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ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. P1l0GltESS or THE: ltOMAN EMPIRJ: ILLU "l TRATKD ISY THE COlrRell 0, Til. RIVIR AMAZON. AS COSNECTED WITH

CHRONOLOGY,

.AND PREPARATORY TO THE STUDY OF'

ANCIEN'r HISTORY:

ACOOMPANIED WITH AN ATLAS,

BY EMMA WILLARD,

OF· A PLAN FOR IMPROVING FEMA.LE EDUCATION, AnDRBU19 TQ ~VTBOR ' THB LEGISLATURE OF NE\\-YORK," AND PRINCIPA.L O:r TO FEMALE SEMINARY AT TROY.

O'OUP'LIlD CHIEFLY FOM D'AJIIVILLI!, ADAM, LAVOlSIfE, .... LTII3Blflf. AND OTHE.R STANDARD WORKS.

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, PROBLEMS ON TIlE GLOBES.' AND llULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS..

1<'0 ACCOMPANY THE MODERN GEOGRAPHy II'! WILLIAM C. WOODBRIDGE.

THIRD EDITION, IMPROVED.

lIA.RTPOIlD:

PUBLlSHED BY OUVER D. COOKE '" 00

•• L DRAN, PRIUTaa.

1829. PUBLISHERS' NOTICE ..

1.1\ '-ot)n,rion with this Edition of the Ancient Geography, the Publish'fs art ;'"ppy in being able to present A N"w ANCIH~T An4a, prepared by Mrs. U'illard, • 'pru.;!) io accompany ihiswork. In many respects this Atlas is "nlikeany simi· 14e wo,·k that has oeen published; and these variations, ihe Publi,hers believe, will I.p found to embrace imporiant advantages. TheA/lMis sold in a separate quartoform, including several pages of questions, -\-,'_ ~·c. Hartford, July, 1829.

UI.'TRICT OF CONNECTJCUT, S5. BE IT REMEMBERED, That all the first day of October, in the {or­ I L_ S.] Iy-seventh year of the Independence of tbe United States of America, Wmiam C. Woodbridge of the said District, and Emma Willard of the [':slrIGlof New-York, bave deposited in this office the tille of a Book the right "'hereof they claIm us Authors and P'oprietor8, in the words following-to wll - " Ane,ent Geography, as connected with Chronology, and preparatory to the study '1/ AnCIent History: By Emma Willard." In conformity to the Act of the Congress 0, tbe United States, entitled" An Act for the encouragement of learniog by secur­ :n~ the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to tbe Autbors and Proprietors of such .-.,pies during the times therein mentioned." And also to an act, entitled, "An ~ct -'. ;:-plemenlary to an act, .otitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by se­ ';'lfIng the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such ,copies dur~ng.lhe times ~erein mentio.ned, ~od extending the benefits thereof to tbe :..LJ'IS of de9'~Olng, engravln~, aDd etchmg historical and other prints." - CHAS. A. INGERSOLL, Ckrk of the D;strict of Connecticut. A true copy of Record, examined aDd sealed by me, • CHAS. A. INGERSOLL, Clerk oflhe DiBtrict ofConntelicut. INTRODlTCTION.

ALTHOUGH facts constitute a very important part of humal'. knowledge, yet some persons find their recollection of past 0':' eurrences too indistinct and uncertain, to afford much Ji"ht fOie th~ regulation of their conduct. Others, on the contra~', caill rely on the correctness of their knowledge, and command the confidence of those whum they may wish to persuade. Th~ superiority of the latter appears to me' to result, in a great mea, sure, from their having acquired a habit, not possessed by the former, of associating with events the time and the place ,'" whic!l they happened. If in teaching history, we can fix thi" 1'3.bit in the mind of the pupil, while we give him a knowledge CJf its facts, we shall have accomplished two important objec!:> at the 1'ume time. To locate the events of history requires a know'edge of an­ f~ient geography. This the pupil may obtain, either by examin­ ing maps as he proceeds with his history, or by studying them beforc he commences. But to require hill! to find on hi.,; map all the cities, mountains, &c. of which he reClds, when he does not know in what country, or in what quarter of the globe they are situated, is to waste his time, and to discourage him;n the outset, from forming the habit which \\e wish. This he easily acquires, when ancient geography is the introductory study. ~\[ ot that we expect the mind of the scholar in either ancif'llt or modern geography will contain at once the name of evcr~· place. He does not so much learn to do without his maps, as To use them with ease and pleasure. The hahit of locating facts once acquired, improvement m geography and in the history of past or passing events will g'" OIl and mutually aid each other. The event will be remem, bered from the place, and the phce from the event. By., knowledge of geography the reasoniug powers are enabled to assist the memory, bolh in receiving and retaining historicul ",'ents. The pupil will be able of himself to till up a sketc1l, whether imperfect from a defect in original information or suL. sequent forgetfulness. Suppose, for instance, he learns that Alexander the Great went on an overland expedition; in tho course of which, he fought a battle at Granicus, another ;is Jssus, n..'lcl afterwards yj~ited the temple of Jupiter Amrno;~ Ht A2 . VI INTRODUCTION.

iLybia: by a moment's recurrence to the picture of the map in hi, mind, he will know that Alexander must have passed through the interior of Asia Minor, and along the coast of the Medi. terranean, through Syria and Egypt. He will perhaps con. jecture of himself, that he founded those cities on his route which are called by his name, and easily remember that he took in his way Tyre and Gaza. The systems of Ancient Geography which I examined, were 110t adapted to my peculiar views. I therefore arranged one , for the use of my pupils, the same which forms the basis of th!!! which is here offered to the public. The works which I ex· amined, cOlltain catalogues of names, that the pupil is expected to learn from the book j or which he will learn in this way if plrrr.itted, rather than to be at the trouble of searching them out tupon the maps. The consequence of this will be, that he wII! associate them with that page of his book from which he I earned them, rath er than those places on the map to which they belong. Were learners never to see the names of places till they soe them on their maps, the association of the name with the place would be more perfect. With this view I wished the pupils of my school to hav,e nothing more to aid them in study­ ""i!; their maps, than a set of questions, which would lead them to torm this association, and which would also assist their teach. er, by enabling the class definitely to understand what they were required to learn: these questions should, however, be accompanied by explanations of those parts of the maps, which would otherwise be obscure. With respect to the succession of events, without particular car~ to l?revent it, the study of ancient geography will tend to cvntuse mstead of enlightening the learner. Descriptions of places,. as they were in different ages of the world, are almost unaVOidably set 111 books without any other distinction of time, thall the general terms ancient and modern: while all ancient empires and cities, whether coexistent or not, are placed together on the maps. But the terms ancient and modern as applied to geography, can no more be contrasted than a point al1d a line j the one referring to the present merely, the other, to that long cour~e of ~ges, during which those numerous im· port~l1t changes 111, society took place, which)t is the business of hIstory to ~escrlbe. l\! aps, of historical or progressive geo­ graphy, are pictures of t,hmgs in a changing state j and such to ~e a?curate ca? take III but, a single point of time."' Con. Idenng these Circumstances, It became a problem with me, to • F~r a ,further illUstration of these prineiplcs see article on Diflicultie. Qecurnng In the ~tudy of a~ient Maps, &c. INTRODUCTION. Yll find some method of introducing my pupils to the study of his­ tory, by which they might habitually acquire clear ideas of the dates of events, while they were learning their places; and to> solve this has been a leading object of that part of the work, which they are required to study after the questions on the maps. Although of the three ideas, an event, its place, and date, the event is the most important, yet it is the visible representation of the place, with which, for the purpose of permanent impres­ sion, we should seek to associate the event and its date. -Hence the importance of requiring the student to examine his maps frequently, while he is studying historical facts. In chro­ nological charts, events are connected wilh the time in which they happened by means of visible objects, as colours, &c., but the associations are arbitrary; whereas in the method here proposed, the visible object with which the fact is connected, is the true geographical representation of the place in which it happened. To mention in an elementary work many names of objects without explanation, appears to me calculated to injure the mind of the young pupil, by repressing his natural curiosity to understand the things ·which are brought under his considera­ tion, and giving him a habit of being satisfied with mere words. On this principle I have sometimes preferred, as my limits are not extensive, to mention fewer objects and to give a more full idea of these. In the description of places I have omitted the enumeration of such as are celebrated for some particular event, partly fro ITt the same principle, and partly from my design to present facts as much as possible in the order of time. These enumerations generally present mere glances at detached passages of history and fable, which are too apt in this way to be mingled together in the mind of the learner. The pupil who follows the method here adopted, will, how­ ever, be obliged to learn a much greater number than ordinary, of celebrated places connected with the circumstances for which they are noted. But they are arranged in a different order. Those celebrated by their connexion with the events of profan(' history are found with the chronology ; and those with sacred and fabulous in distinct articles. This work not being designed for a book of reference, but solely for learners, we have not made a point of giving complete lists of modern names corresponding to ancient. * The true • In thi& edition it bas been tbought advisable to insert the names of t.be morg important modern ~ace8 correspoDdieg witb the allcient. ID teacblDg thIS viii INTRODUCTION. ======method of teaching these is to oblige the pupil ~o compare the ancient with the modern maps. Many questIOns should be O'iven with a view to this object. Besides, if the modern place ~orresponding to the ancient is important, the ~u~i1 will have learned it already from the modern map. If It IS not, why burden his memory to learn it at all? It is of consequence to him to understand where were Platea and Pharsalus, because he cannot otherwise comprehend the movements of the armies which engaged upon their plains; but it d~es not much concern him to know, by what names the obscure villages may be called which now occupy these venerable sites. PerSODR who have in their youth read history without method, will feel with the author, that they have lost much by not being taught some such plan, as is laid down in the directions for making maps. In reviewing the long line of time which has elapsed since the date of history, it would be absurd to expect that in each point which composes it, we should have clear ideas of every remarkable contemporaneous event. At the .'~tnJe time every person possessed of historical knowledge, must be sensible that there are in his mind certain points of time, from which, like eminences in a road, he can look abroad and discover the remarkable objects there existing together; and that, were it otherwise, his knowledge would run into one con­ filsed mass. In this plan we erect these eminences for the pupil, that thus they may be made at proper intervals, and that by contemrbting them in early youth the impressions may b(; permanent. "Ye plant him as it were upon one of these spots or time; we detain him upon it till he has collected everv Important (e'ct, and we oblige him to delineate it in a manner ~ensible to the eye, and giving him ever after a command of the whole at a single glance.

work. an inconrenience ~as been experienced jn regRrd fo pupils who arc not ~uffic'e.ntly a('qua\~ted \'\'lt~ modern geography, and instructers will SGmelimeg ~ obliged to admIt such mto their. cia,ses. The principles laid down in the lIltroductlOll ar,~, however, stili bl711€ved to be correct. Another reason for ~iving modern lIam~s corresponding with the ancient i!l, tbat having adopted lhe method of teachm~ geograpby by exorcising the pupil. in dr. wing maps. the modem ~ames as~mt th~ teacher without injuring tbe progresS' of tbe learn .. er. Our pup,ls d~'3W on their siate, or black boards the outlines of their map. !:locb as. (',oasts, l'IHTS, &c., making the usual characters for cities and towns, hut oml(('n~ the names; .which in explaining tbeir wOIk they give to their teach­ STRABO.

------ANCIENT OEOGRAPHY.

THE only portions of the earth known to the ancients, were those lying around the Mediterranean Sea; comprehending the southern and largest part of Europe, the northern of Africa, and the Bouth·western of Asia. By the ancients are here meant all those from whom we de. rive our knowledge of the ancient state of the wo rld, as the Greeks, Romans, and Jews. The principal geographers among the Greeks were Herodo­ tus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, and Ptolemy; and among th e Romans, Pliny. Of Jewish writers, the sacred historians and Josephus afford us the most geographical information. The limited notions of the ancients with respect to the ex· tent of the earth, may be seen from the engraved sketch of th e map of Strabo. They supposed that the continent on which they resided constituted the world; and that it was enclosed on every side by an ocean, which approached so near the Me. diterranean, as to cut off about half of what is now known to be the extent of the eastern continent. It was a dispute in Greece, whether mount Olympus or the temple of Apollo at Delphos, was the exact centre of the world. It was the world 10 A:VCIENT GEOGRAPHY. here described that Alexander was ambitious to conquer, and of which the Romans were resolved to make their city the ~vereign. The maps of D'AnviIIe and other modern authors, which are studied to obtain a knowledge of ancient geography, are often called ancient maps; but they are in reality modern maps, to which with great study and care the ancient names of seas, countries, &c., have been annexed. Because the great features of nature are permanent, the moderns conclude that whatever notions the ancients might have entertained concerning the several dlyisions of land and water, they ",ere in reality of the same form and extent in ancient as in modern times. 'Vhat these notions were, at as late a period as the commencement of the Christian era, may be known from the map of Strabo. By examining this map it will at once be perceived, how diffi. cult it is in many cases to decide, what are the real portions of the earth to which the ancient names belong; and the impossi. bility in other cases of determining the boundaries, where the name is not doubted. These points have caused disputes among the learned, many of which are now unsettled. Among these there is one respecting the situation of a portion of land, sup. posed to be an island, which Pytheas of Marseilles, an ancient navigator, discovered to the north of Britain and called Thule. As it is now known that there are a number of islands, as well as portions of the continent, to which the description given by Pytheas may be applied, it becomes questionable which is meant. Some of the learned maintain that it was Iceland, others, the peninsula of Jutland, others, that of SlOandinavia; but the most prevalent opinion, at this time, is that it was the Shetland Islands. The only countries of which the ancient geographers han tolerably correct notions, were those around the eastern section cf the Mediterranean; and as they went from these, their ideas generally became more and more confused and erroneous. It was. gravely ~ebated, whether Italy was a square or triangle. Spal~ was said to form a rectangle, of which the Pyrenees r~nmng north and south were the eastern boundary. Julius Cresar supposed the form of Britain to be triangular. The southern part of India was not known to be a peninsula. The Caspian Sea was thought to be a Bay of the great Northern Ocean, and the Ganges to fall into the Atlantic, which, till after the discovery of America, was believed to wash the eastern shores of Asia. Although the spherical figure of the earth was known to some of the wisest of the ancieDt philosophers, yet in general ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 11 their ideas on this point were very imperfect, until after they became corrected by an acquaintance with astronomy. Some thought the earth's figure concave, others a plain j some that it was quadrangular, others oblong. It was the general opinion that all countries south of the equator were rendered uninha. bitable by intense heat.* The ancients had even more extravagant notions concerning the inhabitants of distant countries, than of the countries them. selves. Having by some means obtained an idea that some singular race of beings inhabited a particular reo-ion, when from improvements in geography, it was ascertai~ed that no such beings were in that region; authors unwilling to relin. quish the idea of their existence, supposed that the place of their residence had been mistallcn and asoigned them another location. For example, the ancients believed that there exist. ed a race of female warriors called Amazons. At first they were supposed to reside near Colchis; next the ancient writers; placed them in the vicinity of the river Thermorlon. Strabo supposed that they dwelt in the valleys of Caucasus j Ptolemy on the banks of the Volga. The writers of (he middle ages placed them in the 0bscure regions of Scandinavia; and finally, after the discovery of the western continent, they were located in the heart of South America; and their name has been pre. served in that of the most majectic river of the world. The pupil here introduced to the study of ancient geogra. phy is supposed already to understand that of modern. But in many particulars the student learns them both at the samE" time, because the two studies partially coincide. To enable him to ascertain in what respect the geography of ancient times is the same as that of modern, a simple and comprehensive rule may be given. In geographical description, whatever is the work of nature may be considered permanent, whatever is the work of art, changing. The divisions of land and water, such as continents, seas, islands, mountains, rivers, &c. are formed by the Creator j and w~ find them, at the earliest date of geographical information, with a few comparatively unimportant exceptions, the same as at present. That the great features of nature have undergone important changes, in some remote age, is evident from th~ .fact, that mountains are found, which contain such vast quantIties of pe.

" The dotted I:no. on the map of Sirabo, mark (he limits of wh ..t the anciEDte !upposed 10 ~e the ho.lbilable part of the world. 12 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.

trified marine productions, as to justify the belief that they must have once constituted a part of the bed of the ocean. But at what time or in what manner these changes were produced, we arc left to conjecture, since with a few exceptions, they took place previous to the date of historical or geographical records. The most important of those known in history are detailed in a subsequent page. The names which different portions of land and water reo (',~i\'c, the division of the earth into countries, the collection of Ulmili('~ and tribes under one common government, their cities, temples, palaces, &e. being the work of man, are subject to great and frequent changes. Accordingly we find that the dif. ferent parts of the earth and sea have in most instances changed tllcir names. Empires have passed away. Of the most fa. mous cities of antifjuity, some, like Troy and Memphis, are so entirely demolished, that no vestige remains to mark the place' where they stood. Some. like Babylon, offer a few melancholy remains, barely sufficient to identify their situation; while others, like Athens and Palmyra, present, in their mouldering palaces and terr.ples, the most striking picture of the instability of the works of man.

ABBREVIATIONS, &c.

The following words and abbreviations are used on ancient maps to denote the natural divisions of the earth, &e. *

~.r. or P~om. (Promontorium) ...... a Cape. Sm. orSmus ...... a Bay. Ins. or Insula ...... an Island. Mare or Pontus ...... , .. • ...... a Sea. Mons ...... a Mountain. Fr. or Fretum ...... a Strait. l~ac. or Lacus ...... a Lake. Fl. or Flumen ...... a River. Cher. or Cbersonesus ...... Peninsula. ~~I. or Valium ...... a Wall. pl~ ...... a Way or Road. y a.. .. •• .. • .. . .. • • .. . .. • ...... • ...... •• a Gate or Strait•

.. It ~eems . k d . d d I more proper 1ft wor S '.Igned for pupils who are nol itudyiD~ 1M ead abng~ages, thai tb. Eliglish, rather thaD the Lalin phraseoloO'V should IJe lhuse I ; ut hIn '0 many ancien. I map. th eI' aller prevails that we have tbougblll"" . be« 'b" enoufg of Our maps should have the Latin termi~ations to accustom 'pupils to • e use 0 t h em. For Ih b h h' . .... tirst pari of th k h fe same .reason, 01 t e Lalln ODd Engh.h are gtftn IR I • e 5 PIc 0 co un Illes In the book. COUNTRIES KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 13

COUNTRIES KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS.

Arranged according to the Historical Epochas in whick they became known. '*

[The first map of the Atlas connected with this work exhibits one main feature of its plan, which is in progressive geogra­ phy to connect by association time with place.]

Countries kno'wn at the close of the First Epocha, B. c. 1921.t r Which in the earliest periods included tbe I country between the Euphrates and Tigris, and is supposed to have contained the garden Chaldea, J )lOf Eden. This name was afterwardS' re­ stricted to tbe country south-west of the Ell- phrates. Assyria, I Babylonia, t Syria, Mesopotamia, Now Turkey in Asia. Armenia, I Colchis, Asia Minor·t J Persia, Susiana, 1 Now includplwithin the bounds of. P~rsiai Media, ~ -Bactriana was, however, partly wlthlll the Aria, I present lipits of Independent Tartary. Buctriana. J Egypt.Arabia, } Ret<>tD th eu. anCIen . t names. Ethiopia, 'Now Nubia and Abyssinia. ' A city of Greece, the earliest founded of any Sicyon, in that country. Greece was not generally { known till a later period.

'* See Map No.1. t For II more particular accollnt of the chronological division or aneiGnt time into Epocitas, see article on Chronology. t The term "Asia Minor" was not in use among the anciunl8; bu.t the countI'J was called Asia. B COUNTRIES KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS.

Countriel which became known during the Second Epocha, ending B. c. 1491.

Greece or Grrecia, Thrace or Thracia, } Now Turkey in Europe. Illyricum. Part of Sarmatia. Southern part of Russia. ~anaan. Part of Turkey in Asia.

Third Epocha, ending B. c. 980. Italy or Italia. Italy. Canaan changed its name during this epocha to Palestine.

Fourth Epocha, ending B. c. 752. earmania, Gedrosia. } East Persia. India. Hindoostan. Libya. Libya. Was founded during this epocha, but Carthage or Carthago { tin country in which it is situated was not ''lown till a later period.

Fifth Epocha, ending 'I, c. 356. Scythia, Sogdiana, Siberia ~nd norfo.ern part of the Chi· Country of the Same. } nese Empire. Mresia. Servia and Bulgaria in Turkey in Europe. Dacia. { WalJachia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and part of Hungary. Gaul or Gallia, including Helvetia. France and Switzerland. ~armatia. Northern part of Russia.

Sixth Epocha, ending at the Chri,tian Era. Spain Or Hispania. Spain. COUNTRIES KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 1S

Britain or Brittannia, and Caledonia. England and Scotland. Hibernia. Ireland. Cimbria. Denmark. Germany or Germania, I Germany between the Rhine and Rhmtia, I Vistula. Noricum, )- The country of the Grisons. Vindelicia, I Austria, Steria, Carinthia, Suabia, and Pannonia. J Bavaria. Scandinavia or Scandia. Norway and Sweden. Mauritania. Morocco and Algiers. Gmtulia. Southern part of the Barbary states.

Concerning the remote eastern and northern countries of Asia, it is extremely difficult to find any correct data, on which to form any opinion as to the time in which they became known. It is certain that what few ideas the ancient geogra­ phers hau of them were confused and incorrect. It may be presumed that the seas became known about the same time with the countries to which they are contiguous. Of these many retain their ancient names.

The Atlantic Sea, or § N At! f Oc Mare Atlanticum. l ow an IC ean. The Mediterranean Sea, or1 Is now called the Meditarro- Mare Mediterraneum, or nean Sea. The eastern part in Interior Sea, or very ancient times was called the Mare Internum. J Great Sea. Red' Sea, A b'or ~ Red S ea, or Ara. b'Ian G u.If. Smus ra ICUS. Caspian Sea. Caspian Sea. Persian Gulf. Persian Gulf. Euxine Sea~ or 5 Black Sea. Pontus Euxmus. t lEgroan Sea, or 5 Archipelago. Mare lEgroum. t Adriatic ~ul.r, or Gulf of Venice. Sinus AdnatIcus. I Sea of Aquita~ia" or Ba of Biscay. Oceanus AqUitamcus. Y German Ocean, ~r SGerman Ocean, or North Sea. Oceanus Germamcus. ~ , G:ulf of Couanus, or SBaltic Sea. Smus Codanus. ~ 16 EUROPE.-GREECE.

EUROPE. Europe, although inferior in extent. to Asia and Afric~, half ever been superior to them in the learnmg, power, and gemus of its inhabitants. Of the empires mentioned in ancient history, those whose seats were in Asia and Africa seldom extended into Europe, while those whoso seats were in Europe, were frequently carried by conquest over large countries belonging to Asia and Africa. GREECE.· To the student in' elegant literature, Ancient Greece is the most interesting of all countries. The human mind appears to have taken its loftiest flights from this region. In respect to language, that most wonderful of all human inventions, the learned agree that the ancient Greeks excelled all other na­ tions. They originated many of the sciences, and were pre­ eminent in the elegant arts of oratory, poetry, painting, sculp­ ~ilre, and architecture. With the science and elegant literature which we derive from lile Greeks, we find associated many of the ancient names of their cities, rivers, &c., which thus become more interesting to us than the modern. Greece included that country which lay between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas on the west, and the lEgrean sea on the, south­ east. Illyricum was considered a country separate from Greece, till annexed to it by Philip of Macedon. Tho five large divisions of Greece were Peloponnesus, Grrecia Propria, Thessalia, Macedonia, and Epirus. Whose chief cities were Argos (Argo ),t (I ARGO LIS. { Epidaurus, Nauplia (Napoli). g5 LACONIA. SSparta (Misitra, see description of cities), ~ Epidaurus (Malvasio Vecchio). 00\~ MESSENIA. Messene, Pylas (Navarrrn). Z ELlS. Olympia, Elis, Cyllene. .Sicyon, the oldes! city in Greece, Corinth, rsituated on the middle of the isthmus of ~ 1ACHAIA. { Corinth, between the Corinthian and Sa- ronic Gulfs, having the port of Lechreum ~I l on the former and Cenchrere on the latter. l ARCADIA. S Mantinea, (Tripolizza,) Tegea, Megala­ ~ polis, (Leondri,) Orchomene. * See map, No.4. t The modern names, when inserted, are enclosed in parentheses. GREECE.' 1')'

r { .flthenos (Athens or Setines, see de scrip- ATTICA.. ti~m of cities), Panormu8, Marathon, Eleu- • su. ;:S IME GARIS. Megara.* ~ I { Thebes (Thiva or Thebes, see descrip- ~ BDelphi, Elatea. ;:S I f Naupactus (Lepanto), Thermopylre, con- o I sidered as the key of Greece ;-its celebro- ~ LOCRIS. { ted pass is only sixty paces broad. It af- ~ I I fords room but for a single carriage betWQQR L Mount (Eta and the Malian Gul£ DOlUS. ~ . L ETOLIA. Calydon, Therm'Us. ;:S jPELASGIOTIS; so Called} ...:I from the Pelasgi, who LarilSa, Gonnui, Heraclea. ;;i inhabited it. ~ THESSALIOTIS. Pharsalia.' il: I PHTHIOTIS. E-4 LMAGNESIA.. Melibrea. P .lEONIA.. PIERIA. EMATHIA. Beraa, Edessa, Pella. M YGDONIA. Thessalonica (Salonica). AMPHAXITES. CHALCIDICE. .R.poUonia (Polina), Olynthus, Stagira. EDONICA. .R.mphipolis (Jewboli), Neapolis, Philippi. SINTlCA.. Ul rACARNANIA.. .R.ctium (Azio), .R.rgps. ; ~ THRESPROTU. Buthrotum (Butrinto). ~ I CHAONIA.. r.l L MOLOSSIB. GULFs.-Strymon (Contessa), Thermrean (Salonica), PeieJ!­ gian (Volo), Malian (Zeiton), Saronic (Egina), Jrgolis (Na­ poli), Laconic (Colokythia), Messenian (Coron), Cyparissul (Arcadia), Corinthian (Lepanto), .R.mbracia (Arta). The gulfs of Peloponnesus indent it in such a manner that it resembles a leaf, and from that of a mulberry it has acquired the name of Morea.

* Euclid was a native of Meganl. There being a war between Mcgara and Athens, Euclid went thither in one night, a distance of twenty,oBe miliS, ill tbo dress oC a woman, to visit Socrates his former iIlStructer. B2 18 GREECE.

PRb;\IONTORIEs.-Ampelos, Sunium, near which was a mine of silver, from whence the Athenians derived an immense reve­ nue. Scylla;um, Malta (St. Angelo), 1'enarum (Matapan), .IJ.raxum. ISLANDs.-In the lEg-rean Sea, east of Thessaly, were several small islands, amonO' which were Halonessus (Dromo), PTe­ parethus, Scopetas (S~opetus), and Sciathus (Sciathe). The large island of Eubrea (Negropont), was separated from the continen~ by the Straits of Euripus, which were so narrow as to admit a bridge to be built over them. The ebb and flow of the tide was here said to be seven times in a day and night. In the Saronic Gulf were Salamis (Colouri), and Egina (Engia). These were surrounded by smaller islands, which rendered the navigation dangerous. East of Peloponnesus were the CYCLADES, so called from being in the form of a circle round Delos. The chief of these Islands were, Naxos (Naxia), which was fertile in wines. ParD!, distinguished for its beaqtiful white marbles; Andros (Andro), Tenos (Tino), Mycaneis (Myconi), Ceos, Cythnos (Thermia), aod .Melos. The Island of Cythera. (Cerigo), was south of Laconia. In the Ionian Sea were Zacynthus (Zante), Cephalenia (Ce­ iilionia), Ithaca (Theaki), Corcyra (Corfu), and Leucadia (Lef­ kathia, or St. Maura). This island was formerly a peninsula. On the south-west point of it a white rock projects into the sea, which gave name to the island.*' Creta or Crete ( Candia), was the largest island bel(mging to Greece. It was mountainous and woody, with fertile valleys intempersed. It produced chalk, and was thence called Creta. It was once famous for its hundred cities, of which the principal were Gnossus (Candia), Gortyna, and Cydonia. MOUNTAINs.-The distinguishing feature of Arcadia was its mountains. The principal were, Mount Menalus, ETymanthut; St'ymphalus, and Cyllene. In Laconia was Taygetus (Moun­ tams of the Mainotes). In Grrecia Propria were Pentelicu8, celebrated for its marble quarries, Hymettus for producing honey, and also the mountains of Cithreron, Helicon, and Par­ nassus. T.hessaly was surrounded by mountains. In the east were Pelton and Ossa; on the north, Olympus; on the west, PindlJl, and o~ the south, Othrys and (Eta. Mount Athas was in Ma­ cedoma .

. * It was fabled that a leap into the sea from this rock was a cure for the pas­ liton of love j hence it is called the [.weT', Leap. ITALIA OR ITALY. 19

The Acro Ceraunii mountains in Epirus are so called from their tops being struck with thunder. They were surrounded by rocks which projected into the sea and were dangerous to to Italy. mariners j from this place was the shortest passage RIVERS.-T n Peloponnesus were the Inachus, Eurolas, Aipheus and Peneus (Belvidere). The Crathis received the waters of the Styx.'if In Grrecia Propria, were th@ Evenus (Fidnri), in Etolia; the Cephissus which emptied into Lake Copais, the Asopus and Ther- 1~odon in Breotia; in Attica, the Ilissus and Cepltissus, at the junc­ tIOn of which Athens was situated. In Epirus were the Aelteron and Coeylus near Lake Aver­ nus·t In Thessaly the Apidanus and Enipeus emptied into the Peneus. From Larissa to the lEgrean sea, the Peneus, en­ closed between Mount Ossa and Olympus, was narrow and rapid. Along this passage was the beautiflll Vale of Tempe distinguished for its delightful temperature and picturesque scenery. In Macedonia the principal rivers were the Strymon, Axiua (Vardar), Erigon, Haliacmon and Eehedorus, said not to be suffi­ cient to supply the army of Xerxes with water.

ITALIA OR ITALY.+

ANCIENT ITALY, next to Greece, is the most interesting coun­ try of which history gives an account. The arts and sciences, originating among the Greeks, were by them taught to the Romans; and through this channel, have been conveyed to us. The' Roman empire at its greatest extent was the most power­ ful which the world has yet witnessed; and Rome, its capital, the most populous and splendid city. CIVIL DIVISIONs.-The three large divisions of Italy were Cisalpine Gaul, Italia Propria, and Magna Grrecia •. Magna Grrecia retained this name but a short til1)e, and was then Included in Italy Proper. Cisalpine Gaul was bounded on the north by the Alps, on the east by the Adriatic Sea; on the south by the river

These waters were said to be so cold and deadly that they proved fatal t? * that It those who tasted them. Their wonderful properties suggest~d the id~a Its f~llntaln h~ad. was I!. river of hell, especially as it disappeared a little below t From these itia supposed that Homer took his names of the mfemalnvers. t See Map No.3. DIVISIONS OF ITALIA PROPER.

Rubicon, a line drawn from the Rubicon to the Gulf Ligusticus, and the Gulf Liausticus; and on the west by the Alps. Italia Propria extended from the Rubicon to the Gulf of Urias. It af­ terwards included the southern part, or Magna Grrecia.

The chief DIVISIONS OF CISALPINE GAUL were V . ~ 'Vhose Principal cities were Tergeste (Trieste), enetIa, P alavlUm. (P a d ua, ) A qUI'1' ela. Lingones, Ravenna r"tain~ its ancient name. Hoii, Mutina (M odena). Liguria, Genua (Gpnoa), Niece (Nice). Tatirini, Augusta TaurinQrum (Turin). Insubres, .Mediolanum (Milan), Tieinum (Pavia).

DIVISIONS OF ITALIA PROPER.

Etruria, ~ Florentia (Florence), Portus Herculis (Leg­ l horn), Veii. ROl\lE (see description of cities) Tibur (Tivo­ Latium, { li), where is the great cascade of the Anio, Alba Longa, .JJppii Forum, Prcenesie. Campania, 5 Neapolis (Naples), Cumre, Puteoli, Cap'lla ~ (Cuplla), Herculaneum, Pompeii. Samnium, Beneventum. Lucania, Pres!Urn. Bruttium, Rhegium (Reggio), Sybaris. Hydruntum (Otranto), Brundusium, remark­ Calabria, able for the excellence of its harbour. From these two places was the shortest pa~age to 1Greece. Apulia, Vellusia (V enosa), Cannre. Picenum, Vmbria, Spoletiurn (Spoletto). GULFS.-Ligusticus (Genoa), Crater (Naples), Prestanus (Salerno), .Laiis (Policastro), Tarentum (Tarento), Urias (~anfredoma), Tergeste (Trieste), .!1driatic Sea (Gulf of Ve­ mce). RIVERs.-Padus (Po). Its branches were the Trebia, Ta­ "US, Gabe.a~s, Rh.enus (Rheno), Mincius (Millcio), .!1ddUG (Adda), Ttc1nuS (Tlceno). Besides the J»adus and its branches, were the Arnus (Arno), Tiberis (Tiber), Liris, Vul/urna, M,. tauru,. JlUjidU3, Rubicon. BRITANNIA. INCLUDING CALEDONIA. 21

ISLANDS.-Sicily, from its trianO'ular fjO'ure sometimes called Trinmria, is the largest and most importa~t island in the Medi­ terranean; and was from its fertility formerly called the granary of the Roman empire. Its chief cities were Syracuse (Syracuse), Hybla, famous for its honey. JHessana (Messina), Panormus (Palermo), Catana (Catania), .B.g6genturn, and LzlybaC!lrrt. Mount JEtna retains its ancient name. The other islands adjacent to Italy, were Sardinia or Ichnusa, Corsica or Cyrnus, IIva (Elba), which abounded in iron, the JEolim or Vulcania, (Lipari Isles,) famous for the volcano of Strornbolo or Strongylm (Stromboli), and Melita (Malta). LAKES.-The lakes of Italy were more remarkable for their beauty than their extent. The principal were Verbanus (Mag­ giore), Larius (Como), Benacus (Gardo), Fucz'nus (Celano), and Thrasymenus. PROMONTORIEs.-Herculis (Spartivento), Japygium (Cape Di Leuco.) On the Italian side of the straits of Messina, anciently called Fretum Siculum, was Scylla, a rocky point, and on the Sicilian side was Charybdis, '1 vast whirlpool.

BRITANNIA, INCLUDING CALEDONIA.*

This country was also called Albion, from the white rocks on its coast. It was divided by the Romans, who effected the conquest of the southern part abont the time of thA Cbristian era, into Britannia Romania or Roman Britain, and Britannia Barbara or Barbarous Britain. The last was the northE;rn part, and was also called Caledonia. It was inhabited by tile Cale­ donians and Pictsl so called because they painted their bodies. The Scoti or Scots are not mentioned by writers till some centuries after the Christian era, and are supposed to have corne from Ireland. The Caledonians preserved in the northern extremity of tho island, their wild independence j for which they were not less indebted to their poverty than their valour. The Romans, who, though masters of the fairest and most wealthy purt of the globe, had taken much pains to subdue the southern part of the island, turned with contompt from these northern regions, which

'" See map No.2. GALLIA OR GAUL.

they described as a country of gloomy hills, assailed by wintry tempests; of lakes concealed in a blue mist; and of cold and lonely heaths, over which the deer of the forest were chased by a troop of half-naked barbarians. When the Romans invaded Britain, it was divided into a number of small independent states. At that time they had hardly any tbing answering to our ideas of a city or town. Their dwellings, like those of the ancient Germans, were scat­ tered sometimes on the banks of a rivulet, and sometimes on the skirts of a wood, according as their object was water or game. The walls built by the Romans were chains of forts, to se­ cure their conquests against the Caledonians. That of Anto­ ninus extended from the F lith of Forth to the Clyde; that of Adrian, from Solway Frith to the Tyne. The four principal tribes of Britain were, the Brigantes, lures, Iceni, and Bel gce. The sections of the country which each inhabited was called by the name of the tribe. MOUNTAINs.-The Grampian Hills were the only ones to which the Romans gave names. SEAs.-British Sea (English channel), Verginian Sea (St. George's channel), Hibernian Sea (Irish Sea). STRAITS.-Fretum Galliculn (Straits of Dover). RIVERs.-Thamesis (Thames), Sabrina (Severn). . CITIES and Tow:

GALI.IA OR GAUL.

THE. Gre~ks. ca!led this country Galatia. The Romans named It Galha : Its IDhabltants gave it the name ofCeltica. The Roma.ns considered it as being divided by the Alps into two parts, of WhiCh, that nearest Rome was called Cisalpine Gaul and that beyond the Alps, Transalpine Gaul. ' HISPANIA OR SPAIN.

G~llia Cisalp~na comprehended the northern part of Italy; Galha TransalplDa, France, Holland, Switzerland, and a part of Germany• . Gallia Transalpinn was divided by the Romans into four pro. vIDces. N ARBONENSIS, 5 Vienna (Vienne), Massilia (Merseilles), To- t losa (Toulouse), Forum Julii (FreJus). LUGDUNENSIS, S Lutetia (Paris), Genabum (Orleans), l,AIg­ t dunum (Lyons). AQUITANIA, Burdigala l Bourdeaux). BELGICA, Duvidorum (Metz). MOUNTAINs.-Vogesus (Vosges), Jura. RIVERs.-Rhenus (Rhine), Rhodanus (Rhone), Liger (Loire), Garumna (Garonne), Sequana (Seine), Scaldis (ScheIdt), Mosa (Meuse).

HISPANIA OR SPAIN.

THIS country was called by the Greeks Iberia, and also from its remote situation towards the west, Hesperia. It was di­ vided by the Romans into two provinces, Citeriour and Ulte­ riour, nearer and farther, that is, from Rome. Hence in Ro­ man history it is sometimes called the two Spains. At a lat!,!r period, the emperor Augustus divided it into three provinces, the Ulteriour into Bretica and Lusitania, and to the Citeriour he gave the name ofTarraconensis. Tarraco (Tarragona,) Emporire (Ampu- Cities of rias), Pompelo (Pampcluna), Car/hago Nova Tarraconensis, (Carthagena), Numantia, Saguntum (Morvie­ ~ dro), Segovia. :Brotica, 5 Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), COTduba t )Cordova). LUl!litania, } ,now Otisippo (Lisbon). Portug-al, RIVERs.-Tagus (Tajo), !beTus (Ebro), Ere/is (Guadalquivir)~ .l1.nas (Guadiana), Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro). STRAIT.-Fretum Herculum (Strait of Gibraltar). MOUNTAINs.-Pyrenees, which retain their ancient name. ISLANDs.-Beleares, Major, Minor, and jJityusre (Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica). PROMONTORIEs.-Sacrum (Cape St. Vincent), JJ.rtabrwm (Cape Finisterre). GERMANY-IICANDINAVIA, &c.

GERMANY. Germany included the country between the Rhenus and the Vistula, having the sea on the north, and the Danube on the south. The Germans had no regular cities. They were not allowed even a continuity of houses. But in their villages each house stood detached, with a vacant spar;:e around it j the in­ habitants were annually removed from one place to another, that they might not lose their military spirit by acquiring a taste for agriculture. The manners of the ancient Germans appear to have been similar to those of the American Indians. The forests and morasses were filled, with a hardy race of barbarians, who de­ spised life when separated from freedom. The principal of these were the .!1llemanni,'* from whom Germany is called in French .!111emagne. Among the natura features of ancient Germany, its forests were distinguished. Its principal rivers were, the Visurgis (Weser), .!1lbis (Elbe), Viadrus (Oder), Vistula (Vistula), and lster (Danube).

SCANDINAVIA, CALLED ALSO SCANDIA. Of this country the ancients had a very imperfect knowledge, supposing it to be a large island or collection of islands. Mo­ dern writers on Ancient Geography are therefore necessarily at a loss with respect to its precise boundaries. Most writers confine the name to the peninsula west of the Baltic, together with the territory north of that sea j but others say that Scan­ dinavia included also the country lying east ofthe Baltic, and that it comprehended N orw,ay, Lapland, and Finland.

COUNTRIES EAST AND NORTH OF GREECE.- THRACE was a wild country, fertile only in places near the s~a.' .and inhabited by nations addicted to rapine. In the sub­ dlVlslOns of t~e Roman Empire, during the age of Dioclesian and Constant~ne, Thrace was formed into many provinces. That part which f'xtended to the Propontis, was called Eutopa. West of Europa the province of H l mimontus extended to the Hebrus. Rhodope bordered on the lEgrean sea. Thraci!1 was the country towards the sources of the Hebrus.

Its principal cities were Byzantium, or Constantinople (sec description of cities), Lysimachia, .!Egos Potamos, Sesto~, He" melea, Apollonia, Beril3a, Hadrianopolis (Adrianople), Trajano o poli.s, Philipopolis, Nicopolis, Neapolis. The gulf of Melas extended into the southern part of Thrace. ISLANDs.-South of Thrace were Samothrace (Samotqraki), :md Thasos (Tasse). Thasos was distinguished for its beau" tiful white marbles. RIVERs.-The Hebrus (Marissa), and its branches; and th" Nestus (Nesto). Mount Hil3mus separated Thrace from Mcesia. From the top of this mountain, it is said, the Euxine and Adriatic Seas were both visible. Rhodope was in the western part. M(ESIA extended from the Euxine, between Mount Hremus and the Danube, to the junction of that river with the Savuso Mcesia was divided mto superior, including the western, ana inferior, the eastern part, CITIEs.-Singidunum (Belgrade), Nicopolis (Nicopoli), Odes" sus, Marcianopolis. RlvERs-Iatrus, (Escus (Esker), Timacus (Timok), and Ilfargus (Morava), branches of tbe Ister (Danube). DACIA occupied the country south of the Carpathian Moun. tains and the Tyras, and north of the Ister. Its western boundary was the Ister; its eastern, the Tyras and Euxine, Its chief city was Ulpia Trajana, or Sarmigezetltus. The branches of the Ister in Dacia were, the Tibiscw (Tiess), lIfarissus (Maros), Arm'us (Siret), Pyretus (Pruth). P ANNONIA extended along the southern bank of the Da. nube, from the mouth of the Savus to Noricum. Its northern and eastern boundary was the Danube; southern, lIlyricum; western, Noricum. Its principal cities were Vindibona (Vienna), Arrabona, and Sirmium. This country receivl'ld the Dravlls (Drave) as it issued from ~oricum, and comprehended the greater part of the course of Ihe Savus (Save). ILLYRICUM was on the Adl'iatic, Its chief divisions werf Liburnia and Dalmatia. CITIES.-Epidaurus, Salona, Andetrirn, Metulum. ' NORICUM bordered on the southern shore of the Danube) from Pannonia to the mouth of the (Enus. Its principal cities WeTe Juvanum, LQU1iacp,m, and Vi1'1jllU1W' C :!6 ASIA-ASIA MINOR.

RHffiTIA was west of Noricum, bordered on the south by the Alps, and on the west by the same mountains, as far as to Lake Brio-antmus. From this lake to the mouth of the (Enus was Vindelicia." Tridentum was the principal city of Rhcetia. Briaantia (Bregentz), was on Lake Briganlinus (Con. stance), in Vindel~cia,

ASIA.

Asia has in some }'cspects been honourably distinguisheu trom every other part of the globe. Tracing backward the ·course of history, we should be ·led by sacred, as well as by profane writers, to believe that it was here the human race had their first origin; and it was here that the founder of a religion which has already spread over the most enlightened parts of the earth, lived and died.

ASIA ilIINOR."

This name was unknown to the ancients; but the country it denotes was divided into many independent kingdoms. Asia Minor, in its ancient state, is interesting to readers of profane history, but still more to those who study the sacred, Here St. Paul wandered through many perils to promote the cause <>f Chrigtianity, and here by his ministry some of the earliest ~hurches were founded.

Divisions of Asia Minor.

(;ouni,·ies. Cities and Towns. PONT US, S Trapezus (Trebizond,) Amisus, Aml(,Sea ~ (Amisea), Cerasus, Comana. PAPHLAGONlA, Sinope, Amaslris, Gangra. Heraclea, Nicomedia, Hadrianopolis, BITHYNIA, Prusa, (Bursa), Apamea, Niccea (~ice}, ~ Chalcedon. MYSIA, C'!!zicus, Apollonia, Pergamus. . ll~um, or Troy. (It was situated at the TROAS, { JunctIOn of the rivers Simois and Seaman. der. ) AS80S. . iEoLIA.

t 5()e Map No.3. ASIA ~nNOR. 27

Smyrna (Smyrna), Ephesus (Ephesus, IONIA, see description of cities,) Clazomene, Co­ lophon, lJ'Iycale, Miletus. CARLA. ~ Halicamassus Cnidus. LYCIA; Pafara, Xanthus. P AJlIPHYLL\ and PISIDIA, ~ Perga, Attalia, Antioch. (Cilicia was so surrounded by moun· CILICIA, tains that it had but few passages, and these ~ very narrow.) Tarsus, Antiochia, Issus. CAPPADOCIA, llIazaca, or Cesarea. ARnIENIA MINOR. Apamea, Thymbrium, Hierapolis, Lao- P HRYGL1, d' C ~ lcea, 'OlOSS03. ISAURIA, ~ [conium, Lyslm, Derbe. L YC.'l.ONL\, LYDIA, Sardis, Philadelphia, Thyatira. GALATIA, Gordium. MouNTAINs.-The mountains of Taurus extended through the southern part of Asia Minor. Anti-Taurus and Amanm were in the eastern part. Cytorus, in Paphlagonia; Mounts Olympus, Cragus, and Anti.Cra{{us, in Lycia; another Olym. pus in Bithynia : Mount Ida, in Traas; jIycale, in Ionia. PROMONTORIEs.-Carambis (Karempi), Jasoniwn, Sigeum, i--ectum, Trogyllium, Sacrum, Anemurium. GULFS AND BAys.-Bay of Amisus, Gulf of A.dramyttium, Smyma, Glaucus, Bay of Isslls. ISLANDS.-The islands in the east part of the JEgean Sea, were called Spomdes; and commonly annexed to Asia, though peopled by Greeks. Near Lycia is the island of Rhodes, or Rhodus. The other islands are Cos, or Coos, Patmos (Pal. mossa), where St . .Tohn wrote his Revelations, Samos, Icaria (Nicaria), Lcmnos, Scios (Scio,) fillllOUS for its wines, Lesbus whose chief city was Mitylene, by which name the island is now called. RIVERs.-Halys (Kizil.Ermak, or Red River) Iris, Tlier. modon, Parthenius, Sangarius, Rltyndacus, Esopus, Granicus, Caicus, Herunis, or Hermus, (Sarabat), Meander, (celebrated for its winding course), Xanthus, Limyrus, Cestrus, Euryme­ don, Sarus, Pyramus. There was a river named Melas, in Pamphylia; likewise one in Cappadocia. There were rivers named Lycus, iu POIl'­ ~us, Bithynia, and Phrygia. COUNTRIES OF ASIA.

COUNTRIES BETWEEN THE EUXINE AND CASPIAN SEAS."

These countries were mountainous, but extremely fruitful. COLCHIS extended along the eastern coast of the Euxine. trom the mountains of Caucasus to Pontus. Its principal citles were Phasis, situated on a river of the same name; Cyta, JEa, Dioscurias, Pityus. IBERIA had Mount Caucasus on the north. A range from Caucasus separated it from Col chis, and another from Albania. IIarmozica was its principal city. ALBANIA extended from Iberia to the Caspian Sea. Its p.rincipal city was Albania Pylm. RIVERs.-Araxes (Arras), Cyrus (Kur.) ARMENIA was south of these countries: Artaxata (Ardesh) was its capital; the other towns were, Tigranocerta, Arsamosate, and Amida (Diarbeck.) MOUNTAINS.-Niphates and Ararat were the principal. . The rivers Tigris and Euphrates take their rise in thIS .::ountry. Lake Arsissa (Lake Van) was in the southern part of Ar­ menia.

COUNTRIES BETWEEN THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE EUPHRATES.t

SYRIA. This country had Mount Taurus on the nQrth. It .extended along the Mediterranean sea to Tyre, and wa~ bounded on the east by Arabia and the river Euphrates. It was divided into Syria Prima, Syria Secunda or Salutaris, Phamicia Proper, Phrenicia Libani, and Syria Euphratensis. Comma gene was a part of the Euphratensis. Crelo.Syria was a name given to that part of Syria Libani, which lay be. tween the ridges Libanus and Anti-Libanus. CITIES AND TOwNs.-Antiochia (Antioch), SeZeucia, Daphne, (c.elebrated for its groves of cypress and laurel, and cool foun. tams~ Berma (Aleppo), Samosata, Zeagma, Hierapolis, Alex. andrza(Scanderoon), Damascus, BaZbee or Heliopolis(Balbeck), p'~lmyra, .calle~ in very ancient times Tadmor. Tyre antI Sulonretam their ancient names. Tyre was famous for its pur. pie dye. RIVERS.-Orontes, Eleutheris, Lycus.

, See Map No 2. t See Maps No 3 and 5. COUNTRIES OF ASIA.

MOUNT AINs.-LibanUB, Anti.Libanus. The islan~ of Cyprus was west of Syria. Its principal cities were Salamls, Amathus, and Paphos; Mo~nt Olympus was in 1he western part. P ALES~INE was the country of the Philistines, or that country whiCh extended from Joppa to Gaza. JUDEA, and <1:fterwards the Holy La,nd, were names given to the country which extended f:rom Syua to Egypt, and to this country many modern writers have extended the name of Palestine. This was a country of mountains and valleys, hills and plainso The soil, though at present barren, was, in ancient times, fer. tile, producing plentifully grass for cattle, and herb for the sero ·:ice of man. This country was divided among the twelve tribes of Israel, .Tudah, Simeon, Benjamin, Dan, Ephraim, Manasseh, Zabulon, Issachar, Naphtali, Asher, Gad, Reuben. . The Moabites were west of the Lake Asphaltites. The Ammonites east of Ferrea. IdumlBa, or the Land of Edom, was south of Palestine. . After the return of the Jews from captivity, Judrea was di. vided into four kingdoms. ( Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Gaza, Gath, Ascalon, J GD}EA, ) Azotus, Ek1'on, Ephraim, Gophna, Emmaus, En. ~ gaddi, Hebron, Jericho. , 5 Joppa, Lydda, Cesarea, Sychar, Sichem, Sa' 'i.' )fARIA, ~ maria or Sebaste. Cana, Naza1'eth, Tiberias, Genesareth, Betk· d}_~UL;EA, saida, Capernawn, Jotapata, Nain, Ptolemais or { {cco (Acre), Clwrazin, Cesarea, Philippi. , Decapolis included the cities of 8cythopolis, PElI£.I, I Gadara, Hippos, Pella, Dillm, Gemsa, Pltiladel' ~ phia, Abila, and Capilolais. Rabbath IJIoab was the principal city 'of the Moabites. LAKES AND RIVERs.-Lake Asphaltites from its stagnant \vaters is now called the Dead Sea. This lake is so salt that Aeither animals nor vegetables ean live in it. It is supposed to occupy the place where Sodom and Gomorrah once. stood. It was united to the Sea of Tiberias or Lake of .Gaillee by tht, river .Jordan. The other streams were the l'lver Arnon and brook Kedron. o MOUNTAINs.-Hermon, Gilead, Aba?'im ..!jebo, Pisgah, Geri • ,.~£"n, Seir, Carmel, Tabu?'. C2 30 ARABIA-ORIENTAL CQUXTRIES.

ARABIA." THE ancient as well as modern divisions of Arabia were Arabia Petrm, Arabia Felix, and Ambia lJeserta. The land of U z, Midian, and the country of the Sabai, were in Arabia. Cities.-lJfacaraba (Mecca), Madian, Elana, Eziongebel', Petrm, Sabatha, Mariaba. Tylos was an island in the Persian Gulf, famous for its pearl fishery. ORIENTAL COUNTRIES.t MESOPOTAMIA was situated between the Tigris and Eu. phrates. It was called in Scripture, Aram. According tn Strabo, it was fertile in vines. . Cities.-Edessa, Nicephorium, Is or Eiopolis, Nisibis. The Mygdonius, a branch of the Euphrates, was the prin. cipal river of Mesopotamia. ASSYRIA was called by some of the ancients, Adiabene. and by some Aturia or Atyria. Provinces. Cities. CDRDUENE, r ATURIA, I Ninus or Nineveh, (see description of cities, I ADIABENE, {Seleucia (Bagdat), Ctesiphon, Demetrius, Opis: GARA:lLEI, l Arbela, Gaugamela. CHALONITIS, RlvERs.-Lycus or Zabus, Caprus, Physcus, Gyndes, Chao aspes. The Zagros mountains separated Assyria from Media. Cities. CHALDEA, 5 Babylon or Babel, (see description of cities~ BABYLONIA, ~ Vologesia, Alexandria. MEDIA.-The northern parts of this country lying between t he mountains and the Caspian Sea, were extremely cold and barren, but the southern were more fertile. It was divided int(, several provinces. Provinces. Cities. ATROPATENE, ( COMMISENE, I Ecbatana (Hamadan), Gaza, HecatompyZos, ART,CENE, { Caspii PyZm, Rages. TABIENE, I MATIANA, l In the western part of Atropatene was a salt lake, called-

~' See Map ~o. 2( t See JUi.£,pS"No. 2 anllot ORIENTAL COUN'rRIES. 31

8pauta or Marcianus. Many plains in the southern part of Media were also covered with salt. SUSIANA was divided into two provinces, Elymais and Cissia. Its capital was Susa, called in Scripture Shusan. PERSIA was ancientl y called Elam. The kingdom of ancient Persia at its greatest extent, included all the countries from the Hellespont to the Indus, above 2,800 miles, and from Poutus to the shores of Arabia, above 2,000 miles. The province of Persis or Persia Proper is now F~trs. Its principal cities were Persepolis (Estakar, see description of cities), Aspadana (Is, pahan), Pasagardce. CAR~IANIA 'CITlEs.-Harmosw,~ . Carmdlla; G EDROSIA, ARIA, Articoana or Aria Alexandria (Candahar) . .,. BACTRIANA, Bactra (Balk). Maracanda (Samarcand), Gabce, Alexandr.i,a SOGDlANA, or Cyreschata (Krojund). HYRCANIA, 1Hyrcania, Zadracarta, Syring-is. INDIA. This extensive country was divided by Ptolemy and the ancient geographers into India within and India be, yond the Ganges. The first division answers to the modern division of Hindoostan; the last to the Birman empire, and to the dominions of Pegu, Siam, &c. India took its name from the Indus which formed its western boundary. The peninsula of Malaya was known by the name of Aurea Chersonesus. - CITIEs.-Taxila, Aornos, Caspira (Cashmere), Serinda. Sogdi, Alexandria, Nysa. R1VERs.-The principal branches of the Indus were thL flydaspes, Acesina, Hydraotes, and Hyphasis. The Condo, o;/wtes and Jomanes were branches of the Ganges. GULFs.-Barygazenus (Cambay), Gl'eat Bay or Magnus Sinus (Siam). ISLANDs.-Salice or Tapl'obana (Ceylon), Jebadii (Su, lllatra) . SCYTHIA was a general name given by the Greeks and Romans to a large portion of Asia, and was divided by them into Scythia within and Scythia beyond Imaus. Scythia within Imaus was bounded on the west by the Rha and Asiatic Sar­ matia, on the north by unknown countries, on the east by part. of the chain of Imaus, and on the south by the country' of the Sacrn, by Sogdiana and th~ Caspian. Scythj~ beyond Imaus -was bounded on the north by unknown countrIes, on the west hy Imaus, on the south by India, and on the east by S~rjca, A considerable nation of Scythia was the Massagetre or Great Getre whose principal dwelling was north of the Jaxartes. South-east of these lVas the great nation of the Sacre, and north of the Sacre were placed the Seres, whose country was Serica. The Annibi mountains correspond with the Altain. Its chief city was lssedon. . . But little was known of the Smal, placed east of Serlca, or the tribe of that name placed east of India. SARMATIA. This countr} was divided into European and 1siatic Sarmatia; the first, boundcd on the north by the Ocean, nn the we~t by Germany and the Vistula, and extended to the Euxine on thoB east, being parted from Asiatic Sarmatia by the Cimmerian Bo~phorl1s, Pal us Mceotis and Tanais. Asiatic Sar­ llJatia extended from the Tanais, bounded south by the Euxine sea and mouutains of Caucasus, around the northern shore of he Caspian sea. In the east its rivers were the Rha (Wolga), Wlymicus, and Daix which fell into the Caspian. In the west \Vas tIle H!lpanis which fell into the Euxine.

AFRI(~A.

'fhe state of learning and civilization in some parts of Africa .vas much better in ancient than in modern times. AFRICA PROPER included the celebrated republic of Carthage, which about three hundred years before the Christian :I'a, was superior to Rome itself in respect to many of the arts, mrticularly that of navigation. Besides Carthage, its cities vere Zama, Utica, Adrumetum, Tunis, Thapsus, Capsa. The river Bagradas passed through this country and Nu­ nidia. EGYPT, a little before the Christian era, was one of the first :ountries of. the ancient world, and in point of commercial ·nportance .It exceeded all its contemporaries. It was distin­ ;Ulshed for Its superiority in science and art, and for its canals, lyramids, and othe~ public works, whose unrivalled grandeur , attested by the fluns which still exist. Di L'is;i/n-s. Cities and Towns. Alex~ndria, (see description of cities,) Nico. polzs., Pelusium, Heroopolis, Latopolis, ArStn06 (Suez). From this place a canal. ~ was .cut to .one of the branc!1.es of the NJIe: BABYLONo

Divisions. Citit$ and Tvwns. HEPTANOMIS , or I Memphis, (see description of cities,) Ptolemai~ THEBAIS f (Glfge), Coptos, Syene, Thebes or Diospolis. _ or (see description of citieso) UPPER EGYPT, J NUMIDIA was separated from Mauritania by the river Amp­ sagas. Cirta was its capital. MAURITANIA, (from which the Moors derive their name, i was the seat of numerous Roman Colonies, established on it:, coasts. . LIBYA was properly the country bordering on the great Syr. tis. The name was used by the Greeks for the whole of Africa. Its divisions were Cyrenaica and Marmaricao TRIPOLIS lay between the Syrtis Major (Gulf of Sidra,) ane; the Syrtis Minor, (Gulf of Cades.) It received this name from its containing three principal cities; Leptis, lEa (Tripoli,) anCl. 8abrata.

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CITIES.

View of the most Important Cities of the Ancient World.

BABLYON was long the most celebrated city of the world, The walls built of large bricks, cemented by bitumen, were 350 "eet high, 87 feet thick, and 60 miles in circumference. The form of the city was a square, its sides subtending the four car· dinal points.. The towers on the walls were only 250 in num­ ber, several places being surrounded by marshes, and therefore sufficiently secure without them. There were 100 gates-25 on each side, all of solid brass. From these ran straight streets, intersecting one another, and dividing the city into squares" Around these squares stood the houses, three or four stories high, and separated by certain intervals. The space in the middle of each square was generally laid out in gardens, bm pasture grounds for cattle were reserved. In the centre of the city stood the Temple of Belus, a massy square edifice, half a mile in extent every way. The riv'J!' Euphrates flowed through it, and over this river was a NINEVEU, JERUS_\.LElII, &C.

:J!'idrre more than half a mile ill length. At the end of this brid~eo were two palaces , that communicated , with each other, by a vault built under the cha,nnel of the rlv~r. Before the bridrre and vault could be built, a lake 37 miles square and ;~5 f~et deep, \\'as dug to rec,eive its, waters. A~ter, thi,s \\as (:ompleted, the ri\'er was agam premltted to flow m Its tormer ,-"hannel. The hanging gardens wer~ works scarcely less, stupendous. They are said to have contamed a square extendmg 400 feet on each side. They consisted of terraces rising one above another, like the ~eats of a theatre, and carried up to the height of the walls of the city. These terraces were sup. ported on arches, and were watered from the Euphrates by means of engines. Large trees grew upon them, and they had, at a distance, the appearance of a woody mountain, in­ termixed with the !lIost beautiful flowers and plants of all kinds. The ruins of Babylon are found, by modern travellers, in the vicinity of Hellah. They consist chiefly of immense piles of bricks cemented by bitumen, some of which stretch along the plains 1650 feet, and rise to the height of 60 feet. By tar the most stupendous and surprising ruin is called by the Arabs, "Birs Nimrod," by some supposed to have been the towel' of Belus, It is a mound or hill of ruins, 198 feet in hei:rht and 2280 feet in circumference;-On its summit is a solid pile 37 feet in height, formed of fine burnt bricks, covered with inscriptions. NINEvE;r exceeded all the early cities of Asia, except Ba­ bylon. Its walls were 100 feet high, and so broad that three chariots could be driven on them abreast. - They were 48 miles in circuit and defended by 1500 towers j each 200 feet in height. Some vestiges of the ruins of Nineveh are supposed hy late travellers, to, exist on the east bank of the Tigris, op­ posite MosuL JERl'S_tLEM was built on four hills, Sion, Acra, Moriah, and Bezetha, or Kainopolis, that is, the new town. It was surround­ e,d by a triple wall, about 8 miles in circumference. On Mo­ nah stood that magnificent buildinrr the Temple w.hich was a Iso a k'IUd of fortress. The city was0" situated on a stony soil, and t,he country around it ~or several miles being dry and bar­ Te!!, It was not well supplIed with water. Its principal foun­ ~al~ was calle~ Siloa, or Gihon. The modern city, which is 'uhUllt on, the flUns of Kainopolis, is small in comparison witt, ( e ancient. PALMYRA, BALBECK, &C.

PALMYRA is thought to have been the Tadmor in the Dc. sert, built by Solomon. Its splendid ruins, which mark it~ former magnificence, consist of temples, palaces, and porti; coes, of Grecian architecture, scattered over an extent of several miles. Of these, the most remarkable is the temple of the Sun. BALBECK or Heliopolis had also a most magnificent temple of the Sun, the' ruins of which form the most conspicuous ob­ ject, amidst the gloomy remains of its ancient grandeur. PERSEPOLlS, burnt by Alexander the Great, exhibits in its extensive ruins, some traces of its ancient splendour. These are found neal' Estakar. EPHESUS, now a mass of ruins, was an illustrious Gred city. Here was the celebrated temple of Diana, which was 220 years in building, and which was burnt on the night th,,1 Alexander was born, by one Erostratus, who determined to do something for which his name should be remembered. It. rose however from its ruins, with superior splendour. It was 225 feet in length and 200 in breadth. The roof was sup. ported by 127 columns 60 feet high. THEBES or DIOSPOLlS, extended on both sides of the Nile, and from the extent of its astonishing ruins, it mllst have been 27 miles in circumference. At Luxor, the largest village on the ruins, stands the temple of Memnon, which although less extensive than several other temples of this city, is now in ;, better state of preservation. The European traveller, on entering the ruins of Thebe", is struck with the peculiar featores, and colossal dimension" nf every thing about it. The smallest pillars of the temples are seven and a half feet in diameter-some of the largest, eleven. Huge images of stone, sometimes of 100 feet in height, placed in different postures, obelisks, sphinxes, and other ruins, which towel' above the surrounding palm"trees, make him " feel as if he had entered a land of giants." On the western bank of the Nile, 15 miles south of the Delta, was Memphis, the ancient metropolis of Egypt. Since the fifteenth century even its ruins have entirely disappeared. Near this place are the Pyramids. These stupendous fabrics, according to the accounts of travellers, are forty ill number. Three of them are larger than the others. The largest is about 500 feet in height, and covers eleven acreS of «round. In the vicinity was the lake Mreris, at the south of ~vhich was the famous labyrinth that was said to contain 3000 chambers. This, as well as the pyl:amids, was used for hl]r~' . j!lg places fot the kings. ALEXANDRIA, CARTnAGD, &C.

ALEX.\NDRIA. The plan of Alexandria was first laid, and the city built by Alexander the Great. It was situated about Iwelve miles west of the mouth of the Nile, between Lah ~larcotis and the island of Pharos, which was joined to the main land by a mole or causeway, near a mile long, with a Lridge at each end of it. The beautiful and regular forlll of this great city, second only to Rome, comprehended a cir. cumference of fifteen miles. The commodities of India and jhe East were diffused from the port of Alexandria over the Western world. It was distinguished for its schools of the­ <)logy, philosophy, and physic; but it owed its more lasting lame to its splendid library. This collection consisted of 700,000 volumes, and was destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. H4~. Its population was 300,000 free inhabitants, besides an ,·qual number of slaves. Its modern name is Scanderia .. though its ancient name is more common among Europeans. CAR'l'IUGE, with its ports, comprehended a space of 2;; miles in circumference. But few of it" ruins are now reo maining. ATHENS.

Ruins of .B.thens and the Temple oj Jupiter.

ATHEN!I was the most distinguished city of Greece, and is more deserving our particular attention, than any other city of the ancient world, if we except Rome; and even Rome derived from Athens the elegant arts, by which it was em­ bellished. Athens at first consisted of a citadel built on the top of a high rock, seven miles and a half round, called Cecropia from Cecrops, its founder and first king. '\Vhe\) from the inclease of its inhabitants, the lower grounds were occupied by buildings, the citadel was called Acropolis, or the upper city; the builllingill on the plain, the lower city. In the citadel were several magnificent edifices, the chi,,( of which was the temple of Minerva, called Parthenon, which was burnt by the Persians and rebuilt by Pericles. It is still stand­ ing, and is ju~t1y esteemed one of the noblest remains of anti­ quity. It is 229 feet long, 101 broad, and 69 high. Of the ~emples in the, lower city, the most remarkable, and indeed one of the most magnificent, in the ancient world, was that of Jupiter Olympus. It was supported on marble columns, the first tbat were constructed at Athens, and was half a mjle in circuit. On an eminence, called the hill of Mar;), at a smaU dis­ tance from the citadel, were held the meetings of that celebrated council, called the Areopagus . .A.thens was situated at the junction of the IliUUB and Cepbi­ D SPARTA--THEBES--BTZANTIUM. sus; but it had three harbours on the Saronic Gulf, which wers joined to the city by two walls, called the long walls. One or these was five miles in length, the other not quite so long. There were several Gymnasia, or places of exercise, in and neal' Athens, the principal of which wcre the Academy, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarges. A Gymnasium was a large edifice fitted to contain many thou­ sands of people at once, with proper places for the youth to perform their various exercises, and apartments for philoso­ )hers, rhetoricians, and Illl the professors of the liberal artli :0 deliver their lectures, surrounded by a garden and sacred grove. The Academy was just without the walls of the city, near the Cephisus. Near it the celebrated philosopher, Plato, had his :esidence on a farm belonging to himself, and in it he taught his !cholars; who.were hence called Academics. The Lyceum lay on the opposite side of the city, along the Janks of the llissus. Aristotle, the scholar of Plato, having 'eturned to Athens, after superintending the education of Alex­ \Dder the Great, chose the Lyceum as the place of his school. ~ristotle taught those who attended him, walking, in the Peripa­ os or walking 'place of the Lyceum; hence his followers were :ailed ,Peripatetics. The Cynosarges lay a little north of the Lyceum, on a rising ~ronnd. The most noted philosophers who taught here, were Oiogenes the Cynic, and Zeno, the founder of the sect called 3toics. By an account taken under Demetrius Phalereus, soon after he time of Alexander, the inhabitants of Athens amounted to 140,000, of whom much the greater' part ,yere slaves. SPARTA, of which a few ruins are founeI near the modern ".isitr,a, ~as situated at the foot of mount Taygetus. It was six mles In Circumference, the houses small and without ornament, lot built close together, but divided into different villages accord· ng to the ancient manner of the Greeks. It was not surround­ ~d by walls, till it fell under the dominion of tyrants after the lme of Alexander the Great. THEBES was surrounded by a wall five miles and a half in cir­ :umference, having seven gates. BYZANTIU:lI was made the seat of the Roman Empire by Constanti?e the Great, A. D. 330. Among the causes which IDduced h t fi' R ' .' , un 0 pre e~ It to L~me, was the peculiar beauty ofilia iltuatlon. It occupIed a pomt of land between the Proponti. Ro.ME. 39 a nd a loog co.ve, which fo.rm ed an excell ent harbo.ur. Co.nstan­ tine greatly enlarged its limits, and made it resemble Ro.me by co.vering seven hills. W hat was the ancient city is no.w o.ccu- pied by the seraglio.. '

Coliseum, or Amphith eatre of Titus.

Ro.ME was fo.und ed by Ro.mulus o.n the Mo.ns Palatinus Dr P alatine hill. By degrees it was extended to. co.ver six o.t~r hills, M o. ns Capito.linus, Q uirinalis, Viminalis, E squilinus, CIll­ lius and A venlinus: Its walls were ) 3 Dr 14 miles in extent, a nd had 37 gates. The Palatine hill was the resid ence o.f the kings and empero.rs. On the Capito.line, were the Capito.l, and th e Tarpeian Ro.ck fro.m whe,nce co.ndemned criminals were thro.wn. At the foo.t o.f the Capitoline Hill was the Forum, where the peo.ple listened to. the harangues o.f th eir o.rato.rs. Alo.ng the Tiber was the Campus Martius, where tbey assem­ bled to. give their vo.tes, and where the yo.uth performed their exercises. The aqueducts, which supplied Ro.me with water, were carried o.ver valleys, fo.r many miles, Bupported o.n brick arches reared at a pro.digio.us expense. Some suppo.se the su­ burbs o.f ancient Ro.me to. have been so. extensive, that includinA' them, th~ city was 50 miles in circuit: but that they were inha.­ bited o.nly by peo.ple o.f inferior rank, as no. remains o.f sp ,len~id edifices are fo.und withGut the walls. The number o.f Its lfi­ habitants, in the reign o.fTrajan, is suppo.sed to. have been four millio.ns. ROME.

The ancient wall is generally preserved, and exhibits a great 'fJ'iety of materials and workmanship, in the repairs of different ges. Some of the gates are still in use. A great part of the modern city is built on the Campus Mar­ ius, and most of the space within the walls is now covered. with wns, or laid out in gardens and vineyards. ' Rome was the capital ef the most important empire with :llich history presents us. It was enriched by its sovereigns, 'itb. ~!:te spoils of the numerous and populous countries which ley conquered. The immense obelisks of a single block of ranite, which were transported from Egypt, still remain to show Ie vast labour and expense which they incurred, to adorn lome with the trophies of a conquered world. Had we no evi. Qnce of its opulence and splendour but the accounts of histo­ :ans, we should consider these exaggerated; but they are fu~ly onfirmed by the numerous ruins of magnificent structures, WIth ihich the modern city abounds. The Pantheon is the only entire specimen of Roman archi­ ~cture which has survived the wreck of ages. Its immense orne 150 feet in diameter, its beautiful marble pillars ofa single ieee 42 feet in height, and its massy doors of brass, still remain 1 their original state. The baths of Dioclesian and Caracalla furnish noble speci- 1ens of the grandeur and extent of such edifices in ancient tome. They contained not only baths and an immense basin or swimming, but around them, libraries, rooms for refresh­ nents, halls for exercise, places of amusement and even tem­ lIes. The baths of Dioclesian cover a great extent of ground, Iud a single hall now forms a church of considerable size. rhe baths of Caracal\a occupied a square of a quarter of a mile n length and nearly the same in breadth, and its halls surpass nost modern churches in loftiness and size. The specimens ,f statuary found in these ruins, are the admiration of the world, md, with the paintings found in the baths ot'Titus, fully prove, hat the elegance of these ornaments corresponded with the gran­ ieur of the buildings. The mausoleum of Adrian forms the modern castle of 8t. lngelo, and the tomb of Augustus is so capacious that it is used is a ~eatre. Fro.m the ·hill of the ancient capitol you see on ~ne Bide the Palatme Mount, covered with the majestic ruins of the pal~ce of the ~resars. O~ the other, is the triumphal column DfTraJan, towermg to the height 0020 feet. In front are the Forum and the Sacred Way, with the ruins of six temples and HERCULANEUM AND POMPEn. 41

three magnificent triumphal arches. The arches of Constantine aDd Severus are still almost entire. . The Sacred Way terminates with the Coliseum; the mostra­ markable of all the monuments of Rome. It is sometimes called the amphitheatre of Vespasian, and sometimes of Titus; be­ cause it was built by these two princes. It is more than 1600 feet in circumference and was capable of containing 100,000 spectators. It consists offour stories; the lower adorned with columns of the Doric order, the next, of the Ionic, and the two -upper, of the Corinthian. ' In this and other similar edifices, were exhibited the battles of gladiators with each other, and with wild beasts; and probably on this very spot, thousands of martyrs were exposed to the rage offerocious animals, and shed their blood for the religion of Christ. From these facts we gain instruction, not only with respect to th~ manners of the people in those ages, but also concerning the disposition of their rulers.

HERCULANEUM AND POMPEII, considerable towns near l'ia- Ies were overwhelmed by a dreadful eruption of Vesuvius P , D2 lIERCULANEUM AND POMPEII.

A.D.79.* Herculaneum was discovered in 1713, and Pom­ peii about 40 years after. Herculaneum is cover.ed with a mass of solid lava, to the depth of 60 or 70 feet, on which the modern village of Portici is built; and the excavations are entirely sub­ terranean. Pompeii was buried in a shower of sand and ashes, whic,h fi:>rmed a hill over its ruins, now covered with vineyards. A passage has been excavated through this hill, from the northern to the southern wall of the city, several streets have been opened to the light, and numerous public edifices, private dwellings, and sepulch~al monuments, have been discovered. In the lan­ guage of a recent traveller, """Ve have already. seen many of the monuments of the pride and power of the ancient Romans; but we had never before been admitted into their domestic re­ tirements nor permitted to judge of their ~ants, or their com· forts." Their dwellings, gardens, and shops, their baths, tem­ ples, theatres, and halls of justice, remain in the state in which they were left; ;llld some contain the skeletons of the unhappy occupants, in the attitude of flight, or in places of concealment. Furniture, kitchen utensils, instruments of art, and even a library of books and some articles of food and clothing reduced to char­ coal, still remain for our inspection. The houses are built in the st.yle still common in the east, usually of one story and without chimneys, with a central court often surrounded by a colonnade. The chambers are small, but lofty, usually opening into the court, and receiving all their light through the door. They seldom communicate with each other. They were finished with great neatness, the floors usually paved with Mosaic work, and the walls coloured or adorned with paintings often exhibiJing their amusements and th.eir vices. The streets are narrow, often only 6 or 8 feet in ~Idth, and never more than twenty-four. They are furnished with SIde-walks for foot passengers, and like modern Naples, are paved wit? I~va. The d~ep traces worn by the cart wheels, prove the anhqUIty of the CIty when it was destroyed. At the corners of the streets, there we.re reservoirs of water or public fountains, most of which are shll remaining. Many of the statues which adorned their temp~es, theatres, and public places, have been pr()s~rved. Som.ebmes the household gods were found, and in one Instance a private chapel, with its altar lind its deity. These

* The plan Ilnd des . ti fP .. of Ro . cnp on 0 ompeu, and the accouut of the present state me, were furwshed by Mr. Woodbridge, who visited those cities in l~:al. POMPEII-EXPLANATION OF THE PLAN. 43

venerable objects seem to come forth as from their tomb, where no modern hand could have disturbed them, to instruct us con­ cerning the times in which they were interred. Explanation of the Plan . . As ~his is the only ancient city, wh09~ plan a.nd buildings have been so fullyexhi· bited In Modern times, It appears to clam} particular description. VVithont the eastern w~1l of t?e city is an All)phitheatre of consideroble size,

with a o-arden and fish pond on one sldet and very extensive cellars around It. In the '='o-arden, two skeletons were found in tbe attitude of Bight, one carrying 0 .. lamp and keys, the other following with a vase of jewels and coins. In the cellars a number of skeletons were discovered wbose forms had left a • mould in the ashes around. Not more than ninety skeletons, in all. have been found in Pompeii, one of w!Jich was f.stened in the stocks, in the military qaarters_ --...- When the student has learned and recited the above article in detail, let him' an- IlWe1' the following questions. . Of which of the Cities described was the circumference greatest 1 Menllon the circumference of some of the others in the order of their size. Which cities had tbe greatest number of towers 1 Whieh city i. most import.ant fro":l i~ connection with sacred history ~ mich is supposed t? bave be~n the rlChest.cI.1y m. the world? Which was the capital of the greatest empire I Which the most dlstIDgUished for the lIIIegant arts? Which for the strength of its walls and towers, and the labour bes~o."'­ "d on the works in and around it I Describe some of tho.e works. Wb,ch ClUes proBent e~t.ensive ruini I In which two i5 th~ most qistinguished ruin, a temple oflhe EXPLANATIONS OF THE MAPS.

!lon 1 In what city are the ruins of a rno;e gigantic st!ucture tha~ any olher ~ What is the size of tbe pillars and other ObJEcts found, In these rUlDs? Describe tbe most distinguished among the ruins of Roman .dI6ces-a~ong those of Atbeos. From what ruins do we get some knowledge of the domesllc arrangements of the ancients I EXPLANATIONS OF THE MAPS. ~ Difficulties occurring in the Study of .!1ncient Maps, stated and explained by Examples. '* 1st. The general appellation of countries frequently changed. EXAMPLES. As Syria repeatedly passed from one empire to another, the general appellation, which it had in common with other countries, would at one time be the Assyrian Empire, at another the Roman, &c. The western parts of Asia Minor belonged at different times to all the great empires of the ancient world, and received their names. 2d. The particular names, by 7l,hich countries are distinguish. ed in History, ha'Ce also undergone changes during the time taken in by the .!1ncient Maps. Persia about three hundred years before the Christian era, changed its name for that of Parthia, which it retained for some centuries, and then changed again, and took its ancient appella. tion of Persia. The southern part of the Grecian peninsula was called in very ancient times Hellas, but it lost this name and took those ofPe· loponnesus and Grrecia Propria. When the Lydians are first mentioned in Ancient History, they are found inhabiting a small territory on the shores of the lEgrean Sea, the name of which they bad changed from Mreonm to Lydia. They were driven from this to the interior; and the country, which they left, again changed its name and was called Ionia, while they altered the na~e of the coun try to which they went, to Lydia. A part of what IS now called France, before it had the name of Gaul, was called Celtica. Some other c~anges of ancient names are the following: IlIyncum changed to New Epirus. Scotia to Ierne, then to Hibernia. Hesperia to Italia. Aram to Syria, Ionia, in Greece, to Achaia. Caria, in Asia Minor, to Doris. Magna Grrecia to Italia Propria.

• See Introductioll. EXAMPLES.

S~~i~, in Asia Minor, to Cappadocia. Cllicla to Mysia, Daunia to Apulia. Isle of Phreacia to Coreyra. I,sle of Samos to Cephalenia. ~d. Emp~re,s and Countries retaining the same name changed thetr b~undarus, and at some period of time, contemplated by the anCient maps, were much larger than at others. B.C. 2300. THE BABYLONISH EMPIRE, founded by Nimrod, con­ sisted of the cities of Erech, Accad, Calneh and Babel. S?m.e time after, it comprised all the country included wlthm the southern bend of the Tigris and the Euphrates. soo. This empire included Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Media. 700. It took in all these couutries except Media, with the ad­ dition of Armenia, Syria, and the Holy Land, except that part occupied by the tribes of Benjamin and Judah. 'I'HE LYDIAN EMPIRE at first consisted of a small tract of country in the west of Asia Minor, on the lEgrean Sea, 1100. since called Ionia, Being deprived of this, the Lydia!lll removed into the interior and occupied a small territory, whose capital was Sardis. S62. Under Crcesus it included all Asia Minor between the lEgman Sea and the river Halys. THE MEnaN EMPIRE under Dejoces included a small tract of country south of the Caspian Sea, of which Ecba­ tan a was the capital. It was a part of the country now called Irak Ajami. 536. Under Cyrus it included Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Chaldrea, Me5l0potamia, Armenia, Bactriana, Syria, and the Grecian Empire in Asia. Cambyses enlarged it by the addition of Egypt. THE GRECIAN EMPIRE comprised that part of Turkey south of lat. 37° and west of long. 37° from London. 383. In the time of Alexander it extended over the whole of Greece, took in Thrace, ll1yricum, Mcesia, the whole of the Persian Empire, a part ofIndia and a part of what ill now called Independent Tartary. 752. THE ROMAN El.\'IPIRE at first consisted of Rome, then a small city. It extended gradually till it became the largest empire of the world. 46 EXAMPLES.

The nations which composed this Empire, and the order of time in which they were conquel'e,d, may be se~n from the engraving prefixed to this work. Th~ formati~nol the Roman Empire belnp IlIu,trated by the fiver Amazon. The followlDg queStioDS are to be answered from It. What nations were ,ubdueu by the Romans, during the fifth Epoch. mentioned in the chronology, that is, from the founding of Rome, 753 B. C. to 356 B. C.? MeD­ tion tbem in the order of time in which they were conquered, which is the salll8 order as the streams, by which they are set down, fan into the Amazoo, going from the source townrds its mouth. What countries were subdued by the Romans during the sixth Epocha, thai is, (rem 356 B. C. to the Christian era? Mention them as bMore, io the order of tiDlB in which they were subdued. What countries were mbdued by the Romans from the Christian era to A. D. 107, at which time (Trajan being emperor) the Roman Empire was at its greatest extent? What were the two most important of these con. quests? Which t\\'o of the b,ar,che. oftlile Amazon are the most important as to the length aod number of tributary streams? (The names of tae coontries set dowo on them cOllstitu!e Ibe anSwer as to these conquests.) VVhat countries were included in tbe Carthagillian empire at the time of its junction with tbe Roman? What wilh Greece? LeI the student find the names of tbe tributary streams, wbich fall into (he Madeira and Negro, which rivers represent Carthage and Greece 00 the eo­ graviog.

40th. Cities, rivers, o/c. as well as Countries, changed their names, and at different periods of time contemplated by the GnC£mt maps, were known by different appellations.

EXAMPLES OF CITIES. Tadamora in Syria to Palmyra. Byzantium in Thraee to Constantinople. Bagdat in Assyria to Ctesiphon. Alexandria in Hyreania to Antioehia. Thebes in Upper Egypt to Diospolis Magna. Thinis in Upper Egypt to Ptolemais. Calneah in Assyria to Ctesiphon. Latopolis in Lower Egypt to Babylon. Cyreschata in Sogdiana to Alexandria. Is in Mesopotamia to Eiopolis. Samaria in Judea . to Sebaste. Sichem ~n Judea to Neapolis. Aco or Aeon III Syria to Ptolemais. Gordium ~n Asi~ Minor to Julianopolis. Baalbek ~n Syna to Heliopolis. Emmaus ~n J ud~a to Nicopolis. Epidaurus ~n IlIY~lcum to Dyrraehium. Alexandria m SUstana to Antiochia. ~horazin in Judea to Julius. Sebus in Judea to Salem, and from alem changed to Jerusalem or Hierosolyma. EXAMPLES. 47

Alexandria near the Euphrates below Babylon under its Ara­ bian princes was Hira, and in history is known' by the general name of Alamunclari. 5th. Places are frequently known by different names at the same time. Jsrusalem was called Hierosolyma and Cady tis. HeJoopolis in Lower Egypt was the Pithom of Scripture, the Patumtis of Herodotus, and the Auris of ,Tosephus. Antiochia in Syria was also called Theopolis. EXAMPLES OF RIVERS. Vardanius or Hypanis of Asia. Xanthus 'or SCilmander. Phasis or Ar

The following is a list of the names applied to a number of ties, with the count~ies in which they are found. 1st ALEXANDRIA III the western part of Troas, 2d on the uphrates in Babylonia, 3d on t~e north~rn part of Syria Pro­ 'ia 4th in the southern of ASIa, 5th In the northern part of :y:cania, 6th on the Oxus in Sogdiana, 7th on the Jaxartes, ;h in India on the head waters of the Indus, 9th near Can­ illar, 10th on the eastern bank of the Indus, 11th in the in­ rior of Persia, which is supposed to have occupied the site of enhend, 12th at the mouth of the Tigris in Susiana. 1st ANTIOCHIA in the northern part of Syria Propria, 2d in .e northern part of Caria, 3d in the northern part of Pisidia, 4th the southern part of Cilicia, 5th in the northern part of Bac­ iana, 6th on the Euphrates in Assyria, 7th on the Tigr)s in Su­ ana. 1st SELEUCIA in Syria Propria, 2d in the Holy Land, 3d in isidia, 4th in Cilicia, 5th in Babylonia. TROJA or TROY in Troas, and in Egypt. AUGUSTA in Gaul, on the Sequana, 2d on the Garumna. LATOPOLIS in Upper Egypt, and in Lower Egypt. THEBES in Breotia; in Upper Egypt, and in Troas. ATHENlE or ATHENS, in Attica and in Pontus. ARGOS in Argolis and in Acarnania, both on rivers named lachus. PANORMUS in Epirus, Attica, Achaia, Mysia, Sicily, and ~rete. PELLA in Macedonia, Palestine. LARISSA in Thessaly, Troas, Syria, Assyria. LAODTClEA in the western part of Phrygia. LAODIClEA COMBUSTA in the eastern part. LAODIClEA LIBANI and Laodicrea in Phrenicia. NlClEA in Gaul, Macedonia, Locris, Bithynia, .India. ORCHOMENE in Arcadia, Breotia. Ap AMEA in Babylonia, Syria, Phrygia. HERACLEA SINTICA, in Macedonia. HERACLEA in Gaul, Asia Minor, Italy, Thessaly. EPIDAURUS in Illyricum, Argos, Lycaonia. EXAMPLES OF RIVERS. IN~cHus in ArgoIis, Epirus. PENEUS in Elis o~ Pelopo~mesus, Thessaly. CE~HISSUS, two In BreotIa, one falls into Lake Copais, the )ther mto the .iEgrean Sea. HEBltU8 in Macedonia, Asia Minor. BARBAROUS NATION~ 49

LTCUS in. Pann~nia, Assyria, Bithynia, Caria, Phrygia, Pon­ ms, Armema, Syna, European Sarmatia. ACHERON in Epirus, Egypt, Lucania. INDUS in India, Caria. EXAMPLES OF MOUlS'TAINs. OLYMPUS in Thessaly, Bithynia, Galatia Cyprus, IDA in Troas, Creta. ' .

BARBAROUS NATIONS. ABOUT the commencement of the Christian Era, a number ot barbarous nations inhabited Europe. Some account of thos~ tribes which were most restless, powerful, and warlike, is ne. eessary to prepare us for the study of ancient history. The ,>,cholar might naturally be surprised, to find history describing these tribes in different places from those assigned them on his map. But he should be led to consider, that they were mostly in a wandering state, and that the place on the map where tht; name of the tribe is fiJUnd, is frequently not the representatioll of their permanent residence, but sometimes of the situation in which they were first known, and sometimes mercly that where lhey sojourned for a time. Of the tribes which were unsettled and roving in their habit", those which figure most in ancient history, from being mos~ powerful and warlike, were the GOTHS, HUNS, and VANDALS. The GOTHS are said to have migrated from Scythia to Scar. t1inavia at an early period. Leaving thie countJ:y, they esta· blished themselves in Sarmatia. on the south.eastern shore of thE Sinus Coda nus. They then penetrated into the iotelior ofthf­ :;lame country, where they divided into two tribes, the OSTRO . . GOTHS and V ISIGOTHS. Of these, the Visigoths were the most powerful. The Visigoths overran Dacia, Thrace, :"~:::::::;" Ma. •;edonia, Illyricum, Italy, and the Roman provinces between ftaly and the Danube, became masters of Rome, nnd settled in Gnul. When expelled from this country they went to Spain, where in the eighth century they were overthrown by the Moors, and were incorporated with that nation. The HUNS, after leaving Scythia, deprived the Goths oftheil possessions in Sarmatia, tl'avel'sed the northL'rn part of Greece, ;:stablished themselves in Germany, and o,erran the northern ,,'art of Gal]! and Ttalr. Their empire in the l'rghth cent1J),), R 50 BARBAROUS NATIONS".

was destroyed by the Franks, and they mingled with the sur· rounding nations. The VANDALS were originally from Scandinavia. They first settled in those parts of Sarmatia which lay on the southern shore of the Codanus. Aftu they had made several encroach. ments on the Roman territories, they united with the Alans and Suevi, and leaving Germany they passed through Gaul together, but on enttcring Spain the Vandals separated from the Alans and Suevi, and settled for a time in the southern part of that country. They next invaded Africa, and l'roceeded through Mauritania. Numidia, and Africa Proper. From thence they crossed the i1iediterranean, passed through Sicily, and besieged and took Rome. They then returned to Africa, where their kingdom in the ~ixth century was overturned by the Romans. The three most warlike, powerful, and roving nations after these, were tile ALAxs, HERULI, and GEPID-E. The Alans emi. grated from Scythia. They crossed Sarmatia, allied themselves with the V"ndals, and continued with that nation till the separa. tion in Spain; after which they took possession of the south. western part of Lusitania. The Heruli and Gepidre originally inhabited Scandinavia. The Heruli were first settled in Sarma. tia, north of the ,,-an daIs, and afterwards near the Palus Mreotis. Again crossing the continent towards the west, they sought, afo ;s supposed, a peaceful home in the Isles north of Scotland. The Gepidre, on leaving Scandinavia, their native land, es. tablished themselves on the Codanus, east of the Goths, and afterwards on the banks of the Tanais. Compelled to follow theIr conquerors, the Huns, they traversed Gaul, but regaining their freedom, they dwelt in lIlyricllm and Dacia. Here they remained ~il1 destroyed in the sixth century by the Lombards. The SuevI anciently inhabited Germany. After leaving the Vandals, they d,telt in the northern part of Lusitania, till over· thrown in t?e sixth century by the Goths. Other trtbes still less roving in their disposition, although brave and powerful, were the LOMBARDS, BURGlJNDIAN~, FRANKS, and S~.·{oN.ES. The origin of the Lombards may b, traced to ScandInavl~. .They firs~ settled in Germany, and af~ terwards. erected theIr k~ngdom in the north of Italy. When, In the eighth century, It Was destrc'-ed by the Franks it in. ~uded. all t~e country nOlih of Be~eventum. The B'urgun. ans InhabIted the banks of the Vistula neal' the Codanus. TheY'!ligrated to Gaul, and founded a (;ons'idel'able kingdom. ,v.bleh In the sixth century Was rlr'trayf'd hy fhe Frank~. 'fl" BARBAROUS NATIONS. 51 original seat of the Franks was between the Sala and Mulda, branches of the Elbe. They afterwards possessed the country which lay between the Visurgis and Rhenus; and erected a kingdom in Gaul by conquering and uniting with themselvei3 many of the nations before noticed. The SAXO"1>ES first inhabited Germany. At the time of their invading Britain, they possessed the northern circles of Ger. many, and most of the provinces of Holland. There were other barbarous tribes inhabiting Germany: the Catti, Chauci, Cherusci, Quadi, Narisci, Frisii, Venedi, Vin. dili, Lygii, who were particularly distinguished for their gloomy and terrific appearance, and the. Cimbri, who inhabited the country now called Denmark, which was called from them Cimbrim. The Bastarnm were in Tyras. The four principal tribes of Britain were the Brigantes, Silures, keni, and Belgre. Several small tribes also inhabited Italy, the principal of which were the Sabini, Fidenx, V olsci, Rutuli, Vientes, and Veneti. The SARACENS, who overran the northern part of Africa, were followers of Mahomet, who in the sixth century founded the sect called by his name. The MOORS or )\'lAURI were a party of Saracens who invaded Spain, and who were so called from their country, Maur:'.(ct.ia. Some general remarks oecur in reviewing this account of the ancient and barbar,'us tribes. Their progress, we per. ceive, has generally been from north to south. It was from Scythia and Scandinavia (hence called the Nortllern Hive I that those swarms of barbarians issued which overran and finally subverted the Roman Empire. If we contrast the situation of the moderns and ancients, we .-;hall see the great advantages which we possess over them, in consequence of our superior geographical knowledge; and we shall perceive the aptness of that common metaphor, which re­ presents knowledge as light, and ignorance as darkness. This is illustrated by the situation of those inhabitants of the Roman Empire, who resided on its confines at the time when barbarous incursions were becoming frequent. They were ig. norant Of the figure and extent of the earth, and knew n01 what strange nations of human beings might inhabit it. Their poets and their popular mythology had filled their minds with vague and frightful notions of giants and monsters, and thus fiJredisposed them to magnify every terrific appearance exhibit~d EARL¥ HISTORY. by their barbarous invaders. ~ware o~ this, these invading­ barbarians arrayed themselves wlth a deslgn to cause terror by their appearance. Sometimes a tribe came down upon the Romans clad in the skins, and with the tusks and claws of savage beasts; some painted in a fri~htful manner their, faces and bodies, and some came clothed m black. They mmgled with all that was terrible to the eye, all that was appalling to Ihe ear, rushing to battle with shrieks and yells. It is no won· der, that when thus fearfully attacked by beings as unknown a:nd mysterious to them as to us would be the inhabitants of another world, they became their easy prey. The first settlers of America encountered foes who pursued, in regard to exciting terror, the same policy as did the ancient savages. With the superior knowledge which modem times afford, they succeeded in dispossessing the native barbarians of the land in which they were established; while, in ancient limes, the inhabitants of the Roman Empire were by a similar ~nemy driven from their country, or subjugated with it.

OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

EARLY mSTORY OF llIANIUl'iD. Designed to assist the Student in taking some General Views oj the detached Facts,. which constitute the Table of Chro. nology.

A TaLle of Chronology is an outline of the course of human affairs" and this ,course has been produced by the nature of man, his wants, hlS propensities, and his powers. We find ~ankmd, at the earliest periods of their history, to be a,w~ndenng race. They lived together in families or tribes, Subslstmg at first, by hunting, afterwards by pasturage. WheH one of these bodles ?f men had settled down upon a hill or in a ,valle;:, they remamed there as long as they found plenty of wild ammals, or good pasturage for their flocks unless driven away bY some stronger trl'b e. But when game' or pasturage began to fail, t~ey removed to some place where they had a prospect of findmg better; or if they received intelligence of some weaker tribe, who possessed flocks and herds, the wealth EARl.Y HISTORY. 53

of the times, sufficient to ~empt them to undertake a conquest, they would attack, and, if successful, either drive them from the ground and occupy it themselves, or force them to remain as subjects. , Mankind at this period of societ~ thought lightly of destroy. mg each other. They were unenlightened by science, and un. acquainted with that religion, which enjoins men to do unto others as they would that others should do unto them. Although regardless of the destruction of their fellow.men, they were at. tentive to ~heil' own preservat~on;. and, ,they.early began to consult their safety by collectmg m cities; particular spots, about which they built immense walls, impenetrable to any as. sault from the rude weapons then in use. We find that men, either as individuals or collective bodies, always act from the desire to better their condition, and to pro. vide for themselves whatever comforts, or remove whatever in­ conveniences, the peculiar circumstances in which they are placed bring into their view. As their circumstances change, they feel new inconveniences, and perceive new objects of en' joyment brought within their reach; and hence are continually led from one improvement to another. Thus as before stated, men collected in cities to obviate the inconvenience of being exposed without shelter to hostile at. tacks; and this caused a change in the state of society, which led them to invent and improve the arts. While in a wandering state, they could not have convenient houses, and could posses!j but few utensils; for what they had, must be frequently removed. But as soon as they became ~cttled, these comforts were placed within their reach, and rheir inventive powers were set at work to obtain thew. Man's first care is to provide for the wants of his body. '.fill that is done he has not leisure to pursue any other obje~t. Hence savage tribes build their first habitations from no othe,. motive than to shelter themselves from the inclemencies of Ih.· weather. Having done this, they find within themselves other principles of action. The love of beauty and order begius to unfold itself, and they are no longer satisfied unless the eye is pleased. Their inverition is then further taxed to ~mite ele­ gance' with convenience in the construction of their houses, 'furniture, &c. But if each individual had possessed a settled home, femote fl'om all others, although he should have felt the d~sire to em­ i)ellish it, he would n()t have been able: for heing obliged to d',. F.2 , , 1. EARLr HISTORY". with his own hands every kind of labour necessary to his subsist. ence, he could not learn to perform any thing well. But when people were collected in cities, one man would be constantly employed in making houses, another in making furniture, &c. The carpenter would then build the house for the cabinet maker, while the cabinetmaker made the furniture for him. Each :'ein,o- constantly occupied in his own trade, would become ex· pert,O and be constantly improving in the art which he practised. Thus the natural love of elegance, operating on men in situa. tions where they had leisure to indulge it, and could make a ,iivision of labour, gave rise to the invention and improvement ')1 the arts. The introduction of the arts naturally led to commerce. In· deed they are connected with each other; for as soon as men began to follow distinct trades, each would make more of that sort cfthings which it ,,'as his business to make, than he wanted for his owu use; and, of course, he would wish to exchange it t,)r what he wanted, of that which was produced by the labour of some other'person. From traffic arose the use of money, which, when once in· vented, stimulated to further improvement in the arts, and t( 'mterprise ;n. commerce. The extension of tribes into Empires proceeded chiefly in­ ,)ue or more of the following ways. 1st, conquest; 2d, the pro. ~ection afforded by cities to the surrounding country; 3d, con· ',cderation. 1st. Conquest. Suppose the time to have existed when man' kind were: collected only in small tribus. When two of these met in a hostile manner, the stronger would prevail and become' lI1creased b:y adding to itself the weaker. Thus strengthened ·t might eastly overcome other tribes, as large as it was itself ~t the commencement of its career. But in the mean time • ·,ther warlike tribes would also hm:e been strengthened by the r'onquest and addltlOP' of smaller one,:. In a contest between two thus increased, whichever prevailed, a junction woul

not the most important reason, why they are of less conso .. c iluence now than fonnerly. Mankind have found tha~ to reo c;rcN, thl' fights of others is t111' onl:' wa:' to secure theu own j :>l, :REMARKS To JNSTRUCTERS-CHRONOLOGY.

and hence they have by degrees learned to frame wise systems 'Of policy; so that they are now protected by public opinion, government, and laws.

Rema"ks to Inst7'uclets, on teaching the Table of CAron%!!!.

I baTe found tbat in giving pupils tables of cbronology to learn, I impo,eil upon ,hem an uapleasant, and a fruitless task; (or they soon lorgot the nllmbero whicb they had learned; I tbus became satisfied, tbat in attempting too much, I had failed of doing any tbing effectually. In order to obviate tllis difficulty, the subjoined table is designed to be laught in the following manner: Let the dates of the epoch as be perfeclly committed to memory. They should be attended to at every recilation, while the pupil is learning the table. J~et those circumstances of the events, which are pl'jllted in the larger type, be learned in tbe order of time. If lhe pupil is caretul to notice how the events stand upon the p";;e, he will be able to do tbis without difficulty. Next let tbe events of the table be commilted entire; and answers to the geographical ques­ ~lOns learned from (bc map,. Then from the dates of each epoch a, let,tbree Or four be selected and committed (0 memory. It is not so important what dates ~re learned, as it is to have a few fixed in the mind as POlOts from which to "eekon others. Let the pupils therefore take their cboice. In selecting, tbey will be induced 10 examine them all, a!tbough they will probably 6x where there is some peculiarity of numbers, such as several of the same kind stantting 'o;:-ether. Some of these peculiar dates are purpo,ely introduced into the table. Some time is requisite to learn the table well. The sum of improvement oannot always be estimated by tbe number of pages gone over. The instructer would find it profitable to ask his pupils frequently, in the COUl'se of their recitations, at "bout what time eveuts bappened, wbich are men· tioned in the table, but whore dates they have not learned. If they have aUeo­ ,I\'ely gone tbrough the study as uil'ccted, tbey will have acquired tbat genera: knowledge, wuicb will enable tbem to anSwer such questiQDS with sufficien: l..'Orrcc{oess.

CHRONOLOG"\:~

CO~-NECTED WITH GEOGRAPIIY. Division of Ancient Chronology into Epochas, according to Lavoisne. FIRST EPOCHA. ;.From the Creation of the World, B. C. 400·1, to the Calling (') Abraham, B. C. 1921.

SECOND EPOCHcL .From the Calling of Abraham, to the InstitutiQn of the Pass. ~)\'er; R C. 141:11. Date of!he Fir~t Map. . "ec Tl:r~llons, &~.",}t the.close of the Work .. TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY. 5; THIRD EPOCHA. From the, Institution of the Passover, to the Death of Solo. mon, B. C. 980. Date of the Second Map.

FOURTH EPOCHA. From the Death of Solomon, to the foundation of Rome, B. C. ,752. Date of the Third Map.

FIFTH EPOCHA. From the Foundation of Rome, to the Birth of Alexander th,­ Great, B. C. 356. Date of the Fourth Map.

SIXTH EPOCHA. From the Birth of Alexander the Great, to the NuiiYity cd Jesus Christ. Date of the Fifth Map.

TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY. B. C. 4004. The Creation of the W orId. 2348. The Universal Deluge; after which Noah's Ark rested on. th, Mountain Ararat, a 2222. Ninus, King of Assyria, began to reign. b 2217. Babylon and Nineveh built. !:lauylon, by Nimrod, who founded the Babylonish Monarchy ;_ Nineveh, by Assur, who founded tbe Assyrian Monarchy. c 2189. Sicyon founded. d 2188. Monarchy of Egypt, founded by Menes. e 1921. The Calling of Abraham. Abrahnm was called in the Land of Haran, f 1856. Kingdom of Argos, founded by Inachus. g 1556. Kingdom of Athens, founded by Cecrops, al tb" head Ci an Egyptian colony. h 1546. Troy, founded by Scamander. i 1522. Amphictyonic Council instituted. It derived its name from its founder, Amphictyon; its meetings were held at Thel'mopylre. j 1520. Corinth built. Ie 1519. Thebes built by Cadmus, a Phrenician, who also introduce. Letters into Greece. l

a Where waS mount Ararat? b Where waS Assyria? c Babylon? Nineveh! d Sicyon? e Egypt? f The land of Haran? g Where was Argoi? ~ ~n "bat direction was Athens f .... m Egypt? What sea must Cecrops have crossed. l WhIlr,: was Troy? j Thermopylre I Ie Corinth? l What Sea must Cadmus hne cl"QS~(J (ra~»h(FJlicia to Theb~s? 58 TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY. l491. Institution of the Passover. The Pas,over was instituted wben tbe children of Israel, led by Moses, left Egypt for th~ Land o!Ca~aan. m 1453 The Olympic Games lllstituted. . .. . These games were celebrated at OlympIa, and consisted pnnclpally oC atbletic exercises. n 1406. Minos reigns in Crete, and gives laws to the Cretans. 0 1'~63. The Arrronautic Expedition. This ex~edilion was frum'Thebes to Colehis; and was undertaken by J aSOD to Rve::nr'-e the death of a Idnsman, and recover treasures selzed by the g'overnme~t of Colchis; these treasures were spoken of as the "gelden fleece." p 1252. Tyre built by the Sidonians. q 1202. Salamis built by Teucer. l' Celebrated Expedition of the Greeks against Troy. TLe Grecian fleet sailed from Aulis; tbe Greek. destroyed Troy after a siege Gf ten years. S 1055. David King of Judrea. t 1004. The Temple Dedicated, which was built by King Salamon at Jerusalem. u: !l80. The Death of Solomon. 386. Homer's Poems brou"ht from Asia to Greece. Several places claim the "'honour of giving birth to this Pact; among which are Smyrna, and tbe Island of Sdo. " 884. Republic of Sparta, reformed by Lycurgus. w 869. Carthage founded by Dido, who fled from Tyre. x 820. Nineveh taken by Arbaces, governor of Media. y 769. Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth. z 752. Rome fouhded by Romulus. a 721. Samaria taken by Salmanazer, which ends the Israelitish King- dOHl b G58. Byzantium founded by Pausanias of Sparta. c G06. Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon. d GOl. Nebuchadnezzar takes Nineveh, and ends the Assyrian Em- pire e 562. Crcesus reigns in Lydia. f 538. Bab~lon taken by Cyrus at the head of the Persians .. whIch ends the J.wish Capllvity, after it had lasted-70 years. g

m Where was Cnnaan? i .. what direction was Eaypt from Can·.an? "Where was Olympia? 0 Crete? p Coleh;s? What se~ mUit the Argonauts bay. crossed from fhehes to Colch;.? q Where was Tyre ~ r Salamis? 8 Autis? :Vhat sea must the Grecians have passed to go to Troy? t How was Judrea stuated? "Of what country was Jerusalem the Capital? v Where was Smyrna? h~~? W \\ hat was the situation of Sparta? :r Where was Carthage? Wha! must , e been the rOUle of Dido? y Where Was Media I - What Sea between 5yra- l use and Co nth' WI R· ~ ~iurn and S n ',a. }e~e was orne SItuated? b Samaria? c How were Byzao- ,uS3.leJn fro~r~:bl~at~d W1t.i' rega~d to each other? d In what direction w~s J~­ .nof·1 ..) on f rom p ersla-:l.on, eNmeveh. /Wherewas L)·dia? gInwh~t dirccUQI\ IS '1'ABLE OF CHRONOLOGY. 59

304. Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. h -100. War between the Greeks and Persians. TL" principal battles Were fou!?;ht-At Marathon where the GREEKS UDder MILTIADE8 are victorious over the PERRIANS under DATl8 and ARTAPH"R"RS. At Thermopylae where t~e PersIan army under XERXES, amounting to 5,000,000, IS held In check for three days by three hundred Laredemoniaus, who with their commander Leonidas voluntarily deroted themselves to death. Near Salamis in ~ naval eng'agernent, OWing to the policy of Themistocles-j the GRllns defeat the PERSIANS. At Plate. the GRECIANS undor ARISTIDE~ and PAU:A~~U.S d6feat the remninder of OJ(" Persian army under Mardomus. Neal' l\lycale, on the sallie I.hy the Grecians defeat the remainder of the Persian fleet. At the n'tonth of the Eurymedon, the Greeks undel' Cunon are Victorious over a Persian fleet,. and under the same commander defeat an alrny under Megabyzes. t ,l5I. Capua founded by the Tuscans. j 144. Law at Rome for the intermarriage of the Patricians and Plebeians. 431. The Peloponnesian war begins. k 414. Lysanderdestroys the Athenian fleet at .iEgos Potamos, whIch PUtS an elld to the PeloponnesJar: war. ·101. Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks under Xenophon from Babylon to the Euxine. 1 391. Veii taken by Camillus at the head of the Romans. m 382. War between the Thcbails and Spartans begins. The principal battlel-oan at Lcuctra and l\'l.,.ntjnea, In which the The­ bans under Epamiuolld<:ts are vlctqrious OVU' the Lacedemonians.n At M'

of Jupit~r Ammon in Ly!J13, defeats Darius at Arbe:jat takes pO!5ses .. sion of Susa, and bUfllS lhe Palace of l\crscpo}ij. '1 :324. Alexander dies at Babylon. Hisemp"e is dismembered and divided L'O:·.FCll four of IJis gene, rals. r

" Where is Sardis? i Marathon' Ple!e.? Myrale' ,,'hat ITas lhe COurse of t:le river Eurymedon? j ",hel·. was Ca,ma? k '.Vhere ",rre the Poloponnesiall Stales? Where are JEgos Potamos and Sestos, wl:ich are contig"?"s? / Throu!';h .vbat countries must Xenophon have conducted 1m army? In ,\ bere was Veli' " Where was Leuctra? Mantine.? 0 Where was Pella? p "[,ere lVas ~am, nium? q Where was the Granicus? Issus I Gaza' Lybia? .!luw Were TJT" and Egypt situated in regard to each other 1 "'here "'?sArbc1.' ~lIsa'l reI'''' (~ohs ,:J }'In wbat d!(c'ction was n:~t1: lun from PC.l'serrlls: 'l'AllLE 01> cHRONOLOGY.

302. Demetrius Poliorcetes takes Athens. 300. Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea founded by Seleucus. $ 280. Pyrrhus, kmg of Epirus, invades Italy, . in aId of the Samnite.. Six years after, Pyrrhlls IS totall,. defeated by the Roman. near Benevenlum. Soon after. the SamDjte~ submit to the Rumans. t '264. The first Punic war begins. Toe siege at Ldybreum ends'this war, after it had continued twenty· three} ears u ·'..!19. Sa(J'untum is taken by Hannibal, the Carthaginian general; ~vhlch opens the second Punic war. Hannibal defeats Scipio and Sempronms, the Roman commanders; near tbe Rhone. the Po, and the Trebia; then invades Etruria;­ about this time encounters the two consuls Terefltius and Emilius at Cannae, where tbe Romans meet with a great defeat. Hannibal is overcome at Zama by Scipio, whicb ends the war. v 173. ,\Var between Perseus king of Macedon, and the Romans. After six years, Perseus i. defeated by Paulus ./Emilius, wbicb ends the kin~dom of Macedon. w 149. Third Punic war. Aiter three years it terminates in the destruction of Carthage. The iidme ycar Corinth is taken x 133. Numantia taken, Pergamu9 added to the Roman empire. y tll. Jugurthine war. Jugurtha seizes upon the kingdom of "umidi., in opposition to thEi rh;hts of Adherbal, who flees to the Romans for assistance. Tbe Romans, under this pretence, make themselves masters of tbe country. z '80. Julius Cresar distinguishes himself; He forms witb Crassus and Pompey the first Triumvirate. In tbe first year of bis reign be oubdues tbe Helvetii, wbo invaded the !'l-0man provinces, and also the Germans, who attempted a similar IOVaSJQn. a . .:;5. Cresarlands in Britain; subdues part of the island. b 53. Crassus is killed in Mesopotamia. The war begins between C.'sar aud Pompey. Cresar, at the head of a numerous army, marches to Rome. c. ,18. Cmsar gives battle to Pompey in Pharsalia. H~ defeats him entirely; and Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is slam. d H. Julius Cresar assassinated in the Senate.house.

-b sHow W8S ~ntioch situated, Edessa? Laodicea? t What sea must PTr. : us h,ave cros,ed from Eprrus to Italy? 'Vbere was Beneventum? u Llly­ ~~:::~, v Saguntum? .What W," the course of the Rhone I The Po I The . . Wbat mounlami dId HaoUllral pa" from the Eiver Trebia to Etru· na? Where is Zam.' w Where Was Macedon' x Ho~ were Corinth and Carthage situated with r"pectto each other I y Where Was Numantia 1 Per­ ~mu~ ::: Numidia '. What countries must the Romans bave passed ihroogh t ~ 'dmeR to NumIdIa? a What mountains must the Heh'etii bave crossed at l:ivac e omel What country between Germany and Italy? b ,That sepa­ ra ~ aul and Bnt.lO? c 'Vbat Ri C. h C' . • lpme Gaul to Ital ' d'Vh ' ver m?"t ,.,.;al ave passed from IS­ fi •• a~d to F.g-vpt' y. ere "as Pharsalia: WtIlt s~a must 1'l)mr~r ba\'" MYTUOLOGY. 61

Two, ycars after follows the battle of Philippi, in whicb Brutus and CassIUs are defeated. e 33. Mauritania is reduced to a Roman province. f 31. Naval battle, fought near Actium, ends the Roman com­ monwealth. Octavius declared sole sovereign. g 30. Alexandria taken by Octavius, ' wbe receive. the title of Augustus. h JESUS CURIST born at Bethlehem, four years before the commencement of the present or vulgar era.

MYTHOLOGY, CONNECTED WITH ANCIENT HISTORY. b~ SATURN, the most ancient lung of Creta, was regarded the Greeks and Romans as the oldest of the gods. He wa'f.' dethroned by his son Jupiter, and wandered into Italy, whence: that country was sometimes called Saturnia. The part of it which he settled was Latium. He civilized the inhabitants, im. proved the laws, and cultivated the country to such a degree thatjhis reign was called the golden age. At Rome he was honoured by a festival called Saturnalia, during which the Ro. mans gave liberty to their slaves. JUPITER. Although the poets sometimes speak of JupiteJ as king of Creta, yet he is usually represented as the father and king of gods and men. In his childhood, his father Saturn, alarmed by an oracle, which foretold that his son would de. throne him, sought his life. He was concealed in the wood~ of Mount Ida, by the nymph Amalthea, who had a beautiful

< sea must Octavius ~ Where is Philippi? f Mauritllllia? g Actium? h What ilave crossed to Alexandria? is Crete? In what direction is Italy fram Crete? In what part of Crete Wbere Af Mount Ida? From wlmt eircumstance shall you remember tbis mountain? is is remark Ivbat plm:es was Jupiter worabipped t Describe their situations. What oed ~om;erdiog tbe god JreIll~? F 62 MYTHOLOGY.

Dodonreus from the city of Dodona in Chaonia, near which was a ffro~e of oaks sacred to him. Here was the most ancient oracle ~f Greece. Some say that the leaves of the oaks be­ came vocal and uttered responses to those who came to ask for the secrets of futurity. There was a famous statue of Jupiter at Prreneste. His residence was said by the poets to be in heaven or on the top of Mount Olympus. He was worshipped in the city of Olympus, and had there a splendid tem~le. On the plain of Olympus solemn games called the OlympiC games ,vere celebrated to his honour once in five years. JUNO, the wife of Jupiter, was worshipped chiefly in thr it', land of Samos and at Carthage. VESTA, the virgin goddess of fire, was worshipped first at Troy and afterwards at Rome. The priestesses were called vestals. CERES, the goddess of cern. Her daughter Proserpine wa~ O'athering flowers in the pbins of Enna in Sicily, where Pluto, the god of the infernal regions, seized her and forced her to become his wife. The mother, with her torch lighted in th{' flmnes of JEtna, wandered OVG!f the earth in search of tIll' daughter. Among other places, she came to Eleusis, where she restored Triptolemus, the king of Eleusis, to health, and taught him husbandry. Triptolemlls instituted certain myste­ ries in honour of his patroness, which were called the sacred rites of Ceres or the Eleusinian mysteries. She was also wor­ shipped in Sicily. , MINERVA or PALLAS was the goddess of wisdom and of war .. and the inventress of spinning and weaving. The _'Hhenians worshipped her as their tutelar deity, The Trojans had an image of Minerva called the Palladium, Which, they believed, ensured the safety of the city. MARS, the god of war, was worshipped at Rome and at Thl'acc. where he was supposed to reside. VENUS, the goddess of love and beauty, was worshipped CiI Paphos, Amathus, and Idalia in CYPl'llS, Qt Eryx in Sicily, and

In what part a~ Cb,:aDia was Dodona, and far ",hat was it di!tioguished? Where \vere the mountaw, CIty, and plain afOlympus, and for what were lb~y distinguish­ ,ed? At what places w~s Juno worshipped? Describe their situalions, In ",bat J)~ of the hi and o~ Slc.ly w~s tb~ plulD of Enna? Where is Elensis, [01' what ~ngUl~hed, a~d m what dIrectIOn from Sicily? Wbat remarkable image or rva isla: IS menllOn~d 1 In wbat \!art of Greece i~ Tbrace? In wbat parts Df the -Eryx~ of CYFrus are Amafhus, Papho~, and Idalia! III wha, plirt of Sicily i, lIIYTIIOLOf.n.-• e :1t Cnid~s in Caria. She was called Cyther:ea, because, as some saId, she sprung from the foam of the sea near the Island Cythera. She is attended by OUPID the god of love, and the (hree Graces. VULCA""" being cast out of heaven, fell into the Island of Lern. nos, where he became the inventor of the torfTe. His workshop was in a cave under Mount .LEtlla, and his ~orkmen were the Cyclops, monstrous giants, who had but one eye in the middle of the forehead. ApOLLO was worshipped as the god of poetry, music, medi. cine, augury, and archery. He was born in the Island of Delos and was supposed to reside there during the si..x summer months: but in the winter at Patara, in I~ycia. In his youth he slew the serpent Python, and hence was called Pyihius, and his priestess, Pythia. Apollo had oracles at Claros near Colophon, at Patara and in Tenedns; but his chief oracle was at Delphos. ~ We commonly find joined with Apollo, the Nine Muses, who presided over the liberal arts. The Muses received different ap. pellations from their favourite haunts, the principal of which were mount Pieri us, their birthplace, mount Cithmron, where they dwelt, and mount Parnassus, where were two summits, on which, if anyone slept, he immediately became a poet. DIANA, the goddess of woods and hunting, had a splendid temple at Ephesus. She had one in the Chersonesus Taurica, where human beings were offered on her altar. MERCURY was born at Cyllene. He was the messenger or the gods, the patron of eloquence, the protector of merchants, the conductor of ghosts to their proper mansions, and the god of ingenuity and theft. Images of Mercury, that is, shapeless posts with marble heads, used to be placed where several roads met, to point out the way. PAN, the god of shepherds, was worshipped in Arcadia; with him were the Rural Demigods, the Satyrs, a race part goat, part human. BACCHUS, the god of wine, was worshipped in many parts of Greece and Italy_ NEPTUNE, the god of the sea, had a temple at .iEgre, a town in Eubrea. The Isthmian games, celebrated on the isthmus of

III what part of Cari. is Cnidus? \Vh~re is Cythera I. Where is Le,?nos? Delos? Patara? Claros? Delphos? FOI' what IS Delphos dIStinguIShed? VI hat were the favourite haunts of the MUBes? Describe the situatIOn of each. Describe the places ,vhere Diana II"" worshipped. Where is Cyllene? For what was Arcadia dis, tinguished? 64 .. nIYTHOLOGlI'. Cormth, were in honour of Neptune. He is said to have built the walls of Troy. PLUTO or DIS was the god of the infernal ~egions, and, of every thing beneath the surface of the earth. Hlther, accordmg to classic mythology, the souls of the dead were conveyed by the (Tod Mercury and carried over the river Styx by Charon, the ferryman", of the nether world. At the entrance 0 r'these regiOns \Vas placed the three-headed dog Cerberus. They were divided mto two departments. On the left was Tartarus, where the souls of the wicked were tormented. On the right were the Elysian Fields, where the spirits of the just enjoyed perpetual happiness_ In these regions Pluto was seated on his throne, with his consort, the goddess Proserpine, at his side. Here were the three Furies, whose hair was interwoven with snakes; and the Fates, who determined the life of man by spinning; one held the distaff, another spun, and the third, Atropos, cut the thread. The four infernal rivers were Acheron, Phlegethon, Cocytus, and Lethe, the river of oblivion. The passage to the infernal abodes was fabled to be the cavern of Avernus. * OSIRIS, APIS, or SERAPIS, was the son of Niobe and Jupiter. He sailed from Greece to Egypt, where he overcame the Egyptians, not so much by arms as by courtesies and favours. They believed that when Osiris died, his soul went into an ox, and therefore worshipped him in that form. HERCULES, the principal of the Heroes or Demigods, was the son of Jupiter and Alcmena. He was subject to Eurystheus, and employed by him in performing those actions, which were called his twelve labours. 1st, In the Nemean woods,t he destroyed a terrible lion; 2d, on the lake Lerna, a water serpent or dragon, called the Hydra; 3d, the wild boar, in the wood of Erymanthus - 4th {he bra­ zen-footed s,tag, on Mount Mrenalus; 5th, the' Sty~phalides, monstrous bll'ds who fed on human flesh at the lake Stympha. Ius; 6t?, he cleansed the stables of the king of Elis in one day, by turmng the course of the river Alpheus, and making it run

Far what was the Isthmus of Corinth noted? To what part of Eubrea is lEv",? In w~at part of Greece are the rivers Acheron and Cocytus? III what country;.,. tbe flver Letbe: Where is the cavero of Avernus? What direction from Greece to '1ft ? W b,at plac .. are distinguisbed for being the scene of tbe twelve I.bours o ~rcu!e •. 'Vhere IS the Neme,n Forest? The lake Lerna? The woodofEry­ .na~'r us. Meullt Mlenalus? Lake Stymphalus? Tbe Aillbeus' n Campaom, Italy, t In the northern !lart of Argolii. MYTHOLOGY. ihr?ugh them; 7th, he brought alive to Myceme a wild bull, whICh had ravaged Crete; 8th, he slew Diomedes, king of Thrace, and his four mares, which he fed on human flesh; ~h, he slew Geryon, the three-bodied king of Gades, and ear­ ned away his cattle; 10th, he conquered the Amazons at the river Thermodon; 11th, in. Africa, he killed the Dragon, that guarded the golden apples m the garden of the Hesperides ; 12th, he dragged the three-headed dog Cerberus from Hell. THESEl.'S slew the terrible Minotaur, a monster kept at Crete, who devoured a. cel'~a!n n~lmber of human victims every year. ~e succeeded m klllll1~ It by means ~f Ariadne, daugh. ter of Mmos, the kmg of the island, who with her sister Phre­ dra, followed him on his return. Theseus, it is said, preferring Phredra, left Ariadne upon the island of Naxos. JASOX was the leader of the Argonautic expedition. The wonderful ram, whose fleece they sailed to obtain, was once carrying through the air Helle, the daughter of the king of Thebes, when she fell, and was drowned in the strait, called afterwards from her name, Helles-pontus. The Argonaut!; stopped in their way, at Lemnos. On their arrival at Colchis, Jason inspired with a passion Medea, daughter of the king, and by her magic powers, was cnabled to bring away the Golden Fleece. On his return to Greec{". he married her, and lil'ed happily with her at Corinth for ten years, when he tleserted her for a later favourite. The enraged Medea slew iii his presence her own children, of which he was the father, then set fire to the palace, and burnt to death her husband and her rival. After this she went to Athens, where she married «(Jain, and had a son, Medus, who, accompanying her to Col­ chis, became the sovereign of the country, which he called from his own name, Media.

~, The most celebrated of the Grecian Leaders in the Trojan war, were Agamemnon, from Argos, Menelaus, fro~ Sparta, Achilles, from Larissa, in Thrace, Ulysses, from the island of Ithaca, Diomedes, from JEtolia, Nestor, from Pylos, IdomeneUl, from Crete, Ajax Telamon, from the island of Salamis, and A.jax Oileus, from Locris.

Where is Gades? . The Thermgdon? The island of Nal[os? From wbat circumstance can you remember tbe ancient name. of thc,Dard.anellcs? Wh~re is Corintb? From whom is it supposed that Medl" recelv~d Its nam~? Give tbe names of tbe most renowned leaders of the ~reek.s 10 tbe TrOjan war, with the pla1:e5 from which they went? DeSCribe tTte sltuahon of tbe plnees. F2 66 CHAXGES IX NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. The Seven Wonders of the World were-1st, the Colossus oJ Rhodes, 105 feet high; 2d, the Tomb of Mausolus, ki~g of Caria; 3d, the Pyramids of Egypt; ~thj the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus; 5th, the Statue .o~· J~piter Olym~us, at Athens. '75 feet high, sculptured by Phldl~s III ¥old and Ivory; 6th, the Walls of Babylon and the Hangmg Gardens; 7th. the J~aby. I.'inth of Egypt,

CHANGES IN NATURAL GEOGRAPIIY.'

TIlE rule heretofore stated,t that the works of nature are permanent, would mislead us, unless taken with its exceptions. The traveller, as he looks around and inquires whether the objl:"cts which he views are the same which were beheld by the

.WhdBtht "ere the seven wonders of (he world? Describe the places which con- taine em. : ~ioce the fir~t e~itian. of ~s ..ork, Malte Bruo's Geugraliby bas appeared, 311 •. J meansof It thiS article IS eolargel1 and jmpro~ed. < ~ee page 11. CHANGES IN NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. cd .by extinguished volcanoes, which appear much more ancient. . Vesuvius is not mentioned by the early Roman writers as a "oleano, but its extraordinary beauty and fertility are celebrated. There were, however, appearances near the summit which led to a belief of its former volcanic state, and the adjacent cities were paved with the lava supposed to have been thrown from it by previous eruptions. The first eruption on record took place on the 24th of August, A. D. 79, and was the same which overwhelmed, in its terrific and desolating progress, the towns of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Scabire. Since the date mentioned, the eruptions of .£tna and Ve. :-mvius have been numerous, and such quantities of stones, lava, &c. thrown from them, that the coast in their neighbour. hood has, in consequence, been greatly altered. Harbours have been filled up, and new promontories, and even moun­ tains have been formed. The Lipari islands are supposed to owe their origin to tho volcanoes which they contain. Strongyle, now Stromboli, is not known to have existed as a volcano earlier than B. C. 290. 'Wany volcanoes have burst out in modern times: many that were anciently burning are extinguished. or the latter, be­ sides those mentioned in the vicinity of .£tna and Vesuvius, many have been discovered in almost every country. They are found in Italy, France, Germany, and Britain. The internal fires, operating with other causes, produce tre. mendous shakings and agitations of the earth, and sometimes change, in this manner, its external appearance. By earth. quakes, islands are sometimes thrown up from the bottom of the sea; land sinks, and waters rising, form lakes; springs are stopped, rivers disappear, and sometimes mountains fall. Strabo speaks of a piece of ground b~ing suddenly rai~ed up. ne~r Methone, in Greece, to the height of seven stadia, whICh IS more than 2200 feet. Weare informed that a volcano of c(}llsiderable elevation, in the island of Timor, in the Indian Sea, sunk suddenly down, leaving in its place nothing but a muddy marsh. The' absence of heat, as well as its 6'Jperabundance, has produced changes in the surface of the earth. In Norway, as we are told, the mountains are sometimes cleft by frost, and the valleys are suddenly overwhelmed by avalanches of stone. The AIR is also an agent in producing changes. It pos­ sess;es a dissolving power, which ultimately decomposes the £is CHANGES IN NATURAL GEOGRAPH¥.

most solid substances. The rock cleaves and separates intI) stones' the stones crumble into gravel, or dissolve into sands. They ~re carried by the winds a~d the waters far from ~heir original places, and thus new salls are formed. Sometll~es moving bodies of sand have changed. the face of countrIes. The sands of the desert were formerly remote from Egypt. They have now been driven by the w~st winds within its boun­ daries, and have reduced much fertIle country to a desert. They have accumulated to such a depth as to bury villages and eities beneath them. Similar enr:roachments are supposed to have taken place in the countries bordering on the Euphrates. WATER is, however, the most powerful of all the agents of nature in changing the face of the globe. Sometimes the waters of a rapid river, an agitated lake, or even of a subter. raneous current, waste, consume, or secretly underIlline a mass of rocks or of solid earth. The beds of sand, gravel, clay, or chalk, which serve as a support, are dissolved or swept away, an excavation is formed, and the superincumbent mass sinks uown by its own weight. Currents of water produce changes in the adjacent country. Rivers sometimes change their ('ourse ; sands are carried down by their currents, and deposited about their mouths, and thus lands are formed, and harbour~ often filled up. The whole waters of the Po flowed south of Ferrara a number of miles from its present channel, as late as the 12th century. The coast around the mOllths of the Po and Arno has advanced greatly into the sea since the period of ancienl history. In Egypt, the coast of the Delta, in the time of He. l'Odotus, extended in a straight line; now, the depositions of lhe Nile have formed an extensive semi.circular projection int(l the sea. The motion of the waters of the sea has an ",!feet to change the fOl:m of its coast. The experience of mr.w than twenty centuries ~r~ves that the present sea, as to its entire quantity of water, IS In a state completely :'-tationary; but temporary or local causes may produce small oscillations, whieh cause on the one h~d little sub sidings of the sea, and consequently the fOrIllatlon of new land; and on the other, little invasions of the sea upon the earth., These chan~es mutually compensate each other, and have little effect on the form of great conti. nents. ' , On t~e shores of the Mediterranean, a number of changes are dlscermble. The port of Alexandria in Egypt is dammed up. The 1own 0 fD'amletta, whose walls were" formerly washed by thf' CHANGES IN NATURAL QEOGRAl'HY. 69

':lea, is now at a considerable distance from it. The lake Mengalah appears to be formed either by the overflowinO' of the Nile" or an eruption ,of the sea. The island of Tyre "'has been un,lted, ~o, the contm?nt. At the mouth of the river Py­ ramus, III ClllClR, a deposite of sand has extended the modern ~oast to six ,miles beyond the ancient. The Meander has by httle and httle filled up the valley into which it flows, and which was formerly a gulf. The inhabitants of Ephesus and. Miletus have several times changed the situation of their towns by following the sea, which retired from their walls. In. the Gulf of Venice very remarkable changes have taken. place. Some authors suppose that Lombardy has been, in a great measure, formed by the combined deposites of the Po> and of the sea. The Po, in former times, frequently inun­ dated whole provinces. By erecting dykes, and frequently re­ newmg them, the bed of this river has now become elevated. several feet above the lands which surround it. The grounds neal' Ravenna have sunk, so that the pavement of the Cathe. dral is only six inches above the level of high water; but they have also extended so that this town, which was formerly situated in the midst of marshes and canals, and was furnished with an excellent port, is now three miles from the sea. Aqui. leia, in like manner, stands at a greater distance from the sea than formerly. At the mouth of the Tiber, land is found which did not exist in the time of the ancient Romans. The Pontine Marshes now cover a part of the Appian way. Upon the coast of France, the Mediterranean has receded. Aigues Mortes, in Languedoc, was formerly close to the sea, but at present is two leagues distant. It is probable, that tho islands of Goza and eumano were formerly united to Malta. The islands of Scilly, near England, were formerly inhabit­ ed, and carried on considerable commerce with the Phenicians ; but they are now little more than barren rocks. The ATLANTIC OCEAN has made some additions to the land on the coast of' France. Several bays have been filled up, and the Adour has been obliged to seek a new opening into the sea. On the coast of Holland, several great tides have been the periods of dreadful disasters, and have caused important chan~­ es. The Zuyder-Zee was anciently nothing but a lake, of trI­ fling extent, which flowed into the sea by the Tlver of Ulhe, c,an. ed by Tacitus, Flevum, and considered as a branch of the Rhme. 7() SACRED HISTORY.

About the year 1250, the sea made an irruption int~ it. Vast tracts of land, which running waters had undermmed, gave way, and thus the Zuyder.Zee was formed: The gulf o,f Dol. lart between West Friesland and the provInce of Gromngen, wa; in 1300 a fertile canton, covered with delightful mea­ do",~, In 1421, the united force of the sea and rivers destroy. ed near Dort 72 villages, whose number of inhabitants was thouO'ht to be 100,000. Over their ruined habitations now flow~ the lake of Biesbosch. On the Danish coast of Sleswick, the sea has both lost and O'ained. The island of Nordstrand was swallowed up in 1634. '0 Other causes besides Fire, Air, and Water, have in a mea. sure contributed to change the face of external nature. In some instances, such apparently insignificant beings as the coral polypii have filled up harbours, and rendered the naviga. tion of seas dangerous. This is particularly the case with the Red Sea. The industry of man, by spreading manure over the fields, lIy erecting dykes alon~ the sides of rivers, tends insensibly t. elevate the soil of a country.

SKETCHES OF SACRED HISTORY,

CONNECTED WITH GEOGRAPHY.

VIEW OF THE .JOURNEYS OF OUR SAVIOUR.

Our Lprd Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem. On ac. '~ount of Herod's persecution, he was thence conveyed by his parents to Egypt. After Herod's death he was brought back io Nazareth, and dwelt with his parents until the commence. ment of his ministry. The only journey recorded is his visit to, Jerusalem, at the passover with his parents, at twelve years 01 age. A. D. 28. Ix THE FIRST YEAR OF IllS ll1INIS'l'RY Jesus went from Nazareth to the Rit'er Jordan, where he was baptized by John. Thence to the Desert of Judma, where he fasted forty days, and then to Bethany beyond Jordan or Bethabara. where John was. ,From this place he went to Cana, where he wrought bis fir~r Intracle, to Capernaum, Jertlsalem, and the country of Jutkna, SACRED JIISTORl".

S yckar, and Can4 and back to Jerusalem. To avoid the perse. cution of the Jews he went to Galilee, and remained some time; and after visiting Jerusalem at the feast, returned, and com. menced his public ministry in Galile.e, He then travelled through Nazareth, Capernaum, and other parts of Galilee to Nain, the Lake or Sea of Galilee, where he still ed the storm, the country of Gadara, Capernaum, and through Galilee, where he seIit out the twelve Apostles. During their absence, h journeyed from Capernaum, through Bethsaida to Samaria, Bethany near Jerusalem, to Jerusalem, Bethabara, and again to B ethany, wh ere he restored Lazarus to life, A. D. 29. Thence he went near Ephraim, back to Capernaum, the Sea of Galilee the interior of Galilee, and Nazareth, where the apostles reo turned to him. A. D. 29. IN THE SECOND YEAR OF HIS lIIINISTRY, Jesus wenl with the twelve to a desert place near Bethsaida, east of JOI·. dan, where he fed the 5000 with five 10avJs and two fishes. Thence he went through the land of Gennesareth 00 Capernattm, to the neighbourhood of Tyre and Sidon, through Decapolis, along the Sea oj Galilee, to the neighbourhood of Magdala and Dalmanutha, to B ethsaida in Galilee, and CmsarM Philippi. After being transfigured on a mountain in Galilee, (supposed ,to be Mount Tabor,) he returned privately, to Capernaum.

R. Road fi'om Bethany; B. P~ol of Beths,aidtt.; H. p'alace 4 Herod in Bezetha; P. Pretonum or i res~nce ,of Pzlattf. A. Home of Annas in:Acra; C. Hause of CcnapTras ; S. Pool of Siloam. SACRED HISTORY.

A. D. 29. AT THE CLOSE OF HIS MINISTRY, Jesus knowing that the period of his sufferings was'at hand, directed his course to Jerulalem, first entering Sa'f!Wria, where h,e was not per. mitted to remain. Then crossmg the Jordan he went through PerfEa, and repassing at Jericho, went through Bethany to Jeru­ salem where he arrived on the first day of the week, (Sunday,) and ~as received by a multitude, who spread their garments in the road. It was on the Mount of Olives, on which Bethany was situated, and which commanded a view of the city of Jeru. salem, that our Saviour wept over it, and here he foretold its I'uin to his disciples. Jesus remained in Jerusalem, teaching in the temple, and at Bet/zany, until the fifth day of the week. (Thursday,) when he celebrated the Passover with his disciple!' in Jerusalem. In the evening, he went with his disciples to the Mount of Olit'es. When they came to the Garden of Getltse. mane, he retired into a solitary spot, and" being in an agony, he prayed more earnestly; and his sweat was as it were great drops of blood, falling down to the ground." Immediately after he was seized by the Jews and led awa~ bound to the House of Aunas, A. and thence to the Palace of Caiaphas, C. where he was arraigned and examined before thf' Sanhedrim. In the morning of the sixth day, (Friday,) he waH Jed away bound to the Judgment Hall or Prretorium of Pilate. P. and thence was sent by Pilate to the Palace of Herod, H. He was then brought back to the Juc'!ment Hall, P. and con. demned ; and then led away to Mou~t Calvary, where he wa~ crucified. In. th~ evening he was buried in a tomb near the place of cruCIfiXIOn. On the morning of the first day of the week, (Sun. ~ay,) he arose from the tomb and appeared to bis disciples near It: .In the course of the day, he appeared to Peter, to tw{> dISCIples on their way to Emmaus, and to the apostles assem· 'bled in Jerusalem. -:1fterwards he appeared to the apostles 11ear the Lake of Galtlee, to 500 of his followers on a mountain near it, and again to the apostles in Jerusalem. He then led the~ out to the Mount of Olives, "and it came to pass that '~hlle h~ was blessing them, he was parted from them and car­ rIed up mto heaven."

, ~"i

C' Describe ~b~ last journey of Jesus from Cal'ernaum through Per",a to Jeru­ ,diem, pe,crlbe hIS dally walk from Bethany to the temple fbi lowing the road-(See the Plan of .Jeru:aZ.m,) Where was Gethsel\lane? Describe lbe places to whIch he was camed before his crucifixion? Where was Calvary' 1,Vhere was the last appearance of Jesus? '

UEW OF THE TRAVELS OF THE APOST):.E, PAUL FROM illS CO:'I­ VERSION TO illS DEATH.

The countries through which St. Paul journeyed, comprised ,he greater part of Asia Minor and of Greece. A. D. 36. His conversion took place on his journey fron, Jerusalem to Damascus. From A. D. 37 to A. D. 40 he proba o illy resided in Arabia and Damasclls. 40-Thence he went to Jerusalem and C{esarea and sailed to Tarsus, thence probably through Cilicia and Syria. 43-To Antio.ch. 44-to Jeru, 8alem and back to Antioch. A. D. 45. FIRST APOSTOLIC JOURNEy-From Antioch to Seleu, cia, and by sea to Salamis in Cyprus. Thence to Paphos, Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe; and back again through Lyslra, Iconium, Antioch and Perga to At­ talia; whence he sailed for Antioch in Syria, and resided there a considerable time. ,A. D. 49. SECOXD APOSTOLIC JOURNEy-From Antioch ,through Pha;nicia and Samaria to Jerusalem, and back to An. tioch. 50-After a short residence at Antioch, thence through Syria, Cilicia, Derbe and Lystra; throughout Phrygia, pro­ bably to Hierapolis, Laodieea, and ColosslE; through Galatia, and (being forbidden to preach there,) to ~lysia and Troas. Thence he sailed to Samothrace, and went through Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, The~salonica, Apollonia, and Ber(]3a to Athens. 51-To Corinth, where he resided a year an,d a half. Thence to Cenchrea, and embarking for Syria, touched at Ephesus, and landed at C(]3sw'ea; thence to Jerusalem ~nd '1ntioch. A. D. 5:::. TIIlRD APOSTOLIC JOURNEy-From AntiocT~ throulTh Galatia and Phrygia to Ephesus, where he resided three \'ears~ 56-Thence by Troas to 1I1acedonia. 57-Through (;7'cecc to Corinth, and returned through ftlacedonia, Philippi. Troas, and ASBos. Thence sailing by Jllitylene, Chios, and Sa'7lws, he touched at 'Progylliwl!, 11liletus, Cos, Rhodes, Pa­ I,ala, Tyrc, and Ptolemais, landed at 'C(]3sarea, and ~ent to Je­ j:llsdlem, "i. D. 58. At JCIlISal€1l1 he was made pnsoner, car l'ied through _,1nlipatris to Ca;sal'ea, find detained there ii, IJOnd.;, G 74 lIETHOD OV MAKING MAP!!.

A. D. 60. JOURNEY TO ROME-He was embarked a prisoner for Rome touched at Sidon, sailed porth of Cyprus and touched at Myra; thence by Cnidus and Salrnone to }'ai~ Havens. The ship was driven by Clauda and wrecked on Mehta, where he resided three months. 61-.Thence by sea to Syracuse, Rhegium, and Puteoli, and by land to Appii Forum, and the Three Taverns and to Rome. This concludes Luke's account in the Acts. The remaining history is uncertain. It is supposed that Paul was liberated in A. D. 63, and went to Crete, ColossCE, Ephesus, and Philippi, and other parts of Macedonia, winter. ing at Nicopolis. 6.f-Back to Ephesus, stopping at Troas. Thence to Miletu8 and Corinth and to Rome, where he is be· lieved to have suffered martyrdom. Queslions,-Wbat were the place. passed tbrough by Sf. Paul, and tbe 'Seneral course of his journeys to eacb, previous tp bill first aposlolic journey? Describe bis firsl apostolic journey in the same manner,-In wbat countries was it? Describe bis second al.'ostolic journey, In what couDtry did he trav.1 chiefly, during his thi"d apostolic journey, and what was his course? Describe his journey and voyage to Rome.

A METHOD OF MAKING lUAPS,

By which the Pupil may unite the studies of Geography, Chronology, and History. '

DIRECTIONS TO THE PUPIL.

Having now studied the maps and chronology, make out for yourself a map, corresponding to the date of each of the epochas of the ~hronology. As so very little is known of the first ~pocha, It may be taken in conjunction with the second. There wIll then be, for the time before Christ, five maps j the first to be dated at the close of the second epocha the second at the close of the third, and so on. For the fiv~ maps, tak{' ~ve sheets o,f paper of ,equal s,ize. As the natural geograph; IS the, same m eac~ perIOd of tJ~ne, of course all the maps will be alike 1to contments, seas, l'lvel'S, &c. and having made one, the ~ther can be traced ,with a pencil while lying over it. In ma~g fuese maps, you cannot f.'lil of fixin

You may make these maps a means of improvement to. you. not only dm'ing your school days, but as. long as you hve.­ Whenever at any time, you shall by. rea.dmg or other means, have increased "your knowledge of hlstoncal geogl:aphy, add to your map. This will be an easy metl~od. of ~allmg to rec?l­ lection what you have before learr~ed, of fi.xmg m your mem~ry the facts just acquired, and what IS very Important, of keepmg the whole arranged in systematic order.

A CATALOGUE OF ANCIENT NAl'IES.

ARRANGED ACCORDI~G TO THE EPOCIIAS l~ WHICH THE PLt..CE,5 BEC ..... ;\.! E K:SOWr-; TO THE Al\"CIENTS.

Rulesfor Pronouncing the Vowels of Laiin and Greek Proptr Names. E,'ery vowel with the accent on it at the end of a SJ llable is pronounced as in English, with its long open sound, as Pho' cis. Every accented vowel not endlfig a sJllable, but full owed by a consonant, has the short sound. Thus Col­ rbis has the short sound, as in collar. E'/cry unaccented i, ending a syllabk ilot final, has the sO'1Jnd of e, as in Hernki, pronounced Hcrneci, the second f=y l­ Iable of Boii, as if Boei. The diphthongs reo and Ie as long e. (Eta pronounced Eta. E final always forms a distinct SI!lable .q ending an unaccented syllabie h" a sound bordering on the a in father. Consonanls. C' and G are bard before a, 0, and u, and soft before e, i, and y. T, C, anQ_ S, in proper names, cnding in tia, sia, cion, cyon, and sian, preceded by tht

ac~en!~ change the T, Ct and S into sh. as Sicyan and Phocion, pronounced as If ~:)lsheon and Pbosheon, and Galatia, Galashea. • ~ T, S, and C before ia, ie, ii, io, iu, and eu. prec(:ded by the accent, in _Latin words, change into sh and zh, as .... ccius, Helvetii, pronounced Aksheus, Hel· veshcl. Ch before a vowel are pronounced like k, but when these letters come be fore a mute consonant at ta'1e beginning of a word, as in Cbtbonia, they aI:l: motE.', In Latin, c before nand t, and g before n, are mute. When Mn, -and Tm. commence words the first consonant is mute. Ph followed by a consonant ,; mute, as Phthiotis, pronounced Thiotis X commencin~ words has the sound of z, as in Xanthus. In Hebrew proper names, G is t.;rd before e and i, a­ In Gera, Gilgal.

COUI'\TRIE~.

Cbaldre'a ~u~ia'na 1st Epocha, Col'chis Syr'ia from 2348 to l!J2I. E'gypt 2d Epocha. Ar.'hia Ethivpia A'ria from 1921 to 14~1 Maco'nia Arca'dia A'si. Mi'nor Me'di. AI'l(olis Assyr'ia Mesopota'mi. At't-ica Babylo'nia Persia Bactria'na Bceo'tia Sic'yon Ca'oaan ANCIENT NAMES. 77

Cappado'cia Carma'nia Adiabe'ne Cilie'ia Etru'ria Al'bion Corin'thia Gedro'si. Aquita'nia Epi'rus In'dia within the Gano-es Bel'gica Grre'cia La'tium "Bre'tica lllyr'icum Macedo'nia Britan'nia Laco'nia 5th Epocha, Brut'lium Lyc'ia from 153 to 355. Caledonia Lyd'ia Alba'ni. Crelo.Syri. Mys'ia ACrica Pro'pria Ch.lcid'ice of Syr'i. Phrenic'i. Apu'lia Cbadni. Thessa'iia Acarua'nia Charace'ne Thra'cia Bar'ca Comm.ge'ne Tro'as Bo'ii Darda'nia 3d Epocha, Breo'tia Elyrna'is from 1491 to 980. Bytbin'ia Ema'tbia JEo'lia Campa'nia Euga'nei Ash'er Cilic'ia Gala'tia Ben'jamin Cu'res Gam",'. Ca'ria D.'cia G",tu'lia Dan Edon'iea {iiI' ead Do'ris of Peloponne'sus Ethio'pia Hiber'nia and A. Minor Fale'rii Hispa'nia Eiis of P. and A. M. Gal'lia HYl'ca'nii E'phraim Hyrea'nia Idum",'a Gad Ibe'ria In'dia Io'nia of P. and A. M. In'subres In'di. beyond Ihe Gange! Is'sachar La'tiuTlJ, Isau'ria Italy Lingo' nes J ud",' a .Tu'dah Luca'nia Ligu'ria Lo'cris Lyb'i. Lusita'nia Lyb'ia Lyc'ia Lugdunen'sis l\1agne'8ia Mces'ia Magne/sia Manas'seh Mys'ia Maurita'nia Meg'aris Nu'bia and Abyssin'ia Meg'aris Messe'nia Pamphyl'ia Mre'sia Myee'ne Phryg'ia Molos'sis Naph'thali Plce'flum Nor/icum Pceo'nia Ple'ria Nal'bonen'sis P.lesti'na Sabi'ui Numid/ia Paphlago/nia Sa'e", Per'gamus PeJas'gia Sam/niulU Philis'tia Perrh",'bia Scyth'ia Phthio'tis Pho'cis Sogdia'na Pie' ria Phryg'ia Thespro'tia Pisid'ia Reu'ben UOl'bria Pon'tus Sim'eon Voi'sci Sama'ria Zeb'ulon 6th Epoclw, Seri' ca 4th EpQcha, from 356 to the Lirth of Si'nre from 980 to 753, Christ. Syr'ia Pro' pr' .. -t:yrena'ka Acba/ja Tarraconell'si:

CITIEf.

1st Epocha, Nin'eYeh Corinth frQlft 2348 to 1921. Sie'yon Heliop' olis of Egypt Al"gos The'b", of Egypt L.top'~li' Bab'ylon Zi'd.on Spar'la' Ga'za Tbe'bil: of Breotit .Te'bus or Jeru'Sii,lem Troja '1em'pltis' . Ty'rus ANCIENT NA1IES.

3d EpocTta. Trceze'ne Tan'egra Al'ba Tea:I!'a Ther'ma Au'lis Th~'b:E of Thessa'lia Tbermop'yI:e Anthe'don Thauma'sia Tra'cbys AS'calon Ze'li. 6th Epocha. As/iDe Antio'cbia Amy'elre 4th Epoclta. Ac'tium A'bydos Car'thago Ancy'ra A'ios Ro'ma Alexan'dria I.;hal'cis Sarna/ria AdruOle'turn CY/phus Syracu'sre Apam.'a lCyto'fU. Ambra'cia Col'ophon 5tlt Epocha. Apollo'oia of Epi'rus Clazom'eoe Aspada'na Ampbip'gJis Carys'tus Archela'is As'culum Cylle'ne Agrigen'tum Ar.thu'sa Cal'ydon Abde'ra Arirn'inurn Dodo'na Alba'na Brundu'sium Damas'cus Arbe'Ja Bibrac'te Epidau'fus Artemis'ium Can'nre Eph'esus Byzan'tium Cap'sa E'ziou·Go'ber Cyres'chata Canu'siulll Ere'tria Colossre Clu'siurn E'lis Cap'ua Cu'mre Goossus Cyz'icum Deme'trias Gorty'Ds Cbal'cedon Dyrrach'ium Hen'eti Croto'na Edes'sa He'bron Clazom'eop. Em'esa Henni'one Crr/ne Gor'dium He'los Dori;'cus Gad/ara ltdnia Ecbata'na Gena'bum ilho'me of Thessalia Eph'esus Gergdvia Jer'icho Eleu'sis Larissa Is'sedon of Scyth'ia Ge'ta Usedon of Ser'ica La'chisb Heraele'. Lin'dus Lute'tia Him/era Melodu'num Magne'sia Is'sus Myc'ale Numan'tia Lamp'sacus Nar'bo Mile'tus Mar'athon Mreo'nia Noviodu'num Mygdo'nia Paliboth'rae Mes'se Myc'al. Mantioe'. Per'garnus Mile'tus Per.ep'olis Metho'ne Oro'pus Melibre'a Placen'tia Olrm'pia Pel'la Orchom'enus of Bredtia Pasar'gad", Q'pus Pyd'na Pelu',ium PCl£nes'te Oloos'so. Pa'rium Orchom' enus of Area' dia Sagun'tum Phocre'a Seleu'cia Platre'" Plalle'a Pelle'ne Scythop'olis Rbe'giull1 Tar'raco Py'los Sar'dill Pieuron Tu'nis Phe',,,, Sindpe Su'sa Tbyati'ra Ses'tos Syb'aris Tolo'sa Thes'pi;c Vologe'aia 'fbia'be Tegre'e Taren'tum Verula'miuJr. ':rhym'bl'\> Vien'na 'J'elmiisu;. Za'ma ANCIENT NAlIlES. 79

RIVERS. 1st Epoch". Pami'sus Pantie'apes Choas'pes Pene'us of Thes!aly Pyr'amus Euphra'tes Si'mois Ru'bicon Gyn'des Scaman,der Stry'mon In'dus Sperchi'u9 Tan'ais In'achus of Ar'golis Styx Ty'ras Jor'dan 4th Epocha. 'l'hermo'don , Ly'ces Pacto'lus Ty'bris Kedron 5th Epocha. 61h Epocha, Myg'donus Arax'es Ao'ris Nile Apid'anus Aliac'moll Phys'cni lEso'pus Ax/ius Ti'gris A'nia lE'gos Pot'amt>g Tit'ana Aeous Du'rius 2d Epocha, Borys'thenes Hydas'pes Alphe'u8 Cai'cus Hyph'asis Cephis'sus of Breo'tia Danubi'us Hydrao'tes Euro'tas Erid'anu~ Her'mus Ilis'sus Eoi'peus Jom'anes Ly'cus Ha'lys Jlris OrOD/(eS Hre'ffius Jaxar'tes Pene'us of E'lis Hyp'anis of Scyth'ia Metau'rus Hyp'anis of Sarma'tia O"'us 3d Epocha. He'brus Pa'dus Adomis Ly'cus Pacto'lus Ach'eron Mean'der Rhyn'dacu: ~se'pus Nei'tus Rhod'anus Pha'sis Onoch'onus Tre'bia

MOU~TAI:\S. 1st Epoclta. Her'mon Pelion Ar'arat I'da Pin'dus Ne'bo Parnas'5us 2dEpocha, Pis'gah Pang~'u!5 Ho'reb 5th Epocha. Tay,getus Olym'pus Aothos Tmo'lus Os'sa Cithre'ron Si'nai Hymet'tlls 6th Epocl"" 3d Epoch". Myc'ale Alpes Apenni/Llus Car'mel O'thrys (iiI'earl (E'(a Pyrenre'i lSLAJ\'DE. 3d Epocha, Zacyn'thus Pa'ros Rbe'oert Cre'ta Sa'mos; Cos 5th Epoc/!a. Cephalle'nia Chi'os Sardin'i. Corey/ra CYthe'ra Siph'nos Cyrnus Samothra'cia , Calyd'oa Sci'albus Ca'suS Cyth'nus Cy'prus Seri'pbos Car'pathus Te'os Egi'na De'los Im'bros Tha'sos Ith'aca The'ra Lem'no! Les'bos Nisy'rus Lin,dus

PROBLEMS ON THE GLOBES AND MAPS,

WITH RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS: PREPARED BY W. c. WOODBRIDGE, To accompany the" Rudiments oj Geography," and" Ele­ ments of Universal Geography."*

PROBLEJIS ON THE GLOBES AND llIAPS • . \ Globe IS a round body, having every equally part of its surface distant from a point, called the centre. Th~re are two sorts of artificial globes; the Celestial the Terrestrial. and The Celestial Globe has on its surface a representation all the visible stars of in the heavens, and the images or ell! the various constellations figures of in which these stars are arranged. The Terrestrial Globe exhibits a delineation of all the of sea and land in their parts proper situations and distances, just {hey are in nature. as Each Glohe consists of the following parts, viz.- 1. The 7100 Poles or lbe ends' of tbe aXIS on whicb sent the poles of the the globe turns, repre­ world. The upper is the Nortb ~oulh Pole. Pole, and the lower tht 2. The Brass .nleridian, divided into four lIinety d"grees. quarters, and each quarter into This circle surrounds the Globe, poles. and is joined to it at the 3. The Wooden Horizon which presenl> surrounds the globe. The upper tbe true horizon, and has several part re­ eontams circles drawn upon It. The inner the twelve signs of the Zodiac, tbrough one. .n a year; which the sun, or eartb, revolves tbese are sllbi!ivided into degrees; of til e Zodiac the next circles exhibit the sign' dlVlded mto degrees, and the days rC3pond. of the montb to which they cor­ 4. Tbe HOI,r Circle divided into twice twel ,l'lan, round ve hours tilted to the brass meri­ the north pole. The twelfth houl' .t, at the at noon 'is upon the upper part mend ..n, and the twelfth hour at or the hOrizon. night is upon lbe lower part, towards S. The Quadrant of .!1ltitude, which i. a degrees, thin slip of brass, divided into nine­ :y .of the same Size with tbose on lbe Equinoctial "d on occasIOnally to line. It may be screw­ P~~L tbe top of the brass meridian ••to measure the distances o,' .s .. The Mariner's Compass, usually fixed under the globe. . "rung a magnetic needle, Tf>i. is a box con· and the thirty-tlVO points of the compass. • The,e articles are published in connection wilb ,ccolllDlakodate tbe the Ancient Geography ~o pon:hasers of the Rudiments of ·ere t en ctncfty frOm Guy. GeoD'raphv. The prQb~ms 0 • CIRCLES ON THE GLOBES. 81

CIRCLES ON THE GLOBES. On tbe s~rface of the globe are drawn ten circles; six of wbich are callee. the Great Circles, and four tbe Less Circles. TO Tbe great circles. divide tbe globe into two equal parts. They are the "'quator Or EqUinoctial, the Horizon, tbe Meridians tbe Ecliptic and the two CoiGres. ' I The lesB circles divide the globe into unequal parts. They are the two Tropics, and the two Polar Circles. ~. The Eq.1tator separates the globe into the northern and southern hemispheres It IS. divided mto one hundred and eighty degrees each way, from the first or cbie! meridIan; or mto three hundred and sixty degrees, if reckoned quite round the globe. 2. The Hori=on is either sensible or rational. The sensible horizon is thai circle we see in a clear day, where the sky and water or earth 5eem to meet; ~C' tbat each place has its own sensible horizon. That called tbe rational horizon ell' ~ompasses tbe globe exactly in the middle, and is represented by the wooden framE' before mentioned. Tbe Ca.'dinal Points are the four principal points of the horizon; north, south, east, and west. Tbe Zenith is the uppermost pole of tbe horizon, an imaginary point in the hea,'cns, directly over our head. On the artificial globe, it is the most elevated poill! on its surface in wbich the eye of the spectator can be placed. Tbe Nadi,' is tbe lower pole of tbe horizon; that is, an imaginary point directlY'tlllder the feet, and consequently diametrically opposite to the zenith. S. The Meridians are those circles that pass from pole to pole, and divide the globe into the eastern and western hemispheres. They arc so called, because, when tbe sun comes to the south part of either of tbese circles, it is then mid.day, or meridies, to all places lying under tbe line. The sun at that time bas its greatest, altitude for that day, which is therefore called its meridian altitude. There are commonly marked on the globes twenty fOUl' meridians, one tbrough every fifteen degrees, corresponding to tbe twenty·four bours of the day and nigbt But every place, tbougb ever so little to the east or west, has its own meridian. Tbe first meridian on our maps is usually drawn through London, or more. properly Greenwich, by! often througb Washington. 4. Tbe Ecliptic or Zodiac represents that patb in the beavens ,:,hich. the .sun seems to describe by the earth's annually revolving round It. It IS' dl\'lded Into twelve equal parts, called signs, and eacb sign contains tbirty degrees; correspond. ing to the twehe months of the year, and the dars ofth. month. .., It is called the ecliptic, because tbe eclipses must necessarIly bappen III thIS Illlo. where the sun always is. The nallles and characters of the twelve signs, with the time of the sun's entrance into them, are as follow: 1. Aries, 'Y' or the Ram; March 20th. 2. Taurus, (:j the Bull; April 20th. S. Gemini, IT the Twins; May 21st. 4. Cancer, § the Crab; June 21st, 5. Leo, SL the Lion; July 23d. 6. Virgo, T1J1 the Virgin; August 2Sd. 7. Libra, === the Balance; Seplember 23d. 8. Scorpio, 111. the Scorpion; Octoeer 23d. 9. SagiUarius, t the Archer; NO\'ember 22d. ] O. Capricorn us. V3 the Goat; December 22d. 11. Aquarius, ::::: the Waterman; January 20th. 12. Pisces, * tbe Fi.bes; February 19th. The first~ix are called the nOl·thern signs, as they lie in the northern heml' ephere, and tbe last six are the southern signs. ., NOTE -By this division of the ecliptic we can more readIly POIDt out the slln's pl~ce in the heavens, for any given time, by saying, "It is in such a de. CIRCLES ON THE GLOBES.

~rce of sucb u siun." The earlb in perfol'lning ilS annual revolution round tbe ~un, ad,'ance. th~rty degree. eve;·y month in ~acb of tbese signs, w hicb c~us~s the sun apparently to do the same in lhe oppos.te one; t~us" wben the ~arlb IS.m Lib,'3, the sun appears to Ile in A ries, whIch IS the opposlle sIgn; when III ScorpIO, we see the sun in Tauru~; and so on through the rest. 5 and 6. The two Colures are two meridians, wbich pas. through Ihe poles of the world, one of tbem throuvh tbe equiDoctial points, Aries and Libra, and (herefore calied the equinoctial "Colure; tbe olher. ~hl'ough the solslitial points, Cancer and Capricorn, and tberefore called the ~o/.st'tial Colure. . These circles divide the surface of tbe globe mto four equal parts, denotmg the ::easolls of the year. 7 ",d 8. The two Tropics are cil'c1es drawn parallel to the Equator, at twenty­ th,e. de o reeS anr! a balf di.tallee from it, one on the north SIde and the other on the ,outl~ That '" V'e norlhern hemispltere touches the ecliptic in tbe begillning of Cancel', ~nd it is therefore called the Tropic of Cancer. That in the sou:Lern hemispbere is called the Tropic of Capricorn, Gecause it touches the ecliptic iu tbe be~innjng of that sign. The word" troJl'c" denotes a return, because in these points the sun returns again to the equinoctial hne. These circles are usually marked on the globe by dots, to distinguish them from uther parallels. 9 aDd 10. The two PolaT Circles circumscribe tbe poles of the world, at the di.tence of twenty-three Jfgrecs and a half. That on tbe Ilortb pole passes through tbe conslellation called A,'cios, or the Bear, {l'Om whence it is called the Arctic <. ircle; and that wbich i. oppo,ite to it about the south pole, is called the Antarctic ,~ircle. Both these are also marked on the globe by dotted lines. NOTg.~Obser\'e that the (erm "axis" means only an imaginary straigbt line paS3illg through tbe centre of a ;;Iolle or circle, upon which it is supposed to (urn. Thi, a"'s is expressed in artificial globes by a wire passing through the I~iddle to support them, from OIlC pole to tbe other, and the extreme points of this 11110 arc the poles oflhe wOl'ld. The circumference of the globe, for the com'enience of measurine;, is supposed to be divided into 360 parts or degrees, each degree containing GO geograpbical 'Diles, which are equal to abont 69 English mileS. The degrees are in like manner each subdil'ided into 60 millutes, (marked thus, ',). and each minute into sixty seconds, (marked thns, ",) for the purpose of meaEurmg tIme. The globe is measured by latitude from north to south, and by longitude from eMt to west. Lut,tude is reckoned from the equator towards the poles, either north or south, and no place can have more than 90 degrees of latitude because the poles are at !hat distance from the equator. ' Pamlle!s of. Latitude are those imaginary lines which are carried round th: globe m a directIOn parallel to tbe equinoctial line, and at the distance of ten detees from each other, In both northern and southern h~mi.phereB. on!5'tudc has no parhcular Spot froro which we ou",ht t,> set out in prefar­ enee to. another. Englisb geographers take their first °meridian at London or GreenWIch, and reckon tile dist.nce of places easl or west from thence. There­ lore lbe CIrcumference of the earth boing ;)60 degrees no place can be more tban half that distance (that is 130 degrees) ill tbe same di;ection f"om another. Voya­ cr hh .' frequently count their longitude beyond that to save confusion by changing t ~Ir r~ckonlllg. ' th fhe degrees of longitude are not equal, like Ihose of latitude but dinrioi.h a~ ~~approaoh the poles, as mav be se.n in the table of longitude.' the t Ith rdgard to hoat and "old, the earth is divided into five ZODes, viz. one called T~;r;o~~e, two tem1.'erate zone.s, and two frigid zone8. The inhabitant?r hbmng %0;:" IS al\ that space lying between the tropics_ are sub'ect to ' 0 ,s zone aVe the sun vertical two days ID tbe year, and tropics? " constanl extreme of beat, as the sun never passes beyond the PROBLEMS ON THE GLOBES!. 83

The two. temperate :tones are all those parts lying between the tropics and Ihe polar cIrcles; consequently there is one of Ihese in the norlhern and one in the southern hemisphere. We, in the Umted Slates, are inhabitants of the norlh temperate zone. The two frigid zones lie belween the polar .circles and the poles and have tbeir name from the excessive cold in those pari,. ' • PROBLE~I l.-:-Tpfind the Latitude and Longitude of any place. To find the Latztude.-Brlllg the place 10 the graduated side of the hra,s meridian, and the figure that stands over it shows its latitwk or distance from jhe equator. Thus tbe latitude of London is 51 degrees and' a half north-the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope is 34 <;legrees and a half soutb. 1'0 find the Longitu.de.-Observe the degrees the bmss meridian cuts on lhe equator, and that is ils longitude or ,distance either eastward or westward. Tbus the longitude of the Cape of Good Hope is nearly 18 degr ... and a halt east. London, of course, can have no longituoe frqrn itself, bpC'ause the 6r~~ meridian begins there. .Constantinople is 41 deg. N. lat. and 20 deg. E. long. nearly. What is the latilJ,lde of Edinburgh! Paris! Peters burgh ? Rome? P"kin:' Copenhagen? Quebec? l!oston! Philadelphia! What is the longilude of Mad,id ! ;Venice? Berlin! Naple;! Cape Horn! Cape Verdi Washington? New·Orleans! New·York? Find the latitude and longitude of Stockholm, Viwna, Calcutta, Cairo, Mexico, Barbadoes, Quito, Rio Janeiro. PROBLEM n.-The Latitude and Long'dvde of any place being give!!, to find that place upon the glohe. Bring the given 10nKitune (oaHU on the equatur to the brass meridian; look for tbe given latitude on tbe lI'\eridian, dnd under the degree is 1he place sought. Thus, suppose two ships come to an c;.~a~em(mt in 360 20' north latitude, and in 52" longitude west from London, you will Dnd it to be in the Atlantic Ocean, a little soutb of the Azol'e Islands. What towns lie nearly in t"efollowing l"lilw/., and longitude? Lat. 342 S. Long. 18~ E. I Lat. 60 }\' Long. 5~ E. Lat. 56 N. Long. 3 rv. Lat. 75,;\' Long. 40~ fV. Lat. 42 N Long. 701 W. Lat. 18 N. Long. 77 rv. l'ltOBLKM nL-To find the difference of lati:ude or longitude btiween any two places. Find the latitude or longilude of each on the globe or map, and count the number of degrees from one meridian or parallel to the olh~r. .. Otherwise, J. [f the latitudes or longitudes are both In the same dzrectlOn. i. e. hath east or both west, both north or both south, subtract the less from the ~reater, and the remainder will be the difference. . 2.° If they are in dijf"'ent directions, add them together, and the sum Will be the difference of latitude or longitude. Find the difference of latitude and longitude of Pm'is and Philadelphia. ,1Iexico and Calcutta. London and New·Yorl;. Pekin and Petersbm·g. Cairo and Raleigh. Bostnn and New·Orleans. PaoBLEM IV.-To find Ihe Sun's place in the Ecliptic at any time. . The monlh and day being given, look lor tbe sam~ on the wooden. hotlZ?n. and over against the day you will find the pal'ticill~r sign a~d degree. l~ whl:'j, ,.ite sun is at that time. This sl&n and degree IJt~lOg noted In the echptl~, will .• 0 the sun's place, or nearly, at the time desir"d. Thus, on the lltu at i.\Ia!·. ,he sun's place is in the.21st degr.ee.ofTaurns. vind the sun's place III the eebplle for .I11a.'ch 20th. ,rune 21st. S~ptember e:1d . . 'lJlTiI21st. .July 4th. O~lober 20th . .January 30th. .December' 21st. . J'lovembe,' 5tk PROBLEM 'I.-To r~c1if'l th~ Glonefnr ihe loillutle of a place. ,1ore the bra,s meridian higher or lower, till the pole stands as many ;r,·"rec" 'PROBLE~IS 0", THE GLOBES.

above the wooden horizon as the latitude of the pla~e is for which you woul'l rectify. Thus, if the place be Londo~, you ~ust l'?lSe the no~t11 pole 51~ de­ grees, (hec,u," that'5 the latitude ()f ,I,) wh,ch. brmgs that c,ty to the top or zenith of the globe, and ot'er th.e centre of the ~Ol·JZon. NOTR.-In all problems relatmg to north.latltude, you mu.t elevate the north· nole: but in those that have south lalltude you must raise the south pole. ~\nll obsen'e, that the north pole must always incline to tbat part of the horizon marked June, and the south pole tn that marked December. . . The zenith's latitude mllst be reckoned upon the hrass mefldmll, from the e~uator towards the elevated role; and if the CJlladrant oi ahilude be "'a"ted, it tnu~t bp sC'rew~d on then>. ThllS, for LOlld,-)n It must be ~o plac(;d as that the gradu~tf'd edge Inay cut 51 0 SO' of tbe merldian, because that is the zenith, or cen· tre Domt. ~~t the bra~.~ mcr:d::lll of the gll1be north and south, by the ('om pass, so that ,l,e north pole of the globe may be towards tbe north part of the world, taking "aTf~ tnallflw f,Jr lhe variation of the compass. These thini\" bein!!: uone, tbe globe is "ectijied, that i., put into a position simi­ lar to the natural situalion nf the earth, on any given day for the latitude of the place. PROBL'" '.-I.-To me((S7l)" the Distancefrom one Place to another. Fix the quadrant of altilude over onc of the given places, and ext~nd it to the (,ther. This will show tile number of dee:rees between them; which being- mul­ 'iplied by 60, will gi,·. the distance ill geoe:I'aphic.1 miles. 1'- YOll would' know 'he distance in Ellglish miles, rou must multiply the degrees by 69, which will ;ivc it very nearly. Find the distance between JI·ew· YOI·k and London Boslon and .ff1·7I.~lem Lond"n and Rome Charleston and Cairo UI,I,t,IUar and ~i\{aples .tlexico and Bal'badots Jamaica and Slerra Leone Vienna and Venice! Pari, and Philadelphia. PROBLE'I VII.-To jind the tl"Ue bearing or direction of one place from anoth,,·. R~ctify the globe to the latitude of one of the places, and bring it to the brass ·nend,an; tben fix the qlladrant of altitude over that plare, and extend it from ;hcnce .to. the other, and (he end will point out the direction upon the horizon. r~us, If I,t were required. to know the direction of Home from London, the glob~ )em,~ reclJ?ed. L~ndon brought to the brass meridi.::m, and the edge of the quad­ rant of ailltude hlld to Rome, you will fi"d the end rail a~ains( (hat part of tbe wooden homon marked S. E. or South East. " , _ JVhat is the t,·u. bearing of L_~llJon.r.rom JYew·}ork JlTariridfro11l Lisbon T unna from JenHalfm PelerslJlrrCl"hfi'om Berlin ROn1efru,,'~ Gibraltar .lerusnlem"from Boston? PROBLR'l "III.-Toji"d at any Hour of the Day what o'clock it is at an?! . Place in Ihe TVorld. 1- Brm:; the place where you are to the bra~~ meriLlian, Eet the index to thp­ ~our g1\'.f'n; turD: th~ .g1obe till the place y<:m w,'llt comes undp.l' the meridian, nd (~e mde" Wlil pOl.nt out what the hour,s at (hat place. Thus when it is "XI u clock m the evenmg In England, it is about half past eiaht at niaht at Jeru- sa em, and nf·arly one o'clock in the afternoon at J amai'_'~. 0 0 ) On the .Jllnp rt'('~on the number of degrees of longitutle e:'lst 01' w(-<;t, and , ~t them Into hour;. 15 degree~ are

When ;t is noon at Calcutta, what i4 the hour at Cairo Jerusalem Vienna Paris London BermuJas Isles Philadelphia Cape Horn Quito Ga/lipago Isles Olaheite PorI Jackson? J'f hen it is 9 in the ,,,orning at New-Orleans, what is the hour al Bergen Stockholm Moscow Berlin? . When it is G in the evening at Barbadoes, what is the hour at Ma~rld ISl'ahan Nankin Naples Vemee Moscow Petersburgh London?

PROBLEM IX.-To find at what hour the S~n rises or sets, any Day in the Year . and also upon what P'Olnt of the Compass. ' Rechfy the globe for the latitude ot the place you are in' bring the sun's place for the clay given to the bl'ass meridian, and set the i~dex to 12' then turn the sun's place to the eastern edge of the wooden horizon and the' index will point out the hour oi ",sin!;, if you bring the sun's place' to the western edge, the index will show the time of its setting. In the summer the sun rises and sets to the northward of the east and west points, but in winter to the southward of tbem. Therefore, when the ~un'. place is brought to the eastern or western edge of the honzon, you will there see the point of the compass upon wh,ch the sun rises or sets that day. A t what hour does the sun rise at New- Yark all. January lsi February lOth April 20th June 21st? On what point of the compass does the sun rise at Rome on the 1st of Jlfay 1 Ith of July 19th of Sel'tembeY ? PROBLRM X.-Tofind the Length of the Day and Night at any Time of lIu Year. Only double the time of the sun's rising that day, and it gives the length of ihe n!ght; double the time of its setting and it gives tbe length of tbe day. Thus on the 25th of May the sun rISes at London about four, and sets about ~ight; therefore the day is sixteen hours long, and the night eigbt hours. Or, rectify the blobe for the latitude, bring the sun's place to the western pa,·t of the horizon, and set the index to twelve at noon; turn the globe east­ ward till the sun's place comes to the eastern p,rt of the horizon, and the hour. passed over by tho index ~ill be the longth of the day, and the remaining hou" will be the length of the O1ght. fVhat is the length of the day at London on the 1st of March 3d of July 16 of August? What is the length of the day at Philndelphia on the 3d of February 16th 0/ August 25th of November? IVhat is the length of the night at Queb,t, on the 20th of March, anll· Dn the 23d of September? PROBLRM XL-To find the Length of the longest and shortest Days and Nights in any Part of the World. Elevate the pole according to the latitude ,of [he gi,-en. place, and b~ing the f,rst degree of Cancer to the brass mefldlan .

On the chart of the world-Look in the column ~f the length of days, 01> the left bane! of tbe cbart, ~nd find th~ number standing nearest to tbe lalltud" 9f the place. Tbis will give you nearly the len/llh of the longest day and longest night, and subtracted from 24 WIll leave tbe lengtb of the .bortest day or sbortest night.

JVhal is the length of the longe~t and shortest days at Washington Cape Horn Calcutta Rome Gibraltar Quito Jamaica Quebec?

PIIOBLIIM XII.-To find. all those Places to which the Sun i. v.rtical for any given Day; thaI ;s, to find over whose Head. Ihe Sun will pass Ihat My.

Bring tbe SUD'S place. for tb~ gi~en day to the brass meridi~n, and observe lbe degree OVer it (or Its decimatIon;) then turn the globe qUIte round; and all those places tbat pass under tLe .ame degree are those to which the sun 'will be vertical tbat day at noon Thus, on tbe tentb of May, wben the sun'. declination is 17· 30', all those people who live under that parallel of north latitude. have, the .un in t~eir

PJlOBLEM Xlll.-The Day and Hour at any Place being given, 10 find nil tho3e Places where the Sun ;8 then rising or settillg, in the ~IeTidian Qj' Midnight; consequently all those Places which aTe enlightened at that time and all those which are in the dark. ' Find tbe place wbere the sun is vertical at the given hour by Problem 1'2: Ib~n elevate the pole as ma'.'y d.egrees above the. horizon as. are equal to the latitude of tbat place, and brmg It to the brass merldmn; so WIll it tben be tit" "enitb or centre of tbe horizon. Then see wbat countries lie on the tOestern edae of tbe wooden horizon, for in tbem tbe sun is rising. 0 All tbose places on the eastern edge bave the sun settino-, All tbose tbat lie under the brass meridian have noon o~ mid-dar. All tho~e. und~r the low~r part of th~ meridian, midnight. - . Tbe tWlllgbt ~s tbat fa lOt ~Igbt wblcb opens tbe morning by little in the east pefore ~e sun flSes, and w,hl?b gradually sbuts in the eveniog in the west, after the sun IS set It always be~,"R wben tbe sun approaches within ]8 degrees of the easlern part of our bOllzon, and ends wben it descends ]8 deo-rees below the western; when darkness commences, and conliDues till day break: again In aU tbose pla.ces tbat are ~ighteen degrees below tbe western semi~ircTe of tbe wooden b~:mzon, tbe morn.lOg twilight is just beginning; and in all tha.e plac-:s that .B!e el.ghteen degrees Delow the easlern semicircle of th h' th evenlDg tWlhght IS endlDg. e omon, e All ~bose places that are lower tban eighteen degrees below tb h' h chrk olgbt. e orlZon av~ . 1£ any place be brought to the Upper semicircle of tbe brass me rid' d th IOdex be set to the upper ]2, or noon, and the lobe t d lau, an e ":.~n tbe 'place comes to the e~stward edge of tbe ~voodenub~;izo~°:hd ,~~,.twar~i SuuW the time of the sun's feltmg at tbat pI ' d e ...,.ex lV' t? .the western side of tbe borizon, tbe iod~:' wirl 8~:~n t~: ~imme plracthe coro~. II! ng. e 0 e suo; d';o all those l'lllt:es which do ftCt ~o under tbe l\orizOD, the sun sels Jlot tha \ l'ROBLEMS ON THE GLOBES.

, Thus, on t~e SOth day ,of ~pril the sun's place is ill the eleventh de~e of ~.\jrus" and Its decimat,on " 15 degrees north; therefore, when it IS four o clock IU the ~ft.rna~n th,at day at London. the sun will be vertical at the Island of Martlnlco ; ,II wIll then be noon at Baffin's Bay, the Island of Cape Breton, Buenos-Ayres In Paraguay, &c, &c. ~he sun will be setting at the Cape of Good Hope, Diarbec in Mesopo­ lamIa, &c. The sun ~vill bejust rising at tbe Island of Owbyhee, ill the South Sea,~, And It WIll be mldmght at tbe Island of Formosa, Manilla. Celebes, &c. To what places will the Sun be rising, setting, ~c. On the 3d Jlfa"ch, at seven in the morninl(', in Charleston? On the 11th May, at deve ... at night, in Parh ? On the 19th October, at twelve at night, in Rome l' On. Christmas (Jay, at four 'in the u,fter11.0,11l., in Mexico? PROBLEM XIV.-To find those Inh"bitani, of the Earth that are callett Antipodes, ,The A~tipod,s, are th~,e who I've", oppo'.ite paralkls of latitude, and oppo­ ,st,te mendtans. WIth theIr feet dIrectly OpposIte [0 each other. In a liDe pas.ing through the centre of the eartb, They have their days and ni,ehls directly con­ trary, as also their seasons of the year: when it is summer with one, it is wiq. ier \V,ilh the other; and when it i. mid.day to the first, it is mid.night with the oppo'lte, Bring tbe place 10 the brass meridian, and set the index to 12; then turo. the glade till the ;ndex poinls to the otber 12; next count as many degrees southward from the (,quator as are equal 10 Ihe north lattlude of the given place, and tbe place lyiIlg under tbat deg-ree is that-diametrically arposite to it Tbere­ fore they are Antipodes to each other, Boston and a part a ,he Suuthern Ocean • .... eal' New Holland, Pdtagonia in America and Chinese Tartary in Asia, are Antipodes to ea.h other. This problem may ,""0 be resolved by a map of the globe. by counting 18~ degrees eilll"r east or we,t of the given place, wbich will be the semicircle of Ihe Mme meridian, aud theu I'eckonin~ the degrees equal to tbe latitude of the given place 00 t"e opposite ~ide of tbe Equator, Find the Antipodes to the following places,- Ptlersburgh Pekin Calcutta Botany-Bay. Ca?e of Good Hope Cape Horn Jamaica Bcrrmo Iceland, t'aoBl,EM XY,-To find fill those places in which an Eclipse of the Sun or Moon will be visible. First of Ihe sun Fmd the ~Iace to which the sun is vertical at the time of the eclipse, by problem 12, and bring it t',1 the ~enith, or ~op of the globe; tben to all those places above the wooden hortzon, If (he echp.e be large, the sun will appeal' visibly eclipsed. Secondly, of the m?OB. Bring the Antipodes !or country opposite to the place where tbe sun is vertIcal at the tIme of the edlpse) to the zel11th or top of the p;lobp, and then the eclipse will be see" in all places above tbe wooden horizon at that time. Observe that the reason for brin~illg the place opposite to'the sun to the top of the globe is because the moon is always in that position wben it is eclipsed. Thus Septemher 5, 1793, Ihe SUfi w., eclipsed at eleven o'clock in the morn· in~. In wh.t part of the ",lobe was I.he eclipse visible? Proceed according to th~ rule, and you ",ill /i"d the sun v~rtica~ to a par'., of tbe coast ~f Guinea, which point beilt~ broll!',!.t to th", zemth, Europe, ,Afrtca, part ,of ASIa and of N, and. S, America, will appear In the upper h"on"phere, and m eacb of these ,the eclipse was visillie. I'aoBLBY XVI.-To exhibit" general Repre~entati,'", of the ~(h of Days and Nights throughout the Year, '?'I any (Jwen,Lahtude, . Elc,'ale the globe to the given latitude, br.lOg tbe solstice to the brass mert­ .li3n, and, setting the ,indclI to 12, there let It rest; then&the parallels of narth PROBLEMS ON THE GLOBES.

labtudl~, (IOIJ~ the equliltor 10 the Tropic of Cancer, will repr~~e'~t ~hf' \en~th of

days 10 the Sllmmt'r half year, from the wern. . . . Thus, elevate the globe for the latllud~· ?f Lunduli. brang the begmDlng- of Canc~r to the brass meridian, and Sf't tup mdt:x 10 tw~l\'e. Then look whel'~ the wooden l:orizon cuts the Equawr on the ens!, and 1! yO? tr~':e up tbe meri­ dian which intersects tbe Eyuator at tbat pa' t to the boul' ClI'rI,. you will find it lie undel· 6; whid' being doubled, gives III hou's fill' the length ot the mean­ day, whell the sun i. in the Equator; about tl'e 20tb of March, alld the Zad of September. '" Thea, in like manDf'r, trare up th£' mend, r (hat rlllf-!r!:'f'clS the TropiC of Cancer, at. the wooden horizon, and Y",')\.J wi!' nnd i' Ilf-' Ulldt~ 8 and about a quarter; which be'''1; doubled gives "buut 11 "'u" " .. d a halt for the longest day, wben lbe sun In 'hal tropic ~ ab(lllt 11

THE CELESTIAL GLOBE.

DRn~ITIONS.

Declination on the Celestial Globe is the same as latitude on tbe Terrestrial. being the distance of a st~'lI' from thl' EqUllrOCllal, eilhf'r Durth or ~outh. Ri"ht A, are eq~al. PROBLEMS. PROBLEM I.-To find the Declination of the Sun or StlCT's. Bring the sun or star - tbe h 'd' d clination. ,u rass merJ tan, an the degree o\'er it is its de- PROBLEMS ON THE GLOBES. 89

Example. Thus, the Slin's decl,:nation .. June 21 .. / i·, 23~ degrees N.; (md on the 21st of December 23,1 de"r" S. Required thefol/o"':ng dec/l';alinns. Of the sun on the 291/. nf May, a"r{ on. tiegSth c," .')cto1ber, Of the Bull's north horn; an lorthe ""Ie Star:

PROBLE"' II.-Tofind lire Ri'{/d .l ... ·tnsion of the Sun or Stars.

B,ring the sun's place, or ,th,e ~l~r, to I?(,I brazr·n merid,'-l.U, and the degree of the equIno('tL~l, cut by the meridIan, IS the I1ghl :1sr'ension. Example. Thus the ,un's right ascension on the 21st June is 90 0 an-d on the 21st of December is 270Q. ' Requi>'ed the following right ascension.s.­ Of the sun on the 29th May, and on the 25th of October. Of the Dog Star. Of the Bull's south eye.

PROBLEM nL-1'ofind the Latitude and Longitude of a Star. Put the centre of the quadrant of altitude on the pole of the ecliptic, aod its ::\r~duated edge on the star; then the degree of the quadrant cut by the star is its latltllde; and the degree of the ecliptic cut by the quadrant is its longitude. Example. Thus the latitude of a Capella, 1st mag in .I1uriga is 22 3.40 north 0 and longitude n 19 • south. TIL< luCilude uJ a Lyra 62 N. and the longitude ~ 1~}. Required Ihe latitudes and 10ngitUlUs.­ OJ Cor Caroli? Of .I1rctuTus in Bootes? Of Sirius, in Canis major?

PROBLR" IV.-To find when any of the Ifea"enly Bodies "ise, set, or come to the Meridian. Rectify tbe globe to the latitude of the place; bring the sun's place in the eclip­ tic to the meridian, and set the index to 12. Then turn the globe till the given body comeS to the eastern part of the horizon; and the index will show the time of it. rising: bring the body to the meridian, and the index will show the time of irs culmination or ~outhing; bring it to the western horizon, and you have the time of its setting. Thus tbe time of the sun's rising and setting may be founll. NOT E.-If you turn the globe about its axis, all those stars whicb do not descend below the horizon never set at that place; and those which do not ascend above it never rise there.

Required the time of the sun's rising, setting, ~c. ILt Boston, on the 4th of .I1pril, the 13th of .I1ugust, and 15th of November. Required the rising, culminating, and selling of (a) Spica Virginis, at Madrid, on the 29th oj May. The Pleiades, in Taurus, at Paris, on the 4th of June. The upper Pointer in Ursa Major, at Delhi, on the 10th of Februarg.

PROBLIIM V.-To represent the Face of .the Hea.eru at any gioen Tilrrt and Place, so as to point out all the Constellations and pri1l&ipal Stars llier. visible. Elevate the globe to the lat!tude of ~he. place wh~re you are, and se~ i! due N. and S. Bring the sun's pl8~e 10 the ecllpllc for tbe gIven day to the /DerldI8U, aDd set the index 10 XII. at noon; turn the globe westward till the indel< poiDts 10 tlte given bour; then the ~lIrfa:ce!lf tire globe reprtSenr~ lb~.~tlfCl face of tlte IreaV!ln~ 31 tile gj1'en pl1lce: 11.2 90 RULES FOR TUE CONSTIWCTiON OF MAPS.

Let the learner represent the face of the heavens .lIt six o'clock ,,' the e.vening uf the 1:,1 oJ (anuury. At nine o'clock, Ine 2,th of .JI'Iarch and the 24th of June. At twdve, the Is, of May and 1st of November.

NOTE. If the globe be taken out into the ope,;, air on a clear night, and set du~ 'I. and S., the rdatlVe situations of the constellatIOns and remo.rkable stars, tbe., risible, may easily be dl!tinguished.

RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS.

'fhe Earth is n spbere, and therefore no nat surfac~ can represent. with exaclne,­ ,he situation and comparativE> ~Ize and dIstance of JIS parts. But It IS Impr~clic.a­ ule to form globes of a proper ~ize for common use to reprf'5ellt all countrles.d,s. tinctly. We are therefore obliged 10 conslruct maps and cha!'ls of the vanou, portions, wL.ich are less exact, but more convenient alJd useful. A map is a represeutatioll ?f thf' earth's ~u.rf3cc, a,q it would appear to an ob­ ,erver at some distance from II, and Cbn only mclude half Ihp globe at once. A chart is a representation of the earth's surface as if it were ~pread out on a plain or level, aDd may f'xhibit the ~hole surface of the earth in.8 single view. Various methods have been devl~ed to construct maps by whlC'h)the appeal'anCf of countries shall be mo't correctly exhibited. The four principal methods inuse are the Orthographic, the Stenographic, the Globular, and Mercator's ProJec­ (ion. In the Orthographic Projection the ohsener is .upposed to be at an infinile distance, and 10 draw the vanous parts of the earth in the pomts where they would appear on a sheet of glass or other transparent plane, placed beewe.n him and the globe. In this case It is evident tbat the part of the globe neal est the observer, or the top, would be correctly repreBented; bul the sides, or tbose parts near Ih .. circle which bounded his \'iew, would not be seen dislinctly, and would be crowd­ ed togelher. In this projection therefore, the middle of Ihe map ouly will be cor­ rect. In the Stereographic Projection, the observer is supposed (0 be on one sid. of tbe earth, and to draw ,he countries on the opposite side, as they would appear on a transparent plane passing through the centre. In this projeclion, the counlrie' Ilear the centre of the map are crowded, and tbe borders only are correctly repre­ 'ented. The Glob.dar Projection is a modification of the Stereographic, and is more correct and useful than either. of the preceding. In this projection, the e}e is sup. posed to be sIIuated at the ?lSt.nce of the sine of 45 degrees from the sphere, and. ~~:: portIon of the sphere IS represented very nearly in ils proper proportion aml The Globular pr?jection is .usually made on the plane of a meridian as in the map of the world.. A Slmllar projectIOn on the plane of the equator is usually called tbe Equatona! 0' Polar Projection. ' i I~ eIIll these projections ~o more. than one half the globe can be exhibited in a tho• connected. vIew; and It .s dIfficult to trace tbe points of the compass and Fcouili e and d.stance. of • voyage upon a map of either of these kinds. lDers '5 ~~led e .M~~~'7.e~cepof. mr • Mother projection has been uevised, which and parallels :rzrJl s~~ech~o~. or T':alor's Chart. In this, the meridill/lF very much enlar ged B t g IDes. e parts near the poles are of course 'be poles' and th ib u the.. degrees of latitude diminish in going toward. , us e error" So far corrected, that the coursts lind dlstapCf INTRODUCTORY PROBLElItS •. 91 of one place from anotber can be ascertained with sufficient e"actness, and tbe mario ner knows bow to direct his voyage. The following directions will enable the student to construct maps of various portions of the earth, in the most correct aDd useful method, whicb have been de· vised. DIRECTIONS. In drawing maps of the eartb's surface. the water is usually left wbite. The shores adjoining the sea should be shad.,d with lines or colours. Rivers are reo presented by liues winding according to their cour.e. Mountains are shaded as jn a picture. Totons and cities are represepted by small circles or squares. Partj· oc ular marl,s may be added to indicate their size, or rank, or some circumstance. which distinguishes tbem ; and on maps of si n ~ l e countries, other maries are some· ti mes added for cburches, mines, millo, &c. In order to draw these objects in tbelr proper places, it is necessary, 1 st. T o form a scale for tbe map. or to determine how large a degree shan be. 2. To draw mer·idians and parallels of. latitude for every five or ten degrees according to the size of the map. 3d. To mark the latitude and longitude of all im portant points on tbe shores, rivers, mountains, and boundaries, and draw a line through them; and to mark the place of cities. 4th. To shade the shores and mountains, and write the names of the most im' " porlant objects. The following- problems will shew tbe proper methods of drawing the meridian'S and parallels of latit'lde which form the skeleton of the map. INTRODUCTORY PRODLEiUS. l'n() ~u,,, I. --(Fig. 1. )-To divide a line (.II. G. ) into two equal pa,'!s, Fig. 1.

1. From th e poi nt; A. and C. 'cl :" centres, with any dislance in the compa..:Sses greater th an half A C, draw arcs of circles, cutting each other in D and E. 2. Throug h the POlOts D and E draw the line E D. "nd it wilt c ut A C in tb e middle of th e line, or di vide it inlo two equal part ~ • •\ nand B C.

P ROBLEM n.- Wig. 2.)-P,"om a Ijiven point (E.) to Ie! full a perpm

1. From the point E d raw a pal't of a circle 1. 2, cutting A B in the points 1 and 2. 2. From these points desol'ib1;l -,__ ',, ' ""-----t:::;----'7f;--""iii'"" the two arcs cutting eacb gther in A , £ ' . ~ ~/2 lB" D and E. . ' . ' . ~ •.•• _, _ ".- 3. Draw a line joining these two ....,.- points, and it will be perpen. dlcQ.?' lar til tbe line A E . 92 CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS.

PROBLEM IlL-(Fig 2.)-To erec t ap,rpmdicular from a givenpuint (G. ) 1. On each side of the point C set off 2. Desc e qu ~1 distance,s, C .J, and C 2. ribe th e arcs and erect th e perpendIcu lar E . C, as m the last prohlem. P RO BLEM IV.-(Fig. 'S .)-To d ivide a st"aight line (.A E,) into any equal parts. numbe,' of

1. T ake any distance in your compasses and draw arcs of circles from A and B. 2. Draw two lines, A C, and B D, from th points A ano e B, touching th ese circles, and they will be paraHelline•. 3. Take any small distance in your compasses, alld set it ofl' upon th e line A C. as many times a5 the number of divisions required. Set off the sa",e di stance on the line D B. 4. J oin the divi . iolls of these two lines by otbe,' lin es, as at A, 1, 2, 3, &c. and they will di"ide tbe line A B into' the equal parts required. D

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION. 1. To cOllstruct a map of the ea1'ih on th e Equato,·;al P ,·ojedion. Fig. 4. . 1. Describe th e circle A C 13 D of tbe size pro­ posed f or lhe map, and draw the diameler A B , witb C D at right an; les to it as the first meridian. 2. Divide tbe arc D B into nine e qual parts (each of which will be 10 de­ grees,) and through the centre P and each of these points, draw tbe lines P 10, P 20, P SO, P 40, &c., to re> present the meridian. Di­ vidcAD anddrawtheme­ ridians in a similar maDner. 3. If the projection is intended to include OllJ' hemisphere, divide the line P B into nine parts, '" and ~ draw circles \brough latitudb' h ' 11 these I t e \w points Ie. WI then he at JO degrees distance for the parallels of 0do y ~c\ e reglons from each other. If it extends around \be pole, divide tbe line int

U. To construct a map of countries in middle latitudes. on the Equatorial Pro­ jedion. A I. Draw a line A B as the r;:=r=::;:=T==r=::::;=::;:=::;::=::;:=:;:::;-, Ii rsl meridian; assump. R ny dis­ 50 ta nr.e (B C) for 10 degrees, and iarm a scale 01 degrees and P fil't3 or mil es. 40 2. SF t off this distance from H ,r' lowest latitude you in .. , li d for your map (as B,) ami i you reach 90 degrees. 30 ,~, ,eh will be the place of the c ~ o!e. oj . F "om tbe pole de , crib ~ I'. circles 50, 40, 30, ~O , I':::=~=~=::!===~=~=::!=:::!~:!.J I 'l i n~ the 6rst meridian ill '" points of division, and die, " will be the parallels of I.-Ifitude. 4. Look in the table (all, wing a d /i"d tbe l .n ~ Ih 0 1 10 degrees of longi tude. in the highest latitude o( your map (suppose 50,) .nd t" king this in your compasses, lay it off on the circle 50. on each side or t l ,~ fi,.,,1 meridian A B. 5. Find the length of 10 degrees for the lo ~ . Sl lalliude (suppose 20.) and set it off in like manner on tbe circle 20. 6. Draw lines through the cO :Tt:sponding poulls Ofl these Ci rcles, and you wiLl have th e meridians repreaented, diver g lll ~ in a similar proportion with those on the globe; and you may proceed to COII,t,. lt et tho tII ap.

TABLE

OF THE LE ~GTH OF ONE DRGRER OF LONGITUDE for every degree of Latitude, in lJeograph ical miles. Lat. JlIiles. Lat. Miles. Lat. Niles. Lat. J1ftles •. 1 59,99 24 5481 47 41 ,00 69 21,51 2 59,96 25 54 ,3M 43 40,15 70 20.52 3 59,92 26 54,00 49 :J9,36 71 1~,54 4 59,85 27 53.46 50 38,57 72 18,55 5 59,77 28 53,00 5 1 37,76 73 17,54 6 59,67 29 52,48 5:! 37,05 74 16,53 7 59,55 30 51 ,96 53 36,11 75 15,52 8 59,42 31 51,43 54 35,27 76 14,51 9 59,26 32 50,8R 55 34,41 77 13,50 10 59,09 33 50,32 56 33,55 78 12,48 II 58,89 34 49,74 57 32.68 79 11 ,45 12 58,69 35 49,15 58 31,70 80 10,42 13 58,46 36 48,54 59 30,90 81 9,3& 14 58,22 37 47,92 60 30,00 82 8,35 15 58,00 38 47,28 61 29,09 83 7,32 16 57,60 39 46,62 62 28,n 84 6,2& 17 57,30 40 46,00 63 27,24 85 5,23 IS 57,04 41 45,28 64 26,3Q 86 4,1~ 19 56,73 42 44,95 65 25,36 87 3,14 20 56,38 43 43,88 66 24,40 88 2,09 21 56,00 44 43,16 67 23,45 89 1,0E a2 55,63 45 42,43 68 22,4S 90 \l,Oe £3 55,23 46 41,68 94 CONSTRUCTION OF MA.PS,

In rna s which do not embral'e a very large exte~t of country, and do DOt roac ~ very near to the poles, or io lar!;"er countrl.es ,near the equat~r, the caurvaturepp a f th e para llels of lat'ltude is so smalld Ihatd ' It IS more IIconveRient Tb' h to draw tbem as straight lines, aod the el:ror pro uce IS very s ~a . . . I~ a ~ " iveo rise to a modification of the precedJIIg me thod called the PI am ProJection. o III. To construct a map of a country on the Plain Pr.0jection. A Fip' . 6. 1. HaVing constructed a ~ scale of degrees accordinl\' I 10 the size of your, map, d,. \-1 vide the first meridian into 34 j I as many parts as you wi

Proceed i» the same manner with every other ; and on the other side of Ibe iirst meridian di vide the line C Wand d.,w the meridians in the same manner. 4. To describe the parallels of latitude ; (1 .) Divide the line C N representing 90 degrees on the first meridian, inlo nine equal parts, and also the arc N E representing 90 degrees on the meridian of projection. Then the parallels of lati tude should pass through tbe Corres­ ponding points respectively of tbe two meridians. (2.) To find the · centre of the p aral le ls , draw lines through the correspond­ ing points, and bisect them by a perpendicular cutting tbe first meridian, as at P. (3.) From P as a centre, describe the circle 40. Proceed in the same man· ner at tbe other points Bnd on the opposi1e side of thp eqllator, a nd then proceed to draw tbe countries, islands, &c. belonging to this hemisphere. NOTE. The centres of all the meridians will be found in the line representing the equator; and tbe centres of all the parallels in the line representing tbe fiFs t meridian. Bolb will need to be extended beyond the circle. This projection is -Usually employed in maps of the world.

V. To cons/ruct a map of a portion of the earth less than a hemisphere, on • the Globula,' Projection.

Fig. 7 . 1. Draw the equate.' and that portion of the hemisphere wbich in­ cludes tbe country to be represented, and describe the meridians and paral. leis according to the me· thods just direc ted for the Globular Projection. 2. Mark out a portion on eacb side of the first meridian, 3ud in the pro. per latitudes, sufficient 10 include tbe country as at E or A, and lay down the counlry upon it by lati. tudes and longitudes. In countries lying near the equator, or on \loth sides of it, tbe p"rallels may be made 51raiglJl Jines, without any impol·. ta nt error, as in the ex. ample at A, and in the maps of Africa anel South. America accompanying this work. VI. To co nstru ct a Cha,'1 on.'flaca/or's P,·ojedion. (See Chari of th e TVorla. ) The Chart of the World is an example of this projection which will fu,ll )' Illustrate its construct i,¥,. . . 1. Draw a 'straight line to represent the equator, and dIVIde it into tbe num· ber of degrees of longitude intend ~ d for YOUl' map.. . . . ~ 2. The degrees of longitude bemg a ll equal to th.s proJectIOn, draw straJ.,h! lines, perpendicular to tbe equator, at eve ry 10 or 15 degrees, to represent tbe meridians. . d hi' I 't d This will of course enlarge the count~Jes towar s t e po es '? o.ng.u . "'. In order to !,\,~s en:e tbe ilis\aoce and bearmg of places, the ilegree, of lalltude 96 CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS. = must increas. in the same proportion, dnd lor this purpose the proportional increase 'is laid down ID tables of Meridional Parts; theretore, l- 3. Look into the tables of meridional parts, and set off every degree of lati­ lude from the equator, not of equal length but of the length put down oppo­ site to it in the table. Tllu, instead of ;elling off 600 parts or 10 degrees for the parallel of 10°, set off 10 degrees and 3 miles or minutes, or 603 parts. Instead of 20 deurees or lIlIlO pa rts for the parallel of 20°, set off 20 degrees 2:; minutes or 1225 parts. Instead of 30 degrees for the paraliel of 50~ set otI 30° 38', and so on, taking cal'e to set off every latitude from the equator. If the chart does not include the equator, then substract the meridianal parts from the lowest latitud~ (suppose 30) from the meridIOnal parts for each high. ;er latitude (as 40°, 50°, &e.) and set off the differences from the U"e of th_ lowest latitude. 4. Through the pcints 10, 20,30, &c. draw straight lines parallel to the equator, to represent the parallels of latitude, and lay dOI~D tbe countries, &c. as in other projection8. ' As these charts are chiefly designed to represent the coasts, they are usualh' shaped on the land side. • TABLE OF ;UERIDIONAL PARTS

IS A DEGRER OF LATITUDE FOR EVERY DEGREE OF l .. oNGI'I'CnE, Each part equal to a geographical mile at the Equator. neg. J1I. Parts. Deg. M. Parts. Deg. M. Parts. neg. J1[ Paris 1 60 24 1484 46 3116 68 5631 2 120 25 1350 47 3203 69 5794 S 180 26 1616 48 3292 70 5966 4 240 27 1684 49 3S82 71 614G 5 300 23 J i51 50 3474 72 6335 6 361 29 1819 51 3569 73 6534 7 421 30 1888 52 3655 74 6746 S 432 51 1953 53 3764 75 6970 9 542 32 2028 54 3865 7f) 7210 10 603 .'33 2099 55 3967 77 7467 11 664 34 2171 56 4074 73 7745 12 7~5 35 2244 57 4183 79 3040 13 7S7 36 ~318 58 4294 80 3375 14 848 37 2393 59 4409 81 873~, 15 ~10 33 2463 60 4527 82 9145 16 973 :39 2545 61 4649 38 17 1035 9606 40 2623 62 4775 84 IS 1098 10137 41 2702 63 491')5 85 19 Jl61 10765 42 2782 64 5039 86 1153" 20 ]22·5 43 2863 ,:]1 65 5179 3i 12,<;22 1289 44 2946 66 22 ]354 5323 33 13917 45 3030 67 ~4i4 ~1 1419 39 163~

THE E~D.