This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G
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This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Fighting for the Centre: Civic Political Parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Northern Ireland in Comparative Perspective Cera Murtagh PhD Politics and International Relations University of Edinburgh 2017 Abstract In deeply divided societies political parties that attempt to reach across that divide, by definition, form the exception. Indeed, in post-settlement contexts where institutions have been designed to accommodate communal identities, non-ethnic parties are broadly cast in the literature as marginal actors. Nevertheless, in a number of segmented societies, civic parties and movements have emerged and seized space in the political system. This thesis probes the puzzle of these actors’ existence and endurance in power-sharing frameworks by comparatively analysing the experiences of civic parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Northern Ireland. It explores the constraints and opportunities these parties encounter in such settings and how they navigate those structures. This thesis seeks to advance understanding of this critical topic, contributing comparative findings on which broader theoretical work can build. Standing at the juncture of the theories of consociational democracy and civic mobilisation in divided societies, this research examines this problem comparatively in the selected cases. Taking a qualitative, interpretive approach it draws primarily on evidence from elite interviews, as well as a limited number of focus groups with voters and analysis of party documents. This thesis has found that civic parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Northern Ireland, in varying ways, meet with severe barriers in the formal and informal structures of their consociational settings, but that they also find critical openings therein. These opportunities, however, can incentivise non-ethnic actors to assume roles and pursue strategies that conflict with their longer term goals and challenge their legitimacy as civic parties. In fighting for survival on the centre ground in divided polities, civic parties are faced with strategic dilemmas that they must carefully negotiate. These findings demonstrate the centrality of institutions for the type of politics and political actors that ensue following peace settlement and bear potential implications for institutional design and party strategy in such contexts. i Lay Summary This thesis is concerned with political parties in divided societies that organise on a civic basis and attempt to appeal to voters across communities. These ‘civic’ parties form the exception in such societies, where parties tend to organise on the basis of identity, and have therefore received limited attention in this field of scholarship. Nevertheless, in societies such as Northern Ireland and South Africa, these collectives have broken through to gain representation in the political system and gone on to make a significant impact in the politics of the region. This project seeks to shine a light on the role and experiences of non-ethnic, civic parties in divided societies. It is particularly interested in how these parties operate in societies where a form of ‘power- sharing’ has been imposed as a means of conflict resolution, in which the groups that were party to the conflict are granted a share of power in the political system through measures like reserved seats for each group in legislature, government and civil service, group vetoes for legislation and autonomy for groups over certain policy areas or territories. This research investigates how these parties survive and endure in such inhospitable settings. It examines what aspects of the political institutions support their progression and what aspects constrain them; and what strategies they use to advance in these environments. This project examines this topic through a comparison of civic parties in Northern Ireland and Bosnia and Herzegovina, divided societies that host varying forms of power-sharing. It analyses evidence collected in both case studies through interviews with representatives of these parties and other relevant sectors, as well as a small number of focus groups with voters and analysis of party documents. This research has found that civic parties in power-sharing settings encounter both barriers and openings in their institutional environments. The opportunities they access can, however, conflict with their principles and long-term goals as civic actors, and therefore present them with dilemmas in how they act within the power-sharing framework. It has also uncovered key differences between the cases of Northern Ireland and Bosnia, arising from the distinct forms of consociation in place in each context. These findings emphasise the importance of the design of political institutions for states emerging from conflict, for the type of politics and the type of political actors that can survive and thrive therein. ii Declaration This research was funded by an Economic and Social Research Council 1+3 Studentship Award, number ES/J500136/1. The thesis is based on my own work, with acknowledgement of additional sources. It has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Extracts of two of my own publications are also incorporated in this thesis. The references for these publications are as follows: Murtagh, C. (2016) ‘Civic Mobilization in Divided Societies and the Perils of Political Engagement: Bosnia and Herzegovina’s Protest and Plenum Movement,’ Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 22(2), 149-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13537113.2016.1169060 Murtagh, C. (2015) 'Reaching Across: Institutional Barriers to Cross-Ethnic Parties in Post-Conflict Societies and the Case of Northern Ireland,' Nations and Nationalism, 21(3), 544–565. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nana.12129/abstract Cera Murtagh Edinburgh, 1 August 2017 iii I dedicate this thesis to my parents for their constant support, encouragement and belief in me iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements vi List of Abbreviations vii List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Images viii A Note on Published Papers x Part I. Conceptual and Methodological Framework 1. Bridging the Divide: Power-Sharing and Civic Mobilisation 2 2. Theory to Practice: Research Design 44 Part II. Northern Ireland 3. From Bridge Builders to Civic Liberals? The Evolution of Northern Ireland’s Institutions and Civic Parties 67 4. Navigating the Divide: Civic Parties in Northern Ireland’s Post-Agreement Landscape 118 Part III. Bosnia and Herzegovina 5. Keeping Multi-Ethnic Bosnia Alive? The Emergence and Evolution of Bosnia’s Institutions and Civic Parties 159 6. Negotiating a Fractured Landscape: Civic Parties in Post-Dayton Bosnia 204 Part IV. Comparative Conclusions 7. Civic Dilemmas: Civic Parties in Northern Ireland and Bosnia in Comparative Perspective 256 Bibliography 280 Appendices 309 v Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors Wilfried Swenden, Eve Hepburn and Liliana Riga for their invaluable support during the course of this research. They have each been outstanding mentors and a constant source of inspiration, guidance and support, both intellectual and moral, whenever I needed it and I cannot thank them enough. I would also like to say a special word of thanks to Fiona Mackay, who supervised my first piece of original research and publication, without whose advice and encouragement I would probably not have embarked on this thesis and on whose experience and wisdom I relied heavily during this project. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the generous financial support that I received from the Economic and Social Research Council through a 1+3 PhD Studentship to carry out this research. I am, furthermore, immensely thankful to each of the individuals and groups that participated in this research, for giving so generously of their time, knowledge and experience. I am likewise extremely grateful to all of those who provided me with practical support and advice during the fieldwork conducted for this project in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Northern Ireland, particularly Zora Hesova, Brigid Loughran, Anes Makul, Asim Mujkić and Catherine O’Rourke. I would additionally like to thank Selma Gondžetović, Inga Kotlo, Elma Mahmutović-Hodžić, Sandra Pandurević Dobrijević and Kristina Varcaković for their translation and interpretation assistance. I would like to express my further gratitude to Timofey Agarin, John Coakley, Sara Dorman, Adrian Guelke, Allison McCulloch, Joanne McEvoy, Nicola McEwen, Peter McLoughlin, Bettina Petersohn, Dejan Stjepanović, Heleen Touquet, and Robin Wilson for their advice on the design of this research and for reviewing and providing valuable feedback on earlier drafts