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Carbon-Based Nanomaterials/Allotropes: a Glimpse of Their Synthesis, Properties and Some Applications

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Carbon-Based Nanomaterials/Allotropes: a Glimpse of Their Synthesis, Properties and Some Applications materials Review Carbon-Based Nanomaterials/Allotropes: A Glimpse of Their Synthesis, Properties and Some Applications Salisu Nasir 1,2,* ID , Mohd Zobir Hussein 1,* ID , Zulkarnain Zainal 3 and Nor Azah Yusof 3 1 Materials Synthesis and Characterization Laboratory (MSCL), Institute of Advanced Technology (ITMA), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Federal University Dutse, 7156 Dutse, Jigawa State, Nigeria 3 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; [email protected] (Z.Z.); [email protected] (N.A.Y.) * Correspondence: [email protected] (S.N.); [email protected] (M.Z.H.); Tel.: +60-1-2343-3858 (M.Z.H.) Received: 19 November 2017; Accepted: 3 January 2018; Published: 13 February 2018 Abstract: Carbon in its single entity and various forms has been used in technology and human life for many centuries. Since prehistoric times, carbon-based materials such as graphite, charcoal and carbon black have been used as writing and drawing materials. In the past two and a half decades or so, conjugated carbon nanomaterials, especially carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, activated carbon and graphite have been used as energy materials due to their exclusive properties. Due to their outstanding chemical, mechanical, electrical and thermal properties, carbon nanostructures have recently found application in many diverse areas; including drug delivery, electronics, composite materials, sensors, field emission devices, energy storage and conversion, etc. Following the global energy outlook, it is forecasted that the world energy demand will double by 2050. This calls for a new and efficient means to double the energy supply in order to meet the challenges that forge ahead. Carbon nanomaterials are believed to be appropriate and promising (when used as energy materials) to cushion the threat. Consequently, the amazing properties of these materials and greatest potentials towards greener and environment friendly synthesis methods and industrial scale production of carbon nanostructured materials is undoubtedly necessary and can therefore be glimpsed as the focal point of many researchers in science and technology in the 21st century. This is based on the incredible future that lies ahead with these smart carbon-based materials. This review is determined to give a synopsis of new advances towards their synthesis, properties, and some applications as reported in the existing literatures. Keywords: carbon nanostructures; synthesis; properties; applications; materials science 1. Introduction Carbon is unique and an indispensable element in our world; it is the sixth most common element in the universe and the 4th most common element in the solar system and 17th most common element in the Earth’s crust [1]. It has been estimated that the relative abundance of carbon is between 180 and 270 parts per million [2]. Remarkably, it is also the second most common element in the human body after oxygen [3], thus taking/making about 18 percent of a human’s body weight. One of the outstanding descriptions of carbon is being of a broad range of metastable phases that can be formed near ambient conditions and their spacious fields of kinetic stability. Although, elemental carbon is sparse on the earth’s crust with barely 0.2% of the total mass of this planet [1,2,4], however, its function is incredibly essential as it can form bonds with other light elements and itself. As a result, the ability of carbon to catenate paved the way on which chemistry and biology have been expanded, and eventually making the wonders of life to occur [3]. As such, Materials 2018, 11, 295; doi:10.3390/ma11020295 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials Materials 2018, 11, 295 2 of 24 carbonMaterials science 2018, 11 is, x very FOR PEER trendy REVIEW today and in the field of nanoscience, materials science, engineering2 of 25 and technology, carbon nanostructures are identified to comprise of different low-dimension allotropes of carboncarbon includingscience is very graphite, trendy activated today and carbon, in the fi carboneld of nanoscience, nanotubes, andmaterials the C science,60 family engineering of buckyballs, polyaromaticand technology, molecules carbon [5 –nanostructures8] and graphene are [iden9–11tified]. In to the comprise contemporary of different period, low-dimension nanotechnology hasallotropes attracted of substantial carbon including attention graphite, due activated to its direct carbon, application carbon nanotubes, to generate and newthe C60 materials family of with exclusivebuckyballs, properties. polyaromatic Many factorsmolecules such [5–8] as superiorand graphene directionality, [9–11]. In high the surfacecontemporary area and period, flexibility makenanotechnology nanostructures has suitableattracted forsubsta a widential attention range of due applications to its direct [12 application–17]. This to is generate the reason new why materials with exclusive properties. Many factors such as superior directionality, high surface area researchers from various scientific backgrounds are very much curious in these materials taking and flexibility make nanostructures suitable for a wide range of applications [12–17]. This is the into consideration the key role they have played in many new advanced technologies. This ability reason why researchers from various scientific backgrounds are very much curious in these opensmaterials up many taking new into areas consideration of chemistry the for nanomaterialskey role they design,have played including in many the growth new advanced of functional nanoparticletechnologies. arrays This for ability catalytic opens applications up many [ 8,new18,19 areas], the selectiveof chemistry sequestration for nanomaterials of chemicals design, for drug deliveryincluding[11, 18the,20 growth–23], melting of functional of phase nanoparticle change materials arrays for (PCM) catalytic by thermal applications conductivity [8,18,19], enhancer the (TCE)selective in building sequestration prototype of chemicals [24–29] and for the drug creation delivery of mesoporous[11,18,20–23], monolithic melting of structuresphase change as low-k dielectricmaterials materials (PCM) [by10 ,thermal30,31], etc.conductivity enhancer (TCE) in building prototype [24–29] and the creationIn this of review, mesoporous we will monolithi discussc structures not only theas low-k recent dielectr investigationsic materials in [10,30,31], these areas, etc. but also some other newIn this interesting review, applicationswe will discuss will not be only incorporated. the recent investigations Primarily, we in will these focus areas, on thebut propertiesalso some and howother these new carbon interesting nanomaterials applications can will be synthesizedbe incorporated. and Primarily, tailored towardswe will focus specific on applicationsthe properties more particularlyand how these electrochemical carbon nanomaterials energy storage. can be synthesized and tailored towards specific applications more particularly electrochemical energy storage. 1.1. Historical Chemical Background of Some Selected Carbon-Based Allotropes 1.1. Historical Chemical Background of Some Selected Carbon-Based Allotropes For a very long period of time, carbon is conventionally known to exist in two natural crystalline For a very long period of time, carbon is conventionally known to exist in two natural allotropic forms commonly known as graphite and diamond. However, the chemistry of these two crystalline allotropic forms commonly known as graphite and diamond. However, the chemistry of substancesthese two differs substances more importantly differs more in crystalimportantly structures in crystal and properties structures [ 32and–38 ].properties Chemically [32–38]. speaking, manyChemically other allotropes speaking, can many be formedother allotropes due to thecan valencebe formed of due carbon to the atoms. valence This of occurredcarbon atoms. when This carbon atomsoccurred form covalentwhen carbon bonds atoms with form another covalent carbon bond atoms with [39]. another To easily carbon understand atom [39]. this phenomenon,To easily allotropesunderstand are elementsthis phenomenon, which are allotropes chemically are identical elements but which vary strikinglyare chemically in their identical physical but properties. vary Therefore,strikingly when in their the physical atoms in properties. substance Therefore, that have when only onethe atoms type ofin atomsubstance are organized that have only in a differentone waytype than of anatom allotrope are organized is established. in a different For thisway reason, than anseveral allotrope other is established. allotropes For and this forms reason, of carbon several were discoveredother allotropes (Figure 1)and such forms as graphene of carbon [ 10 ],were buckminsterfullerene discovered (Figure [ 401),41 such], carbon as graphene nanotubes [10], [42 ,43], etc.,buckminsterfullerene hence making carbon [40,41], to have carbon the highestnanotubes number [42,43], of identifiedetc., hence allotropes making carbon when comparedto have the to any otherhighest material. number of identified allotropes when compared to any other material. FigureFigure 1. Structural1. Structural illustration illustration ofof somesome 0-, 1-, 2- 2- and and 3-dimensional 3-dimensional carbon carbon nanomaterials nanomaterials with with sp2 sp2 andand sp3 sphybridization3 hybridization allotropes allotropes occurringoccurring in in different different
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