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A History of the Piezoelectric Quartz Crystal Technological

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A History of the Piezoelectric Quartz Crystal Technological HARNESSING NATURE’S TIMEKEEPER: A HISTORY OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC QUARTZ CRYSTAL TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNITY (1880-1959) A Dissertation Presented to The Academic Faculty by Christopher Shawn McGahey In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the School of History, Technology, and Society Georgia Institute of Technology May 2009 Copyright © 2009 by Christopher Shawn McGahey HARNESSING NATURE’S TIMEKEEPER: A HISTORY OF THE PIEZOELECTRIC QUARTZ CRYSTAL TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNITY (1880-1959) Approved by: Dr. Steven W. Usselman, Advisor Dr. William D. Hunt School of History, Technology, & Society School of Electrical & Computer Georgia Institute of Technology Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Gerhard Jean Marie (John) Krige Dr. Marco Ceccagnoli School of History, Technology, & Society College of Management Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. August W. Giebelhaus School of History, Technology, & Society Georgia Institute of Technology Date Approved: October 20, 2008 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would have never completed this dissertation without the help of many highly competent and caring people. Writing a work of this magnitude is somewhat like going on a journey full of possible pitfalls and diversions. To the extent that I have avoided these, I thank the following persons for their invaluable guidance. Of course, any remaining flaws or weaknesses of this work are solely my own. My greatest thanks go to my committee members (Marco Ceccagnoli, Gus Giebelhaus, Bill Hunt, John Krige, Steven Usselman), who are all personally acquainted with the travails of writing a dissertation. Special thanks go to Dr. Hunt, who first suggested that a history of quartz crystal technology might be a fruitful project, and to Dr. Usselman, my advisor and mentor, who deserves more credit than anyone for shepherding this project through to its conclusion. Thank you. At the beginning of this project, several individuals generously answered my many questions and convinced me that writing a history of piezoelectric technology was a worthwhile endeavor. Among these individuals were Arthur Ballato and John Vig, both associated with Fort Monmouth and the IEEE UFFC, Richard J. Thompson, Jr., currently Dean of Mathematics and Sciences at the College of Saint Rose (NY) and the author of Crystal Clear: The Struggle for Reliable Communication Technololgy in World War II , and Carlene Stephens of the Smithsonian Institution. The work of writing history is made possible only because of the dedicated labor of countless librarians and archivists, most of whom are invisible to the general public. Throughout this project, the staffs of the following libraries and archives very graciously iii assisted me in my research: Fort Monmouth Historical Records (Fort Monmouth, NJ), the U.S. National Archives (Washington, D.C. and College Park, MD), the Rhode Island Historical Society Library (Providence, RI), the Special Collections and Archives of the Olin Library (Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT), the Department of Special Collections of the Kelvin Smith Library (Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH), the Special Collections and Archives as well as the Library and Information Center of the Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, GA), the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.), and the General Radio Historical Society. Though I don’t remember all of your names, I thank you for your dedicated service to researchers like myself. All academic historians need the comments and criticisms of their colleagues to sharpen and refine their work. I am certainly no exception, and I thank the following groups for their helpful comments: my fellow students in the Georgia Tech History, Technology, & Society (HTS) program, particularly those who attended my talks at the HTS Graduate Forum; the sponsors and commenters of the first Business History Conference Newcomen Doctoral Colloquium held in Minneapolis, MN in May 2005; those who attended my talks at the 2006 Society for the History Of Technology (SHOT) Annual Meeting in Minneapolis, MN and at the 2006 Business History Conference in Toronto, Canada. Thanks also to Mr. Phillip Goodman, an e-mail correspondent and former student of Walter Cady’s who has shown an avid interest in this project over the last couple of years. As everyone knows, writing a dissertation is not a paying job. Throughout this project, the following fellowships have allowed me to travel to archives and to support myself while researching and writing: the IEEE Fellowship in Electrical History (2005), iv the Georgia Tech Ivan Allen College Dissertation Fellowship (2006), and the HTS Jones Fellowship (2007). To those who provide the funds for these fellowships as well as to those who selected me as a recipient, thank you. Finally, special thanks are due to the following persons. Thanks to Ladonna Bowen, administrative assistant for the School of HTS, who graciously assisted me with Ph.D. forms and paperwork. Thanks to Christina Bourgeois, director of the undergraduate writing center for Georgia Tech’s School of ECE, who was my boss in 2005 when I decided to devote myself full-time to working on this dissertation. Thank you for your friendship and for your continued interest in my academic endeavors. Thanks to my parents and my sister for their emotional support and good humor as I struggled to complete this work. Last but not least, thanks to my wife, Jenny, who entered my life toward the latter stages of this project and who is very glad to see it completed. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................iii LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................ix LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................x SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: THE PRE-HISTORY OF QUARTZ CRYSTAL TECHNOLOGY (1880-1923).......................................................................................................................27 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 27 2.2 The Curie brothers discover piezoelectricity......................................................... 28 2.3 Discovery of piezoelectricity fails to yield any immediate technological applications................................................................................................................... 32 2.4 The scientific study of piezoelectricity ................................................................. 35 2.5 SONAR – the first technological application of piezoelectricity.......................... 38 2.6 U.S. Anti-Submarine Warfare research during World War I................................ 40 2.7 Walter Guyton Cady.............................................................................................. 43 2.8 Cady’s introduction to piezoelectric technology................................................... 49 2.9 The legacy of World War I-era Anti-Submarine Warfare research ...................... 53 2.10 Cady invents the quartz crystal piezoelectric resonator ...................................... 55 2.11 Cady invents the quartz crystal piezoelectric oscillator ...................................... 58 2.12 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 60 CHAPTER 3: QUARTZ CRYSTAL TECHNOLOGY AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ......................................................................................................................64 CHAPTER 4: THE 1920s – QUARTZ CRYSTAL AND FREQUENCY CONTROL........................................................................................................................94 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 94 4.2 Walter Cady’s piezoelectric oscillator is without a practical application ............. 96 4.3 The birth of shortwave and medium-wave radio broadcasting ............................. 97 4.4 George Washington Pierce improves on Cady’s piezoelectric oscillator ........... 103 4.5 Quartz crystal research and development at the Naval Research Laboratory..... 107 4.6 The radio industry begins investing in quartz crystal technology....................... 111 4.7 The radio amateur community learns to use quartz crystal................................. 115 vi 4.8 The geography of quartz crystal invention in the 1920s ..................................... 117 4.9 Explaining the time lag between the Cady and Pierce piezoelectric oscillators.................................................................................................................... 118 4.10 Quartz crystal technology and independent inventors....................................... 125 4.11 Summary ........................................................................................................... 129 CHAPTER 5: THE 1920s – QUARTZ CRYSTAL AND FREQUENCY STANDARDIZATION...................................................................................................131 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................
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