death. made to flow into a miniature ocean. The Further proof that this was indeed the intent heavenly constellations were shown above for the terracotta warriors lies with archaeo- and the regions of the earth below. logical evidence from periods preceding the This account may seem unrealistic, but there and from other parts of the coun- Having a complete repre- may in fact be some truth in it. Tests on the soil try. Kresner (1995, pp. 116) writes that: near and under Mount Li have shown unusu- The goal of tomb builders was to represent sentation of his empire ally high concentrations of mercury (Kresner all aspects of this world in the netherworld, 1995; Thorp 1987; Treasure! Tomb of the to produce within a tomb a comprehensive and the things he com- Terracotta Warriors 1998) which lends sup- replica of the human world. Therefore, the port to Qian’s historical account. We also artificial substitutes were regarded as even manded, including his know from the Shi Ji that the emperor had more appropriate, more fitting for this task hundreds of palaces built, including the Apang than the interment of real people, as they army, allowed Qin to Palace with “terraces that could seat ten thou- would be able to depict all the required sand” (Capon 1983). It is very likely that the activities—embodied in specific postures enter the afterlife with a models of palaces that were brought into Qin’s and gestures—far better than sacrificial vic- tomb were scale models of not just his own tims could. clearly defined status that palace but all those that he had ordered built. Along the same lines, the contents of the actual The fact that these were just models of palaces tomb were not merely grand works of art could not be challenged. and not life-size palaces tells us that even showing the luxury of Qin’s world but they though he liked to have numerous lavish were representations of real things. Kresner palaces, they were not as important to him as quotes from Hung, “In the Lishan tomb, his army, which was recreated as life-size sol- however, art imitated actual things: there was diers and horses. However, with the number of an artificial ocean and flowing rivers, and all palaces he had built the only way to replicate images were arranged to create an artificial mi- During his life Qin had more than one or two of them inside his tomb crocosm of the universe” (Hung 1988, pp. 94, may have been as smaller models. That does as cited in Kresner 1995, pp. 129). tried several ways to find not mean that the models were built with any In addition to facilitating Qin’s ease in tran- less detail and opulence of material than either sitioning into the afterlife and ensuring him the answer to eternal life: the true palaces or the terracotta warriors. good status with Shang Di, the riches and What the description of Qin’s tomb above grandeur of the tomb help to secure authority he drank elixirs of jade tells us is that he wanted to take his empire for what he believed would be future genera- with him so that he would have something to tions of Qin rulers. The splendor of one Em- and mercury, he climbed rule over in the afterlife. It is important to peror’s resting place was a symbol of wealth note that in ancient China it was believed that and status and helped to back the authority of mountains (the legendary you continued on into the afterlife as you the new Emperor. That is to say, Qin foresaw were when you died, especially where social himself as the start of a new ruling dynasty in resting places of the ), and political status were concerned (Treasure! Chinese history and he was securing the right Tomb of the Terracotta Warriors 1998). The of inheritance for his descendents. The fact that and he even sent hundreds higher status you had in life, the closer to the Qin Dynasty did not last does not detract Shang Di (the Lord on High) you would be in from what Qin Shihuangdi’s tomb was intend- of children out onto the sea the next world (Dien 1987). This point makes ed to do. the imitation of reality very important for the By having his army painstakingly recreated to search for the rumored afterlife. Having a complete representation of and models of palaces placed in his tomb, Qin his empire and the things he commanded, may still have been trying to achieve immortali- islands inhabited by wise including his army, allowed Qin to enter the ty. During his life Qin had tried several ways to afterlife with a clearly defined status that find the answer to eternal life: he drank elixirs men who supposedly knew could not be challenged. of jade and mercury, he climbed mountains (the After comparing the pottery army to Qin’s legendary resting places of the gods), and he the secret to immortality. actual warriors, it seems that it is indeed a even sent hundreds of children out onto the sea realistic representation of Qin’s true army. to search for the rumored islands inhabited by The same logic that we apply to the army can wise men who supposedly knew the secret to be applied to Qin’s actual tomb, albeit with immortality (Capon 1983; Treasure! Tomb of slightly less confidence because we have no the Terracotta Warriors 1998). By having all visual confirmation of what is claimed to be the trappings of his life transferred to what life in the tomb. To all appearances Qin Shihuangdi he may experience beyond death is, in a way, desired to have those things on which he living the same life eternally. 15 108534_TXT 11/8/07 1:24 PM Page 16

However, it is puzzling why someone so Dien, Albert E. (1987). “Chinese beliefs in the focused on staying alive as long as possible afterworld” in The Quest for Eternity: Chinese would have such lavish and detailed plans in Ceramic Sculptures from the People’s Republic of China, pp. 1-15, edited by Susan L. Caroselli. place for his tomb. Granted, the work on any San Francisco: Los Angeles County Museum of emperor’s tomb started as soon as he ascended Art Books. to the throne, but none did so on such a large Fu, Tianchou (1989). Wonders from the Earth: The or lavish scale. One possible explanation for First Emperor's Underground Army, Rev. Edition. the grandness of Qin’s project is as stated San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals. above; he was still searching for the path to Hung, Wu (1988). “From temple to tomb: Ancient everlasting life, even in death. One way to fur- and religion in transition.” Early ther build on this argument would be to see if China, 13: 78-115. the Great Wall was put on the map of the Keightley, David N. (1991). “The quest for eternity empire in Qin’s tomb, despite its not being in ancient China: The dead, their gifts, their names” in Ancient Mortuary Traditions of mentioned by Qian. Although the tomb at China: Papers on Chinese Ceramic Funerary Mount Li has not been opened and we do not Sculptures, pp.12-24, edited by George truly know what is in it, we might hypothesize Kuwayama. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles that the Great Wall would be part of the reality County Museum of Art. transferred into the tomb, since this was one of Kresner, Ladislav (1995). “Likeness of no one: Qin’s biggest and most famous projects. He (Re)presenting the first emperor’s army.” The had the Wall built in order to protect his coun- Art Bulletin 77(1): 115-132 try, which he highly valued, so perhaps he Lewis, Mark E (2007). The Early Chinese would have the Great Wall recreated in his : Qin and Han. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. tomb to protect his empire in the afterlife. Emperor Qin Shihuangdi, First Emperor of Thorp, Robert L. (1987). “The Qin and Han impe- rial tombs and the development of mortuary China, wanted the comforts and valued aspects architecture” in The Quest for Eternity: Chinese of his life to follow him into death so that he Ceramic Sculptures from the People’s Republic could at last achieve immortality. ª of China, pp. 17-37, edited by Susan L. Caroselli. San Francisco: Los Angeles County Museum of Works Cited Art Chronicle Books. Brown, Miranda (2002). “Did the early Chinese Treasure! Tomb of the Terracotta Warriors. A&E preserve corpses? A reconsideration of elite con- Home Video, 1998. ceptions of death.” Journal of East Asian Wang, Renbo (1987). “General comments on Archaeology 4(1-4): 201-223. Chinese funerary sculpture” in The Quest for Capon, Edmund (1983). Qin Shihuang: Terracotta Eternity: Chinese Ceramic Sculptures from the Warriors and Horses, 3rd edition. Clayton, People’s Republic of China, pp. 39-61, edited by Victoria, Australia: Wilke and Company Limited. Susan L. Caroselli. San Francisco: Los Angeles Cotterell, Arthur (1981). The First Emperor of County Museum of Art Chronicle Books. China. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

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