The Pikes Peak Strategies Project

Applying the findings and recommendations of the National Panel to teaching and learning in Colorado

The information in this document is meant to improve teaching and learning in Colorado schools. Please duplicate, distribute, extend, and apply this information in paper and electronic format as needed. The participants in the Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project have made a significant effort to appropriately cite primary source research wherever possible. The members of the project are not liable for the content. Any errors gladly will be corrected as soon as possible.

March 2004 The Pikes Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

The Pikes Peak Literacy Strategies Project Spring 2004

In Spring 2003, nine school districts in the Pike’s Peak region volunteered to participate in a project to translate the report of the National Reading Panel (2000) into a useable, practical document for classroom teachers. The goals of the group were: x To ensure that Individual Literacy Plans (ILPs) reflect the comprehensive, recent research on what reading is and how to teach it. x To provide teachers with instructional strategy suggestions that are based in the findings of empirical research x To speak a common about literacy that will assist teachers as students move from one school to another throughout the region x To improve the quality of instruction at school and support at home for developing readers

This document is organized as a user-friendly resource tool for district and school administrators as well as for reading specialists and classroom teachers from all content areas. It can be used as the central document in staff development and is a natural part of any discussion about and implementing ILPs. The document is available at no cost in PDF format and may be duplicated on paper or in electronic format with appropriate credit given to the source.

The document is structured with the following concepts in mind:

According to the National Reading Panel, there are 5 dimensions of reading (, , , , and comprehension).

Each dimension can be divided further into its component parts, that we are calling “Diagnosed Needs.” For example, “speed,” “accuracy,” and “expression” are parts of the “fluency” goal area.

When a student has a need in a particular area, there are a number of empirically-based “strategies” the student can employ that are specifically related to the diagnosed need.

In addition to the specific strategies described in each section of the document, there are a number of empirically-based general strategies that all teachers can employ that have been shown to improve student achievement. Some of these are described in the introduction.

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1 The Pikes Peak Literacy Strategies Project . Acknowledgments

This project is based on the work of the National Reading Panel (2000) and the National Research Council committee on Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). The Pikes Peak Literacy Strategies Project participants used these documents as starting points for investigating the primary source literature in numerous journals and books.

Support for the project came from the nine school districts in the Pikes Peak Region who provided summer stipends and substitute time for the participants listed below to attend meetings and spend their summer reading the research literature in a way that most never had read before. Throughout the process, participants called into question their own teaching practices and their beliefs about how students acquire the complex set of skills we refer to as reading. It was both a frustrating and extraordinary process for all involved, resulting in an appreciation of why a project such as this has not been undertaken before.

Project Participants Academy Alisabeth Ackerman* Florence Karol Gates Janelle Bergant Julie Holiday Bonnie Kern Fountain Susan Spencer Theresa Hazlett Juli Woodman Cheyenne Mountain Jennifer Barnes Lewis-Palmer Sara Vandenberg Julie Robertson

Colorado Dept of Education Manitou Springs Janice McDermott Karen Martens Noli Morath Colorado Springs 11 Linda Tripp Kim Bolling Susan Osburn Widefield Suzette Pope Carole Hiegert Jeanne Scott Cindy May Barbara Thompson Missy Ross

Falcon Woodland Park Ellen Crow Val Brown Karen Gooley Bev Tarpley* Carol Snyder * = Project Coordinators

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Overarching Concepts about Reading

Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998) describes the conditions under which students are most likely to become successful readers:

Adequate initial reading instruction requires that children: x use reading to obtain meaning from print, x have frequent and intensive opportunities to read, x be exposed to frequent, regular spelling-sound relationships, x learn about the nature of the alphabetic , and x understand the structure of spoken words (p. 3).

Adequate progress in learning to read English beyond the initial level depends on: x having a working understanding of how sounds are represented alphabetically, x sufficient practice in reading to achieve fluency with different kinds of text, x sufficient background knowledge and vocabulary to render written texts meaningful and interesting, x control over procedures for monitoring comprehension and repairing misunderstandings, and x continued interest and motivation to read for a variety of purposes (p. 3-4).

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Overarching Instructional Strategies

Some strategies did not fit neatly into a particular reading dimension and so a general category was created. Below is a list of strategies supported in the research literature that can be used by the teacher or by the student to improve overall achievement.

Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement (2001) identifies nine instructional strategies teachers can use in all grade levels and content areas to improve student achievement. They include: 1. Identifying similarities and differences 2. Summarizing and note taking 3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition 4. Homework and practice 5. Nonlinguistic representations 6. Cooperative learning 7. Setting objectives and providing feedback 8. Generating and testing hypotheses 9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers

In addition to the strategies described above, a number of other strategies appeared repeatedly in the research literature as they relate to learning in general, including: 1. Modeling 2. Repetition 3. Scaffolding 4. 5. Progress monitoring 6. Ongoing classroom assessment 7. Direct instruction

These strategies are not limited in their usefulness to a particular content, grade level, or student demographic. All students benefit from high quality teaching and the techniques described here can be very effective when skillfully implemented under the right conditions.

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Six Things Every Teacher can do to Improve Student Achievement

1. Provide instruction that is responsive to the diagnosed needs of students. Carefully listen to and observe students to understand not only who is struggling, but why. Where are the misconceptions? Which skills are lacking? To do this well, the teacher must skillfully interpret the data available to them that helps identify the students’ strengths and needs. Also, teachers must have a clear understanding of the level of sophistication the student must develop in the skill area in order to be successful.

2. Set high expectations for all students. A recent article in Education Week (Burris, 2004) described a school in which the honors track became the normal track for students. The focus was on equity. Not only did regular achievers thrive, but so did the traditional high achievers.

3. Scaffolding is when the teacher provides students with assistance in some form or another as a temporary means to help the student perform at a level above what he can do independently. It helps the student operate in his zone of proximal development (Vygotsky), which is a highly motivating and challenging skill level. Obviously, if a teacher simply starts teaching all students with higher expectations (see #2 above) without providing them with the support they need to reach those expectations, then many students will struggle and many will give up. It is important to note that the scaffold(s) should gradually be removed until the student is able to perform the skill independently.

4. Modeling. Students have a right to know what we expect of them and at what skill level it is expected. Albert Bandura provided the field with numerous research studies illustrating the power of modeling. Students learn a considerable amount from what they observe. Models allows students to see what the teacher expects, thus allowing them to use the high quality samples to gauge their own work.

5. Provide specific and immediate feedback. Carol Dweck and others have conducted considerable research in the field of human motivation illustrating that specific feedback is more useful than general feedback, and that immediate feedback is more effective than delayed feedback.

6. Help students develop metacognition skills. Scott Paris, Dale Schunk, and others conduct research related to helping students raise their awareness of what they know and don’t know. Students who are ongoingly aware of their understanding and who ask questions of themselves as they read, are more likely to notice when their comprehension breaks down.

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Organization of the Document

The remainder of this document is organized into 5 sections, one for each of the 5 dimensions of reading. x Phonemic Awareness x Phonics x Fluency x Vocabulary x Text Comprehension

Each section includes: x An introduction to the dimension, including suggestions from the committee about what makes the dimension unique and how it relates to the big picture of reading. x A list of the types of needs a student might demonstrate within the dimension. These are elaborated on the pages that follow the introduction x A description of special circumstances that may impact the way a need manifests itself, such as helping students who also are second language learners, have specific types of disabilities that make learning in this area particularly challenging, or working with older students who have difficulties with phonemic awareness or phonics. x Empirically-based strategies aligned to specific needs of students

A document is included in the appendix that provides general guidance for parents when a student is having difficulty in a dimension. This section was placed in the appendix so it could be removed easily and shared with parents.

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Dimension: Phonemic Awareness

Overview: Phonemic Awareness is the ability to hear, discriminate, and manipulate the sounds of language. It is an important foundation upon which reading skills are built. Before students learn to read print, they need to become aware of how the sounds of language work. Through phonemic awareness training, students learn that words are made up of speech sounds or “.” The sounds are connected to the symbols of our language through phonics. Phonemic awareness and phonics have a reciprocal relationship; developing skills on one area helps the other.

Note: a letter written between two slashed lines (e.g., /b/) signals that the sound of the letter should be made, not the name of the letter.

Diagnosed Needs within this Area: Diagnosed Need Evidence of Need Identification Student has difficulty isolating, identifying, and manipulating the sounds in words: * isolate phonemes: first sound in "van" is /v/ * identify phonemes: fix, fall, fun = /f/ is the same first sound * identify phonemes: bus, bug, run = run does not start with the same /b/ sound * manipulate phonemes: bug = change the /g/ to /n/. What is the new word - "bun" Blending Student has difficulty combining individual phonemes to form words: * blending phonemes: combine /b/ /i/ /g/ = big * add phonemes: add /s/ to the beginning of "park" = spark * complete auditory-visual integration: c - a - t (all written) = "cat" (spoken) Segmentation Student has difficulty breaking words into individual parts: * segmenting phonemes: grab = /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/ * deleting phonemes: smile - /s/ = mile Auditory Memory Student has difficulty remembering all of the sounds in words they are decoding/hearing in the correct order: /s/ /t/ /o/ /p/ = student says "pot" /p/ /i/ /n/ = student says "nut"

Important Things to Know: x Although it leads directly into phonics when using the letters that represent the sounds, phonemic awareness is an auditory skill. Phonemic awareness is best taught as a pre-phonics skill in kindergarten and first grade.

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x Each strategy has multiple levels of difficulty. Working with the initial sounds in words is easiest. Next students should move to the final sounds and work on the medial (vowel sounds) last. x Phonemic awareness training must be brief and occur daily. A daily “auditory battery” is an effective tool for achieving success in phonemic awareness. This auditory battery consists of five minutes – one minute on each subcategory: x Auditory discrimination – say two words and students indicate if they are the same or different (mop, hop = different; hit, hit = same) x Auditory blending – say individual phonemes and students blend them together into the word (/h/ /o/ /t/ = hot) x Auditory segmentation – say a word and students break it into individual phonemes (hot = /h/ /o/ /t/) x Auditory memory – say a list of 3-7 unrelated words and students repeat the list back (this helps students remember all the sounds in words they are decoding) x Auditory visual integration – the only piece that resembles phonics; students blend words by phoneme as teacher writes on a wipe off board; teacher writes the phoneme and says “sound” to cue students to make the sound; after all phonemes have been written, teacher says “word” to cue students to read the whole word (/c/ sound, /a/ sound, /t/ sound, word = cat) x Proper pronunciation must be stressed. There should be no vowel intrusion and sounds should be crisp when pronounced. The letter “B” says /b/, not /buh/. x Older students can demonstrate understanding by creating examples for younger students

Special Circumstances: Usually, phonemic awaresess training occurs in the first few years of schooling. It is important to be aware that for some students with special circumstances, this training might need to last longer or be customized to meet the student's specific needs. According to Carnine (2004), students such as ELLs, students with hearing difficulties, non-readers, confused decoders, moderately developing decoders, and adequate decoders with comprehension difficulties, the program must: 1) prioritize essential decoding and comprehension skills 2) be designed to interest older children (many phonemic awareness teaching materials are designed for younger children) 3) be designed to place students in their specific instructional level 4) be designed to coundter common faulty strategies that children reading below grade level are likely to have developed

Success for ELL students in phonemic awareness is directly dependent upon proficiency in the native language and the ability to transfer knowledge and expertise of the native language into English (Cummins, 1982, 1989). ELL students need a language base prior to working on specific instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics. They need a language base of approximately 1000 vocabulary words before work on phonemes is meaningful. Phoneme work

8 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project . should be contextualized and embedded into a meaningful communication activity for the more limited speaker. Working on phonemes too soon can be counterproductive for ELL students. Older students with a strong literacy background in their primary language may be able to work with phonemes sooner. Print concepts and pre-primer language activities can be worked on at any stage, but they should not be addressed through the isolation of sounds or word chucks. ELL students who are older (8-9 years old) and have already developed litreracy skills in their native language will do better in reading than younger ELL students (ages 5-6) and those with underdeveloped literacy skills (Collier & Thomas, 1989).

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# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 1 Phoneme Phoneme Isolation Isolating individual sounds in a word (van = /v/ is the first sound) Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Liberman, et al. (1974) Identification What is the first sound in van? /v/ systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your What is the last sound in cat? /t/ school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy What is the medial (middle) sound in hot? /o/ description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach.

2 Phoneme Phoneme Identifying the same sound in multiple words (fix , fall , and fun all begin Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Gaskins, et al (1988); Identification Identification with the /f/ sound) systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your Glushko (1979), Goswami Which sound is the same in fix, fall, fun? /f/ school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy (1986), Marsh et al (1981) Which sound is the same in cat, hot, mitt? /t/ description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but Which sound is the same in pot, mom, top? /o/ should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach. Do you hear a /p/ sound in pat? 3 Phoneme Phoneme Recognizing a word that has a different sound in a set of words (Bus , Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Gaskins, et al (1988); Identification Categorization bug , run = run does not fit because it does not begin with the /b/ sound) systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your Glushko (1979), Goswami Which word does not belong - bus, bun, rug? rug school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy (1986), Marsh et al (1981) Which word does not belong – hot, mat, tip? tip description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but Which word does not belong – can, hat, rip? rip should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach.

4 Phoneme Phoneme Substituting one phoneme for another to make a new word ("bug" Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Gaskins, et al (1988); Identification Substitution becomes "bun" when you change the /g/ to /n/) systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your Glushko (1979), Goswami The word is bug. Change the /b/ to /h/. What is the new word? Hug school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy (1986), Marsh et al (1981) The word is bug. Change the /g/ to /n/. What is the new word? Bun description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but The word is bug. Change the /u/ to /i/. What is the new word? Bin should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach. 10

5 Blending Phoneme Blending Combining a sequence of phonemes into a word (/b/ /i/ /g/ = big). What Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Williams (1980) word does /b/ /i/ /g/ make? Big. Increase the number and complexity of systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your phonemes in words as students begin to master the skill. school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach.

6 Blending Phoneme Addition Making a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word (begin with Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Williams (1980) the word park and add /s/ to the beginning = spark systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach.

7 Blending Auditory Visual Combining the identification of sounds in a word with the blending of Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Williams (1980) Integration those sounds. Student blends words phoneme by phoneme as teacher systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your writes on a wipe-off board; teacher writes the letter(s) for the phoneme school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy and says “sound” to cue students to make the sound; after all letters havedescription and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but been written, teacher says “word” to cue students to read the whole word should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach. (/c/ sound, /a/ sound, /t/ sound, word = cat)

8 Segmentation Phoneme Breaking a word into separate phonemes (grab = /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/). How Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Ehri & Wilce (1987); Segmentation many sounds in grab? /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/ (4). Student taps each sound or puts systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your Liberman et al. (1974) a finger up for each sound they say. school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach.

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# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 9 Segmentation Phoneme Deletion Recognizing a word that remains after a phoneme is removed Phonemic awareness skills should be taught according to a sequential, explicit, Ehri & Wilce (1987); smile minus /s/ = mile systematic plan. The skills should not be taught in isolation. Please refer to your Liberman et al. (1974) Do you hear "take" in the word "mistake?" school's reading curriculum for instructional details. You should use the strategy description and elaboration to help identify where the student is struggling, but should refer to your curriculum for the appropriate instructional approach.

10 Auditory Memory Auditory memory Teacher trains student to retain up to seven words to build memory. Even Say three to seven unrelated words to the student. Say them clearly with about a Ehri & Wilce (1987); training though this helps students decode words, it is an auditory exercise. half second between each one. The student then repeats the words in the correct Liberman et al. (1974) sequence. Start at three words and work up to seven. 11

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Dimension: Phonics

Overview: Phonics involves learning the alphabetic system, that is, letter sound (, phoneme) correspondences and spelling patterns, and learning how to apply this knowledge during reading (National Reading Panel, 2000). Phonics is an essential part of the decoding process. Phonemic awareness and phonics have a reciprocal relationship; developing skills in one are helps the other. Linnea Ehri, a researcher in phonemic/ and phonics, reminds us that "alphabetic knowledge is essential for literacy acquisition to reach a mature state" (Ehri, 1997). She describes 5 ways readers read words as they process text: 1) by assembling letters into a blend of sounds, referred to as decoding 2) by pronouncing and blending familiar spelling patterns, a more advanced form of decoding 3) by retrieving sight words from memory 4) by analogizing to words already known by sight 5) by using context clues to predict words

All of these methods require alphabetic knowledge (grapheme-phoneme) whether applied slowly or instantaneously retrieved from memory. The process of decoding depends heavily on methods 1, 2, and 4. If a student cannot make sound-symbol associations (decode) with accuracy and automaticity, eventually fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension will suffer. Assembling letters into blends of sounds reqires knowledge of the relationship between phonemes, the basic vocal gestures from which spoken words are constructed, and , the letter symbols of the sounds in the alphabet (Lieberman, 1992). We use these consonants and vowels to create familiar spelling patterns and words in our language. We learn to use "chunks" of letters to remember similarly spelled words and add-ons (affixes) to change base word intention or to change word tenses. These patterns form the basis for reading and writing in English.

The importance of phonemic awareness and phonics is strongly supported by the National Reading Panel. Two recent meta-analyses show that clear, systematic use of is important in helping kindergarteners and first graders learn to read (Ehri, Nunes, Stahl, & Willows, 2001). Optimally, focused phonics instruction occurs for two years. High quality phonics instruction is based on the following 8 characteristics (Stahl, Duffy-Hester, & Stahl, 1998): 1) Understanding the 2) Development of phonological awareness 3) Obtaining a grounding in letters 4) Avoiding rule-dominated, boring, worksheet-driven, overuse of a reading program 5) Applying sufficient practice of word reading in context and in isolation 6) Applying sufficient graphophonic (writing) applications

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7) Practice in recognition of automatic words (sight words) 8) Recognition that phonics is only part of a good reading program

A good reading program includes all 5 dimensions of reading. It complements phonics with phonemic awareness training and immerses the student in appropriate literature and environmental print. Also, it helps the student learn to transfer the patterns they hear and read to graphophonic symbols through practice and spelling trianing.

This section focuses on 6 areas of phonics in more detail.

Diagnosed Needs within this Area: Diagnosed Need Evidence of Need Consonants Student has difficulty identifying and pronouncing the consonant sounds, blends, and diagraphs in words. Vowels Student has difficulty decoding and blending vowels within words. Student consistently mispronounces vowel sounds. Compound words Student cannot distinguish smaller word units within the compound word and pronunciation is inaccurate. Phonograms/word families Student cannot automatically identify the most commonly used patterns of spelling and/or pronunciation. Affixes Student does not pronounce affixes correctly and cannot identify root/base words. Student does not know definitions of common affixes and how they affect the meaning of the base/root word. Syllabication Syllables are "word chunks" that can be blended together to make words. This is more efficient than making words by blending sound- by-sound. The student who needs work with syllables is already skilled with sound-symbol relationships, but is either trying to decode words sound-by-sound or is breaking words into non- syllabic chunks, making decoding difficult.

Important Things to Know: x Phonics instruction must be explicit and systematic. x Phonics instruction is best taught for two consecutive years (K/1 or1/2). x Whether you are teaching the vowel combinations or the syllables will largely depend on the level of students. Students in intermediate elementary and higher grades may gain more understanding with instruction in syllabication.

Teachers must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student is having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The piece should be rich with examples of the particular skill you are teaching. After reading through the sample aloud and with the student, isolate all of the words that illustrate the skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words with the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back into

13 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project . the whole and give the student another writing sample to read, rich with words with the skill just taught. (You may have to write your own piece.)

Special Circumstances: Usually, phonics training occurs in the first few years of schooling. It is important to be aware that for some students with special circumstatnces, this training might need to last longer or be customized to meet the student's specific needs. According to Carnine (2004), students such as ELLs, students with hearing difficulties, non-readers, confused decoders, moderately developing decoders, and adequate decoders with comprehension difficulties, the program must: 1) prioritize essential decoding and comprehension skills 2) be designed to interest older children (many phonemic awareness teaching materials are designed for younger children) 3) be designed to place students in their specific instructional level 4) be designed to coundter common faulty strategies that children reading below grade level are likely to have developed Success for ELL students in phonics is impacted by proficiency in the student's native language. "Careful coordination needs to occur between the teaching of oral language skills in English and the teaching of reading. Reading instruction should be explicit and systematic and include all critical elements identified by the National Reading Panel" (Carnine, 2004).

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# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 11 Consonants Individual <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Adams (1990) 12 Consonants Doubled <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Liberman et al. (1974) 13 Consonants Consonant Blends <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Liberman et al. (1974) 14 Consonants Diagraphs <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Liberman et al. (1974) 15 Consonants Silent Consonants <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Liberman et al. (1974) 16 Vowels Short Vowels /a/ /e/ /i/ /o/ /u/ in initial, medial, and final position of words The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student is Liberman et al. (1974) (initial and medial) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need to write your own examples).

17 Vowels Long Vowels - Also called “magic e,” or “sneaky e;” changes the vowel before it into its The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student id Liberman et al. (1974) silent e (made) long sound (mad + e = made; rip + e = ripe) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need 15 to write your own examples).

18 Vowels Long Vowels - In some cases, when a vowel is doubled, the sound is long (sheep, teeth) The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student id Liberman et al. (1974) doubled (hook) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need to write your own examples).

19 Vowels Long Vowels - When two vowels are paired they make a new sound (hook, field ) or the The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student id Liberman et al. (1974) diagraphs (rain) first vowel is long and the second is silent (rain, beat) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need to write your own examples).

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# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 20 Vowels Long Vowels - "r" The vowel makes a different sound because of the intrusion of the r (start, The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student id Liberman et al. (1974) controlled (fork) her, shirt, short, hurt) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need to write your own examples).

21 Vowels Long Vowels - The vowel in the open syllable is long (open, apron, ivy, acorn) The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student id Liberman et al. (1974) open (open, apron) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need to write your own examples).

22 Vowels Long Vowels - The mouth changes shape while making the sound (oi – toil, oy – toy; ou- The teacher must be able to diagnose accurately the specific skill(s) a student id Liberman et al. (1974) dipthongs/sliders mouth, ow – cow) having difficulty with and then teach that skill in a whole-part-whole sequence. To (toy, broil, mouth, do this, introduce the skill within a piece of writing (something from your content 16 cow) area if you are a secondary teacher). The text should be rich with the particular skill you are teaching. After reading it aloud, isolate the words containing the target skill and write them on a wipe off board. Analyze them with the student and teach the skill. Add other words that require the skill to the board and have the student read them. Finally, put the skill back in the context of the whole text and give the student another piece to read, rich with words containing the skill just taught (you may need to write your own examples).

23 Compound Words Compound words <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Liberman et al. (1974) 24 Phonograms / Word Simple (-on) We commonly refer to phonograms/word families as rhyming words. Begin teaching phonograms with single syllable words. Split them into onset and Byrne (1992); Ehri (1991); Families rime as described here. Find simple short vowel patterns such as at, an, et, etc. Ehri (1994); Ehri, Nunes, Create a list of words with that pattern (bat, sat, hat, cat, rat, mat, etc.). Apply the Stahl, & Willows (2001); skill by reading these words embedded in text. As more sophistication is needed, Stahl, Duffy-Hester, Stahl expand into analogy (using word parts for recognition in new (1998) words). 25 Phonograms / Word Complex (-ought) We commonly refer to phonograms/word families as rhyming words. Begin teaching phonograms with single syllable words. Split them into onset and Byrne (1992); Ehri (1991); Families rime as described here. Find complex word patterns. Create a list of words with Ehri (1994); Ehri, Nunes, that pattern (sought, wrought, bought, etc.). Apply the skill by reading these words Stahl, & Willows (2001); embedded in text. As more sophistication is needed, expand into analogy word Stahl, Duffy-Hester, Stahl recognition (using word parts for recognition in new words). (1998)

26 Affixes Prefix recognition Prefixes are a group of letters that appear in the front of a word and affect Provide students with a list of base words and a set of prefixes. Students combine Blevins (2001); Tyler & and application the meaning of the base word. the word parts to create and present new words. Create matching games such as Nagy (1989); White, matching prefixes to their meaning. Teach only the most common prefixes first (un, Power, & White (1989); re, in, im, ir, il, dis, en, em, non, over, mis, sub, pre, inter, de, trans, super, semi, Wysocki & Jenkins (1987) anti, mid, under). 27 Affixes Suffix recognition A suffix is a letter or group of letters that is added to the end of a base Provide students with a list of base words and a set of suffixes. Students combine Blevins (2001); Tyler & and application word. A suffix changes the meaning of the root or base word. Students the word parts to create and present new words. Create matching games such as Nagy (1989); White, need to understand the meaning of the suffix and how it affects the word it matching suffixes to their meaning. Teach only the most common suffixes first (s, Power, & White (1989); is attached to. es, ed, ing, ly, er, or, ion, tion, ation, ition, ible, able, al, ial, y, ness, ity, ty, ment, ic, Wysocki & Jenkins (1987) ous, eous, ious, en, ive, ative, itive, ful, less, est).

PPLSP: 3/04 PPLSP Strategies - Phonics

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 28 Affixes Base words with English words are derived primarily from Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and Greek. Help students separate the base word from the affixes. Define the base word. This Henry (1988) affixes Recognizing and understanding base words and how affixes modify those can be done through direct practice and word games. Then, discuss how the words is a key to making meaning when reading. addition of affixes modify the meaning of the word in context. Students can combine word parts prefix-base-suffix to make new words that they would then use in their writing and speaking or look for when reading. 29 Syllabication Visual cues with a Every syllable in a word has only one vowel sound, even if there are Have the student look in a mirror and count the number of times his mouth opens Moats (1998); Share mirror several vowel letters. This strategy involves helping students feel, see, when saying a word. Each jaw drop is a syllable. Ask the student to identify which (1995) and hear syllables by using a mirror to watch their mouth as they say part of the word made their mouth open (the vowel sound). Each syllable has one words. vowel sound. Present the student with various words so they can detect the syllables in them. Also, you can connect this learning to decoding during reading, by having the student segment the words into syllables on paper while using the mirror. 30 Syllabication Direct instruction of Students need to understand and recognize the 6 patterns of syllabication Several activities are described below: Cunningham (1978); 6 syllable types (orthographic units). These key concepts should be taught in the Cunningham (1980); following sequence: closed, open, vowel consonant silent e, r controlled, 1) Select a word with recognizable word parts according to the 6 syllable spelling Sheflebine (1980) consonant l-e. The concepts should be modeled and practiced and each patterns. 2) Underline or loop your finger under or reveal the first syllable pattern. syllable type should be introduced and then practiced separately. Help the student pronounce the syllable. 3) Continue syllable by syllable for the rest closed syllable: rab-bit, nap-kin of the word. 4) Have the student blend the syllables together to pronounce the open syllable: va-cant, pi-lot word. If this activity occurs within the context of reading, ask "Is that a real word? v-c-silent e: base-ment, line-man Does it make sense in the sentence?" vowel team (diagraph): ai, ay, ae, ee, oa, ow, oo, oi, oy, ou, ie, ei. r controlled: car-pet, for-tune Another activity is to write several words syllable by syllable, leaving enough space consonant -le: ta-ble, lit-tle between word parts for students to see the syllable divisions. Have the student identify the type of syllable and pronounce it. Then blend the syllables together to form words. 17

Write a series of related syllables (all of the same type). Have the student read syllables and identify the syllable type.

Write individual syllables on note cards. Have students arrange syllables to form words.

Give the student a list of polysyllabic words. Student should be able to segment the words into syllables and pronounce each syllable

PPLSP: 3/04 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

Dimension: Fluency

Overview: Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately and quickly. It is important because it helps bridge the gap between recognizing individual words and understanding what is being read (comprehension). Fluency is an important dimension of reading because less fluent readers attend to decoding words at the expense of what is read. Fluent readers focus on making connections among ideas and their own knowledge, and thus, are better able to understand what is being read.

There is a consensus in the research literature that the primary components of fluency are: accuracy in decoding, automaticity in word recognition, and the appropriate use of prosodic features such as stress, pitch, and appropriate text phrasing.

Diagnosed Needs within this Area: Diagnosed Need Evidence of Need Accuracy The reader makes many miscues on grade-appropriate text. May include multiple attempts at pronouncing the word (including repetitions of its correct pronunciation). Reads words incorrectly through guessing. Automaticity The reader consciously works at figuring out the pronunciation of words. Does not automatically apply the phonetic code. The student reads slowly at a laborious pace (word-by-word) or with slight hesitations (choppiness) Prosody / Expression The reader fails to pause appropriately to mark phrases, clause structure, or punctuation marks. "Pausal intrusions," in which the reader hesitates inappropriately within words or between words in a phrase, may be frequent. The student may demonstrate patterns of stress or intonation that are inconsistent with phrase or clause structure or marked punctuation. May include a monotone voice when reading aloud or very fast reading that fails to attend to punctuation.

Important Things to Know: x Fluency is a prerequisite if the primary aim of reading is to construct meaning from text. x Fluency develops gradually and requires consistent practice. x Students' oral reading may lack expression and fluency even though they recognize many words automatically.

18 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

x Fluency changes depending on what the reader is reading; it “sounds different” in a story than in expository text. Skilled readers adjust their pace and expression depending on the text. x Instruction and practice in fluency while reading connected text is important.

Special Circumstances: x Vision - auditory training may be helpful. When reading, the pace may be slower. x Hearing - Intense, specialized training may be necessary. x ELL - Fluency may improve with language acquisition. x - Consistent practice and auditory work with a focus on accuracy and metacognitive monitoring are helpful x GT - For some GT students, an emphasis on prosody may be needed for the student who tends to focus mostly on accuracy x Non-Engaged - For the non-engaged reader, choosing high interest topics may help provide opportunities for the student to develop fluency skills x Older students - Students of all ages can work on all dimensions of fluency. Developing fluency skills can occur with many types of text with a wide variety of difficulty levels.

19 PPLSP Strategies - Fluency

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 31 Accuracy Automatic letter- Students who have automatic letter-sound recognition are able to read Please refer to phonics section for instructional suggestions Laberge & Samuels sound recognition more accurately and thus fluency increases. (1974) 32 Accuracy Accurate naming of <<< description pending >>> Speed drills using letters, words, different syllable types, objects Laberge & Samuels letters, words, (1974) 33 Accuracy Repeated reading Examples of word patterns include: cvc (cat), cvvc (coat), cvce (came), Utilize flash cards and words in connected discourse Laberge & Samuels of letter patterns irregular and regular high frequency words (1974) and words 34 Accuracy Assisted Assisted readings are used to increase fluency through the accuracy of Assisted reading strategies: Koskinen & Blum (1984) of text text. Feedback through repetition in "sticky spots" is an important 1) Paired reading - One student is assigned as the lead reader (more proficient component of this strategy. reader). The struggling reader or "assisted reader" received support and feedback as the struggling reader is reading. 2) Choral reading - Using a big book, basal story, or another primary text. The teacher and students read aloud together. 35 Accuracy Repeated re- Repeated readings are used to increase fluency through the accuracy of Use materials at the student's independent (or easy) level. Keep passages Dowhower (1987) readings with text by having the student practice reading a text several times. relatively short (30-50 words). Make sure the student has demonstrated 85%+ feedback Feedback focused on accuracy is an important component of this accuracy. The focus here is on accurate reading of words. strategy. Paired repeated reading - Students select and read silently a 50-word passage that they are working on in class. They choose a partner and decide who will read first. The reader reads the passage three times and evaluates how well she reads each time. The listener gives feedback and praise when the reader has improved. The readers then switch roles and repeat the activity.

36 Automaticity Automatic Students who have automatic letter-sound recognition are able to read Please refer to phonics section for instructional suggestions Wolf et al. (1986) recognition of more accurately and thus fluency increases. 20 sound-symbol 37 Automaticity Rapid naming of Repetition enhances the automatic recognition of words, letters, and Speed drills using letter words, different syllable types, objects Wolf et al. (1986) letters, words, objects. The focus with this strategy is on speed. 38 Automaticity Letter patterns and Experience with words and consistent practice are necessary to develop Logan (1997) high frequency word reading skills 39 Automaticity Repeated reading Repeated readings result in faster reading pace with fewer hesitations. On independent-level text or instructional-level text with support, the student rereadsDowhower (1987) of independent- the text multiple times until she can read it quickly. 40 Automaticity Assisted reading This assisted reading technique focuses on developing reading speed Neurological Impress - The student and teacher read simultaneously and at a rapid Heckelman (1969) for speed with the assistance of the teacher. Teacher and student read aloud rate. The student sits in front of the teacher, both holding the book. The teacher together, but the teacher controls the reading pace, gradually increasing reads in the students ear. The teacher slides a finger under the words and can vary text difficulty or reading rate. the pace from louder and faster to slower and softer. Start with easy material at first before graduating to more difficult selections. 41 Expression / Shared Reading <<< description pending >>> Using a variety of sources, the teacher reads the passage first emphasizing <<< Citation verification Prosody using call-response expression and cadence. The students then repeat. pending >>> 42 Expression / Fluency This is a 10-15 minute instructional activity that incorporates several key The teacher reads a selection out loud, emphasizing expression, phrasing, and Rasinski et al. (1994) Prosody development principles of effective fluency instruction. Each student is handed a copy appropriate pausing. Then he leads a discussion of the text content and the lesson of a 50-150 word passage. Texts are selected for content, predictability, teacher's oral reading of the text. Particular attention is given to the teacher's rate, and rhythm. Rhyming poems and song lyrics for children work well. phrasing, expression, and intonation during reading. The teacher leads the whole class in several choral readings of the text. 43 Expression / Tape assisted Books at various levels are recorded. When choosing books, consider: Record books at various levels. Make sure the amount of material can be Carbo (1978) Prosody reading the extent of interest in the book, the maximum phrase length that can be assimilated in one setting. The student listens to the tape three or four times. The assimilated, the maximum reading rate that can be followed, and the teacher then guides the student through the reading focusing on expression whether amount of material the student can assimilate in one sitting. it is dialogue or punctuation.

44 Expression / Text Segmentation Text segmentation provides a scaffold for readers by having the teacher Divide the text physically by placing each phrase on a line by itself in a column. Dowhower (1987); Prosody organize the text ahead of time to provide practice with appropriate Indent to make the division clearer. Blank spaces can be added between phrases. Dowhower (1991) pausing. The visual cues provided by segmentation can take several The student reads the segmented text silently. Then the text is read aloud and the forms, including: segmenting by line, segmenting by line and indentation, student rates the quality of the expression using a scale of 1-5. The segmented text segmenting by slashes, or segmenting by spaces. Segmentation practice can be cut apart and pasted on construction paper in order with periods placed in is shown to improve the reading performance of struggling readers at all the correct locations. The text can be audio recorded and used as a read along levels, and even helps regular ability readers in high school and college tape. (Brozo, Schmelzer, and Spires, 1983, and Weiss, 1983).

PPLSP: 3/04 PPLSP Strategies - Fluency Dimension # Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References Fluency 45 Expression / Auditory Modeling Auditory modeling can take several forms: assisted reading, paired The text is taped or performed live by a competent reader. Students replicate the Chomsky (1976), Prosody reading, choral reading, echo reading, shared reading experience, read- reading, being shown explicitly where to pause, where to change pitch, which Dowhower (1991) along, and tape-assisted or technology-assisted reading. The goal with words to stress and which segments to elongate. The modeling gives the reader auditory modeling is for the student to have many repeated opportunitiesa sense of what reading with expression sounds like. It is important to use to hear and practice the cadence of fluent language. Often, several of selections that are age/level appropriate. these techniques are combined. Fluency 46 Expression / Repeated Dowhower (1987) found that second graders who read slowly and Have the student reread a passage of text (unassisted except for some help with Dowhower (1987) Prosody rereadings paused inappropriately, gained in reading accuracy, rate, and word recognition) until it is fluid, flowing, and is produced at a predetermined comprehension, and decreased inappropriate pausing after practicing 5 reading speed. Passages should be kept short (50-300 words) and at an stories repeatedly. The study found that this effect generalized to other, appropriate reading level (85% accuracy before rereading). The mastery level for new unpracticed text as well. the passage should be set at 85-100 WPM. When the student reaches mastery on the first or second reading, the teacher can move to more difficult text. The number of rereadings should be set, not the criterion for mastery. The greatest improvement in fluency tends to occur between the 3rd and 5th rereading. While listening to the rereading, the focus is listening for expression and appropriate pausing. Fluency 47 Expression / Reader's theater <<< description pending >>> Choose scripted material that can be read to an audience. The students practice Millen & Rinehart (1999) Prosody the material or parts out loud and finally perform the reading. The reading should be emphasized, not costumes or acting.

PPLSP: 3/04 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

Dimension: Vocabulary

Overview: Vocabulary is a key to effective communicaton, both orally and in print. It is important because it gives meaning to print and expands existing knowledge. Children with limited exposure to a broad vocabulary are at a severe disadvantage, even before they enter formal schooling. Without direct intervention, the vocabulary gap generally widens over time.

Diagnosed Needs within this Area: Diagnosed Need Evidence of Need Application Student struggles with supplying appropriate words in context when speaking and/or writing Meaning Student comprehension fails when encountering unfamiliar vocabulary or familiar vocabulary in an unfamiliar context Word Knowledge Student does not connect words to word families. Problems may become apparent through errors in word usage, word families, and/or parts of speech

Important Things to Know: Vocabulary words can be described in "3 tiers." Tier 1 includes familiar words to the student. Tier 2 includes high frequency, unknown words. Tier 3 includes obtuse words. When teaching vocabulary, focus most on Tier 2 - high frequency, but unknown words. The words on these 3 tiers may be quite different from student to student.

Don't overload students with too many vocabulary words. The student is unlikely to retain too many words, especially if those words do not have a meaningful context for the student.

Special Circumstances: x Some speech/language students may require additional resources such as a word bank, journal, pic-sims, or computer to support language development. x The ELL gap in vocabulary often is very wide. The acquisition of social vocabulary usually preceeds academic vocabulary. x Hearing impaired, visually impaired, and ELL students may need multisensory input to make meaning of new vocabulary. x Use graphics and visuals cautiously. Some students are overwhelmed with visual presentation of unfamiliar vocabulary. x Picture cues may be very helpful for vocabulary development for students with special learning needs.

22 PPLSP Strategies - Vocabulary

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 48 Application Personal word This strategy is for the student who keeps no record of learned words or Model and require frequent creation and use of personal word bank. Provide <<< Citation verification banks/references who may keep but not use assigned word learning materials. The student samples of graphic organizers. Periodic check of logs. Bookmark strategy of notingpending >>> will create and reference a personal log of novel vocabulary words that is unfamiliar words while reading and transferring later to word bank. frequently accessed and updated. The log may include: music, rap, rhyme, mnemonics, semantic feature analysis, pictures.

49 Application Repeated practice Student demonstrates full knowledge of vocabulary in conversation, Teacher directly teaches specific words and schedules repeated practice over time. Fawcett & Nicholson with focus on reading, and writing. This has occurred due to direct explicit instruction Assessments are given to check for long term retention and that they are used in (1991), McKeown, et al. meaning and repeated exposure to the word. Must occur over an extended period real life application. (1985); Robbins & Ehri of time with a focus on meaning. (1994); Stahl (1983) 50 Application Flexible application Students can identify standard English and can move between formal and Teachers models and calls attention to standard English daily. Teacher reinforces Dixon-Kraus (2001), of language informal language depending on the situation, purpose and audience. appropriate use of standard English in writing and conversation. Students read and White, Graves, & Slater Students recognize the difference between dialect, idiomatic, regional, analyze examples of both standard and non-standard English in literature as a way (1990) and cultural varieties of English and appropriate uses for different of drawing comparisons. Students create “role plays” and dramas and evaluate purposes and audiences. appropriateness of language use. 51 Application Vocabulary in Student will extend an assigned vocabulary word into multiple applicationsWord becomes integrated across the curriculum in connected themes, writing and Marzano (1998), context and context. When a student can word call but has not internalized reading tasks. Teacher provides another context than that in which the word was Rosenshine, Meister, & meaning and cannot use new vocabulary in authentic application, they will originally introduced. Students will have a processing task, either oral or written. Chapman (1996) continue to struggle with comprehension. The focus of this strategy is to provide the student with many opportunities across multiple contexts to apply the new words. The setting for practice may be in a group context using self-checking strategies or in written format with feedback.

52 Application Risk taking with This strategy is for the student who uses safe, generic word choice. The This is an application of Word Choice and Sentence Fluency in Six Trait Writing Dixon-Kraus (2001), Elley words goal is for the student to incorporate deliberately new vocabulary in model. (1989), Fawcett & 23 journals, daily learning logs, classroom discussion, and all modes of Nicolson (1991), Shore & writing. Durso (1990), Stahl (1983) 53 Meaning Greek and Latin More than half of English vocabulary derives from Greek and Latin. Teacher will give direct instruction of 7 to 10 high frequency roots and affixes with Nagy, et al. (1989), Nagy, affixes and roots Students gain access to a large bank of related words by learning specific supporting pictorial and textural material, with repeated opportunities to rehearse Diakidoy, & Anderson Latin or Greek roots and affixes. By breaking the words into parts, and apply usage. Teacher will demonstrate and students will practice word (1993), Stahl & Erickson students gain quick access to meaning. segmentation with novel and student-found words. (1986), Tyler & Nagy (1985), White, Power, & White (1989), Wysock & Jenkins (1987)

54 Meaning Context Clues The goal with using context clues is for the student to monitor his own Model explicit “think alouds” (see glossary) about discerning meaning from various Dixon-Kraus (2001), Elley comprehension for gaps in word meaning and use surrounding text to context clues. Model self-monitoring of comprehension. Students practice thinking (1989), Jenkins, Matlock, derive meaning for unfamiliar/novel words. Student reads straight throughaloud and self-monitoring meaning of vocabulary. Teach and practice word & Slocum (1989), reading task without recognizing a breakdown in meaning. He might be substitution based on meaning. Jenkins, Stein, & Wyoscki able to give back the structure but without key information. He can give (1984), Nagy & Anderson back the word but is unable to give the meaning. Student will move from (1984), Nagy, Anderson, the unfamiliar word to the larger passage and attempt to connect meaning & Herman (1987) from the whole reading including context, pictures, graphics, and text features. 55 Meaning Prereading When a student jumps into the reading task without accessing their prior Teacher models think alouds, guides discussion, instructs students in use of Griswold, Gelheizer, & knowledge or associations, they are less likely to have success when learning logs, facilitates peer talk and predictions. Students are encouraged to Shepherd (1987), Morrow, encountering unfamiliar vocabulary. Successful readers skim titles, text make independent personal connections to text. et al. (1997), Nagy & format, pictures, charts, word banks, subheadings, and make reasonable Anderson (1984), Stahl predictions, associations, or visualizations before reading. Students can (1983), Stahl & Fairbanks access prior knowledge not only through mental associations and (1986), Wysocki & visualization, but also prewriting activities, discussion, or graphic Jenkins (1987) organizers. Comprehension increases when prereading vocabulary activities occur and when students can make connections to things they already know.

PPLSP: 3/04 PPLSP Strategies - Vocabulary

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 56 Meaning Fix-it strategies Through practice, students develop an ability to self-monitor breakdowns Teacher models think alouds that demonstrate metacognitive process of word Bean, et al. (1981), Nagy in comprehension due to unfamiliar vocabulary and employ fix-it strategiesacquisition. Teachers demonstrate fix-it strategies: such as Step Up to Writing & Anderson (1984) to understand new words. “Pause and Respond”; how to question the text; text to text, text to self, text to world. 57 Meaning Word lists / word Some students jump into reading without previewing or reviewing the Teacher pre-selects and teaches vocabulary words. Teacher models and builds Medo & Ryder (1983), banks vocabulary needed for comprehension of the particular text. Student time into lesson for vocabulary preview. This includes graphic organizers, semantic Stahl (1983), Willoughby, gains comprehension of whole text from pre-reading strategy that includesmaps, word storms. et al. (1997) previewing/reviewing identified vocabulary words.

58 Meaning Semantic maps This strategy is useful for the student who memorizes new words but Teachers provide scaffolding, support, with a visual display which provides Bean, et al. (1986), Bos & and semantic cannot apply them to a new context or see depth of meaning. Through associations. Semantic map may include synonyms, antonyms, analogies, related Anders (1990), Karbon feature analysis this process, the student demonstrates an understanding of new words topics, definition, examples, and is mapped similar to a web in a random order. (1982), Margosein, through a graphic that elaborates on the depth of meaning of a word and Semantic feature analysis is a structured, teacher-provided grid in which students Pascarella, & Pflaum its associations. note on a checklist common traits that link words in a category (compare and (1982), Pittelman & contrast). Johnson (1985), Smith (2002) 59 Meaning Direct instruction in The goal with this strategy is to help the student understand multiple Teacher sets up numerous contexts for applying the many meanings. Students Elley (1989), Jenkins, multiple meanings meanings for a common word such as “bear” –- meaning bear (the practice applying the word. Teacher stops during read-alouds and discusses and Matlock, & Slocum of words animal), bear arms (carry), bear a child (give birth), bear responsibility (be anchors meanings to context and student practices the new meaning. (1989), Jenkins, Stein, & accountable), bear in mind (hold a thought), could not bear (could endure Wyoscki (1984) or suffer), and more. 60 Meaning Concept maps Concept maps are designed to help students who use limited vocabulary Teacher pre-selects concept words, prompts discussions, models or “seeds” the Dixon-Kraus (2001), Elley when discussing “big” ideas and cannot articulate their own ideas and words into discussion, calls attention to the big ideas, past the small concrete (1989), Morrow, et al. connect to the larger ideas due to limited vocabulary. Students develop details. Teacher structures practice with concept words embedded in big idea (1997), Stahl (1983) higher level thinking skills as they learn vocabulary to use as tools to elaboration through writing and discussion. 24 express abstract thoughts and concepts. Practicing thinking during discussion generates a need for richer vocabulary. This a cyclical tag game of thought to new vocabulary to new thought.

61 Word Knowledge Dictionary, Student needs specific words to gain entry into technical, content specific Teacher models dictionary and glossary use and how to match the appropriate Katz (1978), Nagy & glossary, word material. Specific words are not found in conversation, nor with enough definition to the context. Students can employ this strategy before during and after Anderson (1984), Nagy & banks, and other frequency or in context when reading, for student to derive word meaning reading and writing. Herman (1987), Shore & resources therefore student needs to use resources (dictionaries, glossaries, pre- Durso (1990) selected word banks, etc.) to understand the word.

62 Word Knowledge Frequent Students with limited conversational and reading vocabulary need many Teacher models her own learning process of new vocabulary. He promotes and Beck, Perfetti, & discussion with opportunities to talk with and listen to people in many contexts. reinforces vocabulary acquisition through conversation and discussion. Teacher McKeown (1982), Cho & more competent Successful readers gain a large proportion of their vocabulary from provides a rich text “smorgasbord” of genres and levels of print materials. Krashen (1994), Nagy & peer or adult extensive reading and conversation in a rich spoken and print Anderson (1984), Nagy & environment. Herman (1984), Nagy, Anderson, & Herman (1986), Stahl & Fairbanks (1986)

63 Word Knowledge Word play and Students given multiple opportunities to use words in playful activities that Teachers will engage students in word games: puzzles, art, drama, music, puns, Dixon-Kraus (2001), Nagy improvisation with are open-ended and positive, using art, music, physical activity, games, etymology, poetry, proverbs, creative writing, computer assisted word games, etc. & Anderson (1984), unfamiliar and spontaneous. Ruddell & Shearer (2002), vocabulary Stahl (1983)

64 Word Knowledge Memory devices Students enhance retention of unfamiliar words through keywords, Teacher provides and models memory devices such as: mnemonics, keyword Condus, Marshall, & Miller mnemonics, visualization, and associations to assist rapid, long-term method, and visualization word associations. Teacher provides opportunities for (1986), Jones & Hall retention of new words. students to create their own memory aids for new vocabulary. (1982), Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Falk (1990), Powell (1980)

PPLSP: 3/04 PPLSP Strategies - Vocabulary

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 65 Word Knowledge Synonyms, Students make substitutions and comparisons with synonyms and Teacher models semantic mapping, using dictionaries, thesauri, and technology to Bos & Anders (1990), antonyms, and antonyms to clarify and elaborate meaning. Students create analogies to generate synonyms, antonyms, and analogies. Students use these strategies Chen, Yanowitz, & analogies create a fuller understanding of new words. independently for word learning and as context clues. Daehler (1995), Hayes & Henk (1986), Katz (1978), Shore & Durso (1990), Stahl (1983), Stahl & Fairbanks (1986)

66 Word Knowledge Multi-sensory Student will practice the word through listening, speaking, manipulating, This is a directed approach during a “read to” time or “read with” time. Teacher Juel, et al. (2003) experiences acting out, singing, drawing. This includes the sound of the word, the highlights the word as an important word; uses phonics to segment the sounds; visual shape of the word, and the contextualized meaning. student practices the sounds; student spells the word; teachers tell the meaning; students rehearse the meaning in more than one modality. 67 Word Knowledge Word play through Individually or in groups, students create sound and movement to Teacher needs to recognize diverse learner’s needs for non-linguistic instruction, Dixon-Kraus (2001), Stahl songs, raps, ditties, rehearse and practice definitions of vocabulary. The emphasis is on representation, and rehearsal of target vocabulary. Teacher models non-linguistic (1983) skits, or accurate representations of meaning. representations initially, then students creates their own. Teacher emphasizes movements accurate application of word meaning (not creativity of performance)

68 Word Knowledge Student will create Research shows emotional memory is recorded in non-linguistic parts of The teacher can have students recall and share memories and anecdotes of Dixon-Kraus (2001), Stahl emotional “hooks” the brain. Emotions trigger before cognitive thought and coding emotionally charged situations like “anticipation” and “exhilaration,” or students can (1983) through anecdotes vocabulary with emotional values makes the word permanent and physically express these words through movement. or movement automatic. 25

PPLSP: 3/04 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

Dimension: Comprehension

Overview: Comprehension is "intentional thinking during which meaning is constructed through interactions between text and reader" (National Reading Panel, p. 4-39). "Therefore, comprehension is the reason for reading" (Put Reading First, p. 48). Comprehension is the integration of all five dimensions. It builds upon the foundation provided by the other four dimensions of reading.

Diagnosed Needs within this Area: Diagnosed Need Evidence of Need Background Knowledge / Schema The student: Activation x Does not personalize connections to text. x Questions the possibility of the connection. x Does not apply prior knowledge to new situations. x Lacks the vocabulary and ideas/concepts to speak about an extemporaneously given subject regarding the text. x Makes faulty connections between what is thought and read. x Cannot explain text because of lack of vocabulary and/or conceptualization. x Is unable to summarize text. x Offers a literal, short retelling without attention to detail, structure, purpose, time and place of genre. Knowledge of Text Structure The student: x Is unable to set a purpose for or understand the relevance of reading. x Relies on the teacher to set purpose. x May be unable to distinguish the difference between text types and usages. x Lacks strategies to find information in the text. The student may be unable to locate main idea, supporting details, and conclusion., doesn’t know how to skim scan, doesn’t revisit text, and does poorly on follow-up assignments/assessments. x Is unable to use text construction to unlock meaning of both literal and inferential questions. x May only be able to find literal information. x May not be able to identify cause and effect relationship in a text. x May not recognize captions under the picture, and seems unable to read/interpret graphs, pictures. x The student is not able to identify which parts of the text to attend to the most.

26 The Pike’s Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

Diagnosed Need Evidence of Need Retelling/Recalling The student: x Cannot remember what has been read. x Is unable to recall text even when prompted with specific literal questions. x May get the big picture and even make inferences; however, may not remember names, places and events. x Gives limited details with no understanding of context. The student may not be able to connect significant details to the meaning or outcome of the reading. x May not recognize humor or tone in the retelling. Summarizing / Literal Comprehension The student: x Cannot differentiate between main ideas and details. x May not be able to analyze the text for deep understanding. x May not be able to identify key information in the telling or in writing. x Is unable to list or outline key ideas in a topic, sub- topic list or outline. x Repeats information. Recall of information is scant; gaps of knowledge indicate a lack of understanding. x Offers superfluous information. Cognitive Monitoring / Metacognition The student: x Does not check own comprehension. x May not show outward signs of interacting with a text: confusion, amusement, sadness, intensive study while reading. x Appears distracted; does not persist in reading x Does not ask questions about the text. x Does not reread and/or self-correct. x Does not make connections x Does not visualize Drawing Inferences from Text The student: x Offers only literal interpretation of text x Is unable to predict or draw conclusions x Is unable to select passages to support an inference

Important Things to Know: requires the application of many complex skills applied successfully and simultaneously. Students must not only be able to understand and make sense of content by assimilating concepts and information with their prior experiences, but also they must be able to decode independently and monitor their ongoing understanding continuously. Good comprehenders actively engage with text and flexibly apply appropriate strategies at the point where their understanding falters.

27 PPLSP Strategies - Comprehension

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 69 Background Using background Hansen's research with second grade students showed that using a The teacher introduces a story or passage by giving the key ideas and then asks a Hansen (1981) Knowledge / knowledge to make prereading strategy where students used their own experiences to make question based on students' possible previous experiences. Students write their Schema Activation predictions predictions in stories improved their reading comprehension. This responses using their background knowledge on strips of gray construction paper strategy is teacher directed at first, but can be modeled to allow (as a model of the brain). The teacher asks students to predict something similar independent practice by students. that may happen in the story. Students write their prediction on colored construction paper and then weave the strips together, symbolizing the integration of past experiences with predictions about the passage.

In order for a teacher to encourage independent practice of this skill, he or she should model ways to help the student find key ideas in an unrelated piece of text. The teacher also must model using ideas to draw on background knowledge (e.x., "How is this topic like my life and experiences?")

70 Background Text previewing This strategy was used with middle school students who were reading The teacher prepares a brief synopsis of the story and questions designed to catch Graves, Cooke, & Knowledge / below grade level. It was used with complex narratives and is primarily a a reader's interest and link prior knowledge to the story. The synopsis should Laberge (1983) Schema Activation teacher-directed activity. include setting, key characters with brief character descriptions, the plot up to the point of the climax, and definitions of 3 or 4 different words. A discussion is then held based on interest generating questions. Then the teacher and students read the synopsis followed by the short story 71 Drawing Inferences Generating This strategy was used with sixth graders using expository passages Students were taught by modeling how to create two types of questions - those Davey & McBride (1986) from Text questions without explicit main ideas. By teaching students how to generate their linking information across sentences and those tapping the most important own questions, they found that students performed better in both information. Students were given prompts about creating the questions such as "it inferential and literal tests. should help you remember key information" or "it should help you anticipate test questions." The teacher modeled first by showing how to decide what information 28 was most important and then by generating good questions to capture that information. 72 Knowledge of text Advanced story This strategy was used with eleventh grade students and focused on The teacher teachers the schema for a short story: plan, goal, action obstacles, Singer & Donlan (1982) structure structure comprehension of challenging short stories. Singer and Donlan found outcomes. He/she then teaches schema-general questions (see Singer and that traditional plot maps were ineffective for grasping necessary content Donlan, page 173 for details). Using the model, the student generates story-specific from complex stories. They also found that results of increased questions based on their preview of the text. Throughout the story, students are comprehension were evident only after using similar questions with three instructed to stop and generate new questions. different texts. Examples from Singer and Donlan (1982): Schema general: Who is the leading character? Story specific: Is this story going to be more about the officer or the barber?

Schema general: What is the leading character trying to accomplish in the story? Story specific: Will the barber kill the officer with the razor?

73 Retelling / Recalling SQ3R <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Darch, Karnine, & Kameenuie (1986) 74 Retelling / Recalling Assigned <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Anderson (1983) perspectives 75 Retelling / Recalling Imagery through <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Rose (2000) drama 76 Retelling / Recalling Graphic organizers <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Griffin, Malone, & Kameenui (1995) 77 Retelling / Recalling Tape assisted This strategy was used with third and fourth graders who were both slow Students listened to stories on tape with headphones while reading along with the Shany & Biemiller (1995) reading readers and had reading comprehension below grade level. It was used text (either out loud or silently). The tapes were recorded at 100 words per minute in addition to regular classroom instruction. The results showed (but students could vary the speed from 80 - 120 wpm). The students listened to improvement in both listening and reading comprehension. several stories over several weeks.

PPLSP: 3/04 PPLSP Strategies - Comprehension

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 78 Retelling / Recalling Mnemonic imagery This strategy was used with eighth graders with both poor or good The first step involved having students changing an unfamiliar name to something Peters & Levin (1986) comprehension. They read on- grade level text about people and their familiar (to create a first image - i.e., Taylor to tailor). Next, students were shown by accomplishments and were taught by example how to create mnemonics. an illustrated example how to form interactions between the keyword (name) and The results showed improved recall. secondary information (accomplishment); for example, a tailor working on his invention in a house with plants. Thirdly, students were given a new passage and followed the same procedure except that they created their own image before seeing the illustrated example. Finally, in testing conditions, the students were prompted to use the strategy.

79 Retelling / Recalling Hierarchical This strategy was used with seventh grade social studies students who Hierarchical summary format includes: Taylor & Beach (1984) summaries were exposed to unfamiliar text. Hierarchical summaries were found to - Headings and subheadings as Roman numerals enhance recall and had a positive effect on expository writing. - Under every heading, the student lists 2-3 supporting details from the text - Group the Roman numerals that are related by writing key ideas in the margin - Generate a title of the summary based on key ideas

The teacher can compare their summary to the teacher's template. This is followed by having students recall what they remember to a peer before being tested on the material.

80 Summarizing / Collaborative <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Klingner, Vaughn, & Literal strategic rereading Schumm (1998) Comprehension 81 Summarizing / Peer tutoring <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Mastropieri, et al. (2003) Literal Comprehension 29 82 Summarizing / Peer-assisted <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Fuchs, et al. (1999) Literal learning Comprehension 83 Summarizing / Direct instruction of Used with high school students, results showed that students wrote better Give students a copy of the rule sheet and samples of good summaries (see below).Hare & Borchardt (1984) Literal written summary summaries and this effect generalized to other summary activities. Teacher models how to use the rules. Start with simple passages and move to Comprehension skills more difficult ones. Provide students with feedback on their use of the strategies.

Four rules for writing a summary (from Hare & Borchardt, 1984. see page 66 for details) 1) Collapse lists 2) Use topic sentences 3) Get rid of unnecessary detail 4) Collapse paragraphs

84 Cognitive Monitoring Visualization Students in this study were low achieving, intermediate grade readers. The teacher tells students to "make pictures" in their minds as they read as a way to Gambrell & Bales (1986) / Metacognition The study showed that explicit teaching of mental imagery improved understand and remember what they read. As students read text, cure them to comprehension monitoring. The researchers suggest that a useful follow compare the image in their heads to the words they read to look for any up study would address strategies for fixing comprehension errors. inconsistencies.

85 Cognitive Monitoring Delayed key words <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Thiede, et al. (2003) / Metacognition

86 Cognitive Monitoring Modeling through <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, / Metacognition Think alouds & Jones (1992)

87 Cognitive Monitoring QAR (Question <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Raphael & McKinney / Metacognition Answer (1983) Relationships) 88 Cognitive Monitoring Click and Clunk <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Klingner, Vaughn, & / Metacognition Schumm (1998)

89 Cognitive Monitoring Question <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Singer & Donlan (1982). / Metacognition generation during reading

PPLSP: 3/04 PPLSP Strategies - Comprehension

# Diagnosed Need Strategy Elaboration/Clarification Teaching Tips References 90 Drawing Inferences DRTA <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Baumann, Seifert-Kessell, from Text & Jones (1992)

91 Drawing Inferences CLOZE <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Dewitz, Carr, & Patberg from Text (1987)

92 Drawing Inferences Structured Pre- <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Konopak, et al. (1987). from Text writing / Post- writing 93 Drawing Inferences Guided Practice <<< description pending >>> <<< description pending >>> Hansen (1981) from Text with inferential questions 30

PPLSP: 3/04 The Pikes Peak Literacy Strategies Project .

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Tyler, A. & Nagy, W. (1989). The acquisition of English derivational morphology. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 649-667.

White, T.G., Graves, M.F., & Slater, W.H. (1990). Growth of reading vocabulary in diverse elementary schools: Decoding and word meaning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 281-290.

White, T., Power, M., & White, S. (1989). Morphological analysis: Implications for teaching and understanding vocabulary growth. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 283- 304.

Williams, J. (1980). Teaching decoding with an emphasis on phoneme analysis and phoneme blending. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 1-15.

Willoughby, T., Desmarais, S., Wood, E., Sims, S., & Kalra M. (1997). Mechanisms that facilitate the effectiveness of elaboration strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 682-685.

Wolf, M., Bally, H., & Morris, R. (1986). Automaticity, retrieval processes, and reading: A longitudinal study in average and impaired readers. Child Development, 57, 988-1000.

Wysocki, K. & Jenkins, J.R. (1987). Deriving word meanings through morphological generalization. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 66-81.

Members of the PPLPS project team have made a concerted effort to verify all citations used in this project. Any errors brought to our attention will be corrected immediately.

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Appendix Helping your Student with Reading: Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, produce, and manipulate the sounds of language. The student learns to hear sounds in isolation and in combination. Training the student’s ear, much like training a singer’s ear, is imperative to phonemic awareness success.

The car is a great place to try some training exercises. The key is to have the radio off and as little background noise as possible. The car is ideal because your child will be able to hear you but not see your face as you make sounds.

1. Compound word chunks: 2. Syllable chunks: 3. Single phoneme blending and segmenting: 4. Memory through listening (auditory memory): 5. Rhyming games 6. I spy

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Appendix Helping your Student with Reading: Phonics

Phonics is the dimension of reading in which students connect sounds to symbols and put sounds together into syllables and words. Students need repetitive and consistent practice with phonics to achieve success.

1. Word games: Word games can be played almost anywhere. Ask your student to find as many words that rhyme with cat, bet, pop, up, etc. Or find words that start the same as mom, sit, can, will, etc. The game “I spy” is great while driving in the car. 2. Rhymes: Nursery rhymes and Dr. Seuss books provide wonderful opportunities to discover rhyming patterns. Poetry can provide more subtle illustrations of the manipulation of sounds. 3. Alphabet books: There are many alphabet books available today. One favorite for all ages is Animalia by Graeme Base. Students may enjoy finding all of the pictures that start with a particular letter. Upper elementary and middle school students often enjoy making their own alphabet books to share with younger siblings. 4. Cut apart words: Kids enjoy having letter cards to move and manipulate. As you have your student rhyme words, write them on note cards. Cut the words apart by syllable, sound, or prefix/suffix and see if they can put them back together.

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Appendix Helping your Student with Reading: Fluency

Fluency includes reading with speed, accuracy, and expression. Readers who are fluent are able to focus their attention on meaning rather than on decoding. When working on different components of fluency, you will want to be sure and choose books that are in the child’s level (fairly easy for the child). If the book is too difficult, you will be unable to focus on fluency because the child’s attention will need to be more on decoding the text.

1. Model fluent reading from a variety of sources: books, magazines, and the newspaper. Students benefit from hearing the phrasing and cadence from different types of text. Children often want their parents to reread the same books over and over again because they love the sound and predictability of language. 2. Encourage students to reread favorite books. When comprehension is not the primary focus, the student can place more attention on speed, accuracy, or the more subtle stylistic and prosodic features of language. 3. Read together every day with a focus on expression and cadence. Text that works especially well includes rhyming and predictable books along with poems and song lyrics. Well-written mystery stories use language to manipulate the reader's pacing as a method for building suspense. 4. Pattern books! There are many wonderful pattern books that tell stories, contain song lyrics or poetry, or contain repeated text that are highly motivating to read over and over again. 5. Have the child practice a book with the purpose of reading it to a younger sibling. 6. Repetition, repetition, repetition! When working on fluency, students should read books that are in their “independent” range. For younger readers, following along with song lyrics or taped stories can help students become more fluent. Students may need to reread stories several times before they can read it accurately with speed and expression.

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Appendix Helping your Student with Reading: Vocabulary

Students learn and express their understanding of vocabulary through listening, reading, speaking, and writing. A rich and varied vocabulary allows a student’s voice to come through when they write. Expanding a student’s vocabulary can occur indirectly (when they hear and see words used in various contexts such as in conversation with adults, being read to, or reading extensively on their own) and directly (when they are explicitly taught individual words and strategies). There are many opportunities outside of school to help your student expand his/her vocabulary: 1. Create a vocabulary-rich environment at home both in speech and in print 2. Play with words (jokes, games, skits, etc.) 3. Continue to read aloud to students even when they become proficient readers. Choose a book above your child's reading level containing a rich vocabulary that you can read together. 4. Read from a variety of genre (poetry and plays mixed in with fiction and non-fiction) 5. Find out about the assigned vocabulary and topics of study at school. Share related word-learning at home. 6. Encourage students to converse frequently with adults (reinforces conversation skills and helps develop higher-level vocabulary) 7. Some good resources for vocabulary words include: dictionaries, books with idioms (cartoons), word banks, websites, word games, Greek/Latin roots 8. When working on writing with your student, there is a great opportunity to expand their use of diverse, descriptive vocabulary. When the student is revising, have them identify some words they might change to make their writing more interesting, descriptive, or accurate. You might brainstorm some other words for “good” or use a dictionary or thesaurus to help you. 9. The website dictionary.com allows you to subscribe to a word of the day that is sent 7 days a week via email. This is a great way to hook older students into vocabulary learning. You can encourage your student to look up the word with you on-line and make a home dictionary of the words. It is best to have the student reword the definition in a way that makes sense to them. It can be fun to set up a challenge game to see how many times they can use the word that day. 10.As students become more aware of sentence structure, they learn that there are different parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives. A fun family activity is to make funny stories by replacing certain words in a passage with other words from the same parts of speech without knowing the passage (sometimes referred to as Mad Libs). Then read the passage aloud.

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Appendix Helping your Student with Reading: Comprehension

Perhaps the best aid for student comprehension is for parents to model reading with their children and to read with them. To enhance comprehension, you can: ask questions, talk about what is going to be read, what is being read, and what was read.

Drawing inferences - Think aloud during reading (say out loud what you think while reading) - Ask questions about the story - How is a particular character like the student or someone they know - Relate what might happen - Develop your own questions when being read to

Knowledge of text structure - Ask questions: Why would someone want to read this text? - What might we learn from reading it? - Is this fiction or non-fiction - Who, what, when, where questions

Summarizing - Identify the main idea (what the paragraph or text is about) - Model for the student by stating the main idea in things you read - Show differences between main idea and details that add to it by drawing pictures

Retelling/Recalling - Ask frequent questions rather than waiting until the end - Make a mental move while reading a story - Draw pictures to remember how the text develops

Background knowledge - "Set the stage" before reading. What do you know about ___? - Use title/pictures to relate to self and the real world

Metacognition - Model how you ask questions while reading to make connections to what you already know - Use "think-aloud" while reading or being read to - Draw pictures to help visualize what is being read or to predict

You can combine these strategies to enhance comprehension -- ask questions and talk about the topic before reading, discuss the text during reading, and synthesize after reading.

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