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Facing Assad Richard Nixon greeted by Hafez al-Assad at Damascus Airport, June 15, 1974. FACING ASSAD American Diplomatic Relations with Syria, 1969-76 Lars Hasvoll Bakke Master’s Thesis in History Department of Archaeology, Conservation, and History (IAKH) University of Oslo Fall 2013 FACING ASSAD American Diplomatic Relations with Syria, 1969-76 Lars Hasvoll Bakke Master’s Thesis in History Department of Archaeology, Conservation, and History (IAKH) University of Oslo Fall 2013 Front page photo courtesy of the Nixon Presidential Library & Museum in Yorba Linda. To the memory of Aslaug Petrine Bakke Preface I started this project years ago. It is now finished. The interval was interesting. I hope the same is true of the outcome. Without the help and friendship of some remarkable people, the process of getting here would have been unbearable, and the final result a sprawling mess. Foremost among these people is my thesis counselor – Professor Hilde Henriksen Waage. For her critical but always good-humored feedback, for her patience with my countless drafts filled with sidetracks and confusion, for going above and beyond the call of duty, she has my profound gratitude. I also wish to thank my fellow students attending her Middle East seminars, who provided feedback on individual chapter drafts, and I wish to thank Simen Zernichow who did the same. I am immensely grateful to Eirik Wig Sundvall and Anders Brudevoll, who gave their invaluable feedback on my final full draft. For their expert assistance on very different topics, my gratitude also goes to Dr. Hilde Eliassen Restad and Dr. Sami Moubayed. I would like to thank the very helpful staffs of the Nixon and Ford presidential libraries, without whose guidance I would have drowned in the tens of millions of documents at those archives. Harald Johnsen Vøyle has my gratitude for the subtle and effective graphic design wizardry he worked upon the first pages of this study. I wish to thank my fellow students for innumerable hours of quizzes, loud lunches and absurd discussions. I also wish to thank my other friends for tolerating my recent dullness and absence. And I wish to thank my family, for being my family. Finally, to Norway’s tax-payers, who funded this strange endeavor, I am (literally and figuratively) indebted. You have my thanks, and my promise to repay the favor, if not to you, then to your children and grandchildren. Lars Hasvoll Bakke Oslo, November 14, 2013 i Table of Contents Preface ......................................................................................................................................... i Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ ii Abbreviations Used for Primary Source Citations ..................................................................... iv Chapter 1 – Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 National Interests in American Middle East Policy ................................................................. 1 Institutional and Individual Factors in Washington D. C. ........................................................ 4 Literature ................................................................................................................................ 6 The Kissinger Challenge .......................................................................................................... 9 Primary sources .................................................................................................................... 10 Main Archives and their Content .......................................................................................... 11 Archive Documents as Sources – Problems of Authorship, Readership and Quantity ........ 13 Chapter 2 – Syria from Independence to Isolation (1946-1969) ................................ 14 Independence – The Struggle for Syria ................................................................................ 14 Eisenhower’s Middle East ..................................................................................................... 16 The Rise of the Ba’th Party ................................................................................................... 17 From Baghdad to Cairo – Syria Picks Sides ........................................................................... 18 Hafez al-Assad ....................................................................................................................... 22 Ba’thist Coups and Syria’s Road to Isolation ......................................................................... 23 1967 ...................................................................................................................................... 26 Consequences ....................................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 3 – Sleeping Dogs (1969-1973) .................................................................. 30 The View from Washington – Syria’s place in the American Middle East ............................ 30 Relatively Moderate Extremists – A Report on Political Developments in Syria .................. 32 Leaving Syria Out – The Rogers Plan ..................................................................................... 34 Black September and the Syrian invasion ............................................................................ 35 The Corrective Movement .................................................................................................... 37 1971 – Signs of Change in Damascus ................................................................................... 39 Hafez al-Assad’s Road to War ............................................................................................... 41 The Saunders Review ............................................................................................................ 42 Chapter 4 – Shuttles to Isolation (1973-1974)............................................................. 46 A Broken Status Quo ............................................................................................................. 46 Promises – Kissinger in Damascus ........................................................................................ 48 Egypt First ............................................................................................................................. 51 Conceding the Principle ........................................................................................................ 52 Oil .......................................................................................................................................... 54 Stagecraft – The First Syria Shuttle ....................................................................................... 57 Stalling for Oil ....................................................................................................................... 59 ‘The Meanest Merchant in the Souk’ – Syrian Discontent with the Soviet Union ............... 62 The 34 Day Shuttle ................................................................................................................ 64 Different Shades of Assad ..................................................................................................... 66 To the Finish Line .................................................................................................................. 67 Nixon in Damascus ................................................................................................................ 71 ii Chapter 5 – Containment (1974-1975) ........................................................................ 74 Where to Now?..................................................................................................................... 74 Stalling .................................................................................................................................. 78 Doom and Gloom – Henry Kissinger Returns to the Middle East ........................................ 79 Assad’s Triumph – The 1974 Rabat Arab League Summit .................................................... 81 The November Crises ............................................................................................................ 83 Lebanon in Ferment.............................................................................................................. 85 Winter Maneuvers – Preparing for another Shuttle ............................................................ 86 The Primacy of Egypt – The March 1975 Shuttle ................................................................. 88 Reassessment ....................................................................................................................... 92 Roads not Travelled – Syria First or a Comprehensive Approach? ....................................... 93 Back to Sinai .......................................................................................................................... 96 Sinai II Kills Golan II ............................................................................................................... 98 Perpetual Containment – American Policy after Sinai II ..................................................... 100 The Security Council Campaign .........................................................................................
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