A Note on Transliteration Introduction

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Notes

A Note on Transliteration 1. See Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 200–201. 2. Three Mughal Poets: Mīr, Sauda, Mīr Hasan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), 165, 230. 3. Ibid., 230. 4. S. R. Faruqi, “Conventions of Love, Love of Conventions: Urdu Love Poetry in the Eighteenth Century,” Annual of Urdu Studies 14 (1999): 3–32. 5. “‘The Straw that I Took in my Teeth’: Of Lovers, Beloveds, and Charges of Sexism in the Urdu Ghazal,” Manushi 136 (May–June 2003): 31–34; see especially 33.

Introduction 1. See Carla Petievich, “Gender Politics and the Urdu Ghazal,” The Indian Economic and Social History Review 38, no. 3 (2001): 223–48. 2. Pain and Grace: A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-Century Muslim India (Netherlands: Brill, 1976), 106. 3. Khalil Ahmad Siddiqi, Rekhti ka Tanqidi Mutala’ah (Lucknow: Nasim Book Depot, 1974), 85. Hereafter cited as RTM. 4. Michel Foucault, “Of Other Spaces,” trans. Jay Miskowiec, Architecture/Mouvement/ Continuite 5 (October 1984): 46–49. 5. See S. R. Faruqi, “Mir Saheb ka Zinda Ajayabghar,” in Kulliyat-i Mir (New Delhi: Qaumi Kunsil bara’e Farugh-i-Urdu Zaban, 2003), 2:47–77. 6. Siddiqi, RTM, 112, states that in rekhtī for the first time woman emerges as a living human being. 7. Amritlal Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan (Allahabad: Lokabharati Prakashan, 2008), 145. 8. K. C. Kanda, Bahadur Shah Zafar and his Contemporaries (New Delhi: Sterling, 2007), 384. 9. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin Dehlvi, Masnavi Dilpazir, ed. Sayyad Suleiman Husain (Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1992), 73. 10. Vikram Sampath, “My Name Is Gauhar Jan” (New Delhi: Rupa, 2010), 284–301. 11. Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan, 154. 12. A twentieth-century courtesan by this name appears in Ye Kothevaliyan, 27–32. 260 l Notes

13. Mirza Ja‘far Husain, Qadim Lakhnau ki Akhiri Bahar (New Delhi: Qaumi Kunsil bara’e Farugh-i-Urdu Zaban, 1998), 193, 199, 207. 14. Ibid., 431, 436. 15. Sayyid Sulaiman Husain, ed., Masnavi Dilpazir (Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1992),101. 16. Siddiqi, RTM, 61. 17. Sibt-i Muhammad Naqvi, ed., Intikhab-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1983), 83. 18. Ibid. 19. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ La̤tāfat, trans. into Urdu by Pandit Brijmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 86–88. Hereafter cited as D-eL. 20. Rangīn, Masnavi Dilpazir, 155. 21. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 59. Hereafter cited as R. 22. Ahmad Ali Nisbat, Manuscript. Hereafter cited as MS. 23. Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 108–9. 24. Gail Minault, “Other Voices, Other Rooms: The View from the Zenana,” Women as Subjects: South Asian Histories, ed. Nita Kumar (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994), 108–24. 25. Monique Wittig, “The Mark of Gender,” in The Straight Mind and Other Essays (Boston: Beacon, 1992, 76–89. 26. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlvi Rangin, Nazm-a Dawawin (Call No. 964, Serial No. 7, Folio 63, written in 1925, Rampur Raza Library), 73. Hereafter cited as MS 964. Some variants in R, 114. 27. Inshaullah Khan Insha, Diwan-i Insha (Call No. 935, Serial No. 5, Folio 442, Rampur Raza Library), 12. Hereafter cited as MS 935. Variants in R, 178. 28. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), 2:261–62. The whole poem is translated in Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 222–23. 29. Carla Petievich, When Men Speak as Women: Vocal Masquerade in Indo-Muslim Poetry (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007). 30. Ruth Vanita, Love’s Rite: Same-Sex Marriage in India and the West (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), chap. 4. 31. Both C. M. Naim, “Transvestic Words? The Rekhti in Urdu,” Annual of Urdu Studies 16, no. 1 (2001): 3–25, and Carla Petievich, “Gender Politics and the Urdu Ghazal,” make this argument. 32. R, 73, with slight variant. 33. Insha ki Do Kahaniyan, introduction by Intizar Husain (Lahore: Majalis Taraqqi Adab, 1971), 107. 34. Abid Peshawari, Insha Allah Khan Insha (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1985), 546. 35. Mirza Mohammad Askari, ed., Kalam-i Insha (Allahabad: Hindustani Akademi, 1952), Introduction, p. dāl lām 36. Fīl (“Elephants”) in KI, 366–74; Khatmal,̣ 351–52; Zaṅbūr, 346–47; Hijv Mags, 358–60. 37. Makkhiyāṅ in Nazir Akbarabadi, Kulliyat-i Nazir (New Delhi: Kitabi Duniya, 2003), 527–29:100. Notes l 261

38. Apart from the political record, see also Hussein Keshani, “Strangers, Lovers and Kin: Gender Roles and their Interplay with the Architecture of Awadh,” in Studies on Architecture, History and Culture: Papers by the 2003–4 AKPIA@MIT Visiting Fellows (Cambridge, MA: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2004). 39. Siddiqi, RTM, 77, 104. 40. Saleem Kidwai, “Of Begums and Tawaifs: The Women of Awadh,” Women’s Studies in India: A Reader, ed. Mary John (New Delhi: Penguin, 2008), 118–23. 41. Michael Herbert Fisher, A Clash of Cultures: Awadh, the British, and the Mughals (Riverdale, MD: Riverdale Company, 1987), 162–87. See also Rosie Llewellyn- Jones, A Fatal Friendship: The Nawabs, the British and the City of Lucknow, in The Lucknow Omnibus (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 4–5, 176–77. 42. See Muhammad Hadi Kamwar Khan, Tazkirat us-Salatin Chaghta: A Mughal Chronicle of post-Aurangzeb period, 1707–1724, ed. Muzaffar Alam (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1980), 159–67. 43. Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan, 61–62. 44. For emperors’ involvements with dancing girls, see Harbans Mukhia, The Mughals of India (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 117–18. 45. Siddiqi, RTM, 91. 46. Ibid., 94. 47. See Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, ed., Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History and Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1997); Katherine Butler Brown, “If Music Be the Food of Love: Masculinity and Eroticism in the Mughal Mehfil,” in Love in South Asia: A Cultural history, ed. Francesca Orsini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 61–83. 48. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin, Majalis-i Rangin, ed. Sayyid ‘Ali Haidar (Patna: Idara Tahqiqat-e Arabi-o Farsi, 1990), 45. 49. Siddiqi, RTM, 91. 50. Tota Ram Shayan, Tilism-e Hind (Lucknow: Naval Kishor, 1874), 285. 51. Peshawari, Insha Allah, 222. 52. Siddiqi, RTM, 31. 53. Muhammad Taqi Ahmad, trans., Tarikh Badshah Begam (Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 2009), 4–5. 54. Siddiqi, RTM, 38. 55. Saleem Kidwai, trans., Song Sung True: The Memoirs of Malka Pukhraj (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 2002), 114. 56. Kidwai, “Begums and Tawaifs,” and Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War: the Politics, Culture and History of Shi’ite Islam (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). 57. Tarikh Badshah Begam, 9–10. 58. Ibid., 10–12. 59. Ibid., 12. 60. Siddiqi, RTM, 28. 61. Even as sympathetic a historian as Fisher does not entirely escape this view, Clash of Cultures, 74–75. 62. Saleem Akhtar, Urdu Adab ki Mukhtasar Tarin Tarikh (Lahore: Sang-i Mil Publica- tions, 2000), 190; and Siddiqi, RTM, 59. 63. Faiz Bakhsh, quoted in Siddiqi, RTM, 25. 64. Saleem Akhtar, Urdu Adab,186. 262 l Notes

65. W. H. Sleeman, A Journey through the Kingdom of Oude in 1849–1850, with private correspondence relative to the annexation of Oude to British India (London: R. Bentley, 1858), 392, 422, 369. 66. Siddiqi, RTM, 6. 67. C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 266. 68. Narayani Gupta, Delhi between Two Empires, 1803–1931: Society, Government and Urban Growth (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1981); Fisher, Clash of Cultures, 21, 71–89. 69. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 76:79. Hereafter cited as KtI. 70. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin Dehlvi, Akhbar-i Rangin ma‘ah muqaddimah o ta‘liqat, ed. S. Moinul Haq (Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1962), 19. 71. Saleem Akhtar, Urdu Adab, 187. 72. Siddiqi, RTM, 36. 73. Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 81. 74. Siddiqi, RTM, 39. 75. Rosie Lllewellyn-Jones, “Africans in the Indian Mutiny,” History Today 459, no. 12 (December 2009): 40–47. 76. Words for “prostitute” have a similar etymology in some other languages; in Bohemian, nevestika (“prostitute”) is the diminutive of nevesta (“bride”), and in Dutch, deerne (“prostitute”) originally meant “girl.” 77. Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan, 155. 78. Bharatendu Granthawali (Varanasi: Kashi Nagari Pracharini Sabha, 1955), 3:844–45. 79. D-eL, 225. 80. D-eL, 133. 81. Dorothy Ko, “The Written Word and the Bound Foot: A History of the Courtesan’s Aura,” in Writing Women in Late Imperial China ed. Ellen Widmer and Kang-i Sun Chang (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1997), 77. 82. Saleem Kidwai, “The Singing Ladies Find a Voice,” Seminar 540 (August 2004). 83. See, for example, Nurulhasan Hashimi, Dilli ka Dabistan-i Sha‘iri (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1992), 280. 84. Abida Samiuddin, Encyclopedic History of Urdu Literature (Delhi: Global Vision, 2007), 1:517. 85. Amaresh Dutta, The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1988), 2:1797. 86. Aditya Behl, “Poet of the Bazaars: Nazir Akbarabadi 1735–1830,” in A Wilderness of Possibilities, ed. Kathryn Hansen and David Lelyveld (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005), 194. 87. Frances W. Pritchett, Nets of Awareness (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1995), 25–45; C. M. Naim and Carla Petievich, “Urdu in Lucknow/Lucknow in Urdu,” in Lucknow: Memories of a City, ed. Violette Graff (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), 166–80. 88. Peshawari, Insha Allah, 547. 89. “[T]he latest volume of poetical selections published in India, while giving numerous poems of standard poets like Sauda, Mīr, Atish, Zauq, Ghalib, Anis and Dabir . . . does not contain a single line of Rangin.” R. P. Dewhurst, untitled review of Cata- logue of the Hindustani Manuscripts in the Library of the India Office by James Fuller Notes l 263

Blumhardt, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland N.S. 59, no. 3 (July 1927): 581–82. 90. Amina Khatoon, afterword to Insha Allah Khan, Lataif us-Sa‘adat, trans. Amina Khatoon (Bangalore: Kausar Press, 1955), 97. 91. Thus Petievich finds rekhtī wanting in comparison to Ghalib’s rekhta; see her “Gender Politics and the Urdu Ghazal,” 225, and “Doganas and Zanakhis: The Invention and Subsequent Erasure of Urdu Poetry’s ‘Lesbian’ Voice,” in Queering India: Same-sex Love and Eroticism in Indian Culture and Society, ed. Ruth Vanita (New York: Routledge, 2002), 47–60. 92. Hali’s Musaddas: The Flow and Ebb of Islam, trans. Christopher Shackle and Javed Majeed (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), 193. 93. Hali’s Musaddas, 195. 94. Kanda, Bahadur Shah Zafar, 384–85. 95. Amina Khatoon notes Āzād’s conflicted approach (Afterword to Khan, Lataif us- Sa‘adat, 94–95). 96. Muhammad Husain Azad, Ab-i Hayat (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1998), 259. 97. Badi’ Hussaini, Dakkin men Rekhtī ka Irtiqa (Hyderabad: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1968), 128. 98. ‘Ali Javad Zaidi, Do Adabi Iskul (Lucknow: Nasim Book Depot, 1970); Carla Petievich, Assembly of Rivals (New Delhi: Manohar, 1992). 99. For example, S. R. Faruqi, “Conventions of Love, Love of Conventions: Urdu Love Poetry in the Eighteenth Century,” Annual of Urdu Studies 14 (1999): 3–32. 100. See Petievich, “Gender Politics.” 101. “The Theme of Homosexual (Pederastic) Love in Pre-Modern Urdu Poetry,” in Studies in the Urdu Ghazal and Prose Fiction, ed. Muhammad Umar Memon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979), 120–42; revised version in Urdu Texts and Contexts: The Selected Essays of C. M. Naim (New Delhi: Permanent Black: 2004), 19–41; especially p. 40. 102. D-eL, 145. 103. Sabir ‘Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 410. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 104. M. J. Husain, Qadim Lucknow, 184. 105. Gail Minault, “Begamati Zuban,” in Gender, Language, and Learning (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2009w). 106. “Tods’ Amendment,” Plain Tales from the Hills (Garden City, NY: Doubleday Page & Co., 1915), 195. 107. Khwaja Altaf Hussain Hali, Voices of Silence: English translation of Khwaja Altaf Hussain Hali’s Majalis un-Nissa and Chup ki dad, trans. Gail Minault (New Delhi: Chanakya Publications, 1986), 96. 108. Hali, Voices, Introduction, 20. 109. See Ruth Vanita, “Gandhi’s Tiger: Multilingual Elites, the Battle for Minds, and English Romantic Literature in Colonial India,” Postcolonial Studies 5, no. 1 (2002): 95–112, reprinted in Gandhi’s Tiger and Sita’s Smile: Essays on Gender, Sexuality and Culture (Delhi: Yoda Press, 2005). 110. Hali, Voices, 51. 111. Ibid., 99. 112. Ibid., 78. 113. Ibid., 75–76. 264 l Notes

114. Naim, “Transvestic Words?” 115. Sayyid Naqvi, TRDJSb, 42. 116. Ibid., 39. 117. Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex (New York: Random House, 1942), 1:208–9. 118. D-e L, 110–11. 119. Na‘im Ahmad, ed., Kulliyat-i Mir Ja‘far Zatalli (Aligarh: Adabi Akadmi, 1979), 215. 120. TRDJSb, 42. 121. Siddiqi, RTM, 104, 117. 122. Mirza Qadir Bakhsh Bahadur Sābir, Gulistan-e Sukhan (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akademi, 1982), 254. 123. Hashimi, Dilli ka Dabistan-i Sha‘iri, 100–112. 124. See Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, “Burning Rage, Icy Scorn: the Poetry of Ja‘far Zatalli,” Lecture at University of Texas, Austin, September 24, 2008. 125. Kulliyat-i Nazir, 147–48:243. 126. Badi’ Hussaini, Dakkin men Rekhti, 10–20. 127. Quoted in Hussaini, Dakkin men Rekhti, 24. 128. Siddiqi, RTM, 111. 129. Kulliyat-i Nazir, 613–14. 130. KtJ, II, 261. For English translation, see Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 222–23. 131. Kokashastra is the Sanskrit text Ratirahasya (Secrets of the Erotic) by Koka Pandit. Several later Hindi and Persian texts derive from it, including a Hindi text called Kok-Shastar or Kokasara. Ladhdhat al-nisa (Enjoyment of Women) is a Persian illustrated translation of Kokashastra, in an eighteenth-century Kashmiri miniature style, attributed to Ziya Nakhshabi. 132. S. R. Faruqi, “Expression of the Indo-Muslim Mind in Urdu Ghazal” in The Secret Mirror: Essays on Urdu Poetry (New Delhi: Academic Literature, 1981), 11–33, agrees with Āzād. Nurul Hasan Hashmi’s insistence that Urdu poets were influ- enced only by Persian, not by local Indian languages, seems at variance with the facts. See his Dilli ka Dabistan-i Sha‘iri, 117–19. 133. Barron Gregory Holland, The Satsai of Bihari: Hindi Poetry of the Early Riti Period; Introduction, Translation, and Notes (University of California, Berkeley, PhD, dissertation 1969), 34. The introduction contains an account of Riti poetry’s themes and conventions. 134. Ibid., 15. 135. See Ram Avadh Dwivedi, A Critical Survey of Hindi Literature (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1966), 102; Ram Kumar Varma, Hindi Sahitya ka Alochanatmak Itihas (Allahabad: Rama Narayana Lal Beni Madhava, 1964), 619. 136. Allison Busch, “Hidden in Plain View: Brajbhasha Poets at the Mughal Court,” Modern Asian Studies 44, no. 2 (2010): 267–309. 137. Waris Shah, The Adventures of Hir and Ranjha, trans. Charles Frederick Usborne (London: P. Owen, 1973). 138. C. M. Naim, “Transvestic Words?” 139. Siddiqi, RTM, 288. 140. Abdulhafiz Qatil, introduction to Qais ka Muntakhab Divan-i Rekhti (Hyderabad: Anjuman-e Taraqqi-e Taalim, 1984), 17. 141. Badi’ Hussaini, Dakkin Men Rekhti, 139. Notes l 265

142. Rangin, Akhbar-i Rangin, 19. 143. “Transvestic Words,” 5n10, citing Imtiaz Ali Khan Arshi’s introduction to Yakta’s Dastur-ul Fazahat (Rampur: Rampur State Library, 1943), 2n1. 144. Amina Khatoon, afterword to Lataif-us Sa’ādat, 149–60. 145. Zatal Namah: Kulliyat-i Ja‘far Zatallih, ed. Rashid Hasan Khan (New Delhi: Anju- man Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 2003), 32–35; 304–5. 146. Na‘im Ahmad, ed., Kulliyat-i Mir Ja‘far Zatalli, 212. 147. Ibid., 212, 213.

Chapter 1 1. Idiomatic: a dissolute woman. 2. Inshaullah Khan Dehelwi, Insha, Diwan-i Insha (Call No. 935, Serial No. 5, Folio 442, Rampur Raza Library), fard after no. 26. Hereafter cited as MS 935. 3. C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 78. 4. Ayaz Ahmed and Maharaj Krishen Kaul, ed., Kulliyat-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Urdu and Teaching Research Center, 2010), 114: 34. Hereafter cited as KtR. 5. Ahmad Ali Nisbat, Manuscript. Hereafter cited as MS. 6. J. P. Losty, Delhi 360 Degrees (New Delhi: Roli Books, 2012), reproduces early nineteenth-century paintings by Mazhar Ali Khan, which show adjoined rooftops in Delhi. 7. See Veena Oldenburg, “The Making of Colonial Lucknow 1856–1877,” in The Lucknow Omnibus (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 120. 8. Intizar Husain, Dilli Tha Jis ka Nam (Lahore: Sang-i Mil Publications, 2007), 61. 9. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin, Majalis-i Rangin, ed. Sayyid ‘Ali Haidar (Patna: Idara Tahqiqat-e Arabi-o Farsi, 1990), 42. 10. “Uncovered” does not indicate nudity but wearing a shirt without a cloth draped over the chest. 11. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 175. 12. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 242: 235, 4th qi̤t‘a. Hereafter cited as KtI. 13. Nuskha Diwān-e Rangīn (National Archives of Pakistan, Islamabad). Hereafter cited as NDR. 14. Khwaja Altaf Hussain Hali, Voices of Silence: English translation of Khwaja Altaf Hussain Hali’s Majalis un-Nissa and Chup ki dad, trans. Gail Minault (New Delhi: Chanakya Publications, 1986), 49. 15. Devendra Sarma Indra, ed., Mahakavi Bihari ki Amara Krti Bihari Satasai (Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, 1964), 91:192. 16. Ibid., 270: 641. 17. Ibid., 289:687. 18. MS 935 has phailī chāndī (“beaten silver”). 19. Nazir Akbarabadi, Kulliyat-i Nazir (Delhi: Kitabi Duniya, 2003), 282: 612. 20. Translation by Saleem Kidwai, in Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Litera- ture and History, edited by Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 226. 21. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi, Rangin, Divan-i Rangin (Call No. 963, Folio 29, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 963. 266 l Notes

22. Mirza Muhammad ‘Askari, ed., Kalam-i Insha (Allahabad: Hindustani Akadmi, 1952), 412: 34. Hereafter cited as KI. 23. My reading from MS 935 substantially agrees with that of KI, 400: 8. Faruq Argali’s reading in R, 175–76, is somewhat different. 24. Some variants in R, 229. 25. Pīnas (“palanquin”) can also mean a boat. 26. R, 72, slight variant. 27. The manuscript and KI have sannā jātā hai; R has sansanā jātā hai. 28. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlvi Rangin, Nazm-a Dawawin (Call No. 964, Serial No. 7, Folio 63, written in 1925, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 964. R, 66, with different first line. 29. M. Habib Khan, Inshaullah Khan “Insha” (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1996), 63. 30. John P. Jones, India: Its Life and Thought (New York: Macmillan, 1908), 314. 31. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangīn Dehlvi, Masnavi Dilpazir, ed., Sayyid Sulaiman Husain (Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1992), 147. 32. Ibid., 148. 33. Adrienne Copithorne, “Poet in Drag: the Phenomenon of Rekhti,” unpublished paper, 1998. 34. Shohini Ghosh, “Queer Pleasures for Queer People: Film, Television and Queer Sexuality in India,” in Queering India: Same-Sex Love and Eroticism in Indian Culture and Society, ed. Ruth Vanita (New York: Routledge, 2002), 207–21. 35. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ La̤tāfat, trans. into Urdu by Pandit Brijmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 66. Hereafter cited as D-eL. 36. P. C. Mookherji, The Pictorial Lucknow (New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 2003), 82–83. 37. Abdul Halim Sharar, Lucknow: The Last Phase of an Oriental Culture, in The Lucknow Omnibus (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001). 38. D-eL, 67. 39. Sharar, Lucknow: Last Phase, 172–75. 40. KI omits several verses from this poem, replacing them with ellipses. R, with variants, 179–80. 41. W. Crooke, ed., Observations on the Mussulmauns of India by Mrs Meer Hassan Ali Descriptive of Their Manners, Customs, Habits and Religious Opinions Made During a Twelve Years’ Residence in Their Immediate Society (1832; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), 60–61. 42. Ibid. 43. I follow the manuscript here; R has “purple” again, instead of “my” before “ọrhnī.” 44. John T. Platts, A Dictionary of Classical Urdu, Hindi and English (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997), 799. 45. On this shift in meaning, see Muzaffar Alam, “The Culture and Politics of Per- sian in Precolonial Hindustan,” in Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia, ed. Sheldon Pollock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 131–98. 46. See Vidya Dehejia, The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009). Notes l 267

47. Ghulam Yazdani, “Narnaul and Its Buildings,” Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 3 (1907): 581–86. 48. Gail Minault, who briefly mentions these practices as described in Daryā-ĕ La̤tāfat, reads them as “congruent with women’s experience of confiding in and relying upon other women,” see “Begamati Zuban,” in her Gender, Language, and Learning: Essays in Indo-Muslim Cultural History (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2009), 128. In the sources I cite, however, the women rely equally or more on male jinns. 49. Natalie Zemon Davis, Trickster Travels: A Sixteenth-Century Muslim between Worlds (New York: Hill & Wang, 2006), 201. 50. Crooke, Observations, 375–78. 51. David Shea and Anthony Troyer, trans., The Dabistan or School of Manners (Paris: Oriental Translation Fund, 1843), 3:235n1. 52. John P. Jones, India: Its Life (New York: Macmillan, 1908), 314. 53. D-eL, 138. 54. MS 964, 26. 55. From “Dewan Angekhta,” in Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin, ed., Sabir Ali Khan (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 412, 418–19. 56. Muhammad Taqi Ahmad, trans., Tarikh Badshah Begam (1938; Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1977), 9–10. 57. This couplet missing in R. 58. Hali, Voices, 11–12. 59. Anand V. Taneja, “Sacred Histories, Uncanny Politics: Jinns and Justice in the Ruins of Delhi,” unpublished paper. 60. Sayyid Muhammad Mubin Naqvi, Tarikh-i Rekhti: Ma‘ah Divan-i Jansahab (Allahabad: Matba‘-i Anvar-i Ahmadi, n.d.), 168. 61. KI, 389, nazm 8.

Chapter 2 1. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-e La̤tāfat, trans. into Urdu by Pandit Brijmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 75. Hereafter cited as D-eL. 2. D-eL, 64–65. 3. D-eL, 67. 4. Sayyid Muhammad Mubin Naqvi, Tarikh-i Rekhti: Ma‘ah Divan-i Jansahab (Allahabad: Matba‘-i Anvar-i Ahmadi, n.d.), 1–2. Hereafter cited as TRDJSb. 5. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin Dehlvi, Akhbar-i Rangin Ma‘ah Muqaddimah o Ta‘liqat, ed. S. Moinul Haq (Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1962), 16. 6. This couplet from TRDJSb, 2. 7. Sibt-i Muhammad Naqvi, ed., Intikhab-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1983), 8. 8. Ibid., 18. 9. Sabir Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu, 1956), 404. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 10. Insha Allah Khan, Lataif us-Sa‘adat, trans. Amina Khatoon (Bangalore: Kausar Press, 1955), 85–86. 11. D-eL, 121. 12. D-eL, 107. 268 l Notes

13. D-eL, 122. 14. D-eL, 136. 15. See Ruth Vanita, “Gandhi’s Tiger: Multilingual Elites, the Battle for Minds, and English Romantic Literature in Colonial India,” Postcolonial Studies 5, no.1 (2002): 95–112. 16. SYKR, 448. 17. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 115. Hereafter cited as R. 18. D-eL, 135. 19. SYKR, 443445 20. Sayy’id ‘Ali Haidar, ed., Majālis-i Rangīn (Patna: Idara Tahqiqat-e Arabi-o Farsi, 1990), 30, ā khạ̄sī. 21. D-eL, 110–11. 22. Nuskha Diwān-e Rangīn (National Archives of Pakistan, Islamabad). Hereafter cited as NDR. 23. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlvi s Rangin, Nazm-a Dawawin (Call No. 964, Serial No. 7, Folio 63, written in 1925, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 964. 24. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi, Rangin, Divan-i Rangin (Call No. 963, Folio 29, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 963. 25. D-e L, 213. 26. John T. Platts, A Dictionary of Classical Urdu, Hindi and English (Delhi: Munshi- ram Manoharlal, 1997), 1113. 27. SYKR, 98, ān na ho. 28. Nurul Hasan Hashmi, Dilli ka Dabistan-i Sha‘iri (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1992), 117. 29. “Transvestic Words? The Rekhti in Urdu,” Annual of Urdu Studies 16, no. 1 (2001): 3–25. 30. Platts, Dictionary of Classical Urdu, 105. 31. Platts, Dictionary of Classical Urdu, 84. 32. Inshaullah Khan Insha, Diwan-i Insha (Call No. 935, Serial No. 5, Folio 442, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 935. 33. Muzaffar Alam, “The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan,” in Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia, ed. Sheldon Pollock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 131–98. 34. Ibid., 144.

Chapter 3 1. Ayaz Ahmed and Maharaj Krishen Kaul, ed., Kulliyat-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Urdu and Teaching Research Center, 2010). Hereafter cited as KtR. 2. See KtR, 109: 25; 126: 57. 3. Mirza Ja‘far Husain, Qadim Lakhnau ki Akhiri Bahar (New Delhi: Qaumi Kunsil bara’e Farugh-i-Urdu Zaban, 1998), 449–62. 4. Ruth Vanita, Love’s Rite: Same-Sex Marriage in India and the West (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 198. 5. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangīn Dehlvi, Masnavi Dilpazir, ed. Sayyad Suleiman Husain (Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1992), 83. Notes l 269

6. John T. Platts, A Dictionary of Classical Urdu, Hindi and English (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997), 59. 7. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ Lat̤āfat, trans. into Urdu by Pandit Brijmo- han Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 142–43. Hereafter cited as D-eL. 8. Jaffur Shurreef, Qanoon-e Islam or the Customs of the Mussalmans of India, trans. G. A. Hercklots (Lahore: Al Irshad, 1973), lxxii. 9. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 117–18. Hereafter cited as R. 10. Ahmad Ali Nisbat, Manuscript. Hereafter cited as MS. 11. Muhammad Siddiq Qais, Qais ka Muntakhab Divan-i Rekhti, ed., ‘Abdulhafiz Qatil. (1961; Hyderabad: Anjuman-i Taraqqi-yi Ta‘lim, 1984), 24: 2. Hereafter cited as QMD. 12. Margaret R. Hunt, “The Sapphic Strain: English Lesbians in the Long Eighteenth Century” in Single Women in the European Past, 1250–1800, ed. Judith M. Bennett (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 270–96. 13. Faruq Argali, Rekhti, has “what will satisfy me?” 14. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi Rangin, Divan-i Rangin (Call No. 963, Folio 29, Rampur Raza Library), 1. Hereafter cited as MS 963. 15. D-eL, 143. 16. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlvi Rangin, Nazm-a Dawawin (Call No. 964, Serial No. 7, Folio 63, written in 1925, Rampur Raza Library), 47. Hereafter cited as MS 964. 17. R, 109, has tīr instead of tere, probably a misprint. 18. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 407: 389, second qit̤‘a; an māre. Hereafter cited as KtI. 19. W. Crooke, ed., Observations on the Mussulmauns of India by Mrs Meer Hassan Ali Descriptive of Their Manners, Customs, Habits and Religious Opinions Made During a Twelve Years’ Residence in Their Immediate Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), 250–51. 20. R, 55, has du-gāna instead of diwānā in the second couplet’s second line. 21. R, 112, has the couplets in a different order and some variants. 22. Sibt-i Muhammad Naqvi, ed., Intikhab-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1983), 87. 23. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), II, 262.

Chapter 4 1. Inshaullah Khan Insha, Diwan-i Insha (Call No. 935, Serial No. 5, Folio 442, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 935. Mirza Muhammad ‘Askari, ed., Kalam-i Insha (Allahabad: Hindustani Akadmi, 1952), 434: 81 also reads thus. Hereafter cited as KI. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 233, has un ke dost kā ̣dhab bhī. Hereafter cited as R. 2. Ayaz Ahmed and Maharaj Krishen Kaul, ed., Kulliyat-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Urdu and Teaching Research Center, 2010), 103: 13. Hereafter cited as KtR. 3. Ahmad Ali Nisbat, Manuscript. Hereafter cited as MS. 4. For women asking God’s and Ali’s blessing on same-sex romantic friendships in seventeenth-century Isfahan, see Kathryn Babayan, “The Aqaid Al-Nisa: A 270 l Notes

Glimpse at Safavid women in Local Isfahani Culture,” in Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage and Piety, ed. Gavin R. G. Hambly (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 349–81. 5. Ruth Vanita, Love’s Rite: Same-Sex Marriage in India and the West (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 32; 154–55. 6. Samar Habib, Arabo-Islamic Texts on Female Homosexuality 850–1780 (New York: Teneo Press, 2009), 97. 7. Vanita, Love’s Rite, 186–87. 8. Mahawarat Begumat, MS 225 Volume 1, 1874, Rampur Raza Library, 91. 9. Janet Afary, Sexual Politics in Modern Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 100–103. 10. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 435: 416, Hereafter cited as KtI. 11. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), 2:261. Hereafter cited as KtJ. Translation from Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York, Palgrave-Macmillan, 2000), 222. 12. Lionel Casson, ed. and trans., Selected Satires of Lucian (New York: Norton, 1962), 303–5; especially 304. 13. Veena Talwar Oldenburg, “Lifestyle as Resistance: The Case of the Courtesans of Lucknow,” in Lucknow: Memories of a City, ed. Violette Graff (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 136–54; especially 149. 14. Translation from Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 223, second line modified. 15. KtJ, II, 261. 16. See Kidwai, “Introduction to Medieval Materials in the Perso-Urdu Tradition,” in Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 107–25. 17. Sabir Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 412. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 18. Naqvi, Sayyid Muhammad Mubin, Tarikh-i rekhti: Ma‘ah Divan-i Jansahib (Alla- habad: Matba`-i Anvar-i Ahmadi, n.d.), 60. Hereafter cited as TRDJSb. 19. Personal communication. 20. Mirza Muhammad Askari, ed., Kalam-i Insha (Allahabad: Hindustani Akadmi, 1952), 181n2. Hereafter cited as KI. 21. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangīn Dehlvi, Masnavi Dilpazir, ed., Sayyad Suleiman Husain (Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1992), 147–48. 22. Literally, “life throbs in my liver.” 23. Vanita, Love’s Rite, 189. 24. Muhammad Siddiq Qais, Qais ka muntakhab Divan-i Rekhti, ed. ‘Abdulhafiz Qatil (Hyderabad: Anjuman-i Taraqqi-yi Ta‘lim, 1984), 24:3. Hereafter cited as QMD. 25. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi Rangin, Nazm-a Dawawin (Call No. 964, Serial No. 7, Folio 63, written in 1925, Rampur Raza Library), 4. Hereafter cited as MS 964, 26. Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 222–25, for Jur’at’s two chapṭīnāmas, and Vanita, Love’s Rite, 196–98, for Rangin’s. 27. This poem is not in R. 28. Habib, Arabo-Islamic Texts. 29. Vanita, Love’s Rite, 198. Notes l 271

30. R, 170, with minor variants. 31. R, with variants, 100. 32. Variant in R, 72: “refuses me even a pān.” 33. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi, Rangin, Divan-i Rangin (Call No. 963, Folio 29, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 963. 34. R has “dum” (“tail”), but the manuscript’s idiom “dam ruknā” works better. 35. First three couplets, translated by Saleem Kidwai (Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 227), last two couplets by me. 36. R has nirā (“complete”) instead of merā. 37. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ Lat̤āfat, translated into Urdu by Pandit Brijmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 139. Here- after cited as D-eL. 38. Mirza Asadullah Khan “Ghalib,” letter to Mirza Hatim Ali “Mihr,” quoted in Muhammad Husain Azad, Ab-e Hayat: Shaping the Canon of Urdu Poetry, trans. Frances W. Pritchett (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 396. 39. Personal communication from Scott Kugle. See his essay “Courting Ali: Urdu Poetry, Shi’i Piety and Courtesan Power in Hyderabad,” Muslim Cultures in the Indo- Iranian World during the Early-Modern and Modern Periods, ed. Denis Hermann and Fabrizio Speziale (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz, 2010), 125–66. 40. Siraj al-Din Aurangabadi, Kulliyat-i Siraj, ed. Abdulqadir Sarvari (Delhi: Qaumi Kaunsil bara’e Furogh-i Urdu Zaban, 1998), 151–53. 41. Rangīn, Masnavi Dilpazir, 89.

Chapter 5 1. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 203: 198. Hereafter cited as KtI. 2. Mir Hasan, Tazkirah-yi Shu ‘arae Urdu (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadimi, 1985), 27. 3. See Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, “Conventions of Love, Love of Conventions: Urdu Love Poetry in the Eighteenth Century,” Annual of Urdu Studies 14 (1999): 3–32, and Frances W. Pritchett, Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and its Critics (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1995). 4. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ Lat̤āfat, translated into Urdu by Pandit Brijmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 290–91. Hereafter cited as D-eL. 5. Kaifi, the twentieth-century translator of the text into Urdu, remarks that the ghazal has returned to its conventions, and if it had not done so, it would have died. He also (somewhat contradictorily) remarks that Persian ghazals have ceased to be about boys. 6. Sabir Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 95. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 7. Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 29–30. 8. Mohammad Husain Āzād, Ab-i Hayat (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1998), 299. 9. In the mid-1990s, Pritchett and Hanaway challenged Russell’s assertion that the Urdu ghazal mirrors social conditions and real-life relationships; they asserted that 272 l Notes

the ghazal is a game based on rules that remain largely unchanged. See Pritchett, Nets of Awareness; Ralph Russell, “The Urdu Ghazal: A Rejoinder to Frances W. Pritchett and William L. Hanaway,” Annual of Urdu Studies 10 (1995): 96–112; and Pritchett, “On Ralph Russell’s Reading of the Classical Ghazal,” Annual of Urdu Studies 11 (1996), http://www.urdustudies.com/Issue11/index.html. 10. S. R. Faruqi, “Conventions of Love,” 12. 11. On the ghazal’s conventions, see Pritchett, Nets of Awareness, 77–122. 12. Schimmel, As Through a Veil, 41. 13. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), I, 69: 119. 14. SYKR, 90. 15. SYKR, 96. 16. Mirza Muhammad ‘Askari, ed., Kalam-i Insha (Allahabad: Hindustani Akadmi, 1952), has dokhā and explains it as rebuking (hereafter cited as KI); KtI has do kahā, which means to call someone worthless. KtI has woh bolī; KI has bole. 17. SYKR, 269, an kā rūp. 18. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 201. Hereafter cited as R. 19. Nurul Hasan Hashimi, Dilli ka Dabistan-i Sha`iri (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1992), 299. 20. Nuskha Diwān-e Rangīn (National Archives of Pakistan, Islamabad). Hereafter cited as NDR. 21. SYKR, 86. 22. Ahmad Ali Nisbat, Manuscript. Hereafter cited as MS. 23. Inshaullah Khan Insha, Diwan-i Insha (Call No. 935, Serial No. 5, Folio 442, Rampur Raza Library). R, 200, has chūs instead of sūṅgh in the first line. 24. SYKR, 91, ān thā. 25. While in some Ṣ ūfī traditions, passing saliva from mouth to mouth through a kiss or drink is a rite of initiation, the language and presentation in these verses precludes a spiritual dimension, except by way of contrast. 26. My reading of these two verses is confirmed by Mirza Muhammad ‘Askari (in KI), who cites them, among others, as examples of his estimate that about half of Inshā’s verses have a sexual double meaning, so cleverly hidden that he cannot be accused of indecency (Introduction to KI, p. he lām). 27. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi Rangin, Divan-i Rangin (Call No. 963, Folio 29, Rampur Raza Library). 28. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin, Majalis-i Rangin, ed. Sayyid ‘Ali Haidar (Patna: Idara Tahqiqat-e Arabi-o Farsi, 1990), 14–15. 29. SYKR, 269, an kā rūp. Badan generally means “body” but can also mean “face.” 30. SYKR, 98. 31. SYKR, 86.

Chapter 6 1. “Meaning the Words: The Genuine as a Value in the Tradition of the Song Lyric,” in Voices of the Song Lyric in China, ed. Pauline Yu (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 30–69; 38. Notes l 273

2. A Journey through the Kingdom of Oude in 1849–1850, with private correspondence relative to the annexation of Oude to British India (London: R. Bentley, 1858), 1:lxxiii. 3. Abdul Halim Sharar, Lucknow: The Last Phase of an Oriental Culture, in The Lucknow Omnibus (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 62. 4. After this book went to press, I read C. M. Naim’s wonderful article, “Individu- alism within Conformity: A Brief History of Waz’dārī in Delhi and Lucknow,” Indian Economic and Social History Review 48:1 (2011), 35–53, which contains a discussion of some aspects of bānkās. 5. Sharar, Lucknow, 111. 6. Ibid., 62. 7. Ibid., 177. 8. Sabir Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 90. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 9. Intizar Husain, Dilli Tha Jis Ka Nam (Lahore: Sang-e Mil Publications, 2007), 111. 10. Ibid., 112 11. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin Dehlvi, Akhbar-i Rangin Ma‘ah Muqaddimah o Ta‘liqat, ed. S. Moinul Haq (Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1962), 44. 12. Husain, Dilli Tha, 112. 13. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ Lat̤āfat, translated into Urdu by Pandit Brijmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 103. Here- after cited as D-eL. 14. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), I, 374: 681. Hereafter cited as KtJ. 15. C. M. Naim, “Transvestic Words? The Rekhti in Urdu,” Annual of Urdu Studies 16, no. 1 (2001): 3–25; especially 22–23. 16. C. M. Naim, “The Theme of Homosexual (Pederastic) Love in Pre-Modern Urdu Poetry,” in Studies in the Urdu Ghazal and Prose Fiction, ed. Muhammad Umar Memon (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1979), 120–42; Tariq Rahman, “Boy-Love in the Urdu Ghazal,” Annual of Urdu Studies,” 7 (1990): 1–20; Saleem Kidwai, “Introduction: Medieval Materials in the Perso-Urdu Tradition,” in Same- Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History, ed. Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 107–25; Andalib Shadani, “Farsi Ghazal aur Jafa-i Mehboob,” Tehqiqat (Bareilly: Jaleel Academy, no date), 223–65. 17. “Expression of the Indo-Muslim Mind in Urdu Ghazal,” in The Secret Mirror: Essays on Urdu Poetry, ed. S. R. Faruqi (Delhi: Academic Literature, 1981), 11–33. 18. See, for example, Frances Pritchett’s characterization of the beloved as “a beautiful boy just about to reach puberty” in “‘The Straw that I Took in My Teeth’: Of Lovers, Beloveds, and Charges of Sexism in the Urdu Ghazal,” Manushi 136 (May–June 2003), http://www.manushi-india.org/issues/issue_cover136.htm. 19. For nationalist obsession with pederasty and conflation of it with male-male desire, see Ruth Vanita’s introduction to Pandey Bechan Sharma Ugra, Chocolate and Other Writings on Male Homoeroticism, trans. Ruth Vanita (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009), xv–lxviii, especially xl to lxvii; for recent commentators’ view of homosexuality in Islamic societies as age and status stratified, see Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, eds., Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History and Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1997). 20. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, Introduction to Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 44–45. 274 l Notes

21. Ibid., 44. 22. Ibid., 45. 23. Ibid., 45–46. 24. For a discussion of these issues, see John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 28–30. 25. John T. Platts, A Dictionary of Classical Urdu, Hindi and English (Delhi: Munshi- ram Manoharlal, 1997), 490–91. 26. Muhammad Siddiq Qais, Qais ka muntakhab Divan-i Rekhti, ed. Abdulhafiz Qatil (Hyderabad: Anjuman-i Taraqqi-yi Ta‘lim, 1984), 49: 38; Maharaj Krishen Kaul and Ayaz Ahmed, eds., Kulliyat-e Rekhti (Lucknow: Urdu and Teaching Research Center, 2010), oddly repeats this ghazal twice: see 132: 68; 134: 72. In both, the first line reads differently from Qatil’s edition, but in one, the second line reads the same. 27. Dahān is the mouth or any other orifice. 28. Najmuddin Shah Mubarak Abru, Divan-i Abru, ed. Muhammad Hasan (New Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu Bureau, 2000), 244: 32. 29. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 123: 119. Hereafter cited as KtI. 30. Platts, Dictionary of Classical Urdu, 1103. 31. Abru, Divan-i Abru, 266: 76. 32. SYKR, 89. 33. SYKR, 91. 34. Nawab Mustafa Khan Shaiftah, Gulshan-i Bekhar, Urdu translation Muhammad Ahsan-ul-haq Faruqi (Karachi: Academy of Educational Research, 1962), 217. 35. D-eL, 87. 36. Muhammad Husain Āzād, Ab-i Hayat (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1998), 163. 37. Introduction to KtI, 49. 38. M. Habib Khan, Inshaullah Khan “Insha” (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1996), 89. 39. Mir Hasan, Tazkirah-yi shu ‘arae Urdu (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadimi, 1985), 27. 40. Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 119. 41. Azad, Ab-i Hayat, 91–92, 132–33. 42. Ibid., 8–9. 43. Ibid., 134–35. 44. Ibid., 135 footnote. 45. D-eL, 42. 46. KtI, Introduction, 50 47. Insha Allah Khan, Lataif us-Sa‘adat, trans. Amina Khatoon (Bangalore: Kausar Press, 1955), 43. 48. Quoted in KtI, 51. 49. Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture (Boston: Beacon, 1955), 193. 50. Shaiftah, Gulshan-i bekhar, 47. 51. Huizinga, Homo Ludens, 43. 52. Abru, Divan-i Abru, 259: 62. 53. Ibid., 262: 67. 54. Rangin, Akhbar-i Rangin, 2–3. 55. Ibid., 9. Notes l 275

56. Ibid., 56. 57. Ibid., 65.

Chapter 7 1. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 55: 81. Hereafter cited as KtI. 2. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 174. 3. Quoted in Amritlal Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan (Allahabad: Lokabharati Prakashan, 2008), 163–64. 4. Najmuddin Shah Mubarak Abru, Divan-i Abru, ed. Muhammad Hasan (New Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu Bureau, 2000), 298–308. For English translation of excerpts, see Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 162–68. 5. Mirza Ja‘far Husain, Qadim Lakhnau ki Akhiri Bahar (New Delhi: Qaumi Kunsil bara’e Farugh-i-Urdu Zaban, 1998), 183–91. 6. Kang-i Sun Chang, “Liu Shih and Hsu Ts’an: Feminine or Feminist?” in Voices of the Song Lyric in China, ed. Pauline Yu (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 169–87; 172–73. 7. Sahar Amer, Crossing Borders, Love between Women in Medieval French and Arabic Literatures (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 128–49. 8. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin, Majalis-i Rangin, ed. Sayyid ‘Ali Haidar (Patna: Idara Tahqiqat-e Arabi-o Farsi, 1990), 59. 9. Nuskha Diwān-e Rangīn (National Archives of Pakistan, Islamabad). Hereafter cited as NDR. 10. Sabir ‘Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 447. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 11. Kalam-i Insha, ed. Mirza Muhammad ‘Askari (Allahabad: Hindustani Akadmi, 1952), 324. Hereafter cited as KI. 12. KI, 290. 13. KI, 320. 14. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), II, 225: 36. Hereafter cited as KtJ. 15. The phrase is Ganga-Jamuni: “of two colors or two metals.” 16. These flirtatious exclamations, Cha khush and Achhā, are similar to those of the rekhtī speaker. 17. Nazir Akbarabadi, Kulliyat-i Nazir (Delhi: Kitabi Duniya, 2003), 296–99. 18. Ibid., 297. 19. The manuscript has takhtī; Faruq Argali, Rekhti: Urdu ke Namvar Rekhti Go Sha‘iraun ke Kalam ka Mukammal Majmu‘ah (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), has sakhtī. Hereafter cited as R. 20. The MS has karishma; R, 97, has kashma. 21. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Dehlwi Rangin, Divan-i Rangin (Call No. 963, Folio 29, Rampur Raza Library). Hereafter cited as MS 963. 22. F. Steingass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary (New Delhi: Asian Educa- tional Services, 1992), 769. 23. In R, 102–3, the first two couplets (which have a slightly different radīf from the rest in the manuscript) and the fourth are missing. The third couplet here is placed fourth in R. 276 l Notes

24. Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan, 142–43. 25. This verse is from Inshaullah Khan Insha, Diwan-i Insha (Call No. 935, Serial No. 5, Folio 442). Hereafter cited as MS 935. 26. Nagar, Ye Kothevaliyan, 86–92. 27. For ̣sūfī narratives of male-male love, see Vanita and Kidwai, Same-Sex Love in India, 136–39; 145–60; 184–88. 28. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), III, 324n1. Hereafter cited as KtJ. 29. The following discussion refers to lines from KtJ, II. 30. “The Late Ming Courtesan” in Ellen Widmer and Kang-i Sun Chang, ed., Writing Women in Late Imperial China (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), 46–73. 31. KtJ, III, 329–30. 32. This word can refer to a flower garden or a flourishing city; since another word for “a garden” appears in the next couplet I translate as “city.”

Chapter 8 1. C. M. Naim and Carla Petievich, “Urdu in Lucknow/Lucknow in Urdu,” Lucknow: Memories of a City, ed. Violette Graff (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997), 171. 2. Faruq Argali, Rekhti (New Delhi: Farid Book Depot, 2006), 497. Hereafter cited as R. 3. Sayyid Muhammad Mubin Naqvi, Tarikh-i Rekhti: Ma‘ah Divan-i Jansahib (Allahabad: Matba‘-i Anvar-i Ahmadi, n.d.), 307. Hereafter cited as TRDJSb. 4. See “Kap̣roṅ ke nām,” in Intikhab-i Rekhti, ed. Sibt-i Muhammad Naqvi (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1983), 62. 5. C. M. Naim, “Transvestic Words? The Rekhti in Urdu,” Annual of Urdu Studies 16, no. 1 (2001): 3–25. 6. R, 399, omits the first and third couplets. 7. R, 503, has rekhtī hī pạrhnā. 8. Chakhe in women’s speech is an expression of disgust. 9. “Haqiqat al Fuqara: Poetic Biography of Madho Lal Hussayn,” in Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai, eds., Same-Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 145–56. 10. R, 511, has the politer kūlhe (“hips”) instead of chūtạr (“buttocks”). 11. TRDJSb notes that kamāj bread is plump at some places and thin at others, which suggests the undulating shape of the pelvis. R has kamān (“bow”), which occurs two verses later as a metaphor for the eyebrows but is less appropriate for the pubis. 12. Of the 28 verses in this poem, R reproduces only the first ten.

Chapter 9 1. All page numbers refer to Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture (Boston: Beacon, 1955). 2. Shamsur Rahman Faruqi, “Conventions of Love, Love of Conventions: Urdu Love Poetry in the Eighteenth Century,” Annual of Urdu Studies 14 (1999): 3–32; Frances W. Pritchett, “On Ralph Russell’s Reading of the Classical Ghazal,” Annual of Urdu Studies 11 (1996), 197–201. Notes l 277

3. Malik Mohamed, The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India (Delhi: Aakaar, 2007), 101. 4. Sabir Ali Khan, Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin (Karachi: Anjuman Taraqqi-yi Urdu, 1956), 105. Hereafter cited as SYKR. 5. Mir Qutbuddin Batin, Gulistan-i Bekhizan (Lucknow: UP Urdu Akadmi, 1982), 100. 6. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 110. Hereafter cited as KtI. 7. Ḥ asan and H̩usain, literally beautiful and good, are the names of Ali’s two sons, especially venerated by shī‘ās. The poet plays on these meanings. 8. Rosie Llewellyn-Jones, A Fatal Friendship: The Nawabs, the British and the City of Lucknow, in The Lucknow Omnibus (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 210. 9. Michael Herbert Fisher, A Clash of Cultures: Awadh, the British, and the Mughals (Riverdale, MD: Riverdale Company, 1987), 26, 65–71. 10. C. A. Bayly, Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 357; 335–38. 11. Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 41. 12. M. Habib Khan, Inshaullah Khan “Insha” (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1996), 91–94. 13. Veena Talwar Oldenburg, The Making of Colonial Lucknow 1856–1877, in The Lucknow Omnibus (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 80–81. 14. Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 210. 15. Fisher, Clash of Cultures, 227–34. 16. SYKR, 106. 17. Nuskha Diwān-e Rangīn (National Archives of Pakistan, Islamabad). Hereafter cited as NDR. 18. Iqtida Hasan, ed., Kulliyat-i Jur’at (Napoli, Italy: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1970), i, 405, 736. Hereafter cited as KtJ. 19. S. R. Faruqi points out that speculation on life after death, including the possibility of rebirth, occurs in the ghazal. See “Expression of the Indo-Muslim Mind in Urdu Ghazal,” in The Secret Mirror: Essays on Urdu Poetry (Delhi: Academic Literature, 1981), 11–33. However, here the motif appears exactly as in Sanskrit narratives—as recollection, not speculation. 20. Anna A. Suvorova, Masnavi: A Study of Urdu Romance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 35–37. 21. Amina Khatoon, translator of the book from Persian to Urdu, demolishes Āzād’s claim that Sa‘adat Ali was grave and sober, different from the fun-loving Inshā. Insha Allah Khan, Lataif us-Sa‘ādat, trans. Amina Khatoon (Bangalore: Kausar Press, 1955), chhoṭī he. 22. Lataif us-Sa‘ādat, 16–17. 23. Lataif us-Sa‘ādat, 19. 24. Lataif us-Sa‘ādat, 61–63. 25. Lataif us-Sa‘ādat, 45. 26. Mohammad Husain Āzād, Ab-i Hayat (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1998), 270. 27. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin Dehlvi, Akhbar-i Rangin Ma‘ah Muqaddimah o Ta‘liqat, ed. S. Moinul Haq (Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society, 1962), 40–41. 28. Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 58–61. 278 l Notes

29. Sibt-i Muhammad Naqvi, ed., Intikhab-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1983), 87. 30. Kalam-i Insha, ed. Mirza Muhammad Askari (Allahabad: Hindustani Akadmi, 1952), 323. Hereafter cited at KI. 31. Sayyid Sulaiman Husain, ed., Masnavi Dilpazir (Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1992), 112. 32. SYKR, 153. 33. Āzād, Ab-i Hayat, 273. 34. Āzād, Ab-i Hayat, 249. 35. Brij Kishan Kaul “Bekhabar,” 1931, quoted in M. Habib Khan, Inshaullah Khan “Insha,” 92. 36. Sa‘adat Yar Khan Rangin, Majalis-i Rangin, ed. Sayyid ‘Ali Haidar (Patna: Idara Tahqiqat-e Arabi-o Farsi, 1990), 71. 37. Khan, Inshaullah Khan “Insha,” writes, “Āzādī un kī ghuṭṭī meṅ pạrī hu’ī thī,” 53; see also 63. 38. Mir Insha Allah Khan Insha, Daryā-ĕ Lat̤āfat, translated into Urdu by Pandit Bri- jmohan Dattatreya “Kaifi” (Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu, 1988), 66. Hereafter cited as D-eL. 39. Cited in Introduction to Kulliyat-i Insha ed., Khalil-ur Rahman Da’udi (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab,1969), 49. Hereafter cited as KI. 40. C. H. A. Bjerregaard, “Ṣūfīsm” VI, in The Path, No.7, October 1886, 199–207. 41. Āzād, Ab-i Hayat, 270. 42. KI, 1952, 95–97: 98; see also 59, footnote 2. 43. D-eL, 134. 44. Nurulhasan Hashimi, Dilli ka Dabistan-i Sha’iri (Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Urdu Akadmi, 1992), 403. 45. SYKR, 450. 46. Mustafa Khan Shaiftah, Tazkirah-yi Gulshan-i Bekhar (Lahore: Majlis Taraqqi Adab, 1973), 231. 47. Risala-e Tasnif Nadirah-e Rangin (Fatehgarh: Matba‘-i Hasani, 1876), 5. 48. Rangin, Akhbar-i Rangin, 34–35.

Conclusion 1. Ayaz Ahmed and Maharaj Krishen Kaul, ed., Kulliyat-i Rekhti (Lucknow: Urdu and Teaching Research Center, 2010), 118: 43. 2. Frances Pritchett, trans., Ab-e Hayat (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 208. 3. Lalita du Perron, Hindi Poetry in a Musical Genre: Thumri Lyrics (Oxford: Rout- ledge, 2007). The author discusses ṭhumri’s relationship with the ghazal, wrongly assuming that the ghazal is always in the male voice (10). 4. For everyday life, including clothing and the rooftop, in Punjabi tappaṣ sung at weddings, see Manjul Bajaj, “Come to the Rooftop, My Darling: A Journey into the Traditional Tappa Poetry of Punjab,” Manushi, http://www.manushi.in/articles .php?articleId=1510&pgno=1 5. Khalil-ur Rahman Da‘udi, ed., Kulliyat-i Insha (Lahore: Lahore Majlis-i Taraqqi-yi Adab, 1969), 59: 60. Hereafter cited as KtI. 6. See Annemarie Schimmel, As Through a Veil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 11, 159. Glossary annā older nursemaid āchā older nursemaid aṣīl maidservant ātūṅ governess ‘aurat woman bādal/bādla brocade; cloud bāgẖ orchard bahār spring; rainy season bājī older sister; girls also address their mother this way, if the age difference between mother and daughter is not great bāndī female slave begam lady begamā young lady bhaktī Hindu devotion bhānḍ jester; minstrel bī way of addressing a lady bū’ā literally, paternal aunt; used to address older servant bū-bū older nursemaid Brajbhasha major literary language of North India, prior to the development of modern Hindi chapṭ ī sex between women chapṭ īnāma poem about sex between women daddā older nursemaid dāī older nursemaid darbān guard at the door dargāh Ṣūfī shrine/tomb dohā self-contained rhyming couplet, used in Brajbhasha verse 280 l Glossary domnī “low” caste women singers du-gāna woman’s intimate female companion, often but not always a lover du-paṭṭā long scarf, worn over breasts and sometimes head Ganga-Jamuni mixed; hybrid ghazal love poem with a fixed metrical and rhyme scheme ghirāra heavy, pleated women’s skirt ghūṅghaṭ end of sari pulled down to cover the face gu’iyāṅ same as du-gāna hijv verse satire Hir and Ranjha legendary lovers from Punjab, who died for love. Subjects of a major medieval Punjabi poem. izārband trouser drawstring jī respectful suffix, attached to proper names or kin-names; respectful “yes” jogī Hindu male ascetic jogīn Hindu female ascetic kahār/ kahāro laborer, especially palanquin-bearer Kāmasūtra fourth-century AD Sanskrit erotic treatise khaṅgī married woman who clandestinely undertakes sex work kokā child of one’s nursemaid, raised along with one Laila see Majnun launḍī slave-girl lehṅgā women’s long skirt Majnun Legendary Persian lover, who went mad when separated from his beloved, Laila, and died a martyr for love māmā older maid; maternal uncle mas̤nawī narrative romance in rhyming couplets Melā fair meṅhdī henna mirāsan “low” caste singing women missī antimony used to decorate teeth miyāṅ mister mujra dance performance by a courtesan mukhammas a type of cinquain musalsal a kind of fine, embroidered silk; a ghazal in which the verses read continuously, as a narrative Glossary l 281

mushaira poets’ gathering, where they recite their poetry aloud oṛhnī Same as du-paṭṭā pān Betel leaf with spices, eaten as mouth-freshener; erotic symbol pandit scholar, generally and generically, a Brahmin parda literally, veil; seclusion parī Literally, fairy; a beautiful person; courtesan pesh-wāz women’s garment with tight bodice and flared skirt pīr literally old; often refers to a Ṣūfī master pūjā Hindu worship ceremony qawwāl singer of qawwālī, a type of song developed at Ṣūfī shrines radīf words that appear at the end of the first two lines and in the second line of every subsequent couplet in a ghazal raṇ ḍī unmarried woman; prostitute. In twentieth century, comes to mean only the latter. rang color. Also has mystical meaning. rekhta Urdu poetry with a male speaker rekhtī Urdu poetry with a female speaker; for full definition, see Chapter 1 rītī type of Hindu devotional poetry with considerable erotic content, written in Brajbhasha from the seventeenth century onward sakhī woman’s female friend, in Sanskrit and Sanskritic-language poetry sarāpā blazon; head-to-foot praise of a beloved shalwār loose trousers with drawstring, worn by men and women sharīf respectable sheikh religious authority, often used as honorific for a ̣sūfī master ̣sūfī Muslim mystic ̤tawā’if courtesan ‘urs death anniversary of a Ṣūfī, celebrated as anniversary of his wedding to God yogī see jogī zāhid pious Muslim man zanākhī same as du-gāna zubān tongue/language Bibliography

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Poets are listed by their pen names. There are no index entries for Insha, Rangīn, Jan Sahib, Qais, and Nisbat, as discussion of these poets is ubiquitous. Inshā’s and Rangīn’s longer works are listed under their names, but no other references to the poets are listed. Bold type indicates extended discussion.

Ābrū, Najmuddin Shah Mubarak, 4, 9, bāṅkās, 18, 60, 175–77, 178, 183, 190– 22, 38, 89, 146, 172, 179, 181, 184, 91, 273 187, 191, 192, 274, 275, 286 Basant, 16, 55, 256 Africa, 19, 24, 69, 107, 262, 288 Begam (poet and wife of Wajid Ali Shah), Agra (Akbarabadi), 32, 41. See also 6–7 Akbarabadi, Nazir Begam Lakhnavi, Abid Mirza, 27, 73, Akbarabadi, Nazir, 3, 14, 22, 30, 45, 75–76, 225 195–97, 260, 262, 265, 275, 286 Begham (poet), 248–49 Amer, Sahar, 191, 275, 286 Behl, Aditya, 21, 261, 286 Argali, Faruq, xv, 22, 36, 37, 49, 63, 260– Bengal, 55, 177, 192 76 passim Calcutta, 6, 64, 105, 113 bhaktī, 10, 29, 30, 32, 279. See also Ārzū Lakhnavi, Saiyid Anwar Husain, 35 Mirabai; Tulsidas Asaf-ud-Daula, Nawab, 14, 16, 17, 55 Bible, 171 Awadh, 14–20, 56, 73, 79, 107, 175, Biharilal, 10, 32–33, 44, 90. See also Rītī 176, 194, 236, 238, 256, 261. See poetry also Faizabad; Lucknow Brajbhasha, 31, 32, 44, 55, 79, 90, 91, Awadhi, 56, 79, 194 102, 194, 198, 256, 264, 279, 281 Ayodhya, 236 British, 14, 16, 18, 21, 25, 26, 33, 167, Āzād, Mohammad Husain (Ab-e Hayat), 171, 175, 184, 193, 234, 241–42, 21, 23, 32, 75, 90, 147, 183, 184, 250, 256. See also Europe 237, 239, 246, 250–55, 263, 271, 274, 277, 278, 285 Chapṭ īnāma,11, 28, 31, 35–36, 98, 114, 119–20, 127, 195, 246 Badshah Begam, 16, 17, 70, 261, 267, Christians/Christianity, 25, 95, 274, 286 285 cinema, 9, 44, 50, 58, 61, 134, 195, 206, Banaras, 5, 18, 94, 189–90 210, 256–57 Banarasi (language), 79 cities. See individual names 294 l Index colonialism. See British male-female, 72, 139–42 courtesans, xiv, 1–33 passim, 38, 42, 45, male-male, 3, 57, 73, 77, 79, 83, 150, 55, 56, 60, 63, 77–80, 82, 97, 109, 176, 185, 195–96, 203, 207–10, 118–19, 134–36, 139–40, 167–78 213, 235 passim, 182, 189–210, 217, 234, between poets, 3, 22, 28–29, 34, 76, 255, 257, 259, 270, 271, 280, 281, 146, 184, 225, 245–53 288 Bakhshi, 2, 55, 172, 190, 207–10 Ghalib, 20, 22, 38, 140, 262, 263, 271 Baṛ ī Malkā Jān, 6 ghazal Chaplā Bā’ī, 193–94, 241 conventions of, 4, 10, 13, 92, 95, 120, Dulhan Jan, 194 126, 145–73, 177–82, 185, 187, Faizan and Nuran, 194 192, 198, 234, 238, 256, 257 Gauhar Jan, 6, 259, 289 Ghazi-ud-Din Haidar, Nawab, 3, 16, 17, Haidar Jan, 140 70 Māh Liqā Bā’ī, 6, 140 Ghosh, Shohini, 58, 266, 287 Mughal Jan, 140 Murad Bakhsh, 192 Habib, Samar, 128, 270, 287 Saraswati, 189 Hali, Altaf Husain, 22, 72, 257 Taukhī Bā’ī, 190 Hasan, Mir, 7, 56, 183–84, 259, 271, 289 Hāshmī, Ahmad Ali Adil Shah, 30, 139, Dashehra, 237 285 Daudi, Khalil-ur Rahman, 178, 184 Hashmi, Nurul Hasan, 90, 251, 264, 268 Delhi (Shahjahanabad), 7, 14–26 passim, Hazrat Mahal, Begam, 16 29, 34, 41, 46–47, 55–56, 59, 72, hijṛās, 188, 225, 248–49. See also eunuchs 73–79 passim, 85, 88–89, 145, 176– Hindus/Hinduism, 3, 5, 16, 18, 25, 26, 78, 183–84, 188–91, 201, 207, 221, 29, 42, 49, 79, 94, 97, 134, 140–41, 224, 236, 246, 250–51, 255–56 185, 194, 204, 219, 221, 229, 252 erotic writings, 31–33 1857 revolt/mutiny, 16, 20–22, 26, 37, practices, 17, 55–56, 72, 110, 130, 220 138, 218, 222, 242–43, 258 thought, 234, 236–38 Ellis, Havelock, 28, 117, 264, 287 tropes, 11, 12, 193, 205, 255 England. See British See also bhaktī; Dashehra; Holi; eunuchs, 18, 79, 175, 181 Krishna; Mahabharata Afrin Ali Khan, 239 Hir-Ranjha, 12, 33, 151, 208, 264, 280, Almas Ali Khan, 79 290 See also hijṛās Holi, 6, 16, 18, 26, 49, 55, 56, 83, 110, Europe, 23, 24, 59, 67, 98, 100, 233, 179, 184, 237, 242, 256 240–42. See also British Huizinga, Johan, 26, 184, 233, 239, 253, 274, 276, 288 Faiz, Ahmed Faiz, 153 Husain, Mirza Jafar, 24, 140, 191 Faizabad, 72, 73, 207–8, 221. See also Hussaini, Badi, 30, 34, 263, 264, 285 Awadh; Lucknow Farsi. See Persian Indar Sabha, 205, 255 Faruqi, S. R., 38, 147, 177, 259, 263, Indra, 32, 189, 205, 209, 255 264, 271–77, 285, 287 Inshā (Insha Allah Khan), major works films. See cinema Daryā-e Lat̤ āfat, 7, 19, 28–29, 35, 56, friendship, 91, 115–42, 167, 191, 192, 58, 60, 75, 78, 79, 88, 118, 146, 236, 236, 237, 241, 243, 255, 257 177, 183, 213, 246 female-female, 6, 15, 19, 31, 51, 52, Latā’if-us Sa‘ādat, 239 54, 56–59, 63–65, 70, 99–109, Rani Ketaki ki Kahānī, 13, 19, 56 119–39, 204, 165, 214, 216 Silk-e Gauhar, 13, 56 Index l 295

Jahandar Shah, Emperor, 15 Mīr Taqī Mir, 4, 38, 73, 76, 162, 167, Jur’at, Shaikh Qalandar Bakhsh, 2–4, 7, 179, 237, 240, 259, 262, 264, 289 11, 14–16, 21, 22, 29–31, 35, 37, Mirabai, 11–12. See also bhaktī 78, 114, 119–20, 127, 146, 148, Mohammad Shah Rangila, Emperor, 15 150, 157–59, 160, 163–68 passim, Momīn, Khan Momin, 157, 239 172, 177, 182–83, 185–87, 189–90, movies. See cinema 192–95, 211, 237–38, 240, 246, Mughal Emperors. See individual names 247, 255 Mukhammas, 2, 216, 243, 280 Khẉ āja Ḥ asan-o Bakhshī T̤ awā’if, 2, 55, Musaddas, 36, 185, 263, 290 207–10 Muṣḥafī, Ghulam Hamdani, 7, 239, 240, 246, 247 Kāmasūtra, 1, 5, 32, 117, 119, 127, 280 mut‘a marriage, 16, 125, 220 Kashi. See Banaras Khẉ āja Ḥ asan-ŏ Bakhshī T̤ awā’if. See Kashmir, 16, 113, 184, 238, 247, 264 Jur’at Keats, John, 245 Mas̤nawī Dilpazīr, 2, 6, 7, 19, 56, 67, Kidwai, Saleem, 9, 14, 20, 120, 122, 140, 97–99, 123, 140–41, 238, 242, 184, 208, 259–60, 261–62, 264–65, 247, 252 270–71, 273–76, 288, 290 Mas̤nawī (Masnavi), 4, 167, 238, 246, Kipling, Rudyard, 24 255, 280 Khatoon, Amina, 35, 78, 263, 265, 267, Siḥ r ul-Bayān, 7, 56, 247 274, 277, 284 mutiny. See 1857 revolt/mutiny Krishna, 11, 26, 33, 175, 198, 234, 235, 256 Nagar, Amritlal, 19, 204, 259, 275, 285 Naim, C. M., 23, 26, 27, 30, 35, 90, 218, Radha-Krishna, 10, 45, 46, 55, 99, 260, 262–64, 273, 276, 289 147, 237–38 Nal and Damayanti, 151–52 Nasir-ud-Din Haidar, Nawab, 16, 17, 19, Laila and Majnun, 3, 12, 147, 152, 280 59, 283, 285 Lucknow, 1, 5–7, 13–22, 23, 24, 26, Nawabs of Awadh. See individual names 28, 34, 42, 47, 55, 56, 59, 60, 69, Nāznīn, Mirza Ali Beg, 137, 227 79, 97, 167, 218, 221, 222, 225, 228, 236, 240, 242, 243, 246, 252, Persian/Persia, 1–5, 10, 13, 20–24, 26, 255–56 29, 32, 35, 38, 45–46, 49, 66, 69, and courtesans, 119, 140, 189–91, 207 73–82, 89–90, 94–95, 145–46, 149, dress, 59–60, 176 164, 171, 177–79, 185, 192, 198, and language, 75–77 200–201, 207–8, 221–56 passim, and other cities, 72–73 264, 271, 285–86 See also Awadh; Faizabad Petievich, Carla, 12, 23, 26, 259, 260, 262, 263, 276, 291 Mahabharata, 25, 114, 204, 242 Pritchett, Frances, 26, 38, 262, 271–73, Majnun. See Laila 276, 278, 286, 289 marriage, 4, 12, 13, 17, 24, 117, 122, prostitutes, 7, 15, 30, 79, 109, 119, 142, 124, 139, 191,194, 207, 214, 217, 198, 203, 204–6, 217, 249, 262, 283 219, 229, 234 kasbī/kasbin, 24, 80, 209 Mathura, 32, 185, 237, 243 khangī, 19, 24, 142, 281 Maz̤har Jān-ӗ Janān, Mirza, 60, 89, 184, randi, 19–20 235 Punjab/Punjabi, 33, 45, 67, 78, 79, 208, Meer Hassan Ali, Mrs., 97, 101, 107 278, 280, 286 Meerut, 54 Minault, Gail, 9, 25, 260, 263, 265, 267, Qatīl, Mirza, 79, 146, 184, 240, 247 287, 288 Qur’ān, 17, 25, 69, 134, 171, 216, 218 296 l Index

Radha. See Krishna Sharār, Abdul Halim, 59, 176, 266, 273, Rahman, Tariq, 184, 273, 289 290 Rangīn, Sa‘adat Yar Khan, major works Shefta, Mustafa Khan, 5, 22–23, 185, Akhbār-ӗ Rangīn, 76, 187, 252, 262, 274, 278, 285 265, 267, 273, 274, 278, 283 Shelley, Percy, 250 Ījād-ӗ Rangīn, 252, 284 Shī‘ā, 16–17, 125, 220, 251 Majalis-ӗ Rangīn, 93, 238, 240, 248, Shuja-ud-Daula, Nawab, 15–16, 19 261, 265, 268, 272, 275, 278, 283 Sirāj Aurangabadi, 140, 271, 284 Rītī poetry, 10, 30, 32–33, 44, 90, 189, Siddiqi, Khalil Ahmed, 14, 15, 16, 18, 238 28, 30, 33–34, 259–56, 286 Russell, Ralph, 38, 271, 272, 276, 289 Sleeman, W. H., 18, 175, 262, 290 ̣Sūfīs, 29, 46, 54–56, 60, 69–72, 184, Sa‘adat Ali Khan, Nawab, 16, 17, 18, 176, 188, 207–10, 229, 234–36, 250–53 239–40, 241 Sunni, 220, 251 S‘adī, 230, 245 Sanskrit, 1, 5, 14, 25, 26, 29, 32, 33, ̤tawā’if. See courtesans 39, 45, 78, 80, 82, 90, 92, 94, 95, Tulsidas, 255. See also bhaktī 99, 148, 194, 198, 233, 234, 238, 239, 264, 277, 280–81. See also Varanasi. See Banaras Kamasutra; Mahabharata Sarāpa/nakh-shikh (blazon), 34, 80–81, Waliullah, 235 90–91, 138, 192, 194–98, 206, 231–32, 241, 281 Yusuf (and Zuleikha), 171, 172, 218 Saudā, 14, 29, 76, 179, 183 Schimmel, Annemarie, 2, 147, 271, 272, Zaidi, Ali Javad, 23, 263, 286 278, 290 Zafar, Bahadur Shah, Emperor, 79, 195, Shah Alam, Emperor, 178 259, 263, 289 Shahjahanabad. See Delhi Zatalli, Ja‘far, 14, 29, 35–36, 264, 265, Shahr Āshob, 198, 228–29 284, 287