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The Melammu Project THE MELAMMU PROJECT http://www.aakkl.helsinki.fi/melammu/ “The Naked Ascetics of India and Other Eastern Religions in the Greek and Roman Sources of the Late Classical Antiquity” KLAUS KARTTUNEN Published in Melammu Symposia 3: A. Panaino and G. Pettinato (eds.), Ideologies as Intercultural Phenomena. Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project. Held in Chicago, USA, October 27-31, 2000 (Milan: Università di Bologna & IsIao 2002), pp. 135-42. Publisher: http://www.mimesisedizioni.it/ This article was downloaded from the website of the Melammu Project: http://www.aakkl.helsinki.fi/melammu/ The Melammu Project investigates the continuity, transformation and diffusion of Mesopotamian culture throughout the ancient world. A central objective of the project is to create an electronic database collecting the relevant textual, art-historical, archaeological, ethnographic and linguistic evidence, which is available on the website, alongside bibliographies of relevant themes. In addition, the project organizes symposia focusing on different aspects of cultural continuity and evolution in the ancient world. The Digital Library available at the website of the Melammu Project contains articles from the Melammu Symposia volumes, as well as related essays. All downloads at this website are freely available for personal, non-commercial use. Commercial use is strictly prohibited. For inquiries, please contact [email protected]. KARTTUNEN T HE NAKED ASCETICS OF INDIA KLAUS KARTTUNEN Helsinki The Naked Ascetics of India and Other Eastern Religions in the Greek and Roman Sources of the Late Classical Antiquity * peculiar outcome of Alexander’s the Seleucid envoy to the Indian Maurya Indian campaigns was the per- empire, gave his own view of the Gym- Asistent fame of India as the land nosophistai and described several kinds of wisdom. 1 In the spring of 326, during of Indian ascetics and sectarians (such his stay in Taxila (now on the outskirts as the Pramnai and Gymnetes) he had of Islamabad in Pakistan), Alexander and seen. 3 his men met naked ascetics, who soon The main account of the doctrines of became known as the Gymnosophistai. the Gymnosophists was given by Onesi- There are several different first-hand ac- critus (in Strabo 15, 1, 63-65). It is, how- counts of this meeting. It is sufficient ever, suspiciously close to his own Greek here to mention Aristobulus, Nearch, and philosophy of the Cynical school. Even if Onesicritus. The story goes on, as one of he did not intentionally distort his ac- these ascetics, Calanus, consented to join count, Onesicritus had to rely on several Alexander’s entourage and followed him interpreters and could hardly have an in- to Susa, where he, falling ill, committed depth interview. It was not the doctrines a spectacular suicide by burning himself of the Gymnosophists, but their severe at the stake, witnessed by the whole ascetism, described by the participants of army. The reasons for this suicide were the campaign, and the voluntary death in never completely understood in the West, 2 a fire, committed by one of them, that but the calmness and determination of made such an enormous impression on Calanus left a lasting impression. the Greeks and the Romans after them. In addition to these Gymnosophistai or They became a literary commonplace. naked sophists, Alexander also met Brah- References to these Gymnosophists and mans living by the lower Indus, where he to their asceticism are frequent especially had to fight hard to suppress their resis- in the literature of Roman Imperial pe- tance. A generation later, Megasthenes, riod. 4 According to Josephus ( Bellum * The research made for this article was financed by though not entirely unheard of. the Academy of Finland. Margot Stout Whiting has 3 I have here briefly summarized what was fully kindly checked my English. analysed in Karttunen 1997a, 55ff. There it is also 1 As I have often pointed out, the so-called Indian explained how the word Gymnosophist, not yet used wise men of Herodotus (3, 100f., cf. Pomponius Mela in the earliest accounts, became the standard desig- 3, 64) are not ascetics, but a primitive tribe described nation. exactly according to Herodotus’ ideas of primitivity. 4 Often they were mentioned in comparisons or as See e.g. Karttunen 1997b. embellishment in works completely unrelated with 2 They have somewhat puzzled modern scholars, too. India. See e.g. Cicero, Tusc. disp. 2, 17, 40; 2, 22, 52; In Indian tradition such a suicide is not common, 5, 27, 77f.; Lucanus 3, 240f. A. Panaino & G. Pettinato (eds.) MELAMMU SYMPOSIA III (Milano 2002) ISBN 88-8483-107-5 135 KARTTUNEN T HE NAKED ASCETICS OF INDIA Jud. 7, 351-357), Eleazar exhorted his a land of wisdom and philosophy was troops in the Jewish war of 66–70 A.D. formed during the Indian campaigns of to be as willing to die as the Indians who Alexander and soon it became a part of commit their bodies to fire. Around 200 the canonized conception of India. Until A.D. Clement of Alexandria ( Stromateis Late Antiquity this conception was com- 4, 7, 17, 3) compared the Brahmins’ pletely dominated by the histories of Al- calmness facing the death by fire to the exander and Megasthenes. Indian phi- true Christians’ attitude towards martyr- losophers were continuously admired be- dom. cause of their ascetic lifestyle, but little The description of the Indian Gym- (if anything) was known of their philoso- nosophists had already received some phy. A critical voice was rare, though Cynic colouration at the hands of Onesi- Aelianus ( V.H. 2, 31) proudly claimed critus and soon the Cynics, and the Sto- that barbarous sages were not as wise as ics as their heirs, suited it to their own Greeks and Plutarch ( De sollertione ani- needs. In the legendary versions of Alex- malium 23, 975D) disparaged Egyptian ander’s history, the naked ascetics of fables and unattested tales of Indians and Taxila as well as the rebellious Brahmans Libyans as unreliable. Occasional new of the southern Indus country had an im- contacts with Indian wise men were in- portant place. Onesicritus was here left terpreted according to this tradition, aside as a secondary person, and all talks which continued into the Middle Ages were described as taking place directly and beyond. between Alexander and the Brahmans. 5 The first of these new contacts is This is often contaminated with a later found in Nicolaus Damascenus’ account 8 episode in Alexander’s history: His mee- of the Indian embassy to Augustus and of ting with the warlike Brahmans of the its member, Zarmanochegas, who burnt lower Indus country and the questions himself in Athens and thus revived the Alexander put to them. 6 Tradition also fame of Calanus. Some new information portrayed Alexander as a great writer of about Indian wise men can be found in letters, and there soon arose a fictitious authors such as Alexander Polyhistor, correspondence between him and the Dio Chrysostomus, and Bardesanes. 9 In Brahmans, too. 7 In these later traditions the fourth century, the Theban Scholasti- Dandamis (in Latin corrupted into Din- cus put together an account of his own dimus), the head of the Taxilan Gym- voyage to India and different traditions nosophists who had refused to follow Al- of the Brahmans. 10 exander, often emerges as the central fi- Indian wise men were famous, but the gure. idea of seeking wisdom in India re- We see that the conception of India as mained more or less literary. There were 5 The earliest version of this fictitious meeting is exandria, Quod omnis probus liber sit 93ff. (cf. found in a philosophical Papyrus (Geneva Pap.), the Devine 1988) and Ambrosius, Epist. 37, 34ff. full text as part 2 of Pseudo-Palladius. See e.g. Han- 8 F 100 in Strabo 15, 1, 73; also mentioned by Dio sen 1965. Cassius 54, 9. See e.g. Przyluski 1934. 6 The questions first in Plutarch, Alexander 64 and in 9 Alexander Polyh. F 18 (Clement of Alexandria, a Berlin Papyrus, first edited by Wilcken 1923, then Stromateis 3, 6, 60, 1–4), Dio Chr. 35, 18ff. & 49, 7; e.g. Pseudo-Callisthenes 3, 6. Bardesanes, fragments in FGrH 719. 7 The Collatio Alexandri cum Dindimo in several 10 This famous account was preserved among the versions (see e.g. Cary 1954 and Gregor 1964, 36ff.). works of the church historian Palladius. On a Letter of Calanus to Alexander see Philo of Al- 136 KARTTUNEN T HE NAKED ASCETICS OF INDIA late apocryphical stories about the Indian claim that the Asian wars prevented Plato travels of some early Greek philosophers from going to Persia and India. As the (see below) and some had actually joined founder hero of the Neo-Platonists, Plo- Alexander’s entourage. 11 Lucian tells of tinus was supposed to imitate Plato. 15 I Peregrinus Proteus, the Greek charlatan, have no idea where a fifth century author who emulated the Gymnosophists and such as Claudianus Mamertus ( Epist. ad burned himself at Olympia in 167 A.D. 12 Sapaudum 2) got the idea that Plato actu- If we are to trust Philostratus, Apollonius ally visited the Bragmanae. 16 of Tyana actually went to India in the India had the established fame of the first century and studied among Brah- land of wisdom and the tradition was mans. As a literary motif we meet in transmitted to the Middle Ages. In Lucian ( Toxaris 34) a man who gave Christian literature, however, Indian as- away his money and went away to India cetics got new roles. We see, for in- to join the Brahmans. Little is known of stance, the virtuous ascetics (and thus Hierocles, the consul of Bithynia around somehow akin to Christian ascetics) tea- 300 A.D.
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