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University Microfilms

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A Xerox Education Company 73-1983

DUBE, Pierre Herbert, 1943- THE INDIVIDUAL IN CHATEAUBRIAND'S UNIVERSE AS SEEN IN "LES AVENTURES DU DERNIER ABENCERAGE". [Portions of Text in French].

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1972 Language and Literature,modern

University Microfilms, XEROXA Company , Ann Arbor, Michigan

© 1972

PIERRE HERBERT DUBE

ALL RIGHfS RESERVED THE INDIVIDUAL IN CHATEAUBRIAND'S UNIVERSE

AS SEEN IN "LES AVENTURES DU DERNIER ABENCERAGE"

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Pierre Herbert Dube, B,A., M.A.

*****

The Ohio State University 1972

Approved by

Adviser Department of Romance Languages PLEASE NOTE:

Some pages may have

indistinct print.

Filmed as received.

University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company TO THE MEMORY OP MY FATHER ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people whose time and patience made this disserta­ tion possible. Professor Robert D.C. Finch, of the

University of Toronto, kindled my interest in

Chateaubriand and always took great interest in my aca­ demic future. It is his inspiration and constant enthu­ siasm that guided me through the traumas of graduate work and led me to an appreciation of the greatness of nineteenth century French literature.

Professor Cameron D.E. Tolton, also of the

University of Toronto, was not only a very capable academic guide but also a close personal friend, who directed not only my undergraduate work but also my

M.A. studies. He has the most desirable skill in a teacher of being able to criticize yet simultaneously encourage a student to persevere. He was always there when I needed help and I can only hope to be able to help other students the way he helped me.

Professor Hugh M. Davidson's untiring efforts were perhaps most responsible for seeing this dissertation come to fruition as he first guided me on to the paths of computer-assisted literary criticism. I was his

iii research assistant for four years and never lost my enthusiasm for the weekly meetings in his office to discuss our work.

Professor Charles Carlut, my adviser, spent many hours studying and subsequently commenting on my manuscript. He encouraged me when I needed it the most, and the value of his countless suggestions, tactful criticism and constant friendship is immeasurable.

I owe a very special debt to James D. Wagner of

The Ohio State University. He spent two long years teaching me the skills of computer programming, in spite of what must have appeared to him as my immense lack of talent in such a scientific field. His friendship and patience, more than anyone's, helped shape ray future for years to come.

A special word of recognition must go to my wife

Ann, who not only put up with my ill humour during the writing of this dissertation but who also spent a great deal of time proof-reading and making very valuable contributions to its content and style.

To all of these people I can only say thank you.

Without their sacrifices and encouragement, my Ph. D. would not have been possible. I can only hope to follow their examples as I begin my career in University teaching. iv VITA

August 23, 19^3 . . . . . Born - Toronto, Canada

1967 B.A., University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

1968 ...... M.A., University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

1967-68 ...... Teaching fellowship, University of Toronto.

1967-68 ...... Province of Ontario Government Scholarship

1968-70 ...... Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus Ohio

1969-72 ...... Research Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus Ohio

1970-72 ...... Canada Council for the Arts Dissertation fellowships

1968-70 ...... Taught summer courses in French culture and civiliza­ tion for the Ontario Department of Education

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field* French Literature

Nineteenth Century French Literature. Professor Charles Carlut.

The Practical Application of Computers in the Study of Literature. Mr. James D Wagner.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iii

VITA ...... V

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Chapter

I. THE PRESENT STATE OF STUDIES OF LES AVENTURES DU DERNIER ABENCERAGE ... 4

Publication of the Abencerage Interpretation of the Abencerage Conclusions

II. THE HERO'S CIRCULAR UNIVERSE ...... 49

Horizontal Circles Vertical Circles The Circles of Solitude Interi ori zation

III. THE QUESTt THE HERO IN THIS UNIVERSE . 91

The Hero's actions as a quest The theme of blindness The theme of Guides The Theme of Expectation

IV. CIVILIZATIONi A LIVING ORGANISM WITHIN OUR UNIVERSE ...... 130

The theme of Relics The Theme of Signs Memory and Dreams The Themes of Life and Death

V. FATALISMi THE HERO'S ACCEPTANCE OF HIS U N I V E R S E ...... 167

The Themes of Dualism and Fire Dramatic Elements in the nouvelle The Theme of Water The Philosophy of this nouvelle

vi vii

VI. CONCLUSIONS...... 188

APPENDIX

A. PRESENT STATE OF STUDIES ON WHETHER CHATEAUBRIAND VISITED GRANADA ALONE ...... 193

B. PREPARATION AND USE OF COMPUTER­ GENERATED CONCORDANCES ...... 215

The Concordance The Program The Analysis of the Concordance

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 231 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this dissertation is two-fold. It intends, first of all, to depart from the historical approach to Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, wherein critics have limited their investigations to the sincerity of the author, and to provide, instead, a textual analy­ sis of the work. This thesis also aims to complement some of the important contemporary criticism of

Chateaubriand. Jean-Pierre Richard's Pavsage de

Chateaubriand and articles by Jean-Claude Berchet and

Michael Riffaterre, although significant milestones in scholarship, have tended to be rather one-sided, concentrating on the author's negativity as seen through the themes of death, ruins, tombs and monuments, at the expense of an important concept of optimism in

Chateaubriand's multi-faceted approach to life.

The method used to achieve these aims is also two-fold. The first part was the creation, development and refinement of a computer-generated concordance designed to suit the needs of this particular work.

The second was the formulation and subsequent implemen­ tation of a method of analysing the content of this concordance to its best advantage. This has involved a systematic study of all of the components of the condordance rather than a restricted investigation of a few key words selected at random.

This dissertation will begin with a present state of studies of Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage to situate this examination in a perspective of all work already published on the work. Subsequent chapters will examine the themes and images in the nouvelle in an effort to show Man's position in regard to the universe in which he lives. The first chapter will attempt a definition of this universe and shall do so by carefully investigating the physical and figurative horizontal circles that surround the hero in the nouvelle. The second chapter will then explain the hero's movements and actions within this world by analysing the various types of voyages undertaken by him. Subsequently, the third chapter will define the author's concept of civilization as a living force by investigating the symbols of life past, present and future, found in this work. The final chapter will study the forces of fatalism exerted upon Man and will complete our defini­ tion of Man's role in this universe.

There are two appendices at the end of this dissertation. The first is an extension of the present state of studies. Because of its length and secondary importance''to the reader, it was placed at the end so as not to allow the first chapter to attain unreasonable

lengths. On the other hand, as it reflects the vast bulk

of work done by scholars on Les Aventures du dernier

Abencerage, it was impossible to assemble a proper present state of studies without including it and giving

it proper consideration.

The second appendix on the preparation and use of

computer-generated concordances, is deemed necessary as

such a concordance was prepared and subsequently analysed before research for this dissertation was begun.

Although the computer will never replace the scholar, a

concordance can provide him with a very useful tool and it is hoped that the steps outlined in this appendix will be of help to other scholars coping with this new approach to a study of the humanities. CHAPTER I

THE PRESENT STATE OP STUDIES OP

LES AVENTURES DU DERNIER ABENCERAGE

Judging from the proportionately small amount of scholarship devoted to Les Aventures du dernier

Abencdrage in recent years, it could justifiably be considered one of Chateaubriand's minor works.

Contemporary criticism prefers to deal with thematical studies of the Memoires d'Outre-tombe, Rene. Atala or the Vie de Ranee. Although considerable research was carried out on Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage between 1926 (the date of its first critical edition*) p and 1958 ('the date of its second critical edition ), little has be published on it since.

Certain features may be recognized, however, in the criticism accomplished in those thirty years. The first is that relatively few critics have spent an inordinate amount of time examining hypothetical itineraries of Chateaubriand's trip to Spain in 1807, discussing all possible interpretations of every nuance of his correspondence and of phrases in the text appearing to reflect personal experience.^ Secondly, a great deal of the scholarship is a factual, erudite examination of the circumstances under which this nouvelle was written. Far greater interest has been shown in the background of the manuscript and in

Chateaubriand’s possible sources than has ever been demonstrated in a literary appreciation of the text itself. Thirdly, very little work has been carried out of a stylistic, thematical or structural nature, as has been done for all of his other works of fiction.

As the last fourteen years have seen yet a third 4 and a fourth critical edition of the Abencerage , a word t. frequency list and a stylistic analysis, and taking into consideration the vast amount of textual analysis given the rest of Chateaubriand's onus in this same period, it seems in order to evaluate the present state of studies of this nouvelle.

The work will be examined under two main headings* its publication and its interpretation. These broad fields will be sub-divided into more specific areas of scholarship which have dealt with the Abencerage. The result will be the demonstration of a need for a thematical study of this nouvelle free from outside historical interferences.

Publication of the Abencerage

The period from 1807-1826

No documents, correspondence or references in 6 memoirs cast light upon the actual date of writing of this nouvelle. It is known that it was composed after

Chateaubriand's trip to Spain in April 1807 but to date critics have done no better than estimate it to be early in 1810, sixteen years before its actual publica­ tion,

Scipion Marin, as early as I832, stated that it was written in 1810, and although indirectly referring to certain events later taken up by the team of Hazard-

1 7 Durry, he gives no precise details. The Mempires d'outre-tombe indicate definite completion by October ty,

1811, judging from Chateaubriand's remark in the opening pagesi "Ici, [La Vallee-aux-loups] j'ai ecrit les Martyrs. les Abencerages. 1'Itineraire et MoTsej que Q ferai-je maintenant dans les soirees d'automne?"

The first study of this problem was that of

Hazard-Durry who concluded that the Abencerage could not have been written before 1809. They based this statement on a comparison of the text with Perez de

Hita's Guerre civiles de Grenade, translated into French by Sane,^ Striking resemblances of the nouvelle with

Sane *s Histoire chevaleresque des Maures de Grenade. traduite de l'espagnol de Ginfes Perez de Hita, precedes de quelques reflexions sur les Musulmanes d'Espagne, avec des notes historiques et litteraires. constituted

i sufficient proof for Hazard-Durry that Chateaubriand must have consulted this translation before actually finishing his own manuscript.

In 1927» Louis Stinglhamber re-examined the 10 problem 1 beginning with an investigation of the

Avertissement, in which Chateaubriand asserts that “Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage sont ecrites depuis k

* 11 peu prls une vingtaine d’annees." This would place writing in 1806, yet he only left for the Orient on

July 13, 1806, to arrive back in Paris on May 5$ 1807.12

Furthermore, comments in the diary of his valet Julien, clearly indicate that the speed and nature of this trip would hardly have permitted time to write during this p e riod.^

Stinglhamber then refers to Chateaubriand’s

July 1807 article in the Mercure de France which favorably reviews Laborde's recent Voyage pittoresque l^L et historique de l ’Esnagne. One line in particular,

"On doit bien desirer qu'un talent delicat et heureux nous peigne quelque jour ces lieux magiqueB, appears to foreshadow the Abencerage. This, along with very similar descriptions of the Alhambra in the two works, leads Stinglhamber to conclude that the §L peu prfes of the statement quoted above should be stressed and that in his estimation, work on the manuscript could not have begun before mid-1807, but that by then, Chateaubriand already possessed the manuscript of 16 Laborde's descriptions of Granada.

As no additional information has been disclosed

since 1927, one must concur that the worK was written

between 1809 and mid-1810.

It is curious that Chateaubriand did not publish

Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage before 1826 and

even then with some reluctance« "Ah! mon pauvre

Abencerage! Le voilS. sorti de sa solitude et livre au 17 mondel Cela fait saigner le coeur." An acceptable

reason for this hesitation is given by Chateaubriand

himself in his Avertissementi

La peinture des vieilles moeurs de 1 'Europe, les souvenirs de la gloire d'un autre temps, et ceux de la cour d'un de nos plus brillants monarques, n'auraient pas ete plus agreables & la censure, qui a^illeurs commencait 2l se repentir de ra 'avoir tant de fois laisse parler de l'ancienne raonarchie et de la religion de nos p&resi ces morts que j'evoquais sans cesse faisaient trop penser aux vivants.18

As Pierre Moreau justifies later, Spain at that time

represented liberty to the Frencht appreciation of

things Spanish, literary or historical, was considered

subversive,

Hazard-Durry point out, however, that Chateau­

briand should have felt free to publish the nouvelle

in 1815, after the fall of the Empire* yet, he waited

another eleven years. They suggest that the real reason

was the mental illness of Nathalie de Noailles.^ As 9 publishing at that time would merely have conjured up bitter memories, Chateaubriand likely preferred waiting until time had soothed his emotions.

Although kept from the public at large for all of these years, the Abencerage was nevertheless known to a select circle of friends and acquaintances. To begin with, Chateaubriand was almost forced to release his manuscript for publication on four separate occasions between 1810 and 1826, Hazard-Durry point out the following passage in their manuscripti

On ne remarque chez cette nation aucun de ces airs serviles, aucun de ces tours de phrase qui annoncent 1'abjection des pensees et la deradation de l'dme, La languo du grand seigneur et du paysan est la meme, le salut le meme, les compli­ ments, les habitudes, les usages sont les memes, Autant la confiance et la generosite de ce peuple envers les etrangers sont sans bornes, autant sa vengeance est terrible quand on le trahit. D'un courage herolque, d'une patience & toute epreuve, incapable de ceder h. la mauvaise fortune, il faut qu'il la dompte ou qu'il en soit ecrase. II a peu de ce qu'on appelle esprit, raais les passions exaltees lui tiennent lieu de cette lumi&re gui vient de la finesse et de l'abondance des idees. Un Espagnol qui passe le jour sans parler, qui n'a rien vu, qui ne se soucie de rien voir, qui n'a rien lu, rien etudie, rien compare, trouvera dans la grandeur de ses resolutions les ressources necessaires au moment de l'adversite.21

They add that in the manuscript, this whole passage has been crossed out, with a marginal note added by

Chateaubriand at a later date indicating that he had eliminated this page when he had once considered publishing this work while Napoleon was still in power. 10

According to Hazard-Durry, the following letter from

Chateaubriand to Mme de Duras elaborates upon the

circumstances in question!

la banqueroute de Kicolle m'a oblige d'engager 1'Abencerage pour 9*000 francsj ces 9*000 francs seront payes par la vente de l'ouvrage que le preteur aura le droit de faire impriraer au mois de novembre prochain pour paraitre au mois de janvier, si je ne puis payer cette somrae avant cette epoque* Cela me met au ddsespoir, car je crois que ce n'est nullement le moment pour moi de reparaltre aux yeux du publici sans compter que je n'ai aucune envie d'imprimer 1*Abencerage. Je m'occupe de trouver la somme. Si j'etais assez heureux pour la trouver, je delivrerais le prisonnieri alors me trouvant libre, j'irais avec Mme de Chateaubriand passer tout le mois de novembre chez M. de Orglande comrae je l'ai promis & Louis. Si au contraire il faut publier 1 'Abencerage. je resterais h. la Vallee ...

It was thanks to the intervention of a friend,

M. de Tocqueville,^ that the manuscript was saved and

on October 24th he again wrote to Mme de Durast oh "l'Abencerage est delivre,"

In his review of the Hazard-Durry edition, Marcel

Duchemin states that there is nothing to indicate that

the Nicolle bankruptcy and the incident referred to in

Chateaubriand's marginal note on the manuscript are one

and the same. He comes up instead with another document

indicating a second occasion on which Chateaubriand was

obliged to mortgage his manuscript and which could just as easily be the occasion on which the author had altered his texti 11

Bulletin particulier pour son Excellence

M. de Chateaubriand vient de vendre une petite nouvelle de sa composition moyennant quinze mille francs, Elle est maintenant sous presse. Le sujet est espagnol. Elle ost intituleei Le dernier des Abencerages et ne formera qu'un volume assez mince.26 “

The manuscript modificati m could be related to yet another occasion on which Chateaubriand had consi­ dered releasing his manuscript. In January, 1813» his 27 friend Ballanche, in a letter to Beuchot, ( suggests an edition of Atala, Rene and Le3 Aventures du dernier

Abencerages together in one volume. This idea was soon discarded, however, as Ballanche found the moment unpropitious and wished to avoid renewed criticism of

Chateaubriand* "Je vois que depuis quelque temps on cherche toutes les occasions pour lui tomber sur le corps,n A U w n II 28

Duchemin concludes that Hazard-Durry were perhaps too hasty in their assumption that the alteration of the text occurred in 1811 as instances such as the two above could just as easily have been the ones in question. Letessier, in 1958, expresses his belief that the change was likely made upon the occasion of Duchemin*s first example above but gives no reason for his decision.^

Letessier goes on to disclose a fourth occasion on which the Abencerage was almost submitted for publi­ cation. The return of the monarchy in 181^ allowed 12

Chateaubriand to move around freely once again.

Consequently, Mme de Duras was able to use her influence to procure an ambassadorship for him to either Sweden or

Turkey.-^0 Chateaubriand chose Sweden and Louis XVIII, tired of constantly hearing of the former, "etait heureux de faire present de moi £Chateaubriand] & son frbre le roi Bernadotte."-^ The author's poor finances led him to write once again to Mme de Durasi

II ne me reste done que treize mille francs pour vivre et pour aller a Stockholm. Cela est impossible. II faut que le roi m'accorde une gratification (il est devenu si riche depuis le budget) ou que je vende 1 ‘Abencerage. Usez done de votrc credit et faites-moi donner cent mille francs,32

Circumstances determined that he never went to Sweden and as a result never had to sell his nouvelle.

As Hazard-Durry, Duchemin and Letessier are the only scholars to have dealt with the question of the publication of the manuscript before 1826, it is conceivable that other occasions remain as yet undis­ covered. The importance of this research has been two-fold. It has proven that the nouvelle was not hidden from a select group of people but merely from the pubic.

These findings substantiate the Hazard-Durry speculation that the work was laden with personal memories.

Secondly, this documentation clearly demonstrates

Chateaubriand's reluctance to publish this nouvelle. a >3 hesitation not displayed in the case of his other works.

'i'here are yet others who were familiar with the manuscript during those sixteen years under consideration.

There are many contemporary references indicating that he used to read the Abencerage aloud to his friends.

Hazard-Durry even determine from the curious disposition of commas and lack of certain other punctuation marks, that the whole manuscript was marked up especially for the purpose of an oral recitation. ^

Chateaubriand himself refers to one occasion in 18131 ■jji Mer6ville^ etait une oasis creee par le sourire d'une muse, mais d'une de ces muses que les pontes gaullois appellent les doctes fees. Ici les aventures de Blanca et de Velleda furent lues devant d'elegantes generations... 35

This is corroborated by Mme de Segur who relates in her

Souvenirs» "il nous lut un soir dans le salon de

M&reville sa nouvelle des Abencerages."^

In 1924, Paul Hazard refers to the success of such readings and addst "... c'est au point que Louis XVIII, alleche, demanda II 1'entendrer et que 1'auteur, flatte, se rendit II son desir."*^ This was to have taken place in 1822 but Hazard adds no further details and eliminates this example in the preface of his 1926 edition.

Letessier, in 1958, attempts to investigate this example in greater depth but finds mention of it nowhere.'*® 14

Maurice Levaillant adds another instance in 1939.

According to Levaillant, it had become the fashion in

Paris, towards the end of the Empire, to spend less time dancing and more time engaged in adventures of the intel­ lect. It was not uncommon for ladies to call upon a writer or dramatist to read one of his unpublished works before one of their gatherings and to discuss it after­ wards over a cup of tea. Levaillant quotes Ballanche who describes one such session at Mme Recamier's salon in June or July of 1814, at which Chateaubriand read his nouvelle»

A cette lecture qui, & cause de la circon- stance, est une sorte d'evenement historique, pouvaient se trouver & la fois, Bemadotte, general frangais assis sur les marches d'un trone etranger, sa femme, princesse royale, depuis reine de Suede, la marechale Moreau, le marechal Macdonald, le due de Wellington... On eOt dit un congres de toutes les opinions, de toutes les celebrites, venant s'oublier elles- memes pour etre entieres aux enchantements de la poesie. Rien ne saurait mieux caracteriser cette epoque de renaissance dont le charme dura si peu.40

It was to be June, 1826, before the manuscript was finally released for publication. On April 12 of that year, la Bibliogranhie de la France first announced the forthcoming publication of Chateaubriand's complete works by the Parisian editor Ladvocat.^1 On June 21, it announced the publication of the first two volumes, VIII and XVI, of the eventual thirty-two volumes, volume XVI 15 containing Rene, Atala and Les Aventures du dernier ho Abencerage. The volume was to have been published by

May 15 but a last minute trip by Ladvocat to England,

Belgium and Germany to make certain arrangements which

would prevent pirate editions of the new Oeuvres, Zi*3 delayed its appearance in France. J

Although no reasons are given by Chateaubriand for

publishing the three works together as had been earlier

suggested by Ballanche, Letessier suggests in 1958 that

the established success of Rene and Atala would certainly hh have guaranteed sales of the new volume. Certainly

Scipion Marin referred to 1*Abencerage as "l'ouvrage le

plus impatiemment attendu de toute la collection ..." ^

The publication of Chateaubriand's letters to

Mme de Castellane in 1927 added further interest to the

circumstances under which the manuscript was published.

A letter to Mme de Castellane of March 1826 told her of

the imminent publication1

La premiere livraison de mes ouvrages paraitra h la fin de mai. On commencera par 1*Abencerage et ensuite viendra Chactas k Paris.

Acknowledgement of this letter is indicated by remarks

in a subsequent letter sent to Mme de Castellane in

April1

J'ai regu la lettre par votre Anglais* je ne puis satisfaire k votre demande. Cela me tronquerait 1'un des passages les plus vifs de 1'Abencerage et ensuite votre memoirs vous a trompee, et cela ne dit pas ce que vous croyez que cela dit.^7 16

Letessier suspects that she must have seen the manuscript

earlier and for reasons unknown had asked Chateaubriand

in late March for certain last minute changes.

Thus has been established the little knowledge

that we have of the first sixteen year of the existence

of Les Aventures du dernier Abencdrage. Very little

mention is made of it in either Chateaubriand's memoirs

or in his correspondence and none is made in the

Itineraire de Paris de Jerusalem, the story of his 1807

trip to the Orient published in 1811, In spite of the

thorough research of various scholars, no more complete

knowledge of the nouvelie's genesis is available to

date.

The Period from 1827-1972

Many editions of Les Aventures du dernier

Abenceraee appeared after the original one of 1826.

Hazard-Durry saw little need for listing them, however,

as they differed from the original one only in the

quality of the paper used, size, ink, typeset and

illustrations. Illustrated editions were for the most

part poorly done. Although engravings were plentiful,

they tended to be ugly. Noteworthy among these editions, however, are an 1827 edition in two volumes, again put out by Ladvocat, the thirty-two volume Pourrat publication of the complete works, the Sainte-Beuve Oeuvres completes in 1861 and the small volume published by Schneegans in 1925.49

In 1926, Paul Hazard and Marie-Jeanne Durry came out with the first critical edition ever done of a work of Chateaubriand.-’0 Ihey based their publication upon their discovery of the original manuscript of the

Abencerage, whose owner preferred to remain anonymous,-’*

They determined by its noble handwriting and relatively few corrections that it must have been a final draft, yet are undecided as to its exact date. The marginal comment, "J'avois raye cette page lorsque je songeois

& imprimer 1*Abencerage sous Buonaparte would place it between 1810 and 1815 but it is probably the same manuscript read by Mme de Duras in 1810.

What Hazard-Durry did for the Abeneerage was provide an edition equipped with variants, explanatory notes and a very thorough historical and literary introduction to the text. Fitting tribute is paid this team of researchers by the number and type of articles and reviews that followed their publication, Jean

Cazenave stated that it was thanks to Hazard-Durry that the Abencerage was no longer to be considered a mere fantasy but a work worthy of Rene and Atala. ^ Bede calls the book "une juste reparation d'injustes vicis- Ch. situdes."^ He regards this a deluxe edition because of 18 its concision, precision, typ..graphical perfection and appendices. He makes a slight reservation on the notes at the back which, in his opinion, complicate research.

Emile Henriot, describing this "spirituelle etude," comments that it is typical of the whole history of the

Abencerage that the owner of the manuscript should prefer to remain anonymous, "comme si tout ce qui touche au dernier Abencerage devait demeurer voile de mystere."^

Marcel Duchemin, who agrees with Daniel Mornet that this *56 is a model critical and historical edition, has certain reservations, however, in that he would like to have seen an index and more precise references in the introduction, as well as further information on the manuscript itself, such as v/hether or not it was bound or maybe even a facsimile of a page or two.

The influence of this edition was overwhelming.

Duchemin said in 1926 that its special merit was

"d'ouvrir une voie feconde." Certainly it created a wave of historical investigations of the various sources used by Chateaubriand, his correspondence and his other works for clues that might shed further light upon this mysterious nouvelle. For the first time, scholars were to write articles on 1 'Abencerage itself, without reference to the rest of Chateaubriand's opus.

Thirty-two years later, in 1958» Fernand Letessier 19

"brought out the second critical edition of Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, uniting the nouvelle once again with Rene and Atala. He based his text upon the ladvocat edition, as Chateaubriand had never revised it subsequent to 1826. This edition has the decided advan­ tage of having clearer and more complete notes than that of Hazard-Durry, situated at the foot of the page for easier consultation. Letessier*s thorough introduction provides a good insight into the genesis of the nouvelle but does not deal with the text from a literary point of view as had Hazard-Durry. Letessier does, however, add some very appropriate and interesting contemporary illustrations to his introduction. In 19<&, Garnier fr^res was to bring out a new edition of the Letessier volume, adding a chronology of Chateaubriand's life.

In 1961, the Catalogue de la vente Davray offered the original manuscript of the Avertissement of Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage. Although it now belongs to a collector in Geneva, Bernard Gagnebin published it in the 1968-69 issue of the Bulletin de la

Societd Chateaubriand.-^ Examination of the ink, paper, page-size, margins, number of lines per page of the manuscript seems to establish it as that part of the

Hazard-Durry manuscript which had always been missing.

As this introduction was written sixteen years before that of Ladvocat and hence of Hazard-Durry, there are 20 consequently considerable differences. To begin with,

Chateaubriand acknowledges several of his sources of information and description.^ Secondly, he indicates his desire to publish this nouvelle as a supplement to his Itineraire de Paris h, Jerusalem, as had already been suspected by some, after reading comments such as those of Marcellus quoting Chateaubriandi

Combien de fois ma memoire se porte encore vers mon voyage en Orient! Combien de traits que je regrette de ne pas avoir consignes dans mon Itineraire! Je ferais, ce me semble, un quatrieme volume de toutes les pensees que je jette en arri&re vers ces beaux pays que j'ai parcouru trop vite.59

Although the manuscript does not provide additional clues to solve the mystery of the delay in publication, it does, however, give scholarship the complete text in

Chateaubriand's hand.

In 1969, Maurice Regard brought forth yet another critical edition of the Abencerage. Although this edition makes no contributions to our knowledge of the text, with the possible exception of including

Gagnebin's Avertissement in a variant, the work remains nevertheless a significant step towards the creation of a modern Oeuvres completes of Chateaubriand, last done in 1861.

The most recent critical edition is that of Pierre

Moreau in 1971.^ He purposely re-unites Atala, Rene 21 and Leg Aventures du dernier Abencerage in an effort to compare them as romans d 1exLX for he wishes to trace the developments in the Chateaubriand hero between the conception of Atala and that of Aben-Hamet. Both characters had suffered the ordeal of revolution, as had their author and consequently represented a blend of the romanesque and of the autobiographical, Moreau concludes that proper appreciation of this nouvelle can only be attained when read in conjunction with the Memoires d'outre-tombe.

Also to be considered as a critical edition is

Jack Street's word list of the Abencerage, prepared by

IBM computers and included in his 1964 doctoral disser- tation,* of which he published an extract in 1961.

What we have done in 1972 is prepare a centre-of-the- page, key-word-in-context (KV/IC) concordance, which will serve as a basis for subsequent chapters of this literary study. The method involved is outlined in the second appendix found further on in this dissertation.

It would appear then, that our knowledge of the text of the Abencerage is complete. Details on the manuscript, as noted, seem to justify its consideration as the original. There are no references anywhere that another manuscript is extant or that Chateaubriand ever revised his 1826 edition. Barring the sudden disclosure of a document or letter presently hidden in a private 22

collection, the text as reproduced by Maurice Regard must be considered definitive.

French Reaction to the Abencerage

There are three distinct periods to be considered in this evaluation! that from 1810 to 1826, in which

Chateaubriand held private readings of the nouvelle. that from 1826 to 18^8, the year of his death, and that from 18^8 to 1861, the year of the publication of

Sainte-Beuve's Chateaubriand et son groupe litteraire

sous l'Empire. The evaluation has been limited to these fifty-one years as they are sufficiently repre- „ sentative of the confused reactions to the Abencerage from its first reading by Mme de Duras until the

Hazard-Durry edition over a century later.

The first period is generally quite favorable

towards the nouvelle itself but somewhat skeptical about

the circumstances under which it was read. Madame de

Boigne describes how they all fell under Chateaubriand's

spell, how tears fell as he delved into his characters but how she was nauseated after the reading by the

fawning of the other women present, fighting to give

their idol a cup of tea, concluding!

C'etait la premiere fois que j'assistais & un pareil spectacle, et il me sembla si ridicule^ que je me promis de n'y jamais jouer de r6le. ^ 23

Similarly, Madame de Segur concedes the success

Chateaubriand had upon his reading at Mereville but

cannot resist adding!

Je me rappelle que le soir ofc il nous lut le Dernier des Abencerages, quand il eut dit le dernier vers de la chanson du Cidi

II prefera, diront-ils, h. la vie, Son Dieu, son roi, sa Chimene et l'Honneur,

Une de nous, et certes, pas la moins malicieuse, ne put s 1empecher.de marmotter & voix bassei HEt quoi encore?"^

The second period, that from 1826 to 18^8, is rather undecided in its appraisal of the Abencerage.

Rather, this is a period of personal judgment, most of which immediately followed publication of the Ladvocat edition. Newspapers were far from unanimous in their praise. The Quotidienne of June 20 calls it an

"admirable episode." The following day, the Pandore spoke of "le merite d'une composition que recommande surtout un style delicieux." Similarly, the Journal des Debats of June 28 and the Constitutionnel of July 7 enthusiastically received the new work, the latter referring to Aben-Hamet as the equal of "Rene l'Euro- peen" and of "Chactas l'indien."

There were on the other hand, however, comments such as those of the July 2nd Corsaire which said that the Aventures were "plus riche en papier qu'en bonnes choses," and the reviews of the July 26 Globe and of 24 the August 8 Etoile which merely gave reserved, yet polite comments about the author.

The August 1 Figaro. reflecting the confusion of the reviewers of this nouvelle. adds its own reserva­ tions on the nouvellei

Nous avons entendu juger severement la nouvelle du Dernier Abenceraget le fond en paraissait commun et use. Nous avouerons qu'entraine par le charme du style, nous n'avons pas eu le loisir de faire cette reraarque. Mais, quand^ce jugement serait juste, la beaute des caracteres et la noblesse des sentiments n'empecheraient pas cette nouvelle d'etre distinguee et d'occuper un rang tres eleve parmi les ouvrages de ce genre ... The reason for this curiously mixed reaction to the work which was so anxiously awaited, is probably best expressed by Scipion Marini

On s'attendit & du chatoyant, Si de 1*enchanteur, a une pluie d'etincelles, b. une ondee de poesie. On s'attendait a de la verite relevee de coloris, car on savait ce que Florian avait tire des chroniqueurs hispano-arabes. Rien de tout cela, ou du moins bien peu, C'est que l'auteur avait laisse vieillir son oeuvre en portefeuille. ... ce livro ne s'etait adresse qu'k son public naturel, au public de 1810j ce public ne le connut pas. ... II rentra dans la cassette pour n'en sortir qu'en 1826. Mais que 1 ’esprit public avait deja subi de modifications!

Scipion Marin goes on to give this work its first literary study, a fairly objective analysis of its merits and shortcomings.

Very little reference to the Abencerage is found between 1832 and 1848, Balzac had obviously read and 25 enjoyed it, judging from a remark in Pierrette *

Cette musique nationale, aussi delicieuse que celle adaptee par Chateaubriand h Ma soeur, te souvient-il encore?, chantee au milieu d'urie petite ville de la Brie ...66

Renan ends this era on a less appreciative note*

J'aime 1'Alhambra et Broceliande dans leur veritej je me ris du romantisme qui croit, en combinant ces mots, faire une oeuvre belle. L& est l'erreur de Chateaubriand et de la raison de l*incroyable mediocrite de son ecole ...67

This lack of interest in the nouvelle in this second period reflects new and different tastes in literature.

Sainte-Beuve was to sum up the situation very much as

Marin had before him*

II n'eut point tout le succes auquel il avait droit, n'ayant point paru II son moment* Le dernier Abencerage, retenu en portefeuille, manqua son a-pro;pos“ son heure de soleil, ce qui est rare pour les ecrits de M. de Chateaubriand.68

Chateaubriand's death in 184-8 prompted a revival of interest in his works, ushering in the third period to be considered. Although numerous studies of his opus appeared, relatively few discussed Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. Some referred to it but most pre­ ferred to ignore it entirely.

The first major literary study of influence of the

Abencerage is that of Sainte-Beuve, who is rather critical of the nouvelle *

Rien de plus courtois, de plus accompli comme forme et comme sentiment, rien de plus artistique- ment decoupe que ce petit recit II quatre personnages, M. de Chateaubriand n ’a rien trouve de plus purs 26

mais, si je l ’ose dire, le tout est jete dans la forme chevaleresque et classiquej il y a un peu de secheressc, de raideur et de maigreur, on est loin de la seve surabondante d ’Atala. ... Pour conclusion, le dernier Abencerage est le plus parfait des tableaux d'Empire, mais c'est un tab­ leau d'Empire.

Yet, the same year, the Swiss scholar Vinet,

contrasts Sainte-Beuve's comments with a more positive

appreciation!

Nous lui devons aussi le diamant de la plus belle eau parmi tous ceux qui font etinceler le diademe poetique de M. de Chateaubriand ... entre tous les ecrits de M. de Chateaubriand, rien ne fait naitre l'idee d'une plus grande perfection, rien n'est plus touchant que 1 'Ahencerage.70

Similarly in 1858, Villemain, in his Tribune

moderne, which contains a violent diatribe against the

Memoires d ’outre-tombe, writes that the Abencerage was

"un des plus charmants ecrits de son [Chateaubriand]

£ge mClr .,, moins celebre qu'Atala mais non moins

imperissable, aux yeux des amis de l'art."*'71

These differences of opinion were to continue until

the turn of the century. Then, judgment seemed to slowly

consolidate in favour of the nouvelle. Until the

arrival of the Hazard-Dirry edition, however, Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage was to remain essentially

a work commented on in one way or another by scholars

and literary critics but not studied in depth as the great majority of the other works of Chateaubriand were. 2?

Foreign Popularity of the Abencerage

Curiously enough, the Abencerage enjoyed far greater enthusiasm abroad than it did in France, in its early years. Chateaubriand himself tells of an inci­ dent in Italy in 1833> when, having lunch at Conegliano, friends of an Edvige de Battisti di San Giorgio de

Scolari, who had translated the nouvelle into Italian, zealously congratulated him on his work.7^ Bede cites this anecdote as an example oi the influence of the

Abencerage in Italy. It had already been translated into Italian as early as 1827, being the opening work in the anonymous Opere varie del visconte Chateaubriand.7-^

Further proof of the nouvelle's popularity outside

France may be quickly ascertained by consulting the

Hazard-Durry edition of the nouvelle where fifty-three examples are listed of editions published in sixteen different countries (not counting France) between 1826 and 1926.

Interpretation of the "Abencerage11

Genre and Literary tradition

There appears to be considerable variation in attempts of scholars to establish the genre of the

Abencerage. Chateaubriand generally refers to it as

"I1Abencerage" just as he referred to Rend and Atala 28 merely 'by name. On other occasions, the author would merely refer to any of these as "l'ouvrage." In the more formal Avertissement to the 1826 edition, however,

Chateaubriand refers to 1*Abencerage as a nouvelle.

It is not entirely clear why he calls it a nouvelle. He had earlier referred to Atala as a sort of half descriptive, half dramatic poemHe elaborated in a footnotei

Dans un temps ofci tout est perverti en litterature, je suis oblige d ’avertir que si je me sers ici du mot de poeme, c'est faute de savoir comment me faire entendre autrement. Je ne suis point un de ces barbares qui confondent la prose et les vers. Le poete, quoi qu'on en dise, est toujours l'homme par excellence; et des volumes entiers de prose descriptive ne valent pas cinquante beaux vers d'Homere, de Virgile ou de Racine.

Although neither Rene nor Atala were originally conceived as independent works but as parts of a larger work, Le Genie du Christianisme, so too was Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage intended to be part of the larger

Itineraire de Paris 11 Jerusalem.^ Furthermore, these three short works of fiction are very similar in length, in the extent to which their characters are developped and to which they undergo a moral evolution, in the importance of description, in the type of plot and its development and in the relative unimportance of time to an interpretation of the works' meanings. Consequently,

Chateaubriand probably considered these three works generically the same, a supposition strengthened by the fact that Chateaubriand consented to having the three works published together in one volume. It must then be assumed that by 1826, Chateaubriand had finally decided upon the term nouvelle to describe that which had been elusive to him when he wrote the footnote quoted above twenty-five years before.

The nineteenth century generally followed the example of the 1826 edition. Scipion Marin refers to the Abencerage as a nouvelle in 1832^ as does Benoit in 1 8 8 5 . ^ By the turn of the century, however, scholars, reflecting a more positivistic approach to literary criticism, began differing in the respective positions they took on its genre. Francis Gribble 79 refers to it, for example, as a romance. 7 Although fio Hazard-Durry and Cazenave refer to it as a nouvelle. fl1 Marjorie Chaplyn calls it a roman, Dr. Le Savoureux 82 a roman espagnol and Olga Longi a conte chevaleresque

Pierre Moreau, an example of criticism's shifting perspectives, considers it a nouvelle gracieuse in Qlp O 1927» a romance in 1956, and a conte grenadin in 86 1965. Professor Charles Carlut, of the Ohio State

University, attempted to publish the Abencerage in an anthology of short stories in 196k but was refused on the grounds that it was too long. The confusion in the book’s classification lies in the rather protean definitions attributed the terms conte , nouvelle and roman* Using the criteria outlined above, a nouvelle is generally accepted as lying between the two other genresr definitions such as those of Littre. however, which merely view a nouvelle as a short novel, serve only to confuse and mislead. Although nobody has ever made an attempt to classify the Abencerage by systematically examining features such as character development, decor, time, plot, description and so forth, it could be shown that for each of these aspects, the

Abencerage is more developed than the average early nineteenth century short story and considerably less developed than the average novel of the same period, thereby justifying the term nouvelle.

Furthermore, given the twenty-five year period betwen the publication of Atala and of the Abencerage in which Chateaubriand had time to consider the problem, it could be accepted that his choice of the term nouvelle v/as not merely gratuitous. Henceforth, this work shall therefore be referred to as a nouvelle.

Only two scholars have made detailed studies of the literary tradition to which the Abencerage belongs,

Jean Cazenave, in 1925, first studied the work within the framework of the Moorish tradition of literature in 31 France, so called "because the hero is either Moorish or

Spanish. He sees this nouvelle as a definite member of

this heritage as its fonn, ideas and decor are very simi­

lar to those of other French novels which seek to depict

Q 17 the lives and mores of the Moors. (

Three years later, in 1928, Marjorie Chaplyn made

a very thorough study of the Moorish novel in France,

arriving at exactly the opposite conclusions of Cazenave,

that the Abencerage has few real ties with its prede­

cessors. Rather than existing as an historical novel,

the Abencerage was conceived as the immortalization of a

personal experience. The past is used here only to

emphasize the present. Although the background is very

definitely that of the Middle Ages, the nouvelle.

concludes Marjorie Chaplyn, is very much written in the

spirit of the nineteenth century.

It is interesting, then, that the literary form of

the work is as mysterious as its origins. It does not

adhere to any one tradition; nor does it conform to any

existing generic molds. Its charm lies in its singularity

and originality.

Chateaubriand's Sources

Determining Chateaubriand's sources of this nouvelle is essentially a feature of the criticism of the 32

1920's. Certain scholars, resolving to minimize the

author's creativity in this work, have spent a great

deal of time examining every word of the Abencerage. attempting to trace it to different works that

Chateaubriand might have read dealing with either Spain or the Abencerage legend. Chateaubriand stated in his introduction that he had personally seen the sites described in the nouvelle. His Itineraire de Paris a

Jerusalem. his correspondence and the diary of his valet

Julien point out, on the other hand, that he had travelled across Spain at excessive speeds, with hardly a moment to take notes. This anomaly had led certain scholars to deteimine the extent to which Chateaubriand plagia­ rized the Abencerage.

In 1925 1 an edition of the nouvelle acknowledged

Chateaubriand’s borrowing of descriptive passages but went on to conclude that scholarship had not yet determined th • sources of the story itself. Perhaps, this edition ..dds, Chateaubriand had actually invented po it. 7 That s me year, Giraud indicated that Chateau­ briand had most certainly consulted many voyages, novels and works on Spain to find descriptive elements to blend into his work* "Et comme toujours, romantique et classique tout ensemble, son art a consiste & fondre harmonieusement tous ces divers elements. 33 Hazard-Durry compiled an excellent inventory of possible sources for the Abencerage, citing such note- worthies as Mile de Scudery, Mme de Lafayette, Mme de

Villedieu, Mme de Gomez, Mme de Cottin, Swinburne,

Florian and Sane. Chateaubriand's contribution, according to Hazard-Durry, was to bring back from Spain

"quelques visions d'ensemble," giving the nouvelle unity 91 of harmony and grandeur. Keenly aware of the dangers of this type of criticism, they concludei

Disons-le vite* ce qui imports, c'est moins de decouvrir ses sources que d'observer la fagon dont il les utilisej l'essentiel pour nous est de voir s'accomplir sous nos yeux le plus prodi- gieux travail de transformation qui se puisse rever. L'originalite de Chateaubriand, loin d'etre amoindrie par cette epreuve, n'en parait que plus admirable.

Henriot, in his review of the Hazard-Durry edition, scornful of this type of investigation, dismisses these literary borrowings as quite reasonable, for if a man is making love to a woman in Spain, he is hardly going to have time or presence of mind to make notes on the surroundings. Consequently, he shall have to research certain descriptive details upon his return, Henriot does take pains to stress, hov/ever, that the poetry is

Chateaubriand's and that his sources were not nearly as op beautiful, nor as poetic as the Abeneerag j /

These conclusions are those arrived at by almost all of the critics dealing with the problem of sources. In 192?, Stinglhamber was to prove by an examination of the text, that Chateaubriand could not possibly have seen certain places that he incorrectly describes and goes on to point out the contributions made by Laborde,

Mme de Lafayette and Perez de Hita. He goes on to conclude that the local colour of the romantics lies in 93 "ce melange de reves et d 'emprurits.

In 1928, an anonymous article in Le Divan dis­ cusses Henriot's refutation of the Hazard-Durry premise that Chateaubriand could not have seen the moon as described in the Abencerage, given the date on which he was in Granada. Henriot had proven that Hazard-Durry had mistakenly consulted the 1809 rather than the 1807 almanach. That which distressed this anonymous writer in particular was not the refutation of the fact itself but the fact that nobody before Henriot had questioned these findings, showing how receptive people were to slanderous criticism 1

On le voit, le fait en lui-meme est d'un interet secondairet Chateaubriand, en effet, ne nous donne pas une relation de voyage, mais un roman. Heanmoins, nous trouvons b. cette note une signification d'une portee generale. L'incident peut servir d'exemple typique d'une attitude de plus en plus fret^uente vis-&-vis de Chateaubriand 1 1'emulation de decouvrir a tout prix dans ses recits une preuve de sa fascination & alterer la verite.9^

Similarly, a reactionary Dr. Le Savoureux stated categorically in 1932 that even if ninety percent of a 35 work of Chateaubriand were plagiarized, it would be the g < remaining ten percent that counted. Pierre Moreau

attempted to explain Chateaubriand’s art by considering

Chateaubriand a man who needed references to prompt his

imagination. "II semble qu’il ait toujours un livre &

la main «.,

One can only conclude by going back to the

author's Genie du Christianisme where he stated that

the original writer is not the one who imitates nobody

but the one whom no one can imitate.^ Surely the

study of sources should not be permitted to over­

shadow the more important examination of the text itself

and of the obvious creativity of style of the author,

98 The Abencerage as an autobiographical novel?

The question of whether or not Les Aventures du

dernier Abencerage is the fictitious representation of

personal experience in Spain is by far the most widely

discussed topic of scholarship concerning this nouvelle.

Ever since 1826, people have read of the meeting of dona

Blanca and Aben-Hamet at the Alhambra and have taken it

to be the story of Chateaubriand and of Nathalie de

Noailles.^

There is little doubt that their relationship

inspired the nouvelle. Chateaubriand himself said as much in a letter to Mme de Duras in the summer of I8IO1

"C'est Madame de Mouchy qui a inspire 1 'Abencerage."10°

Admittedly, a great many of Blanca’s and Aben-Hamet's traits are those of Nathalie and Chateaubriand, and although many have pointed this fact out, few have pursued the investigation further. More has been done on finding parallels between Nathalie and Velleda and even Cymodocee of Les Martyrs, although this does not preclude having inspired all three. La comtesse d'Andlau concludes her informative section on Nathalie de Noailles as Velleda saying*

C'est par 1'imagination de createur qu'il l'a represente telle qu'il la souhaitait, telle qu'elle deviendrait.1°1

Scholars have tended to avoid the more general topic to concentrate rather on historical investigation to determine whether or not Chateaubriand and Nathalie could have met at the Alhambra as did dona Blanca and

Aben-Hamet. Both Chateaubriand and Nathalie de Noailles are very vague on the subject, the former making no mention of it in either his Memoircs d'outre-tombe or in his Itineraire de Paris 2i Jerusalem. Furthermore, the

Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand assures us that all correspondence between the two was destroyed upon her death. As a result, one has to rely upon piecemeal and often contradictory information given by contemporaries 37 and upon the odd discovery by critics, for a basis of discussion.

An examination of the bibliography of this topic reveals a startling, disappointing fact* at least eighty percent of all scholarship published on Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage deals with pure speculation on the problem of the meeting at the Alhambra, almost trying to prove Chateaubriand a liar when he himself never indicated that this meeting had taken place. Discussion over the past one hundred years has concentrated on several sources of evidence* an alleged inscription found on the walls of the Alhambra, reminiscent of Chateaubriand's trip to Jerusalem and of a similar wall-writing incident in the nouvelle, (this shall be discussed at greater length in the first appendix at the end of this dissertation) memoirs of friends of Nathalie de Noailles and Chateaubriand, letters written by Nathalie while in Spain and an unending retracing of the author's steps in Spain along with minute examinations of his reported schedules.

Knowledge of the events in Granada is no more certain now than it was at the time of Sainte-Beuve who first started these investigations. Traditionalists insist upon a belief in the legend that Nathalie and

Chateaubriand met at the Alhambra, regardless of the evidence against this and skeptics argue at best, the two could only have met at Cordoba. It seems readily obvious that no conclusive evidence is presently available proving either argument. It will not be our concern, in this dissertation, to pursue this polemic or offer new evidence. Rather, we can only hope that the final chapter has already been written on a seemingly unimportant aspect of the work.

Conclusions

This chapter has presented a resume of the greater part of scholarship devoted to Las Aventures du dernier Abencerage. It is readily apparent that considerable efforts have been made to discredit the author's orginality and to relate this work to events in the author's own life, at the expense of a textual analysis of the work itself and of a proper consideration of its literary merits.

It has never been truly established why the publication of the work was delayed for sixteen years, although the author’s admitted fear of censorship, acknowledged in his introduction, is perhaps the most probable reason. Other reasons suggested by researchers in the past have also been indicated but none of these seem to answer the question satisfactorily. 39 Once published, the nouvelle was quite well

accepted, and numerous editions followed in France as well as in other countries. Although literary critics have considered this work along with all other works written by Chateaubriand as part of studies relating to the author's entire onus. very little has been published on this nouvelle alone from a point of view of textual analysis.

It will be our intention to help fill this void.

Our study will bypass the history and sincerity of this work to study it rather from a strictly textual point of view, in an effort to establish Chateaubriand's concept of Man his position in the universe in which he lives. MOTES - CHAPTER I

1 Chateaubriand, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, ed. by Paul Hazard and Marie-Jeanne Durry (Parisi Librairie ancienne Honore Champion, 1926). 2 Chateaubriand, Atala, Rene, Le dernier Abencerage, Ed. by Fernand Letessier (Paris-! Editions Garnier freres, 1958)*

•^Very little information is available on Chateaubriand's trip to Spain or on the extent to which the Abencerage was intended to be autobiographical in nature. For further discussion of this problem see the first appendix.

^Chateaubriand, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, in Oeuvres romanesques et voyages, ed. by Maurice Regard, II (Paris* Gallimard |_Eiblioth&que de la Pleiadej, 1969).

Chateaubriand, Atala. Rene. Le dernier Abencerage, ed. by Pierre Moreau (Paris» Les' Livres de Poche, 1971).

-\jack D. Street, "The Style of Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage by Chateaubriand" (Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 196*0. [.This dissertation was based on a word frequency list of 1*Abencerage prepared by Mr. Street.j

Scipion Marin, Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de Chateaubriand (Parist chez Vimont, Libraire, 1832), p. 294. 7 fMarin indicates that the work was almost published some time before its actual publication in 1826. This problem was first investigated by Paul Hazard and Marie-Jeanne Durry in 1924. See infra p. 8 for further details. O Chateaubriand, Les Memoires d'outre-tombe, ed. by Maurice Levaillant and Georges Moulinier, I (Parisi Gallimard [Bibliotheque de la Pleiadej, 1951). P« 6, 9 ^Hazard and Durry, Le dernier Abencerage, p. xv. 4i

10Louis Stinglhamber, "Chateaubriand & Grenade," Etudes, CXCI (June 5, 1927), 546-565. 11 Letessier, Le dernier Abencerage, p. 249. 12 Chateaubriand, L'ltineraire de Paris a Jerusalem in Oeuvres romanesques et voyages, ed. by Maurice Regard, II (Paris 1 Gallimard, l_Bibliotheque de la Pleiadej, 1969), p. 770 and p. 1213, 13 .Julien Potelin, Voyage de Julien b. Jerusalem in Oeuvres romanesques et Voyages, ed, by Maurice Regard, II (Paris: Gallimard ]_Bibliotheque de 1& Pleiadej 1969), pp. 1507-15^0. Julien's diary offers many interesting commentaries upon the actions of his master. Many of his observations provide amusing contradictions of similar observations made by Chateaubriand, 14 Alexandre de Laborde, Voyage pittoresque et historique de l'Espagne l_1806J reprinted m Revue hispanique, LXIII (1925). pp. 1-576, Laborde was Nathalie dc JNoaille's brother. For details on both of these, see infra. 1 5 -'Chateaubriand, "Sur le Voyage pittoresque et historique de l'Espagne par I>1. Alexandre de Laborde," m Oeuvres completes, ed, by Sainte-Beuve, VI (Paris 1 Garnier freres, 1861), p. 518. 16 Stinglhamber, "Chateaubriand & Grenade," p. 563. 17 'Letter to Mme de Duras quoted by Paul Hazard in "Comment Chateaubriand ecrivit une nouvelle espagnole," Revue de Paris (December 15, 1924), p. 928, 18 Letessier, Le dernier Abencerage, pp. 249-50. 1 9 A7Pierre Moreau, Chateaubriand (Parist Hatier j_Collection "Cormaissance des lettres"J, 1956), p, 53. 20 Hazard and Durry, Le dernier Abencerage, p. x. 21 Ibid., p. xxxiv. 22 Chateaubriand, Correspondence generale de Chateaubriand, ed. by Louis Thomas, iTTPaH'si Librairie Champion, l£l2), p. 354-5. 42

This is likely the incident referred to by Scipion Marin in his Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de Chateaubriand> "le gardeur eut la delicatesse de ne pas garderunaussi precieux nantissement de poete.", p. 294*

2^l'he father of the more famous Alexis de Tocqueville. 24 Thomas, ed., Correspondance, II, p. 356.

2 "^Marcel Duchemin, "Le dernier Abencerage» h. propos d'une edition recente," Revue d'Histoire litteraire de la France (April-June, 1927), 261-69. This article was reprinted in Duchemin, Chateaubriand» Essai de critique et d'histoire litteraire^TParis'i Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, 1938), 2 6 According to Marcel Duchemin, this document is in the archives of the Bibliotheque rationale under F. 18/40.

2^Future editor of Voltaire's complete works. po 6. Vauthier, "Les premieres Relations de Chateaubriand et de Ballanche," Revue d'Histoire litteraire de la France, XXIX (1922), 283, 29 7Letessier, Le dernier Abencerage, p. lviii,

•^Levaillant and Moulinier, ed,, Memo ires d'outre-tombe. I, 905*

31Ibid,, 905.

^2Thomas, ed,, Correspondance, I,, p. 383*

-^Hazard and Durry, Le dernier Abencerage, p. xxxvii.

-^Mereville was the family estate of Nathalie de Noailles.

•''•'Levaillant and Moulinier, ed. Memo ires d*outre-tombe, I., p. 577*

t36Mme la comtesse Jean de Pangs. "Chateaubriand Mereville," Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand, X (1931). p. 20” •^Paul Hazard, "Les Enseignements d'un raanu- scrit inedit de Chateaubriand," Journal des Savants (Sept.-October, 1925). 222.

■^Letessier, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, p. lxii, note 1,

•^Maurice Levaillant, Chateaubriand, Mme Recamier et les Memoires d * outre-tombe. (Paris i Librairie Delagrave, 1939)•

4°Ibid., 17. 41 Chateaubriand, Les Aventure3 du dernier Abencerage in Oeuvres completes, XVI (Parisi chez Ladvocat, 182671 42 cited in Letessier, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, p. iii. ii*a , ^Hazard and Durry, ed., Le dernier Abencerage. p. xxv.

Letessier, ed., Le dernier Abencerage. p. iii.

^Marin, Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de M. de Chateaubriand, p. 293. 45 % Lettres de Chateaubriand a la comtesse de Castellane (Paris> Plon. 1927). n. 155. cited in Letessier, Le dernier Abencerage, p. lxiii. "Chactas a Fans" rei'ers to Chateaubriand's epic novel Les Natchez. ^Ibid. 48 Hazard and Durry, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, p. xxvii,

^ F . Schneegans, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage (Strasbourg* J.H. Ed. Heitz, Imprimeur, editeur, 1925).

-^Hazard and Durry, ed., Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage.

^The manuscript is 25 x 20 centimetres in size. Chateaubriand had given it to Madame de Duras but it now belongs to the collection of Louis de Blacas. See Hazard and Durry, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, p. xxxiv, for further details on the appearance of the 44 manuscript itself.

^2Ibid., xxxv.

■^Jean Cazenave, "Le Roman hispano-mauresque en Prance," Revue de litterature comparee (Parisi Champion, 1925), p. 627.

-^Albert Bede, "Compte rendu de 1*edition de Hazard-Durry," Revue de litterature comparee. (1927), 587. ^Emile Henriot, "Chateaubriand et le dernier Abencerage, Le Temps, (15 juin, 1926), p. 2.

^Marcel Duchemin, Chateaubriand. p. 272,

■5?Bernard Gagnebin, "Un fragment inedit du dernier Abencerage." Bulletin de la Societe Chateau­ briand , XI-XII" (1968-69)', 57.

^See infra for a discussion of Chateaubriand's Bources.

-^Le comte de Marcellus, Chateaubriand et son Temos,• (Paris 1 Michel Levy freres, 1859),

Maurice Regard, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage.

Chateaubriand, Atala. Rene, Le dernier Abencerage, (Parisi Livres de poche, 1971)* 62 Jack D. Street, "The Style of Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage of Chateaubriand,"; see.also Jack D. Street, "A Statistical Study of the vocabulary of Chateaubriand's Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage," The French Review. XLIII *(no. *1, October 1969) , pp. 42- ^•5. What Mr. Street did was to arrange the nouvelle in alphabetical order. Regrettably, this important list was never published.

^^Madame de Boigne, Recits d 'une Tante. Memoires de la comtesse de Boigne, nee Osmond. I (Paris 1 Emile-Paul, 1921-25), 26Z\ 64 Madame la comtesse Jean de Pange, "Chateaubriand S. Mereville," Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand, I (1931). pp. 21. “ ^Marin, Histoire de la Vie et des ouvrages do M. de Chateaubriand, 293- 9 ^ 66 Balzac, Pierrette , in La Comedie hum aine. Ill (Paris* Gallimard |_Bibliotheque*”de'~la”Pleiadej» 1965.

^Renan, L ’Ayenir de la Science in Oeuvres comple t es, III (Farist Calmann-Levy editeurs, 194-9)» p. 882. 68 Sainte-Beuve, Chateaubriand et son groupe litteraire sous 1 *Empire, II (Parist Garnier freres, i 9 W ; p. 7*57

69Ibid., p. 7^-5 . 70 ' Alexandre Vinet, Etudes sur la litterature francaise au dix-neuvieme siecle, I~ (Paris 1 che z les edlteurs, rue die RivoliTT P» 174-.

Villemain, La Tribune moderne. I (Paris 1 Michel Levy freres) p. 157. Baudelaire was to later call Villemain’s work "le compte rendu des Memoires d ’outre-tombe assaisonne de haine et de raediocrlte, un Sahara d'ennui, avec des oasis d'horreur qui sont les explosions de son odieux caractere." 72 ' Levaillant and Moulinier, ed., Les Memoires d 1outre-tombe, II, 838.

"^Albert Bede, "Le dernier Abencerage en Italie, Revue de litterature comoaree. (juillet-septembre, 1926) 504-507. 74- Hazard and Durry, Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, xxviii.

^Letessier, A tala, p, 6 . 76 Gagnebin, "Un fragment inedit du dernier Abencerage." 77 f rMarin, Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de M. de Chateaubriand, p. 307. ijQ Charles Benoit, Chateaubriand, sa vie et ses oejavresj etude litteraire et morale (Paris 1 Didier et Cie., I865), p. lB2~ 46

79 Francis Gribble, Chateaubriand and his Court of V/omen, (London* Chapman and Hall Limited, 1909)» p. 154T~

Q q Jean Cazenave, "Le Roman hispano-mauresque en France," 2?. 8 1 Chaplyn, Le Roman mauresque en France de "Zayde" au "dernier Abencerage.", p. 150.

g o Henri le Savoureux, Chateaubriand (Paris» Les Editions Rieder, 1930), p. 76.

®^0lga Longi, La Terre et les Worts dans L 1 oeuvre de Chateaubriand, (Baltimorei The Johns Hopkins Press, 193*0', p. H O . 84 Pierre Moreau, Chateaubriandt l'homme et la vie, le genie et les livres" (Pari si Garni er freres," 1927), p. 129.

^^Pierre Moreau, Chateaubriand, (Paris* Hatier [[Collection "Connaissance des Lettres"J» 1956), p. 188, 86 Pierre Moreau, Chateaubriand, (Paris* Desclee de Brouwer, [Collection "Les Ecrivains devant Dieu] 1965), p. 51. -

®^Cazenave, "Le Roman hispano-mauresque en France," p. 637. 88 Marjorie Chaplyn, Le Roman mauresque en France de "Zayde" au "dernier Abencerage." t>. 149. 89 7F. Ed. Schneegans, ed., Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage (Strasbourg* J.H. Heitz, 1925), p. 205. 90 Victor Giraud, Le Christiansime de Chateau­ briand, II (Paris* Librairie Hachette, 1925), p. 205, 91 Hazard and Durry, ed., Le dernier Abencerage, p, xiii-xvii. 92 Emile Henriot, "Chateaubriand et Le dernier Abencerage," Le Temps. (15 juin 1926), p. 2. 93 -Btinglhamber, "Chateaubriand & Grenade," p. 560. k?

^ L e deuxieme paysan de la Vallee-aux-loups, "Autour d'un clair de lune," Le Divan (no, 16, 1928), p. 59.

^ H e n r i Le Savoureux, Chateaubriand (Paris 1 Rieder, 1930). p. 38. ^Moreau, Chateaubriand, p. 1?2.

^Chateaubri-nd, Le Genie du Christianisme, ed. by Pierre Reboul, II r( Paris: Garnier-Plajnmarion, 1966), p. 3 .

^®See Appendix I for further details on this extremely large topic.

^F o r further details on Mathalie de Noailles, see La comtesse d'Andlau, Chateaubriand et 11 Les Martyrs11 naissance d'une epopee. (Paris: J. Corti, 1952).

Nathalie-Luce-Leontine-Josephine de Laborde was born on August 11, 177^. daughter of Jean-Joseph. In 1790, at age 16, she married the comte de Noailles and promptly had a daughter Leontine. She stayed behind in Paris when her husband left a few years later to join the emigre nobles in London. She was arrested and impnsonned but eventually freed and proceeded to join her husband in England. On the way there, she almost saw Leontine drown as she slipped from her nurse's hands as they were disembarking from the boat at Dover. Arriving in London, Nathalie found her husband rivaling the Prince of Wales for the affections of a certain Mrs. Pitzherbert. Her husband removed her to a cottage in Norfolk, telling Charles de Vintimille that he did not expect unswerving fidelity from his v/ife and that he would furthermore be quite obliged to his friend Charles if he would see his way clearly to seducing Nathalie. The friend managed to do so but Nathalie, who in her loveless marriage had resolved to remain faithful, forced the friend to reveal the comte de Noaille's plot. The shock was immense and consequently, Nathalie became involved with a succession of lovers. It is suspected that Chateaubriand was introduced to her in 1804 by Madame de Vintimille but little more is known about their relationship at that time. Although far from being the only woman in Chateaubriand's life, she did hold a prominent position. Hortense d'Allart wasto write to Sainte-Beuvet "La seule femme qu'il ait vraiment aimee, c'est la duchesse de M(ouchy). 48

[Nathalie's father had become due de Mouchy], Their affair ended in 1813 as Chateaubriand was to write to Madame de Duras* "Hier j'ai regu un conge en forme et je l'ai accepte car enfin, il y a un terme touts je ne sais si je serai rappelej mais ce qu'il y a de certain, e'est que j'en ai par dessus la tete,11

^00Thomas, ed., Correspondance. I, p. 353* Sieburg f Chateaubriand (Stuttgarti Deutsche Verlags- Anstalt,. 1959) P* 241J finds this comment extremely cruel for it emphasized to Madame de Duras that their relationship was only a brother-sister one and that she would never hold the position of a Nathalie de Noailles in his life.

Beatrix, comtesse d'Andlau, Chateaubriand et "Les Martyrs.", p. 102, CHAPTER II

THE HERO'S CIRCULAR UNIVERSE

Chateaubriand's universe is both a forbidding and a compelling one, creating both terror and desire within the individual in it. It comprises both the natural landscapes whose descriptions form an integral part of the nouvelle and the metaphysical landscape of man's emotions, aspirations and disappointments. It is a world in which the individual is both the centre and the circumference. It is a world governed by the obses­ sive image of the circle, ever-constraining and yet ever elusive. It is a world full of horizontal circles, interdependent upon the relentless motion of its vertical circles. The influence of the latter upon the former determines man's place in this universe.

Horizontal Circles

On the horizontal plane, the circles are concentric in nature. An object can be simultaneously the centre of one circle and the circumference of a smaller one. There are three basic centres to the horizontal circles in Les Aventures du dernier Abence­ rage t Granada, Aben-Hamet and God. It is thus readily

^9 obvious that this imagery applies not only to the geographical aspect of the nouvelle but to the human and spiritual ones as well.

Physically, Granada is very much associated with the image of the circle. Words and expressions such as entoure de, au milieu de and autour de recur with high frequency in Chateaubriand's description of the city.

Granada itself has the shape of a split pomegranate (a bisected circle) or, more precisely, is built on two hills with a deep valley between them, each hill obviously being a circle. Granada is dominated by a plain, la Vega, which is "entourd par des montagnes"* and which is in turn one of several circles surroun­ ding Granada. The valley of the Darro is closed in on one end by the bell-towers of the city which themselves p rise "au milieu des chenes verts et des cypres" and on the other end by the Sierra Nevada. Running down the middle of the valley is the Darro River itself.

More importantly, however, Granada is viewed as the spiritual centre of the universe depicted in this nouvelle. Called the "ville sacree"^ it is attributed all the features of a terrestrial paradise and is endowed with life-sustaining qualities. In the midst of palm tree forests is this region of indescribable lushness, blessed with fig trees, orange trees and pomegranate trees, an area whose atmosphere brings

languor to the soul of the passer-by. Once banished from Granada, the Abencdrages die out quickly and in only fourteen years, Aben-Hamet has become the last of his race.

It is significant that in leaving Granada, the Moors

. . A *'se disperserent en A f n q u e . ” The image is that of a wheel, Granada being the hub. The Moors scrambled along the spokes to the security of the rim where they could dwell in relative obscurity, some in Fez, others along the African coast between Algiers and Oran and the

Abencerages in Tunis. This image of banishment and scattering away from Eden is repeated in Aben-Hamet*s vision in Granada as he pictures his ancestors revelling and subsequently surprised by their enemies, "qui comme des convives, dans le desordre de leur parure, sont tout h coup chasses de la salle du festin par un incendie."^

Granada's spiritual forces are probably best sub­ stantiated by its replacing of Mecca as the spiritual centre of the universe. All of the Moors, banished to the figurative rim of a wheel, would still look to

Granada for guidancei "Tous les cinq jours, on priait dans la mosquee en se tournant vers Grenade.” It is also significant that Aben-Hamet and his guide should circle Granada before actually entering it. Assuming 52

that Chateaubriand had indeed seen Granada, he would

have known that Aben-Hamet could only have reached his

kan by circling the city, according to the route des­

cribed.^ This circle, whether a conscious or unconscious

product of the author's imagination, again serves to set

Granada off from the rest of the universe.

Although Granada is referred to as a paradise ("le O paradis de Grenade vivait toujours dans leur memoire" ),

it lacks the essential edenesque quality of permanence.

The individual is not permitted to remain within the

city. Rather, the city represents the sum total of man's aspirations. Placed at the centre of the universe,

it is the embodiment of nostalgia and perfection; yet,

its fruit is not available to man for any prolonged period of time. The hero dies, banished from the City.

Chateaubriand consequently successfully combines a precise and concrete visual picture of Granada with a

symbolically circular representation of the esthetic and spiritual essence of the city.

The second centre of horizontal circle images is the hero Aben-Hamet, around whom four distinct circles form. The centre of these circles is, more precisely, the self, for consciousness of the self will take on an exceptional intensity as it does for much of the romantic literature of this period. Aben-Hamet himself 53 places his self in the centre of a circle image in his self-description to dona Blancat

Je me disais autrefoisi L'eau de la mer qui dort & l'abri dans le creux du rocher est tranquille et muette, tandis que tout aupres la grande mer est agitee et bruyante. Aben-Hamet, ainsi sera ta vie, silencieuse, paisible, ignoree dans un coin de terre inconnu, tandis que la cour du sultan est bouleversee par les orages. Je me disais cela, jeune Chretienne, et tu m'as prouve que la tempete peut aussi troubler la goutte d'eau dans le creux du rocher.9

As in Rene, the movement of water is related to human passions. This image will be extended throughout the work. In a variant, Aben-Hamet is seen drinking water from a fountain, served up to him "dans le creux de ses [_Blanca'sj deux mains unies."*^

This image of the "creux du rocher" dominates all of the circle imagery surrounding Aben-Hamet. It is significant that when he dies, he is buried in a grave whose tombstone has a small hollow carved in it, containing a drop of water. Aben-Hamet, the hero in

Chateaubriand's universe, shall always remain composed while astride the circumference of circles but the closer he gets to the centre of the circles that surround him, the more his emotional response to a situation intensifies. This state is always temporary, however, for like the drop of water in his tombstone, he ends his days tranquilly just as his ancestors finished by leading peaceful lives in Africa. 5^

There are four well-defined sets of circles in this

nouvelle of which Aben-?famet is the centret Granada,

don Rodrigue's home, the Alhambra and the Generalife.

Each of these circles surrounding the hero is an exten­

sion of the image of the drop of water in the rock.

The first of these circles is Granada itself, for

as well as being the spiritual centre of this particular

universe, the city is also a well-defined circle in its

own right. Aben-Hamet's guide leads him to a kan in a

square "qu1environnaient de toutes parts des maisons 11 d 1architecture moresque." He is a stranger here, just as the previous night he had been morally alone in the 12 ventai "... au milieu des etrangers." Although

surrounded by the memories of his forefathers, he is a

stranger here and like the water in the rock, becomes

troubled and is compelled to wander about the city which

envelops him in its silence.

The second set of horizontal circles surrounding the hero are found at don Rodrigue's home in the

country. It is significant that to find it, Aben-Hamet had to spiral up to it, thus displaying once again

Chateaubriand's obsession with circle imagesi "en marchant a l'aventure, il suivit une allee d ’arbres qui circulait sur la pente du coteau de 1'Albaizyn.The * 1 home itself is surrounded by a grove of orange trees and a myrtle hedge. Aben-Hamet, arriving at the circum­

ference , leaps into the centre where he is automatically

surrounded not only by the orange trees and the hedge

but also by young girls* "... et tombe au milieu d'une

troupe de jeunes femmes effrayees qui fuient en poussant

des cris."^ This is yet another example of an image of

a scattering away from the centre of a circle to the

circumference, an extension of the image of ripples in

troubled water such as that found in the hollow of a

rock. Furthermore, don Rodrigue invites Aben-Hamet to l6 sit down “au m ilieu des jeunes femmes" where he t immediately becomes the centre of attention. Therefore,

just as it has been demonstrated that the Moors had been expelled from Granada to the rim of an imaginary

circle around it, from where they would turn towards

the centre to pray, so here too the young girls flee

towards the rim of another imaginary circle only to stop and sit around him and look towards Aben-Hamet in the

centre and ask him questions.

The third and most important series of horizontal

circle images surrounding Aben-Hamet is that of the

Alhambra. His trip to the Alhambra is a journey through a series of concentric circlesj the closer he gets to the centre, the less restless he becomes physically but the more he responds emotionally. The initial arrival at 56 the Alhambra represents a flurry of physical activityt

Aben-Hamet’s robe flies out behind him, his sword bangs against the saddle of his horse and the wind whistles through his turban. Yet, as he arrives at the enceinte exterieure of the Alhambra (word enceinte implies a circle) and proceeds through it to the enceinte interieure, the hero's physical activity slows downj he no longer rides but wallts, penetrating through a deserted doorway into the Alhambra itself. Retraite and cloitre also imply an encirclement by the area. Also prominent are words implying circular movement or statei "Ils firent 17 le tour de la salle des Mesucar" '* "au milieu des 1 ff parfums des fleurs..." It is significant that orange trees should once again be found in the centre of the

Alhambra, for these trees, of which the fruit itself is circular in shape, help tie the various circle images seen so far together.

The Alhambra, as a horizontal circle image, is also closely related to the hollow rock image applied to

Aben-Hamet. Just as water can lie peacefully in the shelter of the hollow, while the sea around it is turbu­ lent, so also does Aben-Hamet feel that* "Ces lieux sont faits pour servir de retraite au bonheur."^

The emotional centre of the Alhambra is the Hall of the Abencerages, described as "le sanctuaire meme du 20 temple de 1'amour." Surrounded by and afforded the 5? full protection of numerous concentric circles, the

hero's emotions reach a climax and Aben-Hamet and dona

Blanca reveal their mutual love to each other. It might

be significant that this high point in the development

of their love is juxtaposed with the highly sexual image

of a fountain in the middle of the room spewing streams

of water.

It is noteworthy that it is in the circular enclo­

sure of the Alhambra that emotions attain their full

development before being reduced to a conflict of

ideologies. The word amant is first used in the nouvelle

as the hero and heroine enter the palacei "ces deux

amants entrerent dans ce sejour de la puissance

> 21 evanouie." The ennobling quality of the Alhambra is

later evident as "ces nobles amants sortirent de ce 22 dangereux palais."

It is interesting that the word retraite. used seven

times in the entire nouvelle. has five applications to

the Alhambra. Furthermore, the word has equal relevance

for Aben-Hamet's ancestors as well as for himself.

Whereas for the hero it is love that reaches its climax

here, his forefathers found equal emotional response

within the confines of the palace wallst "... retraite mysterieuse ou les rois maures goGtaient tous les plai-

sirs, et oubliaient tous les devoirs de la v i e . " ^ In 58 a variant, the description was even stronger* "retraite

oh le plaisir et la cruaute cohabitaient ensemble•" It would appear that Chateaubriand was quite conscious of the effect he desired for the Alhambra, one of harboring and revealing the most intense and selfish of passions.

This is substantiated by the epithet dangereux as applied in the example above.

Whereas the circles of the Alhambra represent the zenith of the hero's emotional development, the fourth series of horizontal circle images surrounding Aben-

Hamet foreshadow his emotional defeat and physical banishment from this terrestrial paradise* these are the circles of the Generalife near the Alhambra. Aben-

Hamet, impatient to tell dona Blanca of his decision to convert, bursts in upon Lautrec's reception at the

Generalife to find his beloved, The ensuing events at the Generalife are divided into three distinct scenes, each of which sees Aben-Hamet in the centre of a hostile circle foreshadowing his eventual downfall.

The first scene occurs in the Salle des Chevaliers where Aben-Hamet is received by Lautrec and finds himself surrounded by portraits of the princes and knights who had defeated the Moors, 1'he hero stoically accepts this situation, shutting the pain up within him. In the sub­ sequent scene, both Aben-Hamet*s song and his story come 59 between those of Lautrec and don Carlos, thus again surrounding the hero by reminders of those who had once represented defeat to his ancestors.

In the final scene, Aben-Hamet is again in the centre of a circle, this time surrounded by don Carlos,

Lautrec and dona Blanca, just as in the first scene he had been surrounded by portraits of the Spanish conque­ rors. If the portraits were hung victoriously above

Boabdil's sword, so then does Aben-Hamet's head hang over his chest as the three forming a circle around him shoot suddenly out of their chairs raising their hands towards heaven. Although it was the hero's inner turmoil that precipitated his arrival at the Generalife, he is slowly finding inner tranquillity in the center of these circles and in his subsequent defeat. Just as the drop of water in the hollow rock can be stirred up, it can also even­ tually be calmed, for Aben-Hamet has once again regained his composure in spite of the vast confusion around him.

Just as the Alhambra had been a symbol of unbridled emotions not only to Aben-Hamet but to his ancestors aB well, so does the Generalife represent defeat to both the hero and his forefathers. It was here, according to Aben-Hamet's guide, that the Abencerage and the

Sultan's wife were surprised in the garden of myrtle.

Just as this led to the banishment of the Moors from 60

Granada, so then do the portraits surrounding the hero foreshadow his expulsion from the same sacred city.

It is readily apparent that whenever Aben-Hamet is in the centre of one of the four series of horizontal circles described above, there will be a major emotional upheaval. Circles obviously govern Aben-Hamet, the individual's, actions in this universe. Furthermore, his whole existence is governed by one final circle.

When asked for proof of his lineage by don Carlos at the end of the nouvelle, Aben-Hamet produces a ring suspended from his neck by a gold chain. Thus, his whole being is summarized and symbolized by a small hereditary circle worn by the Abencerages, of whom he is the sole survivor.

The third major centre of a horizontal circle in this universe is God himself. Aben-Hamet is struck by the fact that the Christian God is placed in the centre of the Church, both figuratively and spirituallyi

"I*image du Dieu vivant placee au milieu des voiles de dentelles, des couronnes ... est adoree d'un peuple & 2 L demi nu." There is no theological discussion in this nouvelle on the place or role of God in the universe.

Rather, the problem here is one of religious cults, and a clear distinction is made between the Christian, or more precisely, the Roman Catholic God, and the Muslim 61

God Allah, The Christian God is automatically placed

in the centre of the Church and by virtue of the fact

that his image is surrounded by man's most precious material possessions, in the centre of men's lives.

There are no chairs in the centre of the vaste enceinte

(circle image) but rather a single navd de marbre serves

both noble and common people alike 30 as not to detract from God's rightful place in the centre.

The Church itself is surrounded by a cemetery with a cloister around it, Aben-Hamet never appears in the

centre of these circles in deference to the obviously

superior powers of the Christian God, Blanca comes here not to seek her lover but to seek refuge and answers to her religious dilemna. Through Blanca, the three major

centres of horizontal circles are superimposed inside the Churchi she prays to God, in Granada, for her beloved Aben-Hamet.

Aben-Hamet is not able to replace God in the centre of this circle but must remain on the circumference, for the Christian God is depicted as the most powerful in the universe, "plus puissant que ton amante."2^ If the

Moors turned towards Granada to pray, it is significant that the Christians in Granada turn to God's image in the Church to pray. Thus, God is seen to be a stronger force in this world than any other described. 62

These three sets of horizontal circle images, concentric upon Granada, Aben-Hamet and God, have a common denominator* Chateaubriand's obsession with forms and shapes. Although known for his descriptive techniques, the author never describes the walls or circumferences of these circles but concentrates rather on the geo­ metric shapes and silhouettes involved. Mountains, for example, never constitute the centre of a tableau in a

Chateaubriand novel but are situated in the background, as the author seems to be fascinated by the contour of 26 * their summits against the skyi "elle est entouree par des montagnes d ’une forme et d'une couleur adrai- 27 rabies," * Similarly the author describes* 1'autre extremite, l'oeil rencontrait our des pointes de rochers, des couvents, des ermitages,,, et dans le lointain les 28 sommets de la Sierra Nevada," In the same description, the other extremity offers a view of the bell-towers of

Granada reaching upwards, but again affords no elabora­ tion other than that of form.

Similarly, the circular boundaries surrounding

Aben-Hamet are merely a rove of orange trees, an outer wall of the Alhambra, portraits of princes and knights, or don Carlos, lautrec and dona Blanca sitting in a circle around him. There is no further description other than the simple statement of what these various bounda- 6 3 ries are.

^■'he emphasis is then obviously on the object*s symbolic value as a boundary of a circle rather than on any inherent descriptive quality normally attributed to it. Attention should be focused on the area enclosed rather than on the walls around it. Little attention is paid to a description of the Alhambra's walls but rather emphasis is placed on the rarefied atmosphere within. The palace is rarely referred to by the same epithet twice. The five uses of retraite in reference to the Alhambra are modified differently each timei abandonnee, embaumee, au bonheur. mystdrieuse and oh le plaisir et la cruaute cohabitaient. Similarly, when referred to as a palace it is des mysteres, des genies. magiaue. de son enchanteresse. dangereux. etc. The function of the walls or circumferences, then, is to situate the hero within this well-defined area and to restrict the reader's perspective to a limited range at any given time.

Vertical Circles

The nature and function of vertical circles, although closely related to the above-mentioned hori­ zontal circles, tend to be in less direct contact with the hero. The basic circle image is that of the movement 6k of the sun and moon around the earth, the themes of day and night. Although astronomically incorrect, the con­ stant motion of the sun and moon in the sky around the earth bears an important influence upon the fortunes of the Chateaubriand hero. It will be seen that the move­ ment of this circle has a direct relationship to the movements of the individual within the horizontal circles already described.

This solar-lunar circle is in constant motion.

There are many images of the sun going down while the moon rises. It is significant that this motion of sun and moon never reverses! there are no images of the moon going down and the sun rising. Furthermore, there is only one occasion in the nouvelle where daybreak has come and then is merelyi "le jour le surprit."2^

Rather, Chateaubriand is concerned with sunsets and although their beautiful descriptions are noticeably absent in this work,.their importance is paramount. This downward motion of the sun implies a darkening, a quie­ ting, a form of death, peaceful and gradual.

Daytime, that time of day when only the sun is visible in the sky, is a period of confusion and rest­ lessness for the Chateaubriand hero. Although Aben-Hamet used to visit don Rodrigue*s home during the daytime, he and dona Blanca never revealed their feelings on those occasions. The sun merely provides a spectacle during the daytime, although it is conceded that the sun over the Pays des Lotonhages is hardly as beautiful as the one over Granada. In general, daytime sees Aben-Hamet out of his horizontal circles described above. The evening, however, with its downward motion of the sun and upward motion of the moon, compels the Abencerage to gravitate towards the centre of these circles, for the setting sun leads to a decision-making process, culminated by nightime in which emotions fluorish.

Twilight is announced by the setting of the sun and announces the death of day rather than the birth of nighti "... je boirais ce rayon de soleil qui vient d'expirer sur teB levres."^0 As the sun descends to­ wards the horizon on the vertical plane, Aben-Hamet moves from the circumference towards the centre of one of the horizontal circles. As this occurs, a change can be predicted for the fortunes of the hero. This is a period of day that Aben-Hamet and dona Blanca waited for to declare their love ("ils n'attendaient que le moment"). Similarly, it is at twilight that Aben-Hamet goes to the converted mosque ("prilre qui annongait la fin du jour"^) to contemplate the beauties of the

Christian religion. Likewise, again, it is at the end of day that he goes to the Generalife to announce his intention to adopt dona Blanca's faith. On each occa­ 66 sion, it is evident that this is a time of day of highly charged emotions. As the sun moves down, the hero moves towards the centre of a circle, his physical turmoil be­ gins to subside and his inner feelings, previously not very much apparent, begin to surge.

As the moon rises in the vertical circle around the earth, the hero becomes locked within the horizontal circle that he had entered during the twilight hours.

It is a time when he is at peacei the major decisions are made and the hero becomes more expansive. Conse­ quently, nightirae is charged with a positivity that is lacking when the sun stands high in this circle.

Nightime approaches rapidly, without description*

"Le soleil etait descendu sous l'horizon ... la lune en se levant . Similarly, HLa nuit vint* on apporta des flambeauxi la conversation changea de cours,"-^

It is apparent that Chateaubriand prefers the light of the moon to the light of the sun. Unlike some of his other works of fiction in which the moon normally casts a rosy hue on the world below, there is a high propor­ tion of whites and silvers in this nouvelle. Whereas the light of the sun is important primarily because of its relation to colour, the light of the moon is distinc­ tive because of its relation to form.^ Nightime is no longer a vehicle for the author's celebrated tableaux 6? but takes on an importance as an agent controlling the hero’s emotions and thoughts.

The importance of nightime cannot be overstressed for as seen earlier, little or nothing happens during the dayi "Aben-Hamet attendit avec impatience le lendemain pour faire connaltre sa resolution & Blanca et changer une vie de tristesse et de larraes en une vie de joie et de bonheur, II ne put se rendre au palais du due de Santa-Fe que le soir."^® Out of his horizontal circle during the daytime, the hero must consciously await evening to re-enter his circle and execute his plans. Whereas the daytime sees the hero physically agitated and confused, actively awaiting nightime, the latter sees him calm and in control of the situation at hand. Twilight sees Aben-Hamet declare his love to dona

Blancai nightime sees him blissfully writing on the marble of the Salle dee deux soeurs. This is consistent with Chateaubriand's whole being for he writes in his

Memoires d 'outre-tombe»

Le^jour je trace des pages aussi agitees que les evenements de ce jour* la nuit, tandis que le roulement du canon lointain expire dans mes bois, je retourne au silence des annees qui dorment dans la tombe, h. la paix de mes plus jeunes souvenirs,39

Thus, while twilight belongs to decisions and events, nightime belongs to the emotions.

First and foremost of the emotions affected is love, 68

for love finds its plenitude when its recipients are in

the centre of the horizontal circles described earlier

and the moon is high in its vertical revolution around

the earth. It is at this moment that Aben-Hamet and

dona Blanca cristallize their love and the hero writes

his beloved's name on a slab of marble in the light of

the moon. They are no longer "deux araants" but "nobles

amants."

Chateaubriand never indulges in psychological

analyses of this love but rather conveys this increasing

passion with a subtle playing of his horizontal and

vertical circle images.- Each step in this growing love

is related to increasing images of night, a quasi-cine- matographic technique foreshadowing certain twentieth hO century novelsi

Je veux moi-meme ce soir vous servir de guide... Aben-Hamet, sautant legerement h. terre, offrit la main & Blanca pour descendre de sa mule ... l'azur du plus beau ciel se montrait entre des colonnes ... les deux amants entrerent dans ce sejour ... contemple l'astre du jour qui se couche ... 1 'amour penetrait dans son coeur de toutes parts ... Le soleil etait descendu sous 1 'horizon ... c*etait Blanca, c'etait une femme adoree ... la lune en se levant ..• Chretienne je suis ton esclave desole, musulmane je suis ton epoux glorieux.^1

Chateaubriand was ahead of his times, using a purely

visual technique to describe an abstraction such as

love.

In spite of the height of emotional response at night, it should be stressed that this is a temporary

state. Aben-Hamet will be obliged to leave the Genera-

life and Granada, just as he had to eventually leave the

Alhambra with dona Blanca, for nightime is not a per­ manent state. The hero must once again leave the centre

of his horizontal circle and prepare to accept the

coming day. Consequently, love is an ephemeral abstrac­

tion to be desired by day, enjoyed by night, but never

possessed and culminated.

The Circles of Solitude

The great denominator to both the horizontal

circles and the vertical circles is the theme of soli­

tude. These two types of circles used together empha­

size the futility of action in this universe, for man

is constantly enveloped in a blanket of solitude which

is simultaneously desired and feared. The hero, as

indicated earlier by Aben-Hamet himself, is but a drop

of water in a large ocean, Aben-Hamet has sufficient

individuality to be able to be noticed, stimulated and

even to incite others, but he ultimately accepts the

fact that as the nucleus of a large circle, he lacks

sufficient strength to maintain his momentum and is

unable to displace the circle of solitude around him.

The circles of solitude are emphasized in three waysi the themes of anonymity, absence and abandonment,

The first method is the use of anonymity in which the

stress falls upon the solitary object rather than upon

the void around him. Aben-Hamet is rarely, if ever,

referred to by name but by forms such as 1 * etranger and

Seigneur Maure. He is referred to as Hle Maure" forty-

two times, stressing his uniqueness in these all-Spanish

surroundings. The word Maure is never modified but used

either with Seigneur, the definite article or du, so that

the emphasis lies not upon his virtues as an independent

human being but rather upon his ancestry and consequently

his symbolic value. Similarly, he is referred to as a

stranger seven times even though he is back in his former

country. Furthermore, Chateaubriand repeatedly singles

out the exoticism of his dress, having other characters

in the nouvelle repeatedly notice his robes, turban and mannerisms. Even dona Blanca's dance, the Zambra, is

referred to as foreign, in keeping with the attitude

created towards the Moors in Spain,

Considered as Aben-Hamet, the hero is a human being

capable of direction and feeling. As le Maure he is the

symbol of the individual in Chateaubriand's unfriendly universe. He dwells alone, for the circle of Granada,

the circle of the Alhambra and the circle of dona Blanca,

Lautrec and don Carlos around him are but circles of solitude for him, temporarily relieved by the positivity

of night when his passions find free expression.

The second way in which the circles of solitude are

emphasized is the use of the theme of absence which is

itself expressed in two ways. The first way is the

stress given the theme of vastness in which attention is focused on the vacuum surrounding the hero. Most

obvious is the use of the word desert thirteen times as

either a noun or a verb. Aben-Hamet himself attributes this image to his own personi "je te cherchais comme ho l'Arabe cherche une source dans l'ardeur du Midi."

He later again repeats iti "se souvient-elle encore

d'un pauvre arabe qui ne cessa de 1*adorer sous le pal- - 4*3 mier du desert?" J Similarly, the word solitaire also underscores the absence of life from the courtyards of

the Alhambra, from the city of Granada at night and from the shores of Malaga as dona Blanca awaits the arrival of Aben-Hamet's ship. Thus, the hero is sur­ rounded by a void, by an emptiness over which he has no

control.

Secondly, the theme of absence is emphasized by the theme of minuteness, the opposite of the theme of vastness. Unlike the theme of anonymity, where the stress was merely on the solitary person or object, the focus here is on the very small detail which because of its extremely small size, makes the vastness around it

appear even larger and more forbidding, ^he image of

the astre solitaire in the night sky conjures up a

picture of vast blackness around the whiteness of the

moon. To Jean-Pierre Richard, these small centres act

as a point of reference for the vast desert. The minute

detail serves as a foil for the infinitely large and

provides an idea of the large desert's immensity in hh, comparison to the minutiai MLes voyageurs solitaires,

loin de repandre la vie sur le chemin, ne servaient qu'a

le faire paraitre plus triste et plus desert.By dint

of its position in the sentence, the word desert bears

the emphasis of the preceding statement. Consequently,

the hugeness of the desert serves in turn to emphasize

the smallness and insignificance of the individual in

this universe.

The existence of the very small also serves to

destroy a concept of the total abyss and total solitude

in the nouvelle. Chateaubriand deals not in absolutes

but in fragmented images. Aben-Hamet's peering into an

empty courtyard of the Alhambra eliminates a possible

void there and his eventual entry shall provide the

yardstick necessary to judge the extent of the loneli­ ness around him. There are no totally empty spaces in this work and consequently it is difficult to speak of 73 a theme of the void with any accuracy and justification.

Just as the circumferences of circles were shown to be expressed by forms and shapes rather than by precise description, so too are the concepts of solitude implied rather than stated. There are no descriptions of the desert or of the night sky, but rather, one is left with an impression rather than a picture of size.

There is an absence of colour other than the solid neu­ tral blanket of jaune inculte surrounding Granada and that of the white of the moon, for additional colour and detail would only detract from the desired effect of size and containment. The whole impression of absence is created by the juxtaposition of very large and very small objects.

Inherent in the theme of solitude is the theme of silence, for alone, the hero is surrounded by quiet and tranquillityi "Un silence profond regnait autour l±6 d'Aben-Hamet." Silence is broken only by the sounds of birds such as the rooster announcing the arrival of day in Granada and the nightingale at the Alhambra.

This is consistent with Chateaubriand's penchant for smallness indicated above, for the soft sounds of the birds serve to stress the almost total silence within the confines of these horizontal circles at night, and 7b consequently emphasize the hero's solitude. Aben-Hamet ends his life enveloped in silence. From the time that he discloses his identity at the Generalife ("Le silence r&gnei la crainte, l'espoir, la haine, 1*amour, /in l'etonnement, la jalousie agitent tous les coeurs." r), he stills his emotional activity and becomes a pilgrim and will eventually be buried in a silent and peaceful grave.

The third way in which the circles of solitude are emphasized is by the use of the theme of abandonment.

This obviously refers back to the horizontal circles surrounding Granada where it was observed that the Moors fled Granada as if along the spokes of a wheel. This theme sees people and things fleeing away from a common centre towards the circumference, leaving the figure at the centre of the circle in solitude. The principal word involved is abandonner. Aben-Hamet's mother does not die but rather abandons life, leaving the dernier

Abencerage alone. Conversely, neither Granada nor the

Alhambra seem abandoned any longer once dona Blanca is at the hero's side. Similarly, Chateaubriand favours the word obscur for it is used within the same context as abandonner. The family of the duke of Santa-Fe had been a prominent one, relegated to a few years of obscu­ rity. After a brief resurgence under the guidance of 75 don Rodrigue and of his son don Carlos, it once again

falls into obscurity, for one by one its members die without leaving heirs or memories behind them. Only

dona Blanca remains at the end, sitting in solitude on

a rock overlooking the Mediterranean.

This state of solitude, emphasized by the themes of

anonymity, absence and abandonment, suggests a state of

permanence, of suspended motion. The moon appears to be JlQ Msuspendu sur la cime de deux beaux palmiers." This

effacement of the progress of time is but an illusion,

for time does not stop in this universe* the solitude of

the individual, however, is permanent. Just as the

storms can periodically affect the calm of the drop of water in the rock, so then can the hero be buffeted by

external forces in this world. It is symbolic that the

Sultan's court has seethed with storms before its col­

lapse, that Aben-Hamet should brave storms while retur­ ning to Granada, that dona Blanca should wish to envelop herself in these storms and that furthermore, she should

even be referred to as a tourbillon while performing her dance. As the storm disturbs the calm of the water, so does dona Blanca agitate the emotions of the hero, but, as the water in the rock eventually subsides, so then is

Aben-Hamet*s turbulence also quelled with time and he is buried alone. Man is not destined to leave his shell of solitude in this universe. The hero is at first reluctant to accept his fate, having originally rejected dona blanca's L q pleai "reste obscur et vis pour moi," v His final ac­ ceptance of her command, "retourne au desert"-’0, however, leads to his ultimate defeat and relegation to permanent solitude.

These circles of solitude and silence are often portrayed as desirable and self-imposed. Lautrec nos­ talgically longs for his lac tranquil and Aben-Hamet himself expresses the desirability of his exile at the end of the nouvellei "mon absence fera renaltre la paix tf i parmi vous,"-' just as he later re-iteratest "c'est & moi de vous rendre le repos,"-' Whenever Aben-Hamet is about to pass from the circumference to the centre of a circle, he begins by standing "immobile et muet," just as the water in the hollow of the rock had been calm before the storm. Similarly, faced with the possibility of fighting for Charles V alongside of don Carlos, "Aben-

Hamet posa la main sur son sein, s'assit a terre sans repondre ... apres quelques minutes de silence Aben-Hamet se leva, s*inclina devant la fille de don Rodrigue et se retira.

Furthermore, the words desert and solitude are often found within the range of certain words such as charmant 77

triste, larmes, chevrette. caresser and adorer, all of which add an aura of tenderness to the hero's solitary

condition. The obvious implication is a philosophy of

semi-stoicism. The hero, refusing initial passive acceptance of his state, attempts to break loose but ultimately resigns himself to the circles of solitude around him. Aben-Hamet never returns to Granada after

Blanca's final request that he leave,

Interiorization

All of these various circle images examined so far, taken together, disagree with a fundamental conclusion of modern Chateaubriand criticism, that the author is obsessed with the need for exteriorization*

Car toujours il a senti ce don, ce besoin du dehors* pour atteindre il lui faut se quitter, se jeter en un lointain d'objets, d'hommes, de paysages h. travers lesquels seuls il peut, du moins le pense- t-il, realiser son tout, sa suffisance.5^

Rather the opposite is true. The circle images represent a constant desire to enter within rather than escape.

There are numerous images of people looking in. The outer limits of Granada are referred to as ces bords enchantes. Jean-Pierre Richard is quite right in ob­ serving a desire to flee towards edges, away from centres. Words such as rive and rivage are used in connection with words of great speed* s'elancer sur, voler vers are but two examples« This one-sided criti­

cism neglects, however, an even greater gravitation back

towards the centre. Aben-Hamet was born along the coast of Africa, within the outer limits of a circle around

Granada and immediately seeks to control its centre.

Temporarily relegated to the circumference upon the death of his mother, his only desire is to once again return to Granada. His ultimate exile reflects imposition and not desire.

Viewed in this light, the entire nouvelle can be considered an escape within and the terrain of Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage a vast desert whose centre is the human soul. This process of interiori­ zation is suggested by the circle images described above, but manifested even more directly by the themes of the secret, the abyss and by the author's fascination with the emotional nature of the heart and soul,

Interiorization is very obviously suggested by the theme of the secret, the desire to conceal. Although the hero himself is in a constant quest of the truth

("ne me cache point la verite"^), he himself does not reveal his identity until the very end for he finds security only within himselfi

Aben-Hamet se sentit pret ... h. lui declarer qu'il etait le dernier Abenceragei mais un reste de pru­ dence le retint» il craignit que son nom, trop fameux a Grenade, ne donnat des inquietudes au gouverneur.5o 79 Three times Aben-Hamet is faced with a choice of self-

revelation but refuses all but the last time and conse­

quently meets defeat.

This theme of concealment is substantiated by the

relatively frequent use of the words cacher (eight times),

secret (nine times), voile (eight times) and mystere

(four times). Similarly, Chateaubriand makes constant

use of the symbol of the veil. Dona Blanca either hides

behind her veil or replaces it by the clouds overlooking

the sea in which she hides. Similarly, the Alhambra is

also concealed in that grass which has grown over the

threshold leading inside and it is only once inside that

one can see its reduits secrets. It is only within the

confines of the walls of the Alhambra that Aben-Hamet

feels free to reveal part of his secrets (his love for

dona blanca).

The second way in which Chateaubriand conveys the

theme of interiorization is with the image of the abyss.

This occurs twice in the nouvelle. each time as some­

thing sought. All of the perils involved in her love

for Aben-Hamet do not make dona Blanca "reculer au bords *57 de I'abime" f but rather encourage her to seek the abyss as she shall likewise seek to brave the same storms that buffet the hero. Likewise, Aben-Hamet, equally troubled by the outcome of their love, is described as "plonge 80 dans un abime de reflexions,"'*® the word plonge impar­ ting an urge to enter within himself for refuge. To

Jean-Pierre Richard, this abyss is but a visual repre­ sentation of Chateaubriand's ennui. for he defines ennui as that abyss which lies between man's aspirations and capabilities. Yet, it seems that precisely the opposite is true, for the.hero attempts to bury himself in this abyss rather than to escape it, to penetrate right to its very centre as suggested by the word plonger. Taking his example from the lion of la Fontaine's fables, "il renferma sa douleur en lui-meme. This hardly suggests a need for exteriorization but for precisely its anti­ thesis.

The third way in which the author indicates an interest in interiorization is his use of and fascina­ tion for the heart and soul as the seats of emotion.

The soul is not considered metaphysically or religiously but rather as a symbol of man's being. Aben-Hamet despairs at the end of being surrounded by such "3mes sublimes," such as those of don Carlos, dona Blanca and

Thomas de Lautrec, representative of man's positive qualities. Similarly, Blanca's voice is once described 61 as having "1'accent d'une grande ame," again with a prestigious intent. The association of the soul and the theme of interiorization is clear in statements such asi 81

“La voix de Blanca, leg&rement voilee, avait cette sorte 62 d'accent qui remue les passions jusqu'au fond de l'tme."

Her voice penetrates within, just as she is later des­

cribed as being able to trouble the drop of water within

the hollow of the rock.

les Aventures du dernier Abencerage is essentially

one of emotion rather than reason. The soul represents

all of the positive, good emotions of man, generally filled with delices and passions (in the best sense of

the word) as well as with a mixture of sentiments doux

et amers. Moreover, the soul is not partially but totally filled with emotion for in Chateaubriand's universe, as represented in this work, there are no nuances in emotional response, only absolutes.

It is interesting that the soul, to the author

should seat the qualities normally attributed to the heart. The latter contains rather violent sensations and represents man's aggressive qualities. It is used in expressions such as "la haine brflle dans mon coeur"^ 6b and “chaque mot percait le coeur d'Aben-Hamet." The word coeur is usually within the range of words such as saisirent, penetrer. nourrir and battre avec violence. many of which again imply a penetration within and thus substantiate the author's preoccupation with the theme of interiorization. 82

If, as suggested, the soul is considered the centre of a vast interior circle, then Chateaubriand implies an interesting superimposition of circle images as he con­ siders the replacement of one soul by another. Dona

Blanca tells Aben-Hamet, before entering the Church*

"j'oublie mon ame pour la tienne."^ Similarly, Aben-

Hamet considers the Christian God to be the MDieu des nobles imes,"^ and consequently a conversion would imply a trading of souls. Yet, the soul is never consi­ dered as a religious symbol. It is merely a container for a set of interior circles, an interior abyss reflec­ ting certain qualities of the hero's state of mind.

The image best reflecting the soul is that of the sea for although sky and sea have no formal importance in Chateaubriand's descriptions, it is the latter which always harmonizes with the protagonist's emotional state.

It is significant that the ocean viewed by Blanca bears far more resemblance to the Breton coast along the Atlan­ tic of Chateaubriand's youth than to the Mediterranean

Sea in question. The storms, clouds, gulls and foam are the same as those found in Atala, Rene and Le Genie du

Christianisme.^ The sea inspires a communion between it and the individual, who stares into it as if into his own soul. Chateaubriand himself described this abyss in his Genie du Christianisme asi Mcette immensite des mers qui serable nous donner une mesure confuse de la grandeur de notre lime." It is in this agitated, turbulent sea that Blanca finds solace as she awaits Aben-Hamet's return. It is towards this same sea that Aben-Hamet looks back nostalgically before proceeding to Granada upon his third arrival in Spain. Moreover, as in Rene, the work ends with dona Blanca sitting on a rock, overlooking the sea. Yet, there is a fundamental difference in that it is ho longer the hero but his loved one who is left in contemplation, for the hero has departed. Like Amelie, Blanca ends her days in apparent serenityi "un etranger l'aurait crue heu- reuse."^ As there are no indications that the sea is stormy, it seems safe to assume that the sea, calmer now, is reflecting the calmed soul of the heroine, dona

Blanca.

The question arises as to whether or not all of the various circle images described so far reflect an image of the prison. Certainly an argument could be made for this theory in that Aben-Hamet, the repre­ sentative of the individual in this universe, seems locked up in an interiorized prison of conscience and duty. Passions well up within him to an uncomfortable level* "toutes ces images, toutes ces pensees se ores- 70 saient dans l'Sme d ’Aben-Hamet,"f with a resulting 84 feeling of suffocation. Furthermore, "On sent que dans ce pays les tendres passions auraient promptement etouf- fe les passions heroiques.Moreover, there is an actual image of the prisoner in this nouvelle in the person of Lautrec, captured with Frangois Ier at Pavia and presently in the custody of don Carlos.

Nevertheless, it would appear that the theme of the prison does not apply to any large extent. It should be pointed out that lautrec is only a political prisoner.

He is free, if not encouraged, to marry don carlos' sister and is at liberty to move around freely and give a recep­ tion at the Generalife. Aben-Hamet is perhaps restricted by his sense of duty but has the option of accepting a duel with don Carlos at the end that would absolve him of his moral obligations. Consequently, one must reject the prison image for it is evident that containment within the various circles in the nouvelle is actively sought. It is Aben-Hamet's personal choice at the end to accept his exile. Aben-Hamet does not experience confinement within the Alhambra but security. Moreover, it should also be pointed out that the most beautiful scenes in the nouvelle take place in the open air.

Interiors are rarely seen except for the Salle des

Chevaliers at the end. Scenes in the Alhambra usually take place in open courtyards and the hero is always 85 conscious of the position of the sun and of the moon.

Lautrec best summarizes this quasi-prison theme

which would be more aptly described as a theme of restric 72 tion. He, like Aben-Hamet, is in exile. He is free

to move but his movements are controlled. Aben-Hamet

is free to enter and leave the horizontal circles, of

which he is a centre, but only at certain times of day.

He is free to move within these circles but not to act

or react upon others at will. Although Blanca can for­

get her soul for his, there is no indication that he

can do likewise. The circle of portraits surrounding

Aben-Hamet is not a prison image but merely a fore­

shadowing of the consequences awaiting those who attempt

to extend themselves beyond their permitted limits.

Thus, this theme of exile best sums up the state of

physical freedom of the hero in this universe. The

condition is one of moral restriction rather than phy­

sical confinement.

Taken in context of the hero facing the universe

around him, all of these various circle images form

part of Chateaubriand's concept of civilization as seen

in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. The universe is

depicted as having a molecular structure, whereby many molecules in the form of figurative circles act upon one

another, yet are held together by a common bond. The individual is but a drop of water in the ocean, an atom among the many making up the universe represented by the molecule. The individual is linked to other individuals but is controlled by a central governing body and conse­ quently lacks total freedom. Although he attempts to break out of his particular orbit, his efforts are thwarted and he can do no more than carry on within the confines of his own well-defined circles. Subsequent chapters shall define other facets of the hero's rela­ tionship to his world in an attempt to cristallize a complete definition of Chateaubriand's view of the universe. 87

NOTES - CHAPTER II

Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 262,

2Ibid,. p. 262,

3Ibid,, p, 262,

^Ibid,, p. 25^.

^Ibid,, p. 267.

6Ibid.. p. 255.

7Ibid., p, 265.# See footnote 2 for full discus­ sion of the details involved in Aben-Hamet*s intinerary,

8Ibid,. p. 255.

9Ibid.. p. 290.

10Ibid., p. 293.

11Ibid.. p, 265,

12Ibid,, p. 260.

13Ibid,, p. 272. 1/1 , Ibid., p, 262, Orange trees had been placed in the center of la Vega.^ This is therefore yet another example of an image being both the centre of one circle and the circumference of another

15Ibid., p. 272,

l6Ibid., p. 278,

17Ibid.. p. 285.

l8Ibid.. p, 283. 19Ibid.. p. 286,

20Ibid., p. 287. 88

21Ibid. . p. 285.

22Ibid., p. 293.

23Ibid., p. 284.

2/fIbid.t p. 310.

23Ibid., p. 294. o £L Thomas Capell Walker, "Chateaubriand's Natural Sceneryi A study of his descriptive Art." Johns Hopkins Studies in Romance Languages and Literatures, no. XXI, 69.

2^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 262.

28Ibid., p. 272.

29Ibid., p. 267.

3°Xbid., p. 371.

31Ibid.. p. 309.

33Ibid., p, 291.

36Ibid., p. 314.

3?Walker, "Chateaubriand's Natural Scenery," p. 65.

38Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage, p. 313*

39Chateaubriand, Memoires d'outre-tombe. p. 85. 4 0 Jean-Claude Berchet, "La Nuit et la sylphide," in Bicentennaire de Chateaubriand. (Paris 1 Minard, 1971)» p. 207,

Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 282-93•

**2Ibid.. p. 273.

43Ibid,, p. 294. 44 Richard, Paysage de Chateaubriand, p. 47*

^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage, p. 260. 89

Ibid., P* 266.

^ I b i d . , P» 326.

^8Ibid.. P« 372.

^9Ibid., P« 291. 00 CM 5°Ibid., P» •

51Ibid.. P« 308.

52Ibid.. P* 326.

53Ibid., P* 303. 3 Richard, Paysa

^Chateaubriand, CM ^ c \ ^ c 56Ibid., P« •

37Ibid.. P* 281.

38Ibid., P* 309.

39Ibid,. P. 314.

6°Ibid., P* 328.

61Ibid.. P- 326.

62Ibid., P. 280. - a - ^ 0 CM 63Ibid., P- •

62fIbid., P. 2 6 4 .

65Ibid., P- 312.

66Ibid.. P. 313. 7Rosa Vallese Ercolano, Le Th^me de la mer dans 1*oeuvre de Chateaubriand. (Milanoi Societa anonima editrice Dante Aligheri, 193*0» p» 127, 68 Maija Lehtonen, "Chateaubriand et le theme de la mer," Cahiers de 1 'Association Internationale des etudes franchises, no. 21, p, 202# 69 ^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p, 329.

7°Ibid., p. 267.

71Ibid., p. 262. 72 ' The theme of exile will be examined at much greater length in a subsequent chapter. CHAPTER III

THE QUESTi THE HERO IN THIS UNIVERSE

It is more than mere coincidence that all of the

works of fiction of Chateaubriand have a vivid preoc­

cupation with travel of one form or another. It was

seen in the previous chapter that the universe holds

the hero a form of quasi-prisoner, who attempts,

unsuccessfully, to liberate himself. This chapter will

concern itself with the manner in which he attempts to

do so. All of his actions take on the appearance of a voyage or quest, although the ultimate goal is not always clear either to the hero or to the reader.

* Consequently, the hero requires the assistance of a guide to lead him through this universe, to entice him and coax him, but whose forces never suffice to over­ come the exterior pressures exerted on the hero by his surroundings.

There are obvious personal influences of the author's life upon his hero in Les Aventures du dernier

Abencerage. Chapter One has indicated the extent to which scholars have attempted to link actions in the nouvelle with corresponding events in Chateaubriand's personal life, just as Aben-Hamet is a traveller coming

91 92 from the shores of Africa to Spain to see the object

of his love, so Chateaubriand was travelling to Spain to

see Nathalie de Noailles. If the premise is accepted

that this work was written around 1810, it is obvious

that the impressions of the author's own trip should

still have been vivid in his own mind. Similarly,

the preoccupation with guides that shall be demonstrated

in this chapter, can also be traced to personal influen­

ces, for Chateaubriand was always accompanied by guides, a natural accoutrement for any traveller of that period,

A perspective must be established, however, for although it is evident that certain features of the nouvelle can be directly related to the author's own actions, it is not always clear as to which of these have become more than mere superficialities and have actually become embedded into the author's approach to his writing. Certain influences in travel have actually penetrated the author's subconscious processes and begun to permeate all of his hero's actions.

The hero's actions as a Quest

There are four baoic types of quest represented in

Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage» the crusade, the pilgrimage, exile and adventure. Each of these considers the active participation of the hero in this universe 93 and in spite of certain similarities, embody fundamen­

tal differences.

The first form of quest is the crusade, for which

the author had already expressed a fascination in the

Genie du Christianisme.* and to which his own personal

trip to the Orient bore certain resemblances. This

crusade takes the form of Aben-Hamet's attempt to avenge

his forefathers for the wrongs done to them by the

Spanish conquerors. Jacques Vier, however, sees a

transformation of the crusade theme in this work as the

author produces a hybrid combination of crusade and trip,

keeping the benefits of the latter while acquiring the p prestige of the former. There is certainly a potential

conflict in the proposed duel between the Commandeur and

Aben-Hamet as the future of two mutually hostile reli­

gions lies in its outcome, but where else does a preux

excuse himself from a duel because of a recent wound?

The hero does not accomplish his crusade and the quest

is consequently incomplete. Vier concludes that this is

an elegant way for Chateaubriand to declare the period

of champions endedi “Chateaubriand choisit l'Espagne

pour y chanter le Requiem des Croisades."^

This conclusion could lead to interesting specula­

tion on Chateaubriand’s present position with regard to

Christianity. Although the author was a great champion 94 of Catholicism and although it would appear likely that

Christianity would triumph in the aforementioned duel, it is the Moor who embodies good sense and bears our sympathies. The possibility exists that this is an implied criticism of the author's ancestors' chosen form of defence for their religion.

At the end of the nouvelle, Aben-Hamet changes from his self-avowed crusade against the people who displaced his forefathers from Spain to the second and more peaceful form of quest, the pilgrimage. Bearing the same religious zeal, his quest is no longer one of vindication. The word pelerin is used four times in the nouvelle, each time referring to Aben-Hamet, but there is always a certain amount of confusion between pilgrimage and crusade. What is really the latter is sometimes referred to by the former. Although Aben-

Hamet's trip to Spain is twice described as a "peleri- nage au pays de ses aieux," this is deliberately mis­ leading, for the end discloses that his voyage was not merely one of devotion.

The term pilgrimage is properly applied on two occasions, however. The first refers to Aben-Hamet's trip to the Alhambra when he wishes to see that monu­ ment to his ancestors. It is significant that in true pilgrim fashion, he should dismount from his horse and 95 walk slowly through the sanctuary. The second occasion occurs at the end as Aben-Hamet accepts his final voca­ tion as a pilgrim and joins a caravan in Africa.

These first two types of quest, the crusade and the pilgrimage, are characterized by their having a purpose, praiseworthy or otherwise. They are more than gratui­ tous wanderings in hope of possible discovery.

The third type of voyage in which the hero is invol­ ved in this nouvelle is that of exile, with which the author was greatly involved personally. The work is referred to by Pierre Moreau as a roman d*exil. who labels Chateaubriandi

le po&te de l'exilt de l'exil de toutes les choses de la terre, de l'exil des Sraes qui cherchent leur patrie perdue, des homines, des animaux eux-memes.

The avertissement refers to the work as "l'ouvrage d'un homme qui a senti les chagrins de l'exil et dont le coeur est tout h. sa patrie.”^

Chateaubriand's own life has been marked by exiles, be it his exile in London during the French Revolution or his exile by Napoleon to La Vallee-aux-louos at the time that this nouvelle was written. Like the author,

Aben-Hamet too is a man alone, with a rather strong streak of independence, incapable of subordination to higher pressures or self-discipline. His acceptance of his exile at the end seems incongruous with his actions 96 to that point although it should be considered that the author was in exile himself at the time of writing.

It is significant that although the word exil is used nine times in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. only two occurences actually refer to Aben-Hamet who is really the one being considered. One in the avertissement refers to Chateaubriand, another to Saint Louis who died in exile and on whose tomb Aben-Hamet symbolically sits, and seven to the Moors, the illustres bannis.^ who had been relegated to Africa. Chateaubriand had on one occasion changed his manuscript from "chasse mes a£eux" to "exile mes aieux,"^ proving this preoccupation.

There are, according to Jean-Pierre Richard, two possibilities facing the hero in exile. The first is an active attempt to reinstate himself, and an acceptance of his exile. Chateaubriand's activist tendencies are reflected in Aben-Hamet's refusal to accept his people's passivity and in his desire to vindicate. The hero seeks to break the bonds holding him in Africa and regain the security of the horizontal circles surrounding Granada.

He is doomed to failure, however, in a worse state than his previous one, for although his temporary gains were substantial, he ultimately loses all and more. He is once again forced into exile.

The second possibility facing the hero in exile is that of accepting his state and dreaming of a utopia.

This is represented by Thomas de Lautrec who like Aben-

Hamet suffers an exile* MAben-Hamet qui comrae lautrec O deplorait la perte de sa patrie," with the fundamental difference that Lautrec's exile is imposed by virtue of the fact that he is a political prisoner. Lautrec is in many ways Aben-Hamet's alter ego. Both represent

Chateaubriand, the former representing the author's view of reality, the latter his aspirations. Lautrec accepts his exile and dreams perhaps of finding happi­ ness with dona Blanca. This possibility, like the first, is shattered by failure and loss.

This second possibility is also offered to Aben-

Hamet at the end but is refused. Carlos’invites him to remain with them but the hero despairs at being conquered by so much generosity and chooses exile.

Although this final exile is really self-imposed, exile in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage is associated with finality and regreti

En vain, le pays des Lotophages offrait aux exiles ses fruits, ses eaux, sa verdure, son brillant soleil* loin des Tours Vermeilles. il n'y avait ni fruits agreables, ni fontaines limpides, ni fralche verdure, ni soleil digne d'etre regarde. Si l'on montrait II quelque banni les plaines de la Bagrada, il secouait la tete et s'dcriait en soupiranti Grenade!"9

Furthermore, exile is associated to some extent with the 98 theme of death for the Abencerages left Granada with a 10 Mmortel regret" for their land of glory to die out as a race.

There is also every implication in this nouvelle that exile is a permanent condition in this universe and it is interesting that the author, not normally prone to self- discipline, portrays the Moors as living peacefully.

Each generation has its heroes who fight for certain ideals and freedoms but who finally accept banishment and submission to a certain rule. Aben-Hamet ultimately accepts the rSle of his forefathers and the hint is strong that the Bivar family will also lose its power and influence. Exile is the final voyage in the individual's life but unlike other trips, offers no possibility of return.

The fourth and final type of quest found in Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage is that of adventure as stated in the title. This is an all-encompassing term that describes to a certain extent the types of voyage made by the hero and, to a greater extent, their episo- I die characteristics. The word adventure implies that these various voyages or quests are but stages in Aben-

Hamet's life and that no permanent state will result from them, that different quests will occur later. 99

Aben-Hamet’s search for dona Blanca's residence is

described as "en marchant & 1'aventure,just as later,

the young ^Lrls accompanying dona Blanca question the

hero on his adventures. The word aventure reduces the

significance of isolated events such as the hero's roman­

tic involvement with Blanca, to episodes, portraying them

as mere stages in his youthful life. The nouvelle is

concerned with but one episode in the hero's life but

the plural aventures in the title implies that his life

either has been or will be filled with others.

This theme is supported by Aben-Hamet's fondness of

stories dealing with adventures. Don Rodrigue asks Aben-

Hamet to return often to amuse Blanca with such tales.

It is also stressed that Carlos' tale of adventure at

the end greatly excited the hero, just as Aben-Hamet had

greatly enjoyed relating stories of the Orient* "dont la

passion pour les histoires merveilleuses trahissait le 12 sang arabe."

The theme of the voyage is symbolized by the image

of the bird which represents the nomadic aspect of Aben-

Hamet's life* "Aben-Hamet reparut la troisi&rae annee,

comme ces oiseaux voyageurs que 1'amour ram&ne au prin-

temps dans nos climats."^ The bird also symbolizes the

philosophy that life goes on, for the last image of the work is that of a bird drinking a drop of water from a 100 hollow in Aben-Haraet's tombi the bird continues to fly in spite of the hero's passing. The bird represents

complete unbridled liberty and consequently there are frequent allusions to flight.

It is significant that the birds always seem to bring sky and water closer together, that the birds are never flying high but soaring in the sky, so close to earth as to practically touch the water* "Quand elle IJl voyait la mouette plaintive raser les flots •..M

"Te souvient-il du lac tranquil/ qu'effleurait l'hirondelle agile.The bird represents the hero's aspirations, to be able to shake the bonds imposed by his universe and fly freely it is not a desire for perfec­ tion but simply freedom of movement and consequently the bird flies close to the confines of the earthto which it belongs.

Birds also typify adventure. The bird'B pause for a drink at the end of the nouvelle symbolizes man's ac­ tions in this universe, for the events portrayed are but selections from the hero's many adventures. Likewise,

Aben-Hamet's mere existence is but one of many adventures considered in the light of mankind.

The Theme of Blindness

It is readily apparent that the hero is always in- 101

volved in some sort of travel or quest within the uni­

verse. In all of these peregrinations he gets lost and

confused and becomes incapable of proper navigation.

Thus, the theme of voyage is accompanied by a theme of

blindness or non-recognition. This is manifested by the

themes of the labyrinth, of mystery and of obscurity.

Although the hero can clearly see the outlines

of his universe, he is in a maze, a labyrinth, unable to

recognize his goal. The word labyrinth itself iB used

only oncei "il apercevait d'autres labyrinthes,but

the autres clearly implies the existence of other mazes.

This is reinforced by the uses of words such as errer.

serpenter. circuler and s'egarer. Life is a labyrinth,

represented figuratively by the Alhambra and Granada.

The Alhambra is made up of a maze of rooms in which Aben-

Hamet and dona Blanca keep making new discoveries and in

which they eventually find the way to the Hall of the

Abencerages, "le sanctuaire meme du temple de 1*amour."

The Alhambra is surrounded by walls through which one

keeps penetrating, following blindly a "chemin etroit 18 qui serpentait entre de hauts murs." The hero has to

follow a path to find happiness but the eventual out­

come of the path is not known ahead of time.

Similarly, the streets of Granada are but a maze. Aben-Hamet gets lost at night, and, in spite of 102 being led back by Blanca, cannot recognize those same streets the following morningi HQue de fois il a essaye de repasser par les chemins que lui fit parcourir son iq divin guide!” ^ To find her, he follows a path once again but as if in a maze does not know its ultimate out- comet "il suivit une allee d’arbres qui circulait sur la pente du coteau de l'Albaizyn.”20 Words such as rue. route. chemin. murs. murailles and portes all contribute to the feeling of blindness created by this maze.

The theme of the labyrinth is not to be confused with the theme of the prison examined in the previous chapter. As seen in the second chapter, events all take place in the open air. The courtyards of the Alhambra and the streets of Granada are all open to the sky and

Aben-Hamet is not physically prevented from walking around Granada. His problem is one of finding the pro­ per entrances and exits to his maze. The difficulty lies consequently in restriction rather than confinement.

A second manifestation of the theme of blind­ ness is the theme of mystery, closely allied to that of concealment or secret discussed in the previous chapter.

Things are kept unrevealed and words like cacher, secret. mvst&re. voile. inconnu and enveloppe are in relatively great abundance. Three occurences of voile, for example, refer to dona Blanca who is described as "enveloppe d'un 103 21 voile," and thus concealed as much as possible. On

another occasion, "on n'apercevait de tout son visage que 22 ses grands yeux et sa bouche de rose." Similarly, the

travellers encountered on the way to Granada are "envelop- pes dans un raanteau, et un large chapeau rabattu leur

couvrait k demi le visage.The result is a feeling of concealment and anonymity and Aben-Hamet is even more confused and lost.

Three of the nine occurences of inconnu refer to dona Blanca, "la belle inconnu." By the same token,

Aben-Hamet realizes that he too goes unrecognizedi "je veille inconnu, solitaire, d^laisse, k la porte du palais o Il de mes plres." He is 1*etranger, le Maure. and just as his paths are blocked by his inability to perceive, so then are others unclear as to the hero's actions or motives. He arouses no excitement in the kan upon his arrival and prefers to conceal his identity from the governor rather than to create consternation. It is only at the end of the nouvelle that the Spaniards realize who he is and that he understands that he is in the presence of his mortal enemies.

This fascination for the unknown is Bought by the hero. He explains that he had hope for happiness in an unknown corner of the world and is likewise fas­ cinated by Carlos* stories of faraway places. Whereas the hero has difficulty seeing clearly, he in turn de- 10^ lights in creating mysteries for others to solve. In the Hall of the two yiBters, he purposely writes an inscription in Arabic to provide yet another mystery for future travellers to puzzle over in what is already 26 referred to as the "palais des myst&res." Similarly, there are many automatic gestures of concealment at crucial moments. Horror, for example, is expressed by the theatrical hiding of one's facei "Lautrec cacha son 27 visage dans ses deux mains," ’ On being surrounded by the portraits of Spanish princes, Aben-Hamet reacts with equal horror 1 "AhI s'ecria le Maure en se couvrant le 28 visage d'un pan de sa robe..."

This theme of mystery is also accentuated by the closed aspect of doors and windows. All doors and win­ dows are shut in Granada, revealing no information about their inhabitants. Aben-Hamet merely speculates as to whether or not these are the palaces of his forefathers.

Similarly, the access to the Alhambra is marked by closed doors, one of which has added mystery by virtue of an arabic inscription engraved on it. It is also signifi­ cant that the porte abandonnee leading into the Alhambra has an almost totally concealed doorstep, hidden in the overgrown grass. It should be stressed, however, that theBe doors do not remain closed. There are more opening doors than closing ones in the nouvelle for like the 105

labyrinth, the hero is in a reluctant, restrictive universe, not a prison. These are merely designed to make the hero's quest as difficult as possible, not impossible. The doors eventually open to reveal "les 29 reduits secrets de 1 'Alhambra."

A third manifestation of the theme of blindness is the theme of obscurity, Dona Blanca is ignorant of

Aben-Hamet's past but is content to say* "reste obscur et vis pour moi."^° Similarly, Aben-Hamet enters the converted mosque in an attempt to understand dona Blanca's religion and significantly* "une sainte obscurite rdgnait 31 Il travers une multitude de colormes

Similarly, there are several instances of people seeing shadows rather than defined shapes. Dona Blanca thinks that she sees the shadow of the bel Abencerage accompanying her in the Alhambra, not realizing that this shadow and Aben-Hamet are virtually one and the same. Since their heritages are unknown to each other, it is significant that they too are walking in a "clarte douteuse,"-^2 consistent with the theme of mystery.

The Theme of Guides

Because of the hero's lack of perception, he is always in need of a guide. The author himself was pro­ bably still very much influenced by his own adventures, 106

such as his recent trip to the Orient in which he was

always accompanied by his manservant Julien, but it

appears that words such as guider, conduire, montrer and

accomnagner had penetrated right through into his sub­

conscious to the point that the hero is almost incapable

of unassisted action.

Conduire is used eleven times, six of which in­

volve the hero being led, either by the guide taking him

to Granada, Dorothee, dona Blanca, the wind or a path.

Even his final decision to leave is made by Blancai

"retourne au desert."-^ Similarly, the word accomoagner

used six times, shows an obsession for people being with

other people, whether don Carlos with Thomas de Lautrec,

Aben-Hamet with dona Blanca, Blanca with her duegne or

Aben-Hamet with the guide. The hero despairs when alone•

There are several types of guide in this nou­ velle i human beings, sounds and the heritage and con­

science of the hero. Of these, the human guides are the most obvious, the first being the guide who leads Aben-

Hamet to Granada. He iB known only as le, guide, without modifiers, and consequently serves no other purpose.

Aben-Hamet is incapable at this point of finding his way without him and despairsi "Qu'il est cruel d*avoir re- cours h. des etrangers pour apprendre A reconnaitre les 10? monuments de ses peres et de se faire raconter par des indifferents l'histoire de sa famille et de ses amis."-^

It is interesting that Aben-Hamet's being led to Granada should be juxtaposed with the image of a shepherd leading sheep, for at this moment, the guide is also figuratively leading a lost sheep back to the fold.

The second human guide in the nouvelle is Woman as represented by dona Blanca. She is in fact more than a mere physical guide and blends both the literal and poetic sense of the word as she leads the hero not only to the Alhambra but also towards, but not to, that which he is seeking, towards a sense of fulfillment.

Woman is always an object of greatest respect in this and every other work of Chateaubriand. He looks to her for love and a sense of direction but also beyond that for a sense of exaltation "qui le delivrerait pour un temps de son ennui fondamental et le plongerait dans un etat propice h son inspiration."-^ Dona Blanca fits this r6le. She represents not only all that is beauty, gentleness, love and devotion but more importantly serves to guide Aben-Hamet's emotions and sense of values.

As an object of beauty and love, she is the por­ trait in this nouvelle of the famous Chateaubriandesque sylphide, the female illusion representative of the author's ideals and aspirations,-^ She was never a real 108 person but an embodiment of qualities found in real women of Chateaubriand's acquaintance (in this case Nathalie de Noailles) and in his concept of perfect womanhood.

She is clearly the product of dreams and like dona Blanca, is never attainable. She can represent the goal of the hero's quest yet can also be the guide preventing the hero from reaching her, countering the virtues of illu­ sion with the harsh contact of reality. What she accom­ plishes temporarily is to inspire love, desire and self- confidence in the hero and to guide him to his proper place in the universe. Dona Blanca is the last in a line of sylphides. this being the author's last work of fiction.

It is noteworthy that she does not die, as do her pre­ decessors, but rather survives and mourns her departed hero. It is implied that she will die unhappily.

As would be expected, Woman in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage is characterized by words of softness and innocence, such as adoree, enchanteresse, ieune. credule and innocente. traditional words of femininity and consequently represents the perfect object of man's devotion. The word delice is used several times to express her reaction on the hero* "source inepuisable de d^lices,"3? just as Granada, the perfect centre of horizontal and vertical circles, has an "air delicieux."^®

Similarly, both perfect womanhood and perfect architec­ 109 tural beauty are referred to as legfere. Thus, objects of perfection are described by sensory adjectives and all beautiful things in this universe are somehow likened to dona Blanca. These qualities all contribute towards leading Aben-Hamet towards an ideal of perfec­ tion.

Dona Blanca is given perfect femininity by her association with the gazelle brought back by Aben-Hamet from Africa. Although never stated, both are described as leger and thus likened ("aussi leger que toi"^), both emanate delightful perfumed aromas, the former of bois d'aloes. the latter filling the Alhambra with per­ fume. The comparison is strengthened by Aben-Hamet's lif) initial reaction to dona Blanca as "Houri du Ciel," the houris being divinely beautiful women promised in

Afterlife to the faithfuls of Allah and who have the eyes of gazelles.

Blanca represents more than just perfect womanhood, however, for to guide the hero to an ideal, she is made herself to represent moral, esthetic and spiritual perfection. Her very name, dona Blanca, associates her with the colour white and consequently with the chaste purity of the moon. She is described by Aben-Hamet as being divinely inspired, once called

0 /fl "la divinite de cette fete" and on another occasion 110 &2 "son divin guide." She is also associated with Heaven,

originally as being the "Houri du Ciel," the first indi­

cation of her quasi-divine origins and subsequently as , iLO having the "accents d'une voix presque celeste." J

Eventually, the hero will love her "encore plus qua le

c i e l . " ^ She is also referred to as the "genie de ma

p at rie,"^ "l'idole de son p e r e , " ^ and it is no

coincidence that waiting for Aben-Hamet's ship she should

lose herself in the clouds which replace her veil.

Her qualities as a divinely-inspired human

guide are reinforced by the use of the word nieds which

in reference to human feet is used only for dona Blanca.

As a part of the body, her feet are likened to those of

the gazelle. Figuratively, there are numerous references

to people or things brought to her feet, in an obvious

gesture of reverencei "J'apporte & tes pieds le coeur

d'Aben-Hamet." 1 Similarly, Lautrec is seen sitting at

dona Blanca's feet, in a position of humility. Blanca

represents more than mere human love, inspiring a love

for some sort of absolute perfection, although not neces­

sarily God. She is the product of forces greater than man and is associated with qualities and ideals neither

attributed nor available to the hero.

Her function as a guide lies on two planes. On

the literal plane she is obviously a physical guide of Ill both Granada and of the Alhambrai "je veux ce soir vous 48 servir de guide." Aben-Hamet is incapable of naviga­ tion without such a guide and she comes at the propi­ tious moment to guide the hero back to his kan, walking ahead of him. She later tells her father of the inci­ dent i "il est entre dans le jardin pour me remercier 49 de lui avoir enseigne sa route." 7 Without her aid, the hero despairsi

Si tu ne remplissais raon fime de delices, dit- il & Blanca, avec quel chagrin me verrais-je oblige de te demander, & toi Espagnole, l'histoire de ces demeures!50

On a higher plane, she is the hero*s guide in his quest for fulfillment both in love and in his rela­ tionship with his universe. It is significant that when

Aben-Hamet first meets her, "un page portait devant elle un livre d'eglise.By following her lead,

Aben-Hamet may ultimately be recommended to God and consequently to spiritual fulfillment. When Aben-Hamet declares his love for her, her initial reaction is to clasp her hands (symbolic of prayer) and look towards

Heaven,^ Her role is partially that of leading Aben-

Hamet away from his religion to the fold of Christianity and truth. She is not a divinity in her own right but a guide to it. To attain dona Blanca, the hero must converti

Sois Chretien, et rien ne pourra m'empecher 112

d'etre k toi. Mais si la fille du due de Santa- Fe ose te parler avec cette franchise, tu peux juger par cela meme qu'elle saura se vaincre, et que jamais un ennemi des Chretiens n'aura droit sur elle.5^

Ultimately then, Aben-Hamet's heart, although attracted by a woman of this earth, is being taken by a greater force and he decides to abandon the religion of his fa­ thers. If love for Woman is rejected at the end, it is for the betterment of the hero, who by sacrificing physical love, ensures his standing with his God. Love for one's Divinity is portrayed aB having far greater consequence and permanence than fleeting earthly pas­ sions.

It is interesting that Blanca guides the hero not in his projected voyage but on to another, greater mission. From "il songeait surtout k executer le pro­ jet qui l'avait amene k Grenade,he shifts to "e'est en vain qu'il ne veut s'occuper que de son pSlerinage au pays de ses peres,and later to "II ne s'occupait plus des projets qui l'avaient amene k Grenade. " Even if he never marries, he has been rescued from succumging to the base passion of revenge and has learned the gene­ rosity that characterizes the Spaniards in the nouvelle.

Thus, Blanca has successfully guided the hero in both his literal voyage and in his spiritual one as well.

It is also interesting that as Blanca becomes 113 increasingly his moral and spiritual guide, Aben-Hamet slowly gains self-confidence and takes over as her guide in love. "Blanca le conduisit dans un cabinet qui sem- blait etre le sanctuaire meme du temple de 1' amour, where they profess their mutaul love. Subsequent to this, "elle etait obligee de s'appuyer plus fortement sur le bras de son guide.Yet, it is dona Blanca who saves the trip from going from a spiritual encounter to a mere physical one, taking the initiativei "quittons ces lieux."^

These events do not indicate a lack of love of

Blanca for the hero. Rather, it indicates that she sees more clearly than him. She is always in complete con­ trol of a situation, almost to the point of crueltyi

"C'est ainsi qu'on traite dans votre pays les hommes qui seduisent les femmes credules." She gives in neither to despair nor to suffering. Her fainting at the end is the only sign of possible weakness but having recovered gives no indication of her griefi "un etranger l'aurait crue heureuse." What she does as a guide, however, is establish hierarchies, priorities in love, of which her love for Aben-Hamet is subordinated to a greater love and fidelity towards their respective Gods. On the nega­ tive side, there is certainly a selfish, narrow-minded attitude on the part of both hero and heroine. Both ex- 114 pect total sacrifice from the other yet are unwilling to do likewise, or even compromise until the end when all is lost.

There are other human guides of much lesser importance in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. nevertheless, they bear out the author's obsession with the necessity of being led, shown or explained. When

Aben-Hamet returns to Spain after his mother's death,

Blanca sends Dorothea to tell him that she is waiting at the Palais des Maures* "Dorothee s'approche et con­ duit l'heureux Abencerage aux pieds de Blanca."*^

Regardless of the reason given in the story, that she did not want to be recognized by the crowds at the boat, the idea of a guide is still there. Similarly, the ani­ mals aboard the boat, such as the hero's horse and the gazelle, have to be led off. It is significant that as the guide, Blanca always has the hero come towards her.

Just as Dorothee brings Aben-Hamet to dona Blanca, simi­ larly, upon their first meeting in Granada "elle fit signe h. l'etranger de s'approcher.Yet, Blanca too must be led and at the time when Aben-Hamet was to re­ turn from Africai “Elle avait prie son pere de la con­ duire & Malaga."^

The second type of guide in Les Aventures du 115 dernier Abencerage is sound, for there are numerous au­

ditory features present to attract the hero's attention

and lead him. The first and most obvious sound is that

of bells, particularly church bells whose importance was

stressed in the Genie du Christianisme and in other works

works of fiction by Chateaubriand. The first meeting of

dona Blanca and Aben-Hamet was punctuated by the sound

of the Church bells announcing morning prayers. It is

this same bell that the hero seeks the next day in his

efforts to locate Blanca. later on he hears another

church bell announcing evening prayer. This induces him

to enter the church and leads to his projected conversion.

Thus, church bells always serve to attract the hero's

attention, directly or indirectly, to Christianity.

The second type of sound guiding the hero through

this universe is the human voice. Unable to find either

the church bell marking the spot where he had first met

dona Blanca, Aben-Hamet wanders around Granada until he

hears the sound of her voice, accompanied by a guitar, and follows this sound to the house of her fatheri MJe

t'ai devine S. la beaute de tes accents." The author goes on to make an interesting observation* "Entre la

voix, les traits et les regards d'une femme, il y a des rapports qui ne trompent jamais un homme que 1'amour posskde."^ Therefore, unable to take advantage of visual 116

signs of recognition, the hero can see with his ears, and

again, Blanca manages to draw him towards her rather than

have to approach him. Similarly, the guide leading Aben-

Haraet to Granada also had sounds associated with him for

he kept singing a chant monotone. Consequently, the theme

of blindness is compensated for by auditory senses.

In a like vein, the sound of the rooster could

also be considered a voice. Just before meeting Blanca

for the first time, Aben-Haraet heard the rooster crow to

announce dawn, just as he had heard the church bell

announce morning prayers. Looking for Blanca, the hero

seeks not only the ringing bell but also the crowing of

this roosteri

Que de fois il a cru reconnaitre le son de cette cloche, le chant de ce coq qu'il entendit pres de la demeure de I'Espagnole! Trorape par de pareils bruits, il court aussitot de ce c6te, et le palais magique ne s'offre point & ses regards.

The third type of auditory guide is music, whe­

ther instrumental or vocal. The hero was guided to

Blanca's home by a blend of voice and guitari "J'ai

entendu les sons de ta guitare."^ Later, Blanca dances

accompanied by a young girl playing the guitar* "Cette musique et cette danse fixerent & jamais le destin du

dernier Abencerage. Thus, music has drawn Aben-Hamet

towards Blanca and shall continue to lead him towards his final ideals. 117 Vocally, there are several songs in this work, all of which contribute to the protagonist's actions.

It should be noticed that songs always precede a dra­ matic change or recognition scene in this nouvelle. The chant monotone of the guide precedes Aben-Hamet's disco­ very of Granada; Blanca's castillian romance precedes

Aben-Hamet's discovery of her residence. Yet, the three songs that exercise the greatest influence are those sung at the Generalife where Aben-Hamet, Lautrec and don Carlos each sing songs characteristic of their backgrounds and personalities, all of which lead to certain recognitions and decisions. Lautrec's nostalgic "Combien j'ai douce souvenance" stirs up an element of nostalgia in Aben-

Hamet's heartt "Les regrets du beau prisonnier furent vivement sentis par Aben-Hamet qui deplorait corame Lau- 71 tree la perte de sa patrie." Aben-Hamet's song in turn softens the rather hard don Carlosi "la naivete de ses plaintes avait touche jusqu'au seperbe don Carlos, i_ malgre les imprecations prononcees contre les Chretiens.

The last song, sung by don Carlos, is the most revealing for it establishes a situation whereby he must renounce his decision to convert and leave.

Since the presence of these songs always announ­ ces a dramatic change, it is important to examine the contents of the songs rather closely for they announce 118 what the change will he. These songs represent a form of play within a play, wherein the hero and his actions within the song really portray the singer and his corres­ ponding actions in reality. These songs are truly the clearest guides available in the nouvelle. but the hero is not always able to interpret their meanings correctly.

The song that Blanca sings when he first meets her is about the romantic involvements of the original Abence- rage of many years ago, foreshadowing a similar situation between the singer and Aben-Hamet. It is also signifi­ cant that Blanca should dance a Zambra. a dance borrowed from the Moors but the implications are not understood by the protagonist.

At the Generalife, Lautrec's song is about his native country and his desire to be there. This message begins to direct Aben-Hamet towards a longing to return to Africa rather than opt for a marriage with the Bivar family. Similarly, Aben-Hamet's song about the Abence- rage is really the story of his own fortunes for he too shall not live to remain in Granada and for him too

"c'etait ecrit." The song sung by don Carlos is also about the singer for he is a direct descendant of the

Cid of whom he sings. He too shall prefer "Son Dieu, son roi, sa Chimlne et l'honneur,and will conse­ quently die by the sword. Aben-Hamet too will accept 119 this code of honour and will place God and honour before his Chim&ne, dona Blanca. Consequently, songs not only provide an auditory guide and recognition apparatus, they also provide a microcosm of the events to come and have a message as well as a signal value.

They too contribute towards an auditory compensation for the hero's blindness and help to lead the hero towards his ideals.

The third type of guide in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage is an inner one, stemming from the hero's own conscience. This guide is the voice of the past, the patrie, and is expressed in two forms* religion and honour. The whole outcome of the nouvelle balances on a tenuous link between past and present.

Chateaubriand does not look towards the future but back­ wards, fascinated by genealogies, either the hero's or

Blanca's, and is conscious that both represent the last of two great lines. To Olga Longi, the nouvelle illus­ trates "les regrets de la patrie ... et le culte du 7/i- passe, le respect des ancetres et de la tradtition."

Ancestry is so revered that twice Aben-Hamet makes oaths on the ashes of his forefathers. It is significant that in a short work such as this one, p&re occurs twenty- seven times, aieul thirteen times, ancetre six times and patrie nineteen times. The past symbolizes a code of 120 values to which the characters feel they have to ad­ here closely. In spite of their absence, forefathers still govern the actions of the characters and constantly remind them of their duties in this universe. It is interesting that p&re is often used in the plural, thus representative of a life-style rather than of the values of a single person. Furthermore, there is little refe­ rence to maternal influence. Blanca's mother is dead and Aben-Kamet's dies within the course of the action.

All influence is paternal and is reinforced by the use

t>ere as a noun rather than a less effective paterae!.

The first manifestation of the past as a guide for the hero is found in religion, which always formed a solid basis of the works offiction of Chateaubriand.

A great respecter of marriage and of its relationship to

Christianity, Chateaubriand seems to contradict his ideals in this nouvelle. for there is no portrayal of a happy couple linked in religious matrimony. It seems that to the Chateaubriand hero, the idea of a successful marriage based on love and satisfying the will of God is incompatible with the demands of this universe. Love is seen reaching its natural zenith, but consummation results in separation by either death or exile.

The conflict in this nouvelle. as in Atala. is based on religious heritage* 121

Retiens bien ces mots* 'JMusulman, je suis ton amante turns espoiri chretien je suis ton epouse fortuneo." Aben-Hamet reponditt "Chretienne, je suis ton esclnve ddsol^i musulmane, je suis ton dpoux glorieux,"75

Inter-religious marriages are impossible in this uni­ verse. If Blanoa should convert, then Chateaubriand would be unfaithTul to his principles. If Aben-Hamet should convert, then Chateaubriand would be unfaithful to his sense of poetry.^ As in Atala and Rene, the conflict is one of love versus religion in which the latter wins out.

The religions involved are the hero’s and heroine's but more importantly are viewed as cults of the past.

Four times they are referred to as the religions de leurs pferes rather than as active forces of the present. If religion does block the development and culmination of natural desires, it is to guide the hero to greater goals, to channel his love on to a higher plane.

The second manifestation of the past as a guide for the hero is t.ho theme of honour and duty. According to Olga Longi, "lo respect de la tradition des ancetres et la souraission leurs decrets inspirent le conte des

Aventures du dernlor Abencerage. W h a t religion can­ not accomplish, honour can. The hero is very conscious of the obligationn imposed on him by the past and by his 122 origins and although he tends on several occasions to lose sight of them, his attention is always attracted back to reminders of the honour by which he and also don

Carlos must live. About to convert to Christianity, he is attracted to some old arable writing in the converted mosque which reminds him of his heritage. Similarly, when in a position to accept the generous offers made to him at the end, "il croyait voir 1'ombre de son aieul sortir du tombeau et lui reprocher cette alliance sacri­ lege."^ Although he ultimately seeks counsel from dona

Blanca, he suspects what her answer will be and in spite of his desire to stay, bends before the dictates of honour, accepting "la seule [resolution] qui soit digne de toi."79

The Theme of Expectation

It is interesting that although the hero is al­ ways seen heading towards a goal, that he is always provided with the proper assistance to ensure his get­ ting there, expectation always seems much more promising than the actual attainment. As he rushes up to the young girls in Granada, he realizes as he gets closer that dona Blanca is not one of them and he is disap­ pointed .

This theme of expectation is highlighted by the 123 hero's seeming hesitation before commencing an action.

The word attendre appears eight times, usually in con­ nection with Aben-Hamet waiting for Blanca or vice- versa. Action is never taken now but has to await the proper moment. Aben-Hamet has to wait until the follo­ wing day to announce his conversion to Christianity or has to wait until evening to visit the Alhambra. There are several instances where Blanca waits to see Aben-

Hamet but he never in turn actually waits to see her, prefering to wait the day or the moment on which to do so. Yet, in turn he desires to be awaited and longed On fori "Blanca, l'attend-elle sur ces bords?"

The theme of expectation is also brought out by the use of adjectives of distance. Loin and lointain together occur eleven times and are almost always used to show just how far the Abencerages are from life and happiness. Aben-Hamet's boat is always faraway. He is unhappy away from the Tours Vermeilles and it is stressed that the travellers encountered on the way to Granada 81 were "loin de repandre la vie sur le chemin."

Words of proximity usually indicate a closeness to things that in turn make distances from happiness more apparent. As Aben-Hamet approaches the young girls in

Granada, he realizes that "de pres aucune n'avait sa O n QBlanca's] beaute." Similarly, the hero passes close izk

to the tree under which Muga and the grand master of

Calatrava fought their famous duel in which the Abence-

rage prince was killed. Similarly, heureux is used

twenty-eight times but almost always ironically, indi­

cating that happiness is to be either short-lived or is

insincere* "On l*aurait crue heureuse."^ Bonheur is

never attained but rather haunts the individual to the

extent that the Abencerages take plant remedies to kill

their desire for this elusive happiness. Happiness is

always sought and looms large in the characters' expec­

tations but is never attained. The objects of their

desires are always elusive•

Thus it is clear that the hero's actions, in

Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. all take the form

of an unaccomplished voyage, whether a crusade, pilgri­ mage or adventure. His ultimate goals are at the outset

quite general in nature and as he progresses into these

voyages, he quickly becomes confused and loses sight of

his purpose. Guides are provided to lead the hero to

ideals greater than love or revenge, and all of his

original goals flee away from him. He loses the woman

of his desires, the opportunity to avenge his forefathers,

Granada and earthly love, but gains an inner strength. flhe guides have led to his final decision to leave quietly and accept his final sacrifice. From a subcon- 125 scious point of view, this could represent a deep- rooted timidity on the part of the author, reflected in his desire for certain things which confuse or frighten him when within his reach.

If a lesson is to be learned from this nouvelle. it is that life demands certain sacrifices of the indi­ vidual but that these sacrifices are desirable and reflect the supreme beauty in life. Nothing is more beautiful or more worthy of admiration than the final, nobly accep­ ted sacrifice made by Aben-Hamet and dona Blanca. The quest in this nouvelle is of this moral lesson. Happi­ ness lies not in material or physical pleasures but in loftier, more spiritual achievements. 126

NOTES - CHAPTER III

*Chateaubriand, Le Gdnie du Christianisme, o Vier, "L*Orient d'une perle rarei Les Aven­ tures du dernier Abencerage. 236-44.

3Ibid., 24*3. 4 Moreau, Chateaubriand. p. 17.

^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 250. CO CM Ibid. P* »

7Ibid. P« 266.

8Ibid. P» 318.

9Ibid. P* 255.

10Ibid. P* 256.

11Ibid, P» 272.

12Ibid. P. 315.

13Ibid. P» 299.

lij,Ibid. P* 295.

15Ibid. P* 317.

l6Ibid. P. 284*.

17Ibid. P« 286, CO C\i C’-'l l8Ibid. P* *

19Ibid. P* 271.

20Ibid. P* 2 7 2 .

21Ibid. P* 312.

22Ibid. P* 2 6 8 . 127

23Ibid t P« 260.

2/f,Ibid t P* 266.

25Ibid V P. 271.

26Ibid I P« 292.

2 7Ibid » P* 325.

28Ibid V P* 31^.

29Ibid f P* 283.

3°Ibid t P« 291.

31Ibid t P« 309.

32Ibid t P- 291.

53Ibid t P* 328.

^ I b i d f P- 264. -^Le Savoureux, Cahiers du Sud. no. 50, I960, p. 195.

•^Chateaubriand, Memoires d^utre-tombe, p. 93. "Je me composais done une femme de toutes les femmes que j'avais vues ... cette charmeresse me suivait done partout invisible 1 je m'entretenais avec elle, comme avec un etre reel ..."

■^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage, 309. 38 Ibid.. P- 262.

'ibid., P« 298. 40. Ibid,, P* 269. 41. Ibid., P» 316. 42. Ibid.. P. 271.

‘ibid., P« 272. CO r'iCM Ibid., P» •

Ibid.. P* 290. 128

^ I b i d . P. 2 ?6.

^ I b i d » P* 273. ^8Ibid » P« 282. 49Ibid » P. 277. 5°Ibid » P. 286. 51Ibid » P- 268. 52Ibid » P« 268. 53Ibid » P- 288. ^Ibid » P. 288. "^Ibid » P* 267. 56Ibid » p. 270. 57Ibid » P* 281. 58Ibid . P. 286. 59Ibid P* 290.

60Ibid P* 293. 0 0 CM r*. 61Ibid p. • 62Ibid P« 329. 63Ibid P* 297. ^Ibid P. 269. 65Ibid P- 295. 66Ibid P* 273. 6?Ibid P* 267. 68Ibid. P< 271.

69Ibid. P* 273. 7°Ibid. » P- 280. 71 Ibid., p. 318.

72Ibid.. p. 322.

73Ibid.. p. 323 . 7 II ' Longi, Olga, La Terre et les morts dans 1'oeuvre de Chateaubriand, p. 110.

73Chateaubriand, La dernier Abencerage. p. 293.

7^Ibid,, p. xviii. 77 ('Longi, Olga, La Terre et les morts dans 1*oeuvre de Chateaubriand, p. 121.

78Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 328.

^Ibid.. P. 326.

80Ibid., P. 29*K

81Ibid.. P. 260 ,

82Ibid.. P* 271 .

83Ibid., P. 329. CHAPTER IV

CIVILIZATION! A LIVING

ORGANISM WITHIN OUR UNIVERSE

Chateaubriand is more than a mere story-teller in this nouvelle. He is also a visionnary, perched aloft, looking down upon the world. Les Aventures du dernier

Abencerage is a synthesis of his diagnostic and prognos­ tic views of civilization. Although he has his hero go back in time, the author does not limit himself to times past when the Moors occupied Spain, but has also a defi­ nite view towards the future, towards a time when the

Bivar family will also be extinct, and incorporates both of these views in a tableau of the present. An examina­ tion of the themes of the monument (with its accompanying themes of ruins, tombs, cemeteries), memory, dreams, death and life, as represented by the continual develop­ ment of nature, reveals that Chateaubriand takes a very positive approach to the future of this universe. He is not at all haunted by death or obsessed by a feeling of negativity but displays rather a faith in the continual evolution of civilization.

The main theme to be considered is that of the monument, of reminders, both physical and abstract, of

130 131 times past, yet existing in the present and pointing to­ wards the future. These monuments are of two typesi those which are relics or remnants of the past, and which undergo some form of slow decay leading to eventual disap­ pearance, and secondly, signs, erected by either man or nature, reminiscent of times past but which are not a direct product of the past. It will be seen that both of these types are not merely haunting reminders of for­ mer days but are also yardsticks by which the progress of civilization can be evaluated.

The Theme of Relics

The theme of relics can be divided into three main categoriesi the themes of ruins, tombs and ceme­ teries, and conversion. All of these point back in time to the glories of former civilizations, exist in the present time under new civilization and will probably continue, although decaying, longer than the life span of the individual and see future civilizations, always carrying with them the presence of death and decay and being slowly obliterated by new life.

Ruins best represent death leading to rebirth, downfall leading to rise, whether of the individual or of a whole culture. As a monument, ruins represent the shell of a former living organism, which now empty on 132 the inside, feeds on or at least co-exists with new or­ ganisms. This is not to be confused with tombs or graves.

Ruins represent the products of past civilizations, whe­ ther buildings, bridges or walls, although it is jus­ tifiable to say that tombs and cemeteries to be dis­ cussed later are also in their own way a form of ruinsi

Chateaubriand’s fascination for ruins is implicit­ ly stated in the Genie du Christianismei

Tous les hommes ont un secret attrait pour les ruines. Ce sentiment tient b. la fragilite de notre nature, b. une conformity secrete entre ces monuments detruits et la rapidity de notre existence. II s'y joint, en outre, une idee qui console notre petitesse, en voyant que des peuples entiers, des hommes quelquefois si fameux, n'ont pu vivre cependant au-dell. du peu de jours assignes b. notre obscurite ... Les ruines, consi- derees sous les rapports du paysage, sont plus pittoresques dans un tableau que le monument frais et entier.1

This continued fascination in Les Aventures du dernier

Abencerage is substantiated by the frequent use of words like ruines (twelve times), cendres (three times), debris (five times) and restes (one time). Very little in the nouvelle is seen intact. These reminders of the past are not viewed with depression but on the contrary with admiration and respect. There is a petrarchean greatness in ruins and clearly, ruins for Chateaubriand, as for the Italian poet, are considered far more beauti­ ful than the original unblemished object and people, in the presence of ruins, have their own personal beauty 133 enhancedi "Ces palais n'ont jamais ete aussi beaux dans leur jeunesse qu'ils le sont aujourd'hui dans leur ruines." Likewise, "C'etait un prestige nouveau qui erabellit ces ruines."-^ Consequently, ruins are constant­ ly associated with words such as prestige, charmes, re­ grets. felicite and admirer. Ruins are reminiscent of the greatness of past civilizations, not of their evils.

The weapons hanging in the moorish cabin in Africa glo­ rify former warlike prowess, not belittle it.

Whereas ruins are a spectacle to be admired, they also provide refuge. Upon his arrival in Spain, Aben-

Hamet runs to hide in debris so that the guide might not see him cry. Ruined edifices reflect a peculiar sense of transience so welcome to many a melancholy soul weary of the present and aware of its ephemeral nature. They reflect both a withdrawal from the malaise of present age and also a metaphysical sense of time- II lessness beyond.

Ruins also represent the relentless pursuit of time, for decay is ever present and powerful. This is expressed in many ways, either by "le reste de 1'in­ scription etait efface11 or by having Aben-Hamet ob­ serve that some plaster in the converted mosque was fal­ ling from decay. Similarly, the ruins of a roman aqua- duct are described as brises. Time is obviously man*s 13^ enemyi "Si jamais mon image s'effagait de ton coeur, si le temps qui detruit tout emportait de ta memoire le souvenir d*Abencerage . .."^ All disappears with time which both levels and destroys.

The primary use of ruins in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage is to capture time, to produce a view spanning all three time periodsi past, present and future. The author, subconsciously perhaps, does this in two wayst with the theme of stratification and the theme of fragnentation. Stratification implies the concept of civilization as a series of layers, whereby the ruins of one culture lie on top of those of a former one, with the inference that today's ruins shall one day be buried under those of future civilizations. Examples of this are abundanti "Cette ville avait change d'habi- tants, et les vainqueurs reposaient sur la couche des vaincus."'7 Similarly, Aben-Hamet tells of 1*Empire

Ottoman, nouvellement assis sur les ruines de Constan- Q tinople." Thus, civilization is conceived as a conti­ nual building process, in which new structures are erec­ ted on top of old ones.

Fragmentation, as a means of capturing time, implies a broken view, whereby in one moment, the hero can see several time periods simultaneously!

Le Douro roulait au milieu du vallon, et presen- 135

tait le long de son cours de frais moulins, de bruyantes cascades, les arches brisees d'un aqueduc romain, et les restes d'un pont du temps des Maures.9

In one view, the hero sees present Spanish civilization, roman ruins of the distant past and moorish ruins of more recent past. This same effect is also accomplished by having living things juxtaposed with ruins. Chateau­ briand often indulges in descriptions of ruins covered with vegetation. The threshold leading into the Alham­ bra is half-hidden by grass, moss diverts the normal flow of the fountain within the Alhambra and a cypress tree is observed growing through the domes of a ruined mosque. A similar effect is achieved by having Aben-

Hamet observe the moon and stars through the ruins of the Alhambra, or by having the characters merely walk amongst the ruins* "Tu es belle comme le Genie de ma

* 10 patrie au milieu de ces debris." Thus, ruins of past glories are always associated with living things, whe­ ther people, vegetation or even the stars, but are never seen merely as reminders of the past.

Ruins are consequently representative of Chateau­ briand's concept of civilizstion. Although a tribe or people passes away into extinction, it is always replaced» death is never culminated by a void but by new life, re­ birth. Everything decays by merely beginning to exist, whether objects, ideas or morals* 136

L'Existence meme de l'objet n'est qufun lent pro­ cessus de degradation, et, s'il s'agit d'un ob- jet vivant, de corruption. Toute chair, meme la plus charmante, annonce un avenir de pourriture.il

This overwhelming pessimism, however, overlooks the fact

that what decays is replaced as the object deteriorates.

Plants and trees grow through the crumbling ruins and

older relics are forgotten not because of their falling

into a void but because new and perhaps improved struc­

tures have replaced them. Ruins are always viewed in

the context of newer, living things. It is evident

that all must perish but the notion of "le temps qui

detruit tout" is not a cynical one. Ruins are not a

visual representation of a philosophy of self-destruction

* 12 in Chateaubriand, of "existence en train de se detruire,"

but symbolize the continual flow of life. Ruins do

demonstrate the lack of permanence in Chateaubriand's

world, the instability of human institutions, but the

stress is not placed on disappearance but on subse­

quent re-appearance.

Richard actually suggests that man himself is a

ruin, undergoing this same process of obliteration,

that the ruins represent the self "mourant & chaque minute de sa vie." The individual could, in this res­

pect, be considered a ruin, as the ones described above,

but not in a cosmos of annihilation. Rather, the indi­ vidual, as ruins, constantly feeds a power greater than 137 himself. Although the hero is not aware of his pur­ pose in this universe, his existence is meant to serve and propagate.

It is significant that this nouvelle ends with dona Blanca spending the rest of her life among the ruins of the Alhambra, the only place in the work where this palace is specifically referred to as a ruin. Although decaying, this edifice has a certain air of timeless­ ness about it. It will eventually disappear but not within the lifetime of dona Blanca or of Aben-Hamet.

It survived the Moors, will survive the Bivars and will likely outlive several more conquests. The individual is thus reduced in importance for he will not outlive the ruins surrounding him.

Although the ruins in Les Aventures du dernier

Abencerage are almost all Moorish ones, for the author is illustrating the problems of a particular individual with a particular background, their application is uni­ versal. Chateaubriand's mistake in this work perhaps, is the citing of dates to relate these events to a specific erai "Vingt-quatre ans s'etaient ecoules depuis la prise de Grenade.Although the presence of dates adds considerable veracity and perhaps interest to the nouvelle. it detracts from the work's more far- reaching implications. 138

The second type of relic found in this nouvelle is that of the grave, expressed by either the tomb or by the cemetery* It is, admittedly, a form of ruin in its own right but has the distinction of containing a body belonging to a past era and is in this respect more than a mere shell as were the ruins described above. It does not embody a void and is not observed in a state of decay or disintegration.

Modern criticism is unquestionably right in em­ phasizing Chateaubriand's obsession with the theme of tombs, as born out by the actual title of his autobio­ graphy, Les Memoires d*outre-tombe. In it he saysi

Vous qui aimez la gloire, soignez votre tom- beaui couchez-vous y bieni tachez d'y faire bonne figure, car vous y resterez.*^

It is significant that the word tombeau should appear ten times, cimetiere. five times, cendres three times, cercueil two times, monument five times and mourir seventeen times, indicating more than a passing inte­ rest in this theme. The nouvelle ends with an image of Aben-Hamet's tomb.

As was the case for ruins, cemeteries and tombs also embody several time spans. They belong to several civilizations, whether the tomb of Saint-Louis in Africa, those of Ferdinand and Isabel in Spain or those of the

Moors, also located in Spain. In spite of the theme of 139 death inherent in an image of a grave, the author is far more concerned with the life around it than with the ca­ daver withini

Aben-Hamet a decouvert le cimetiere ofct reposent les cendres des Abencerages* mais en priant, mais en se prosternant, mais en versant des larmes filiales, il songe que la jeune Espagnole a passe quelquefois sur ces tombeaux, et il ne trouve plus ses ancetres si malheuruex.15

The stratification effect, observed in the way ruins developed one on top of the other, is even more pronounced with the theme of graves, as seen wither in the example quoted above or in the following passage*

On ne remarquait aucun si&ge au milieu de la vaste enceinte* un pave de marbre qui recou- vrait des cercueils servait aux grands comme aux petite,. pour se prosterner devant le Seigneur.16

The living pray on top of the bodies of the dead. A third layer could be implied here also, for the dead are covered by the living who are in turn praying to

God in heaven above. There is also the suggestion here that all men are equal in death as well as in life, for both nobles and common people may use the marble above the caskets.

The hero is subconsciously aware of this stra­ tification effect and deliberately seeks it. He is not content to have Blanca swear an oath with him at her home but takes her to a moorish canetery where he swears by the ashes of his forefathers to love her until his 1^0 death. It is on top of the ashes of the dead that he is most conscious of life.

Chateaubriand never actually discusses the con­ tents of the graves. He sometimes loosely refers to coffins or ashes but never actually refers to bodies or cadavers. The grave is not individualized but takes on rather a symbolic value as a relic of time past. Atten­ tion is never focused on the actual relic within the grave itself.

It is clear then, that for the author, death only begets life. The tomb does not lead to a void but mere­ ly provides space for new living matter. Chateaubriand's attitude towards the grave is favorable for his attention is always focused on life ahead rather than on death which lies ahead. As Aben-Hamet kisses the coffin of his mother, his thoughts are with dona Blanca. Similarly, as he swears his oath in the moorish cemetery with Blanca, he points out that it will last until the end of his days, with the emphasis resting on the duration rather than on the ultimate end. Even when dona Blanca points out that his love for her is precipitating an early death, the hope is strong that he will convert and prevent this tragic endi

Vois cet asile de la morti il est enchante. Je m'y reposerai bientdt si tu ne te h£tes de recevoir ma foi au pied de l'autel des Chretiens.1? 141

The grave thus serves as a framework for life and love,

and as the ruin, precedes and outlives the individual.

It 1b significant that the nouvelle should end

with a description of Aben-Hamet's tomb, just as all of

Chateaubriand *s works of fiction end with some sort of

allusion to the grave, as if he himself is attempting to

prepare himself for it. To Jean-Pierre Richard, the rock

on which Blanca sits at the end takes the form of a

"rocher-tombe" representing domination over death, the 18 ocean and human history. There is a positive element

in the grave for it symbolizes shelter after death,

and security. It also assures the perpetuation of the

individual's memory, for it will continue to exist amidst

new civilizations. Just as the hero is conscious of the

graves of others, he too will be remembered by his own

grave, even if it is located in a lonely c o m e r of the

cemetery. The bird, pausing for a drink of water out of

a hollow in his tomb, notices it and acknowledges it in

his own way.

The third type of relic found in Les Aventures du

dernier Abencerage is represented by the theme of con­

version, whether of a building or of an institution.

As opposed to ruins, the converted building or institu­

tion was not allowed to fall into disuse and subsequent

decay but rather, was adopted, adapted and uses by newer 1^2 generations to its best advantage. This conversion can take two forms* that of physical objects and that of traditions.

There are many buildings in Granada of moorish origin yet inhabited by Spaniards. The word monument is used rather often to describe them as Aben-Hamet approaches Granada and explores the city at night. Al­ though he realizes that they are presently occupied, he is very conscious of the fact that they were formerly inhabited by his people*

II essayait de reconnaitre avec ses yeux ou ses mains quelques-uns des monuments que lea vieillards lui avait si souvent decrits. Peut-etre que ce haut edifice dont il entre- voyait les murs k travers les ten&bres etait autrefois la demeure des Abenceragesj

... Mais helas! au lieu du son des anafins, du bruit des trompettes et des chants d'amour, un silence profond regnait autour d'Aben- Hamet. Cette ville muette avait change d'habitants, et les vainqueurs reposaient sur la couche des vaincus.19

Similarly, the Church in which Aben-Hamet sees Lautrec in prayer is a converted mosque, used for the same pur­ pose but modified by the fideles*

L'Architecture legere des Arabes s*dtait mariee k 1*architecture gothique, et, sans rien perdre de son elegance, elle avait pris une gravite plus convenable aux meditations.

It is significant that he finds himself t o m between the memories of what the building had been in the past and the feeling that the Christian religion was causing 1^3 to inspire in his heart. Both examples of converted architecture again-serve to illustrate that life on earth is but temporary for the individual but that his structures live on. As was the case for ruins, these converted buildings are associated with present life, in spite of their ties with the past. The fact that such a building can span several civilizations proves that there is hardly a preoccupation with a void but a positive approach to existence, for there is every indi­ cation that birth follows death.

The second type of conversion is that of tradi­ tions. The best example is the Zambra performed by dona Blanca, a formerly moorish dance adapted by the

Spaniards, As was the case for the houses described above, it too embodies two cultures. Similarly, dona

Blanca acknowledges the Spanish debt to the Moors, for the many songs that were left to them. The execution of a Moorish dance by a Spanish girl again stresses the continuity of institutions from one civilization to another.

The theme of conversion is strongly reinforced by the frequent use. of words, such as autrefois (six times), .iadis (seven times), and ancien (fourteen times), used to describe things as they were in the Moorish 144- civilization but implying that they are now Spanish,

Five of the seven uses of .iadis refer to the lives of the Moors in Spain before their relegation to Africa,

The other two occurences are expressed in the Alhambra alluding to things formerly moorish but now Spanish.

Ancien is always used before the noun, implying "former" rather than "ancient" and by its use is reminiscent too of the conversion from Islam to Christianity, Ancienne mosauee. anciens rois, ancienne patrie and anciens maitres all demonstrate that Aben-Hamet is alone in

Spain amidst a new civilization; his forefathers are but relics and memories in Granada.

Similarly, there is considerable use of both moorish and Spanish terminology indicative of the over­ lapping of cultures. Certain words such as anafin, burnous, firmin and Houri are constant reminders of a former arabic culture, as are allusions to Mahomet, Allah or ‘the Saint proph&te. These are juxtaposed with Spanish music, names, customs and words such aB venta. which, aside from lending the nouvelle a high degree of exoti­ cism, fashionable at the time of the composition of the work, are again reminiscent of the blending of one culture into another. 1^5

The Theme of Signs

The second type of monument in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage is that of signs, erected by either man or nature but which are not in themselves a product of the past the way relics were. Furthermore, unlike relics, these monuments are not in an obvious process of decay or disappearance. These signs are of two typesi those found in nature, of which trees and plants are the most obvious, and man-made symbols.

Nature is a curious blend of life and death in this nouvelle and although this theme will be discussed at greater length later in this chapter, there are aspects of nature which very definitely embody monumen­ tal features. Certain trees have more than mere symbolic features of life. They actually point back in time to certain people. Chateaubriand himself was very conscious of this for he deliberately planted trees in his garden at la. Vallee-aux-loups to symbolically preserve certain memories. Taken in context, these trees form an antho­ logy of his various voyagesi the laurel tree to remind him of Granada and dona Blanca, the plane tree to remind him of Greece and Cymodocee and the oak to remind him of 21 Armorica and Velleda.

The cypress tree is the most obvious and important example of a tree used as a symbol or marker in this 1^6 nouvelle. Its use is always associated with the graves of the Moors and consequently simultaneously acts as a monument to the ancestors of Aben-Hamet and as a symbol of lush continual new life. Prom Mount Padul, Boabdil would notice the cypress trees marking the tombs of the

Moors in Granada. These same trees were noticed by Aben-

Hamet upon his approach of the city. Similarly, the former mosque has a cypress tree growing in it, piercing the roof, again a Moorish ruin. It is equally signifi­ cant that the moorish cemetery next to the mosque should also have cypress trees growing in it. Therefore, as well as having representative qualities of life, these trees also point back in time to the former moorish civilization.

The palm tree is equally symbolic, but rather than refer to moorish graves, it points back to the Moors themselves. Aben-Hamet disembarks from the boat that brought him to Spain, travels through the palm forests of Murcia and speculates that they were planted by his forefathers. It is also significant that a solitary palm tree should grow over Aben-Hamet's tomb after his death.

This idea is further reinforced by Aben-Hamet's wondering if dona Blanca still remembers the "pauvre arabe qui ne 22 cessa de 1'adorer sous le palmier du desert," as he reflects on present life but is held back by the grip of 1^7 his heritage represented by his mother's death and sym­

bolized by the palm tree under which he sits.

The lone pine tree, located just outside of Gra­

nada, by itself represents the struggle to protect one's

ancestry. Upon his arrival in Granada, Aben-Hamet no­

tices the pine on which the debris of the arms of Aba- 23 yados still hang. J It is not coincidental that don

Carlos and Aben-Hamet should leave Granada to fight their

duel and head back to this very pine tree, for on a

higher plane than that of mere duel, this event repre­

sents the struggle for survival between Spanish and moo­

rish heritages. Consequently, the pine may be viewed as

a symbol of the fight to protect moorish existence in

Spain.

Flowers, in their own way, also represent past

glories and might. It was with regret that the Abence- rages traded their garlands of flowers for chains. Years

later, the scent of a flower in Africa would remind them

of those happy days in Granada. It is significant that oh the Moors called the Cid "Fleur des batailles," for he more than anyone epitomizes glory in this work. This

same image is extended by don Carlos, who hopes that

"notre sang fleurisse apr&s nous."2-* It may also be

shown that eight of the fourteen uses of fleur are thus associated with glory. 148

Michael Riffaterre sees trees and plants as re­

presentative of death*s victoryi

Les plantes sont done un monument vivant du monument tombe et la nature remplagant l'art un triomphe de l'art sur la mort. Cependant ces memes plantes renversent les murs, enva- hissent les salles, annulent le caractere fonctionnel de 1'edifice* leur croissance est une decomposition en progress elles ach&vent la destruction, et sont done un tri­ omphe de la Mort,26

We have shown that precisely the opposite is true. These

plants and trees are definitely associated with the past

but represent a victory over past and death. Ruins and man-made monuments do stay on but not forever, Evolu­

tion is ever present and will overcome past sorrows or

disillusionments.

The second type of sign is man-made, artificially

created and whose importance rests in its value as a sym­

bol. Don Carlos asks Aben-Hamet for a sign of his birth

to which the latter produces the hereditary ring of the

Abencerages, a small ring which points backwards in time

to past members of his tribe yet simultaneously embodies

present life by virtue of its position around the hero’s

neck. It is not a sign of death but of continuing life,

referred to specifically as a "signe de votre naissance.

Similarly, the cross is a sign of continuing Christianity.

Don Carlos has a cross on his pourpoint and also on his

sword. His leaning on his sword, then, symbolically 1^9 represents the values in life on which he reliesi the

sword which is a weapon to defend his religion. Likewise,

the guide is seen crossing himself before descending into

Granada.

Whereas the present Spanish civilization lives by

the cross, the Moors have a different set of values re­

presented by the turban. The fact that the turbans for­

merly engraved on the columns of the Alhambra have been

replaced by etched crosses indicates that as one reli­

gion loses its influence in an area, another one arises

to replace it.

Memory and Dreams

The visual qualities of these monuments, both

relics and signs, greatly affect the hero's mental state.

This awareness of civilization in three basic layers,

past present and future, is manifested in two areas of

the individual's thought processest memory and dreams.

Qu'est-ce que la memoire sinon la faculte de quitter le present pour se porter vers le passe, puis de revenir du passe au present, au present enrichi et comme redouble par cette repercussion dans l'anterieur?28

Memory considers civilization as a whole, seeing the

three time periods in question simultaneously, for the mind can subconsciously superimpose image upon image.

Conversely, civilization is made up of memories which 150

act upon the individual, govern his actions and reveal

his sentiments. Memory is always juxtaposed with

thoughts of the present or future and in this respect, memory too is a form of monument and like relics and

signs, is associated with living things.

When a Moor in Africa is shown the plain of Ba- 29 grada, he sighsi "Grenade!" 7 Similarly, Aben-Hamet

sees the houses of Granada today but thinks of them in

the past, in the time of his forefathers. The past is

blurred, however, by the fact that these edifices are

presently inhabited by the Spaniards, so that past memo­

ries co-exist with the constant flow of life. Similarly,

Aben-Hamet strolls in the Alhambra of today but pictures

it in the days of the Sultane.

This escape into the past by means of memory re­

presents a very modem quality of Les Aventures du dernier

Abencerage > the effective use of pivotal images to al­

low easy transition from one scene to another. One image

can conjure up several simultaneous scenes in the viewer's mind, as in the examples above. The best example of this

is expressed by dona Blanca in the Alhambra in her irony-

charged observation*

Etranger, dit la naive Espagnole, quand je re­ garde ta robe, ton turban, tes armes, et que je songe & nos amours, je crois voir 1*ombre du bel Abencerage se promenant dans cette retraite aban- donnee avec l'infortunee Alfaima. Explique moi 1'inscription arabe gravee sur le marbre de cette fontaine.30 151 This is reinforced by Aben-Hamet's subsequent form of address to heri "Sultane aimee." Thus, Blanca sees in the hero both the last of the Abencerages (unknown to her) and the famous ancestor of Aben-Hamet who had also walked in these same rooms. The one image of the hero allows Blanca to simultaneously consider two time periods.

Just as memory links past and present, so then do dreams, and by extension, imagination, provide an escape from present realities while nevertheless remai­ ning well-entrenched in the present. Influenced by the moorish atmosphere of the setting, there are numerous references to illusionary words such as fees, fantas- tique. merveilleux and magiqtie. Aben-Hamet delights in relating tales of the Orient, of associating himself with a dream-world, but all of the stories that he tells, either to dona Blanca at her father's palace, or to the final gathering at the Generalife, are situated in the present and at their end, the hero is conscious again of contemporary circumstances and realities. The Alhambra is no longer a palais magique but a real edifice, in a real world, with no hidden powers.

Memory and imagination both demonstrate a sense of tiraelessness in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage.

The mind is free to vacillate back and forth in time and an edifice such as the Alhambra can appeal to several 152 time periods simultaneously as shown. The nouvelle can thus be seen as a series of tableaux, which fitted one on top of the other, form a final image of civilization as the sum total of past, present and future history.

The Themes of Life and Death

Obviously then, monuments, whether relics or signs, have a dual representation of both death and life.

Death is a dominant theme in this and every work of fiction of Chateaubriand and has been interpreted by many scholars as an obvious indication of Chateaubriand's desire for annihilation and as proof of a gloomy, pessi­ mistic view of life. These critics have, however, a very prejudiced approach to the works of fiction of this au­ thor, for although death is omnipresent, Chateaubriand's treatment of the themes of birth and nature clearly demonstrate a desire for life and confidence in the future.

It is impossible to overlook Chateaubriand's obsession with the theme of death in this or in any other of his works of fiction. To Manuel de Dieguezi

Le poete prete sa voix a une religion de la mort elle-meme, l'objet par excellence de la poesie. II.s'agit de montrer la mort & l'oeuvre et d'en ecouter la voix.32

Mort is used eleven times, along with paraphrases such as abandonner la vie. Aben-Hamet's mother abandons life 153 suggesting a flight from life rather than a seeking or attainment of death# Death is usually used in the har­ shest sense of finality, the only thing that can break an oath, and is referred to as "mon eternelle absence."^

Verbs of killing are avoided (tuer is used only twice) in favour of circumlocutions such as recols la mort and nortera la mort, where the emphasis is on ultimate death rather than on the means by which it is attained. Even if dona Blanca does not die at the end of the nouvelle. it is very clearly indicated that her death is inevitable as it had been for her brother and father*

The theme of death is substantiated by the theme of genealogies, for Chateaubriand is fascinated by family trees, lineages and the development of a clan. This inte­ rest is abundantly clear in his various asides in the story-line to relate the history of various families.

Upon the arrival of Aben-Hamet at don Rodrigue's, the author digresses into a three page history of the Bivar family, just as upon the arrival of the hero in Spain at a later point, the author once again diverts attention from the narrative to a brief resume of Lautrec's back­ ground and of don Carlos' most recent exploits.

Chateaubriand loves to dream of himself in a ter­ minal situation. ThiB is reflected by the very title of the nouvelle. Les Aventures du "dernier" Abencerage. The 15^ word dernier is used twenty-seven times and applies not only to Aben-Hamet but also to dona Blanca and to don

Carlos representing the Spaniards. There are two civili­ zations facing each other in this work, each one about to expire and disappear from this Earth. Aben-Hamet is the last of the Abenceragest "Un seul rejeton etait tout I'espoir de cette maison fameuse,"^ Simi­ larly, dona Blanca and don Carlos are the last remnants of the Bivar familyi

Don Carlos, je sens que nous sommes les der- niers de notre racej nous sortons trop de l'ordre comraun pour que notre sang fleurisse apres nousi le Cid fut notre aSeul, il sera notre posterite.35

Evolution is no longer possible for either of these families. There is no real winner or loser in the pro­ posed duel between don Carlos and Aben-Hamet for ulti­ mately they shall both die, either of supposedly natu­ ral causes, as was the case for the hero, or of wounds suffered in a duel, as was the case for don Carlos,

The theme of greatness makes the theme of death even more noble. Both Aben-Hamet and dona Blanca have their origins in famous, respected families, worthy of the noble sacrifices demanded in this work and making the eventual extinctions even more significant. Blanca is a direct descendant of the Cid, chosen as the incar­ nation of perfect chivalry. He is, in effect, the best 155 that Spain has to offer in the confrontation with Aben-

Hamet, a direct descendant of Boabdil, the last moorish

king of Granada. Boabdil*s image, possibly in need of

strengthening compared to the Cid's, is compared to

Frangois ler who suffered in defeat but did not undergo

the total humiliation or suffer nearly as great a loss

as that of Boabdil.

This theme of greatness is amplified by the libe­

ral use of words such as cel&bre, fameux and heros. It

is interesting that both uses of fameux refer to the

Abencerages and that all six uses of celebre refer to

Lautrec or the Spaniards representing the other side.

Aben-Hamet is said to belong to "cette raaison fameuse" and that upon his arrival in Granada fears that his name might be too fameux and cause consternation among the 37 Spaniards.Similarly, Lautrec is referred to as "ce guerrier, dej& celebre par son courage."^

The last few pages of this nouvelle cement this theme of greatness, for it is established that dona

Blanca could have loved no one but "le descendant des , 3 9 heros,"-^ foreshadowed by her singing of "les heros de mon pays [Aben-HametJ, Similarly, don Carlos expres­ ses annoyance at Aben-Hamet's criticisms of the Cidi

Sa generosite, repartit vivement don Carlos interrompant Aben-Hamet, surpassait encore son c0urage, et il n'y a que des Maures qui puissent 156

calomnier le heros h, qui ma famille doit le jour.**1

It is evident, then, that heroes are used on both sides to prove that their respective family trees are of equal value and greatness. The sacrifices at the end are not the result of weakness on one part but merely the natural issue of events. In spite of their greatness, these fa­ milies will also disappear and be replaced by other families and in spite of all their efforts now, they will be levelled by the grave. Their deeds will be their monu­ ments, the true monuments being the legacies of the Cid and of the moorish kingsi "le Cid fut notre aieul, il ho sera notre post^rite,"

There are far more references to the past than to the future in this nouvelle. There are twenty-seven p&res. six ancetres and thirteen aieux. Furthermore, fifteen of the seventeen uses of fille. all referring to dona Blanca, are circumlocutions emphasizing her ancestry rather than her own individuality! "la fille du due de

Santa-Fe," "la fille de don Rodrigue," "la fille des

Bivar." Although Aben-Hamet has his own identity, it too is overshadowed by his past heritage. The ultimate com­ pliment at the end is to call the hero a "veritable fils

4 , 3 de rois," J rather than recognize him as a hero in his own right. The most telling statement proving Chateau­ briand's lack of concern for the continuation of the 157 family lines is dona Blanca'si "Qu'importe des fils que

tu ne verras point."

This theme of death, with its apparent emphasis on

finality, is not, however, terminal in view of the uni­

verse and civilization. Although modern scholars are

quite justified in their insistence that Chateaubriand

is extremely concerned with the theme of extinction on

the level of the individual, they overlook the author's

treatment of life on a higher plane. Although indi­

viduals die, life is still very much evident and civili­

zation remains a living force, manifesting life in various ways. In this respect, the theme of life takes on much

greater magnitude than that of death.

It is significant that in the original version of

the manuscript, Aben-Hamet should accept a drink from a

poisoned cup and that he should wish to die then and there

but that in the final manuscript there should be no allu­

sion to this incident. Death is not sought and it is the

fear that dona Blanca might die as a result of his ac­

tions that encourages Aben-Hamet to accept her Christian

religion. Ultimately, birth is the dominant feature of

this universe. The author is conscious of "ces esperances 4*) de bonheur toujours naissantes," J for in spite of the individual's unsuccessful efforts to seek happiness, de­ sire nevertheless springs etemali "Grenade a cesse d'etre 158 pour lui [Aben-Hamet] deserte, abandonnee, veuve soli- tairej elle est plus chere que jamais 2l son coeur."

The presence of dona Blanca eliminates a feeling of gloom and death (represented by the interesting comparison of

Granada and a widow) from the mind of the hero.

The continual flow of life is best illustrated by the way in which Chateaubriand treats nature in Lea Aven- tures du dernier Abencerage, Nature is unquestionably a primary theme in this and any other work of fiction of

Chateaubriand, not a static nature but one that is con­ stantly alive, undergoing continual transformations. In this story, as in Atala, the charm of the natural scenery is seen as a force which tends to draw the two lovers to­ ko gether, ( This function of the landscape is quite evi­ dent in the following passage*

La lune, en se levant, repandit sa clarte douteuse dans les sanctuaires abandonnes, et dans les par­ vis deserts de 1'Alhambra, Ses blancs rayons des- sinaient sur le gazon des parterres, sur les murs des salles, la dentelle d ’une architecture aerienne, les cintres des cloitres, 1'ombre mobile des eaux jaillissantes, et celle des arbustes balances par le zephyr ,,• Et ces nobles amants sortirent de ce dangereux palais.

Aben-Hamet*s arrival in Granada is accompanied by a detailed description of the lushness of the landscape, a combination of specific, picturesque and vague notations.

Authenticity is provided by the naming of the mountains, rivers and the plain outside Granada and the comparison 159

of the city to a half-open pomegranate gives it colour.

The use of vague yet pleasant epithets such as couleur

admirable. ciel en clarte. gives the landscape depth i l Q and life. 7 Thus, the city is seen to be surrounded by

constantly growing life. Even after the death of the

hero, a palm tree grows over his grave. Although the

Moors have disappeared from Spain, nature, and by asso­

ciation, civilization continues to thrive.

All tombs and monuments are surrounded by indica­

tions of this continuing life. Orange trees appear to

symbolize the constant lushness of this universe. The plain around Granada is surrounded by them, offering hope

to the approaching Aben-Hamet. Again, as he arrives at

don Rodrigue*s palace, he is confronted by orange trees,

as he is also when he peers into the Alhambra and later when he meets dona Blanca in the cemetery outside the

converted mosque. Orange trees offer the promise of life

and although these promises are never realized by the in­

dividual, the trees continue to breathe hope and fertility.

It is significant that Aben-Hamet should approach

Granada through a green forest that towers above him, for

the forces of nature are much greater than those of the

individual. Similarly, dona Blanca and Aben-Hamet travel through an elm forest to reach the Alhambra and at don

Rodrigue's, the hero finds himself in a small wooded area. 160

Thus, the hero is always surrounded and overshadowed by

vegetation in bloom. Even the architecture of the Al­

hambra lets light in "comme k travers un tissu de

fleurs."^ A reminder is always present that nature will

outlive mortals and that the author is ever aware of the

living forces of this nature.

This living quality of nature is also expressed

by the many birds which fly through the nouvelle, whe­

ther the hirondelle in Lautrec's song or the mouette

plaintive flying over the Mediterranean, Even the

stillness of the Alhambra is rent by the echo of the

rossignol, to remind the two lovers of life and move­ ment, Aben-Hamet, in the previous chapter, was already

compared to a bird ("Aben-Hamet reparut la troisilme

annee comme ces oiseaux voyageurs"-^') but the most tel­

ling image is the last one of the nouvelle■ of the bird which pauses during his final trip to take a drink from

the hollow in Aben-Hamet*s tomb*

,., seulement, d'apres une coutume des Maures, on a creuse au milieu de cette pierre un leger enfoncement avec le ciseau, L'eau de la pluie se rassemble au fond de cette coupe funlbre et sert, dans un climat brGlant, a desalterer l'oiseau du ciel.52

This final image is one of nourishment and sustenance

of life. Although the hero is dead, the birds continue to fly. The final image is not one of death but of life, for the pause of the bird to drink definitely suggests l6l that the bird will continue to fly on.

Similarly, when Aben-Hamet writes an inscription in the Alhambra, tells Blanca that it is a mystery for future travellers to solve. Thus, he is quite aware of the fact that there will be others after his passing to take his place, and the stress of the nouvelle is conse­ quently not on the finality of death but rather on the assurance for the future.

For Chateaubriand, periods expire and individuals disappear but certain universal truths remain constant.

Dona Blanca is dressed in a nineteenth century costume, as if taken out of a Goya paintingi Son corset noir, garni de jais, serrait sa taille elegantei son jupon court, etroit et sans plis, decouvrait une jambe fine et un pied charmantj une mantille egalement noire etait jetee sur sa tStei elle tenait avec sa main gauche, cette mantille croisee et fermee comme une guimpe au- dessous de son menton, de sorte que l'on aperce- vait de tous son visage que ses grands yeux et sa bouche de rose.53 Although the action is set in the fifteenth century, the dress is contemporary for the author and the action could just as easily have taken place at the time at which the nouvelle was written. By placing the action back in history, the truths born out in the work can be viewed more objectively and with less personal harm to its author. Yet, even then, Chateaubriand was afraid that a work set back in time to the period of 162

Francois Ier could possibly be viewed as subversivei

Le portrait que j'ai trace des Espagnols ex- plique assez pourquoi cette nouvelle n'a pu etre imprimee sous le gouvernement imperial. La resistance des Espagnols k Buonaparte, d'un peuple de sarnie h. ce conquerant qui avait vaincu les meilleurs soldats de 1 ‘Europe, excitait alors 1 *enthousiasme de tous les coeurs susceptibles d'etre touches par les grands devouements et les nobles sacrifices. .

La peinture des vieilles moeurs de l'Europe, les souvenirs de la gloire d'un autre temps, et ceux de la cour d'un de nos plus brillants monarques, n'auraient pas ete plus agreables & la censure, qui d'ailleurs commencait h. se re- pentir de m'avoir tant de fois laisse parler de 1 'ancienne monarchie et de la religion de nos purest ces morts que j'evoquais sans cesse faisaient trop penser aux vivants.5^

Thus, the author was himself very much aware that re­ gardless of the setting, the r31e of the individual in the universe does not change. Civilization is a living force that continues to breathe life. The reactions and struggles of individuals do not change throughout the course of history, for man makes the same mistakes re­ peatedly from generation to subsequent generation. The fact that the author considered the struggles of the nine­ teenth century akin to the difficulties encountered by

Aben-Hamet and don Carlos, proves his conviction that death is not laden with finality, as modern scholars would have it, but rather that history and civilization are continuing processes. Thus it can be concluded that civilization is in­ deed a living organism. Chateaubriand sees, in Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage. not only the events of the past and synthesizes his views into several types of images as examined above. All forms of death are over­ shadowed by the appearance of new and continually gro­ wing life. Ruins, graves, converted tradtions and man-made symbols are always associated with vegetation or the presence of living people, for Chateaubriand, ob­ sessed with these symbols of literal or figurative death, ultimately does not consider them wholly representative of finality but as steps in the evolution of mankind.

These monuments are less symbolic of the death of indi­ viduals than they are representative of their former existence as active forms of life. What they leave be­ hind are their memories, buildings and traditions, all of which can be adapted by contemporary circumstances to nourrish and encourage new organisms. Seen collectively, all of the monuments present, juxtaposed with the living qualities found in and represented by nature, prove that man is not a universe in himself but that he in his own way can contribute towards the greater forces of life itself and consequently of civilization. NOTES - CHAPTER IV

Chateaubriand, Le Genie du Christianisme. II, p. 40. Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage, p. 289.

C b i d .. p. 270.

^Schenk, H.G. The Mind of the European Roman­ tics . (New Yorki Doubleday and Co., 1969)* p. ^5*

Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 289* 6Ibid.t p. 326.

7Ibid.. p. 266. 8Ibid., p. 315. 9Ibid.. p. 272. 10Ibid., p. 290. ■^Richard, Pavsage de Chateaubriand, p. 18.

12Ibid.t p. 71. ■^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 31$, ■^Dieguez, Manuel de, Chateaubriand ou le poete face l'histoire, (Parisi Plon, 1963), p. 135* ■^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 270. l6Ibid.. p. 310. 17Ibid., p. 312. 1 Q Richard, Pavsage de Chateaubriand, p. 56. ^ Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 265. 20Ibid., p. 310. P1 Moreau, Pierre, "Lee Horizons chimeriques de Chateaubriand," in Revue des Sciences humaines, octobre- decembre, 1968, vol. xxxiii, no, 132., p. 531* 165 pp Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage, p. 295*

23A famous legend of Granada. Perez de Hita des­ cribes the scene wherein don Rodrigue, grand master of Calatrava, awaited the Abencerage Prince Mu§a, whom he killed in a spectacular duel, p h Chateaubriand, Le Dernier Abencerage. p. 324#

25Ibid., p. 304. p iT Riffaterre, Michael, "Chateaubriand et le monument imaginaire," p. ?6.

27Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 32?. 28 Richard, Pavsage de Chateaubriand, p. 103,

2^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage, p* 256.

3°Ibid., p. 316,

31Ibid.. p. 316.

32Dieguez, Chateaubriand oti le poete face II l ^ i s t o i r e , p. 110.

33Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 326.

3^Ibid.. P. 259.

33Ibid., P. 304.

36Ibid.. P* 259.

37Ibid., P« 273.

38Ibid., P* 311.

39Ibid.. P* 326.

^°Ibid., P. 273.

^ I b i d . . P. 324.

^2Ibid.. P* 305.

**3Ibid.. P* 327. ^ I b i d . i p. 305*

^ I b i d • • p. 258. ^ 6Ibid., p. 270,

*^Ibid., p . 291. |lO Walker, "Chateaubriand's natural scenery," 166,

^ Ibid. p. 165.

-^Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 257.

51Ibid., p. 299. ^2Ibid.. p. 330.

^■^Ibid., p. 268.

^ I b i d ., p. 2^9. CHAPTER V

FATALISMi THE HERO'S

ACCEPTANCE OF HIS UNIVERSE

Action in the universe portrayed in L o b Aven­ tures du dernier Abenc^rage is a constant struggle on the part of the individual to regain his earthly para­ dise, to break the bonds holding him in a quasi-impri­ soned state and attain the liberty of the oiseau-vova- geur. He is surrounded by symbols of life and hope but finds his movements restricted by reminders of the past*

Chateaubriand will be seen to express a sense of fatalism in this work leading to the eventual abandonment of the resistance of the hero and subsequent submission to for­ ces greater than himself. This fatalism will be seen to be illustrated by the themes of dualism and fire, and is further reinforced by the dramatic structure of the nouvelle itself. These themes are juxtaposed with that of flowing water which emphasizes the hero's frustrated efforts by showing the unbridled nature of life around him. The resulting philosophy to be gained from an aware­ ness of this fatalism governing the individual is one of acceptance. The only way that man can form a meaning­ ful part of this cosmos is by putting aside wasteful 167 168 dreams of impossible goals and by adopting a work ethic based on determination and cooperation with his fellow man.

The hero*s actions in this universe seem governed by some mysterious forces determining his future. He is not the victim of an unresponsive God manipulating the destinies of his creations but of an undefined set of forces that prevent man from becoming his own master and from governing the world in which he lives. The effect of this fatalism is best demonstrated by the theme of impossible love which is the basis of Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage.

It is readily evident that this nouvelle resem­ bles Rene. Atala and Les Martyrs in that it too is the story of two lovers destined never to consummate their passion. Am61ie is relegated to a convent, Atala dies of poison, Cymodocde falls in the arena and dona Blanca is forced to reject Aben-Hameti "retourne au desert,1*1

Love is always portrayed as thwarted and conquered in

Chateaubriand’s works of fiction. There is never any indication of a happily-married couple and as in the other works cited, religion is the force, the pretext, by which the passions of the lovers are neutralized. Religion does not seem to limit itself to a physical separation of man and woman in love but appears to curb all natural 169 desires in man in its attempt to control the destinies

of the individuals in this universe. The heroines men­ tioned are all obliged by forces greater than their own wills to consciously yet unwillingly abandon their dreams of love and accept virtual or actual death, and, conse­ quently, leave the hero in solitude to accept the will of Fate. These mysterious forces are not limited to those of religion, however, for it has already been shown that other influences, such as honour and duty, also place the hero in the same circumstances.

The author is very much aware of the impossibi­ lity of individual happiness in this universe, perhaps a reflection of the fact that he was in exile at the time of composition of this nouvelle and that his movements were under surveillance. Les Aventures du dernier Aben­ cerage is filled with allusions to man's controlled ac­ tions, to the fates which govern his future* "Que

1'dvdnement fatal qui nous rassemble ici soit & jamais * 2 ignore de Grenade." This is supported by seven references to destinee and the relatively frequent use of impossible.

Irresistible. r^slster (used in negative constructions) and s'empecher. also used in the negative sense, all of which imply the powerless nature of man to affect the course of events* "Cette musique et cette danse fixerent sans retour le destin du dernier Abencdrage."^* "Le destin de ma vie est fixe pour jamais,There are numerous other examples of individual action restricted by a form of fate* "Blanca se trouva bient8t engagee dans une passion profonde par 1*impossibility merae oh elle crut etre d'eprouver jamais cette passion"^

"L'Abencerage ressentait de son cdte toute la puissance d'une passion irresistible."^ The hero and heroine are thus quite aware of their inability to control their feelings and reactions, in spite of their efforts to com­ bat them. Their efforts span a period of three years but they are eventually obliged to bow to these forces affecting their lives,

Chateaubriand had already noticed this fatalism in his trip to the Orient, for it is we11-entrenched in arabic philosophy. Thus, it is no coincidence that

Aben-Hamet, an arab, should make constant allusions to his powerless nature. C ’dtait ecrit occurs numerous times.

It is first uttered by the hero upon his arrival in Gra­ nada after having been told of the present Spanish poli­ tical situation by his guide. It is subsequently re­ peated in the last three stanzas of Aben-Hamet*s song at the Generalife. Even more significantly, it is also re­ stated by the guide, who after crossing himself, tells the heroi "Marchons seigneur Maurei raarchons, Dieu I 1a voulu! Prenez courage. Francois Ier n'est-il pas au- /

171

jourd'hui prisonnier dans notre Madrid? Dieu l'a

youlu."^ These utterances definitely foreshadow the tra­

gic end of the nouvelle. for it shall he seen that indeed,

it appears to have heen pre-deterrained that Aben-Hamet

should return alone to Africa.

Fatalism is thus portrayed as the master of the

individual's actions. The word esclave is used eleven

times to demonstrate the weakness of man as seen in Aben-

Hamet' s form of address to dona Blancai "0 esclave chre- p tienne, plus belle que les vierges de la Georgie."

Similarly, chaines (enchatne) are used four times, maltre

(maitresse) are used ten times and puissant (puissance)

are used five times. The gazelle, shown to represent

dona Blanca, is symbolically chained upon its arrival in

Granada, just as the Moors had had to trade garlands of

flowers for chains a number of years before. The charac­

ters in this work are not omnipowerful but have to sub­ mit to masters, either "vos anciens raaitres ou plutdt o vos rois,"^ in the case of Aben-Hamet, or Charles V,

"mon maitre"*® in the case of don Carlos.

On a higher level than that of human masters,

both the Christian and Muslim Gods are seen as control­

lers of man's destiny and are treated with resentment!

"l'inimite de nos dieux, de nos patries et de nos fa­ ll milles," certainly corresponds to "Allah est puis- 1?2 12 sant." On a more abstract level, emotions too are governed by uncontrollable forces* "Ne pouvant plus rdsister aux sentiments qui troublaient son coeur, il

[Aben-Hamet] sortit au milieu de la nuit pour errer dans les rues de Grenade.Thus, man is at the mercy of many forces, religion being only one of them, that com­ pel him to act in ways contrary to his desires. He did not come to Spain to fall in love, and at the end did not go to the Generalife to renounce his love and abandon his intentions of converting.

The Themes of Dualism and Fire

Fatalism is successfully illustrated by the use of two principal themes* that of dualism and that of fire. Dona Blanca and Aben-Hamet are two individuals seeking a happy union in marriage but this linking of the two into one family unit will never occur. The cha­ racters will remain as two separate entities and the theme of dualism will stress the continued separation of the two lovers and the impossibility of their union in this universe.

Deux is used a frequent twenty-eight times in Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage to stress this schism in love. Words of union such as alliance are used only.in a negative sense to demonstrate its impossibility. 173 Furthermore, the whole nouvelle is composed of parallel images and references to pairs. For every mention of things Christian, there is a corresponding one to things moorishi "'Sois Chrdtien,* disait Blanca* #sois musul- mane,' disait Aben-Hamet," There are two Gods under consideration, the Christian one and Allah, two cultural heritages and two countries. Most obvious are the two lovers. This dualism is inherent in the conflict of forbidden love and attains its climax in the duel between

Carlos and Aben-Hamet, where all corresponding halves are put to the ultimate test* yet, neither side tastes victory and separation continues. Compromise is impos­ sible. There is no acceptance of the other's way of life for the author chooses to end on this theme of dualism.

Both dona Blanca and Aben-Hamet, as all of Chateaubriand's heroes, embody two civilizations. Blanca, a Spaniard, learns Arabic between her lover's first and second trips to Spain* Aben-Hamet, the Moor, has a formerly Spanish background and speaks an almost flawless Spanish. Nei­ ther character, however, actually rejects his own heri­ tage to totally accept the other.

This theme of dualism is seen throughout Les

Aventures du dernier Abencerage in the many images of

"two," either by the comparison of Granada, situated on two hills, to a half-open pomegranate (two halves), by duels or by the symbolic gestures of joining, whether of the two ends of the collar around the neck of the gazelle or of the joining of Blanca’s two hands upon Aben-Hamet* s declaration of love. Water, however, expresses this dualism most eloquently. It is significant that two ri­ vers should flow around Granada, the Darro and the Xenil.

There are many such images of streams of water, separated and sometimes re-uniting. Whereas Aben-Hamet had dreamt of a union with dona Blanca, the circumstances presented at the end of the nouvelle make such a marriage impossible and undesirable* Mil ne pensait qu’avec dpouvante & l'idee d ’unir le sang des persecuteurs au sang des persecutes."*-*

This is emphasized by the two streams of tears which flow down his cheeks. Fate has put this union asunder and the separation is now permanent.

The second theme illustrating the theme of fata­ lism is that of fire. It can be used to represent the extreme desires burning within the individual but will ultimately depict the consummation of this same indivi­ dual* "consume de la mSme ardeur, l'Abencerage demande h. partager le meme secours."1** Feu is always associated with the hero Aben-Hamet and accompanies all major in­ stances of intense hope and longing, whether it be of

Aben-Hamet dreaming of fire-breathing dragons while walking through the deserted streets of Granada or the lit candles or torches present in the converted mosque or at the Generalife respectively. Similarly, intense emotion is often expressed by verbs of burning such as»

"la haine qui brftle dans mon coeur contre les ennemis de

Dieu."1^ or the comparison of Aben-Haraet's love for dona 18 Blanca with "l'ardeur des vents brfllants de l'Arabie."

Yet, these images of fire are not used to stress the greatness of man's emotions as much as they illustrate the way in which these emotions ultimately devour the individual and prevent the realization of the hero's desiresi "Songe, 8 Maure, pour te parler ton langage, que le feu qui allurae le flambeau est aussi le feu qui 19 le consume." 7 These images of fire thus suggest that man is powerless before the elements and that his destiny can be controlled by forces in this universe other than his own.

Dramatic Elements in the "Nouvelle"

The structure of Les Aventures du dernier Aben- cdrage provides a very interesting insight into the au­ thor's conscious or sub-conscious awareness of the fa­ talism governing the actions of men in this universe.

Although it was established in the first chapter that the story is a nouvelle. the work has numerous dramatic elements and takes on the appearance of a play within a 176 play, wherein the actions of the individual are hut a game whose outcome is pre-determined. In the original unpublished avertissement to this work, the author indi- 20 cated that it was to be a Mpetit ouvrage draraatique,M 21 and dona Blanca's "Maure, ces jeux sont cruels. . only supports this notion.

It has already been established that the three songs performed at the Generalife are but resumes of the r6le of the singer in this universe. Consequently, the characters are used to act out their own destinies in both song as well as in action, a situation similar to dona Blanca's thinking that she is AlfaSma, walking to the Alhambra with the bel Abencerage. The characters are thus reduced to puppets, rehearsing their parts in song before manipulated by the forces of Fate to repeat these movements in reality.

These dramatic qualities, extended throughout the work, are evident in several ways. To begin with, there is a generous use of phrases such as Blanca re- pondit and dit Aben-Hamet. emphasizing the oral quali­ ties of a work destined at the very least to be read aloud, Such phrases keep the audience aware of the spea­ ker. Similarly, the frequent use of s'eerier adds to 22 the dramatic and emotional use of dialogue. Secondly, there is considerable use of highly visual actions such 177 as duels and dancing. The characters appear to be lite­

rally acting out their parts and the author is careful

to point out when one character passes a guitar to the

next singer or to have Aben-Hamet point to the portraits

in the Generalife. Such gestures enable the reader to

picture the setting with the least amount of narrative.

Thirdly, Chateaubriand takes great pains to prepare the

setting of the theatre within the nouvelle. as if pro­

viding stage directions*

Lautrec avait fait servir les plus beaux fruits de l'Espagne et de l*Afrique dans une des salles du Generalife, appelde la salle des Chevaliers, Tout autour de cette salle etaient suspendus les portraits des princes et des chevaliers vainqueurs des Maures, Pelasge, le Cid, Gonzalve de Cordoue. L'epee du dernier roi de Grenade etait attachee au-dessous de ces portraits .••

La nuit vint* on apporta des flambeaux* la con­ versation changes de cours. On pria don Carlos de raconter la decouverte du Mexique ...23

The setting has been described, all are seated and the

action is about to commence. Finally, the author is al­ ways careful to place his hero in the centre of the stage

in moments of high dramatic tension* "'Que dis-tu?’

s'^cria Aben-Hamet, s'elangant du silge ofc il etait h.

demi couche ... il [Aben-HametJ resta debout au milieu oh, de don Carlos, de Lautrec et de dona Blanca ^tonnes."

There is no question in the mind of the audience as to where attention is to be focused. 178

Thus, it is obvious that the work is laden with dramatic elements and that the author is a narrator, relating a story, illustrating it periodically with small dramatic scenes. The story does not unfold in the author’s mind as he writes it but is predetermined* he manipulates his characters whose destinies are fixed from the outset.

This corresponds to Blanca’s reflection that love is but a cruel game in this universe, just as she later berates

Aben-Hamet* "Maure ... laisse IS. ta ruse,"2'* for he too is playing a game to find out whether or not she really loves him. She is aware that her actions are a game and that the outcome is predetermined, regardless of their efforts to change the rules. Her despair is evident in the use of cruel applied to the game described above, for in spite of her awareness of the circumstances, she is nevertheless compelled to keep acting out her futile part.

Not only is she controlled by fate, she is aware of the fact and is powerless to do anything about it.

The Theme of Water

It has been shown that fatalism is present in this work but it should be emphasized that it is limited to the individual. All other forms of life, such as those found in nature and described in the previous chap­ ter, are unbridled and have no restrictive forces applied 179 to them. This contrast between the governed individual and free life around him is best illustrated by the theme of water, either by flowing water or by the sea, for the juxtaposition of these images with those of the helpless hero provide an interesting appreciation of the philosophy of the author as seen in Les A ventures du dernier Abencerage.

There are numerous comparisons of life and time with the image of water flowing freely. The association of life and flowing is evident in the comparison with 26 blood* "son sang coule dans raes veines." Flowing water eloquently represents the continual march of time and life and there are numerous occurrences of s'ecouler to illustrate thisi "Les jours du couple heureux s'^cou- l^rent comme ceux de I'annee precedente,"^ Similarly,

"Dejli plusieurs anndes s’etaient ecoulees sans apporter de remede h. ses mauxi verrait-il ainsi s'ecouler le reste 28 de sa vie?" It is also significant that as Aben-Hamet looks out over the valley of Granada, he should see a river flowing alongside the ruins of various civilizations for although civilizations die out, life, as the river continues to flow.

Similarly, the hero is on several occasions jux­ taposed with a fountain flowing at a regular speed.

Whereas in a variant, a fountain in the Alhambra was a 180 29 "courant d'eau limpide," 7 it became a flowing fountain

in the final version of the manuscript. Aben-Hamet is

confronted with yet another flowing fountain in another

room of the Alhambrat MUne fontaine jaillissait au mi­

lieu de 1*edifice, et ses eaux, retombant en rosee,

etaient recueillies dans une conque d'alb&tre."^0 The

desirability of this flowing water is expressed by the

feeling of the "fraicheur des eaux11*^ and by the fact

that the Moors in Africa were nostalgic for the beauti­

ful fountains of Granada as there were no similar ones

where they now resided.

The sea is equally important as an image of

continual life, unaffected by fate. The sea represents

desire, yet also disappointment, for it is a constant

reminder of the separation of the two lovers. Although

this is not a tempestuous breton sea characteristic of

Chateaubriand's youth, so exalted in his memoirs, it

nevertheless attracts both Aben-Hamet and dona Blanca

by its harmonious beauty and by its illusion of infinite

depth and breadth. It offers an unlimited scope for

revery and nostalgia and it is significant that Aben-

Hamet should turn back for one final look at it before

crossing the roontagnes effravantes still separating him

from Blanca. After the final schism, this same sea re­ mains unchanged, still offering the tantalizing hope of 181 happiness as Blanca stares into the distance at the boats, perhaps hoping that one of them might be Aben-Hamet's•

Similarly, after his final expulsion from Granada,

Boabdil stares at the sea from the top of Mount Padul in

Africa, reflecting on his recent loss while the Mediter­ ranean again remains unchanged.

The sea, thus, represents permanence and free­ dom from these forces affecting the individual, for whereas his fortunes change drastically throughout the work, the sea survives all influences. As in Rene.

Chateaubriand places his lovers along a coast for the liberty of the sea contrasts the restrictions on the characters, Aben-Hamet crosses this sea to go to Spain to avenge his ancestors, crosses it twice more to see dona Blanca and crosses it one final time to return to

Africa. Blanca ends her days staring nostalgically into this sea. It is not tempestuous but placid and covered with boats symbolizing life, for the Mediterranean has been undisturbed by the events in Granada.

The Philosophy of this ^Nouvelle1*

Throughout the work, the characters repeatedly attempt to counter the. mysterious forces acting upon them. Eventually, however, they are obliged to renounce these efforts and accept their destiny with dignity. 182

There are many words indicative of this final abandon­ ment, often used with words such as oblige de and a dfl.

Honour does not make one accept as much as renouncej

"il renonce & moi plut3t que renoncer & la religion de ses peres."^2 Furthermore, the final rejection is al­ ways the more difficult of the two choices available, for reconciliation and compromise are not available in this universe and quitter always implies a refusal of happiness. This final defeat is a permanent one and involves the departure of the hero without any hope of return.

The philosophy inherent in the nouvelle is a stoic one of acceptance and self-disciplinet "elle

[dona Blanca] accepta ce mal en veritable Espagnole."

Similarly, don Carlos had to supporter many hardships while serving his King in Mexico and ultimately, dona

Blanca invites Aben-Hamet to stay with them in Spain for they will teach him to "supporter les maux de la vie."*^ The people best typifying this attitude ad­ mired by Chateaubriand are the Spaniards and it is for this reason that the author had to delay publication of this work* "Le portrait que j*ai trace des Espagnols explique assez pourquoi cette nouvelle n'a pu etre im- primee sous le gouvemement imperial.Because of their immense self-discipline and restraint, Spaniards 183 are portrayed,with great admiration!

Les eveneraents que don Carlos eut sous les yeux dis sa plus tendre jeunesse, les perils aux- quels il fut expose presque au sortir de l'en- fance, ne firent que rendre plus rigide et plus grave un caractlre naturellement porte h. l'aus- tdrite .*. il avait supporte tous les dangers, il avait ete temoin de toutes les horreurs de cette etonnante aventure.35

D*un courage heroSque, d'une patience h. toute epreuve, incapable de ceder h. la mauvaise for­ tune , il faut qu'il la dompte ou qu*il en soit ecrasd.36

Aben-Hamet, by contrast, comes to Spain with dreams of avenging his forefathers. He is young and tired of suf­ fering and eventually wants to give in and succumb to dona Blanca*s request and convert to Christianity. In the presence of the Spaniards, however, he learns to ac­ cept his fate nobly and take "la seule [resolution] qui soit digne de toi [Blanca].He has learned that he must suppress natural instincts in this universe and choose the more difficult path of abnegation.

Tears and similar signs of regret are scorned.

Aben-Hamet tells dona Blanca1 "pleure & jamais sur le dernier Abencerage,but there is no indication that she ever does so, for "un etranger I'aurait crue heu- 39 reuse."^ Similarly, Boabdil cries upon seeing the cy­ press trees from the top of Mount Padul but is also taught to accept his fate with the dignity becoming a kingi 18^

"Pleure maintenant comme une femme un royaume que tu n'as su defendre comme un homme." Ils descendirent de la montagne. et Grenade disparut k leurs yeux pour toujours.40

The solution offered by Chateaubriand is one of work, determined effort and cooperation with fellow man.

As Ren^ and Chactas before him, Aben-Hamet is led to an awareness that grandiose dreams and self-pity are waste­ ful. The example to follow is that of the Moors in

Africai

Ne pouvant plus lever la lance dans les deserts, ni se couvrir du casque dans une colonie de la- boureurs, ils s'etaient consacres k 1*etude des simples, profession estimee chez les Arabes k l ’egal du metier d'armes. Ainsi, cette race de guerriers qui jadis faisait des blessures, s'oc- cupait maintenant de l'art de les guerir. En cela elle avait retenu quelque chose de son premier genie, car les chevaliers pansaient sou- vent eux-memes les plaies de l'ennemi qu'ils avaient abattu.^1

Dreams, representing vanity, have no place in this uni­ verse. Fate ultimately leads the individual away from illusion to the realties of life that still lie ahead of him.

Chateaubriand, in Les Aventures du dernier Aben- cerage. is slowly shifting towards a more mature approach to Christianity than that reflected in the expectations of Rene from religion. Christianity is not to be consi­ dered a refuge for people disenchanted by the world in which they live. His faith is beginning to take on an 185

aspect of confidence in the moral progress of humanity

and in the value of the most humble of souls which gets

its liberty from God. In his earlier years, it was the

author*s lack of faith in man that led the author, in

the person of Rene, to a belief in God. Now his faith

in God stems from a more mature and reinforced belief . 42 in man.

Fatalism, then, has an ultimately beneficial

r5le in the universe depicted in Les Aventures du

dernier Abencerage. Its purpose is not to create to­

tal unhappiness by the forced separation of the indi­

viduals within it and by the thwarting of the natural

instincts in man, but rather to curb certain desires

in an effort to awaken an initially dormant sense of

responsibility in the individual. Man is placed in

this world to cooperate with his fellow man and to work

towards a common good. Man is not intended to concen­

trate his efforts and actions on the satisfaction of

his own personal needs. The individual is not always aware of his duties, however, for they are clouded by

dreams. Fatalism, consequently, is present to direct

the hero towards a realization of the part that he is

to contribute towards the progress and evolution of

civilization. 186

NOTES - CHAPTER V

Chateaubriand, Le dernier Abencerage. p. 328.

2Ibid » P« 309. 3Ibid t P. 280. ^Ibid t P. 293. 5Ibid t P« 281. 6Ibid t P. 281. 7Ibid 1 P« 264. 8Ibid * P» 269. 9Ibid > P. 286. 10Ibid t P* 303. 11Ibid * P. 326. 12Ibid t P* 288. 13Ibid » P« 265. 1^Ibid P« 299. 15Ibid t P* 328. l6Ibid t P* 293.

17Ibid * P« 324.

l8Ibid > P. 325.

19Ibid t P* 312. 20 Gagnebin, Bernard, MUn fragment inedit du der­ nier Abencerage," in Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand. XI-XII (1968-69), 57. 21 Street, Jack, The Style of "Las Aventures du dernier Abencerage" by Chateaubriand*! [doctoral disser­ tation, State' University of Iowa], 1964, p. 10. 18?

23Chateaubriand ,

^Ibid., P. 324.

25Ibid.. P- 312,

26Ibid.. P. 324.

27Ibid,. P. 298.

28Ibid.. P. 309.

29Ibld., P. 283.

3°Ibid.. P* 287.

31Ibid.. P« 285.

32Ibid.. P. 303.

33Ibid.. P« 308,

^ I b i d . . P« 249.

33Ibid,, P. 275.

36Ibid.. P* 277.

37Ibid.. P. 326.

38Ibid.. P. 325.

39Ibid., P« 329.

^°Ibid.. P* 254.

^Ibid.. P« 256.

^2Clarae, • Pierre, j in Diuunoenna Minard, 19717, p. 1887 CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS1

It has been demonstrated in Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage that Chateaubriand is basically op­ timistic in his view of the future of man. He has portrayed man as struggling for freedom, attempting various sorts of voyages to attain certain goals, yet thwarted by his inherent blindness and by other restric­ tions such as horizontal circles, as seen in the second chapter, nostalgia, honour, duty and religion. The hero is unable to fulfill his grandiose and selfish dreams and is led rather, to an ethic of work destined to satisfy not personal desires but the ever-constant evolution of the universe depicted in this nouvelle. The author, then, does not believe in the needs of the individual as much as those of a common good, ^‘he pitiful state of the hero is not meant to attract sympathy but rather to teach a lesson, to relate, perhaps, the conclusions to which the author himself had come during his own personal exiles.

The actions of the hero during the course of events in this work are not to be interpreted as a model to imitate but rather as an example of how not to live. The truly didactic elements of the nouvelle are found in its last

188 few pages.

Chateaubriand has reduced the universe in which he lives to a microcosm represented by Granada. He does not seek to understand the laws governing this universe but rather their practical application. Although scho­ lars have felt that Chateaubriand forgets the world around him to concentrate on his own personal microcosm, it is our opinion that this is a distortion of Chateaubriand's global view of life. It has been shown that he is only too conscious of the continual flow of life, of the con­ stant evolution inherent in this life, yet also of the constancy of certain basic truths and laws controlling it.

Civilization is, then, a truly living organism, always moving on, unhindered by any internal or external forces. Man, on the contrary, is always restricted in his movements and in his future, by his blindness, by the forces of the past and by the powers of religion.

The individual is always relegated to the horizontal circles of solitude, for, like history, the individual will eventually be engulfed by the constant march of

Life and Time. Man is given a feeling of togetherness with this world by his cooperation with his fellow man and by his efforts to contribute towards progress, for man is the bearer of history. It is through the efforts 190 of man that History acquires any form of significance and gives any sense to this universe.

The personal elements in Les Aventures du der­ nier Abencerage have been seen to he quite predominant.

It was established in the first chapter that there is every indication that Chateaubriand copied some of his materiali that the events in the work were not necessarily truly representative of his own movements at Granada and that consequently his creative genius is not as fertile as imagined by his contemporaries. Chateaubriand had indicated in his memoirs that a man of genius is not the one who imitates no one but the one who can be imi­ tated by no one. If his descriptions are not taken precisely from reality, it is because reality disap­ pointed Chateaubriand. He preferred to re-construct the universe as he viewed it in his own mind, not as he actually saw it. What he tried to depict was not a pre­ cise picture of flora and fauna but the permanent charac­ teristics of the universe in which he lived. He is not really writing an historical novel but rather a work in which events have been set in the past in order to ren­ der the present more clearly. In this respect, Les Aven­ tures du dernier Abencerage is the story of a man who finds himself and discovers and relates his position in the universe in which he lives. 192

NOTES - CHAPTER VI

i It must be pointed out that the conclusions arrived at in this study were immensely facilitated by the use of the concordance mentioned in the intro­ duction. Numerous allusions have been made to the frequencies of certain words. This was easily accom­ plished by looking certain words up in the concordance and by having all occurences of the word together. It was then a simple task to detect characteristic uses of that word. Having established idiosyncracies about certain words, it was then far easier to relate groups of words and establish certain themes in the nouvelle and discover their collective use and their contribu­ tions towards a formulation of the philosophy inherent in it. Although the concordance by no means provided information that could not have been established by traditional methods of scholarship, it did make such a project feasible, for it could otherwise have taken countless months to properly and accurately establish the hierarchies of the words in this work and derive meaningful conclusions from them. APPENDIX A

. PRESENT STATE OF STUDIES ON WHETHER CHATEAUBRIAND

VISITED GRENADA ALONE

The earliest reference to a meeting at Granada is the report of the Duke of Laval who visited the Al­ hambra in 1822 and supposedly erased names and lines of poetry reminiscent of both Chateaubriand’s famous trip to Jerusalem and the incident in the nouvelle wherei

Aben-Hamet ecrivit au clair de la lune, le nora de Blanca sur le marbre de la salle des Deux- Soeurs* il traqa ce nom en caracteres arabes, afin que le voyageur efit un mystere de plus k deviner dans ce palais, des mysteres.2

Taken at face value, this would confirm the visit of

Chateaubriand and an as yet unidentified lady to the

Alhambra, and bolster suspicion that the lines quoted above serve to suggest personal experience.

It seems surprising, however, that the Duke of

Laval should have erased these lines. Should knowledge of a liaison with Nathalie been spread among Chateaubri­ and's friends (as is likely) and should it have been of­ fensive to many (as is possible), why then, if the Duke of Laval were trying to keep this affair a secret by removing traces of it at Grenada, should he have spoken of his actions publicly? It seems certain that at least

193 194

acquaintances of Chateaubriand knew of the Duke's era­

sure, for Sainte-Beuve refers to it in his study of

Chateaubriand *

On assurait, il y a quelques annees_, que les noms s'y lisaient encore, mais je ne crois pas que ce fdt precisement en arabe qu'ils etaient ecrits.3

The critic to actually cristallize the polemic

was Sainte-Beuve, who seized upon an extract of the

Memoires d*outre-tombe read aloud at Madame Recamier's

salon in 1834 and discussed it on five separate occasional

Mais ai-je tout dit dans l'ltineraire sur ce voyage commence au port de Desdemona et d'Othello? Allais-je au tombeau du Christ dans les dispositions du repentir? Une seule pen- see m'absorbaitj je coraptais avec impatience les moments. Du bord de mon navire, les regards attaches a l'etoile du soir, je lui demandais des vents pour cingler plus vite, de la gloire pour me faire aimer. J'esperais en trouver & Sparte, Sl Sion, k Memphis, h. Carthage, et l'ap- porter b. l'Alhambra. Comme le coeur me battait en abordant les cotes de I'Espagne! Aurait-on garde mon souvenir ainsi que j'avais traverse mes epreuves? Que de malheurs ont suivi ce rayst&rel Le soleil les eclaire encore. ... Si je cueille & la derobee un instant de bon- heur, il est trouble par la mdmoire de ces.jours de seduction, d'enchantement et de delire.4

Sainte-Beuve concludes that Chateaubriand was referring

to Nathalie de Noailles, that they had a pre-arranged meeting at Granada and that “il y a un vide et un ablme

entre ses [Chateaubriand's] buts avoues et ses buts

secrets."-'

This study is significant for several reasons. 195 First of all, the existence of such a text as the one

above, definitely suggests that Chateaubriand was trans­

cribing personal experience in the Abencerage, Secondly,

this study was to orient criticism of the nouvelle towards

a critical examination of Chateaubriand's sincerity,

ultimately leading to detailed investigations of his

itinerary, moon charts, maps and eye-witness accounts,

in an effort to determine whether or not he could really

have seen Nathalie de Noailles at the Alhambra. Thirdly,

the Sainte-Beuve study established a tradition* it was

to be several generations before serious attempts were made to prove that Chateaubriand and Nathalie couldn't have met at Granada.

Villemain stated quite categorically in 1858

that the work was not entirely fictitiousi

La fiction est nee du souvenir. Dans les jar- dins de 1 'Alhambra, une amitie trop tendre, semblable k celle qu'au douzifcme si&cle on expiait par un voyage en Terre Saints, etait venue attendre le nouveau et plus faible penitent au retour de sa mission. II n'en dit rien dans ses Memoiresi mais des mots epars ailleurs ont confirme cette m^disance de Paris. II ramena jusqu'au sombre palais de l'Escurial la belle et spirituelle voya- geuse qu'il avait trouve k Grenade,6

This questioning of Chateaubriand's sincerity was seriously challenged by his friend Marcellus in

1859. The latter concedes the possibility of a rendez­ vous but defends the author's right to be believedi 196

"de tous les defauts qu'on a pu raisonnablement lui reprocher, nous retranchons hardiment l'hypocrisie

Benoit, on the other hand, was to side with Villeraain and Sainte-Beuve, feeling that Aben-Hamet was most surely o Chateaubriand himself.

It was only after 1880 that the memoirs of some of Chateaubriand's contemporaries added some badly needed facts to the polemic. Regrettably, this information is often incomplete and contradictory but nevertheless sheds considerable light upon what had been hitherto a fairly obscure and vague subject. Hyde de Neuville's memoirs, for example, were published from 1888 to 1892.^ He was in Spain at the same time as Nathalie de Noailles, who was there to document herself with sketches in order to illustrate her brother Alexandre de Laorde's forthcoming 10 book on Spain. Hyde de Neuville adds that Nathalie loved Spain, that she called herself Dolores and that she used to perform Spanish dances as does dona Blanca in the Abencerage. Furthermore, he adds that she was very much involved with Chateaubriand and that she spoke of him incessantly. He goes on to say that he met Cha­ teaubriand on her behalf when the latter landed at

Cadiz.

On the other hand, the memoirs of Madame de

Boigne were to emphasize Nathalie's infidelity, contra- 197 dieting Hyde de Neuville's favorable picture of her.

According to Madame de Boigne, Nathalie and Chateau­ briand had a rendez-vous at the Fountain of Lions but that a cruel irony kept them from realizing it. Chateaubriand was two months late for the appointment and Nathalie, impatient, met an English colonel who occupied her for a few weeks. Chateaubriand arrived not to the open arms of an adoring woman but to a woman deep in mourning over the death of a rival who had been successful in his ab­ sence. Madame de Boigne adds that it was from that time on that Chateaubriand’s ardour began to cool, but that he nevertheless travelled with Nathalie in Spain.

Francis Gribble in 1909 pieces together much of this scattered documentation but makes a serious reser­ vation. Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage can be used as a source of information but it must not be forgotten that the work is a romance, not a confession, and that it is unwise to say that dona Blanca is Nathalie de

Noailles, although there are obviously influences of the real characters upon the fictitious ones. Gribbles feels for example, that the writing of Blanca's name on the 11 marble is probably a touch of reminiscene.

These memoirs seemed, however, to constitute suf­ ficient proof for most that the meeting has indeed taken place. Beaunier, in 1910, was to statei "Dans le der- nier Abencerage. il a dissimule sous le symbole d'une 12 anecdote romanesque un souvenir d* amour." Lemaitre

joined the traditionalists in 1912, saying* "Chateau­

briand allait k Jerusalem pour le plaisir de trouver

au retour Madame de Noailles qui l'attendait k Grenade."^

Similarly, Hazard in 1924,^ and Jean Cazenave in 1925*^

added their beliefs that the nouvelle was written to

relive Chateaubriand's adventures with Nathalie. Thus,

Hazard-Durry were safely able to sum up the first one

hundred years of discussion of the Abencerage by sayingi

"C'est done un souvenir vecu qui a donne naissance k la

nouvelle espagnolej un tendre, un troublant souvenir."1^

In 1927, the polemic took a new direction. Louis

Stinglhamber set out to do for the Abencerage what Bedier

had done for the Voyage en Ameriauei to analyse as care­

fully as possible every minute detail of Chateaubriand's

descriptive passages in the nouvelle. By making care­

ful calculations of the exact times it must have taken

Chateaubriand to go from one place to another in Spain,

considering road, mental and other conditions, he proves

that Chateaubriand could have spent no more than thirty-

six hours at Granada and could not have met Nathalie de

Noailles there. He concludes that the descriptive pas­

sages in the Abencerage are those of a man who has either never seen Granada or who suffers from terrible loss of 199 memory. On the basis of timetable analyses, he goes on to conclude that "Chateaubriand n'a done vu l'Espagne 17 qu'en courant et Grenade que dans une bousculade." '

The importance of this article lies less in its conclusions than in the new attitude of skepticism based on scientific analysis. Scholars in the next few years were to begin investigations of this fashion that would be argued for over a generation, ending in no definite conclusions but in many hypotheses, theories and specu­ lations •

In the meantime, a few traditionalists still clung to the legend which Sainte-Beuve had confirmed for them. Marjorie Chaplyn states in 1928 that Chateaubriand was not travelling merely to see and admire moorish ruins but rather to meet Nathalie de Noailles at Granada 18 where she had been awaiting him for two months.

In 1931» the skeptics were to get their first real piece of documentation refuting Sainte-Beuve*s conjecture. The Comte Alexandre de Laborde gave the So- ciete Chateaubriand a letter written by Nathalie de

Noailles, addressed to her cousin, Madame de Vintiraille and dated Aranjuez, 18 avril, I807i

Vous savez en detail dej& sflrement des nouvelles de M. de Chateaubriand, chere amie. Je veux pourtant vous en donner aussi. II se porte bien. II est engraisse, un peu noir, mais aussi gai et aussi repose que s'il n'avait rien fait. 200

II parle de Jerusalem comrae de Montmartre; il veut aussi aller au Toboso, parce qu'il^ trouve que cela va bien ensemble. II a dte k Grenade, quoiqu'il ait un profond raepris pour 1*Europe. II doit passer ici dans deux jours; je ne l ’y attends pas, car je suis si presse de revenir que je ne puis retarder d'un jour, surtout lui n'ayant aucun besoin de moi; car il est si accoutume k vivre avec des gens qu'il n'entend pas, k dormir par terre et & ne manger que des dattes et du riz, qu'il trouve l'Espagne un pays de superfluity. Je le crois content de son voyage ; k Tunis il a vu les ruines de Carthage; ici il aura vu tout ce qui merite son interet, Grenade et Cordoue. J'ai bien du plaisir le revoir, car j'en etais bien inqui&te. II a couru beaucoup de dangers dans les differents pays qu'il a parcourus, surtout en Palestine; aussi a-t-il un grand et beau sabre au cdte, Moi, ch&re amie, je n'as­ pire qu'^L me retrouver k Mereville et a vous revoir. Je me sens bien triste et assez souf- frante et ^'aurai besoin de toute 1'indulgence de l'amitie pour etre supportee. Les bosquets d'Aranjuez ne valent pas ceux de Mereville; le Tage est bourbeux, le terrain plat. II n'y a de beau que les arbres qui sont d'une grandeur royale. Ce lieu et tant d'autres prouvent qu'il ne faut pas venir de loin pour mentir.19

Skeptics were to see in this letter proof that

Chateaubriand and Nathalie did not meet at Granada.

Traditionalists, on the other hand, were to see no such

proof. Maurice Levaillant, for example, reprinting this

letter in the August 6 Figaro. was to conclude that here was indeed evidence that the two had met and that further­ more, judging from the tone of the letter, Nathalie must have been quite disappointed at what had transpired there.

The following year, however, Marcel Ducherain was to publish the first of many articles to come out in his name for the next twenty years, all attempting to prove

conclusively that no rendez-vous could have taken place 20 at the Alhambra. He carefully examines all available details of Chateaubriand *s and Nathalie's respective itineraries and so forth, as had Stinglhamber a few years before, although he acknowledges no debt to the latter.

He then goes on to analyse the letter above, which, taken at face value (and he indicates no reason not to), proves beyond the shadow of a doubt in his mind that Nathalie could not have been at Granada on April 13 when Chateau­ briand was there and still have managed to get back to

Aranjuez, not only in four days but two days ahead of

Chateaubriand. Furthermore, Duchemin points out that there is no indication whatever in the letter that she had met Chateaubriand at Granada and from existing data, concludes that their brief reunion must have been at

Cordova on April 10. They likely parted again, Chateau­ briand going alone to Granada, only to meet up with her again near Madrid and travel with her to the Escorial and back to France.

Tradition rose up against Duchemin for having both willfully discredited Chateaubriand and for having come to what scholars termed hasty conclusions. Emile Henriot wrote in the February 11 issue of Le Tempsi "Helasl Les erudits sont des gens terribles ... Car il faut tou- 21 jours que Chateaubriand ait menti."

Similarly, Maurice Levaillant accuses Duchemin of destroying the poetry of the love legend. Further­ more, he states that Duchemin misinterpreted the letter, as Nathalie does not say that she is two days ahead of

Chateaubriand but that the latter was to meet her in two days, a different implication. It is very possible that they had met at Granada and temporarily separated again, only to reunite in Aranjuez. Duchemin was to la­ ter indicate that he had received a letter at about the same time, suggesting that Nathalie had merely rais-dated the letter. What guarantee was there that she had con- 22 suited a calendar before writing?

In 1938, Duchemin was to reprint his article in a work on Chateaubriand and in an appendix, answer all of his critics.2-^ He dismisses Levaillant's suggestion that the two had temporarily separated, with Julien's statement1

A Endoucas (Andujar) nous avons repris des che- vauxde poste et

This proves to Duchemin that Chateaubriand did not make the proposed side-trip. As for the argument that Nathalie had mis-dated her letter, he retorts that the eighteenth would be in perfect agreement with the chronology that he had established for the two travellers. Further­ more, even if it had been mis-dated, time would not have

permitted them to do otherwise.

In 1938, Andre Maurois was the first of several

scholars to question Duchemin, as tradition rose against

him for the second time in five years, this time even more

convinced that the letter was not to be taken at face

value, Maurois theorized that one woman never tells

another woman the truth about her lover. To substantiate

this hypothesis, Maurois produces a letter written pre­

vious to April 18 by Nathalie to her brotheri

J'ai recu des nouvelles (ne parle de ceci, je t'en p n e , k personne) de M, de Chateaubriand, II me mande qu'il va traverser le Peloponlse par terre et que s'il trouve une occasion pour venir debarquer en Espagne, il passera par Grenade pour retoumer en France. Tu sais qu'il avait deja ce projet-l& lorsque nous en parlions k Mdreville avec lui. Je serais tr&s f&chee qu'on sfit cela dans la societey ni raeme que j'en ai des nouvelles, parce que, par jalousie, on en ferait des caquets et que je souhaite rien tant que d'etre oubliee du monde entier. ,,,25

To Maurois, this proved that the letter to Madame de

Vintimille was a decoy, intended to avert suspicions about Nathalie's behaviour in Spain.

Four years later, Pierre Moreau goes one step further than Maurois, suggesting a possible rivalry between Nathalie de Noailles and Madame de Vintimille,

By weighing certain key words in the letter of April 18, such as "vous savez en detail dej& sQrement des nou- 204 velles ..." Moreau concludes that the letter was more than a decoy. It was likely an alibi, written possibly from Granada itself. He even pictures Chateaubriand peering over Nathalie*s shoulder as she wrote, not un- 2 6 like a situation in the Liaisons dangereuses.

Louis Martin-Chauffier, in 1943. merely assumed that Nathalie and Chateaubriand kept their rendez-vous at Granada. He feels that the latter had no trouble con­ soling her grief at the death of the colonel and that

Chateaubriand likely spent little time brooding over her past actions, ^

Maurice Rat was to make the final defence of this period in favour of Chateaubriand. In the July 2,

1949 issue of the Figaro litteraire. he published an article entitled "une these d*histoire litteraire s'ef- fondrei Chateaubriand n'etait pas seul au rendez-vous de Grenade, Nathalie de Noailles l'y attendait." Annoyed by the skepticism of certain scholars, he challenges the right of critics to doubt the word of the Duke of Laval.

Furthermore, he wonders why Chateaubriand would have given oO Nathalie a pomegranate-shaped brooch upon their return to Paris if it hadn't likely been intended to be a souvenir of a fond memory of a meeting in Granada?

It should be pointed out, however, that Duchemin was not without support. Malakis had taken a firm stand in his favour in 19^6, stating*

GrUce & la critique serree et la chronologie du voyage si implacablement etablie par le savant M. Duchemin, nous savons aujourd'hui que c'est II Cordoue, plus tard h, l'Escurial, et non point Il Grenade, qu'il faut placer les entrevues fugi­ tives de Chateaubriand et de Nathalie de Noailles inepiratrice des Aventures du dernier Abencerage*

By December, 19^9» Duchemin, greatly incensed by the title of Maurice Rat’s article, presuming to dismiss him in the name of tradition, answered that no proof had been found to refute his documentation. He admitted that the basis of his whole argument was a literal interpre­ tation of the April 18 letter but retorted that to pro­ claim its insincerity is but a show of desperation on the part of the traditionalists. He went on to question

Maurois' assumption that the Vintimille letter was a de­ coy. Who was to say that the exact opposite was not equally justified? He concluded*

Nous sommes tout pret II reconnaitre que la question ne sera decidee sans retour que par la production de quelque teraoignage ~0 ignore ou d'une correspondance encore inedite,-3

Three years later came the first serious ques­ tioning of Duchemin's calculations. Madame la comtesse d'Andlau, in a speech before the somewhat conservative

Societe Chateaubriand, examined the Duchemin hypothesis

(that the two could not have met at the Alhambra) from two points of view* material and psychological.*^ 206

From the first, she argued that it was not impossible

for Nathalie to have met Chateaubriand in Granada on

April 13 and made it back to Aranjuez by the eighteenth,

for there is sufficient documentation proving her to

have already travelled in Spain on horseback. Contrary

to Duchemin's belief, she was indeed capable of making this trip, even under adverse conditions. From the psy­

chological point of view, Madame la comtesse d'Andlau finds it highly unlikely that he wanted to "cingler le vent" only to meet briefly with Nathalie and leave alone

shortly thereafter. Furthermore, supporting Maurois,

she speculates that all of their actions were calculated to divert malicious gossip and that if Chateaubriand allowed Nathalie a two-day headstart for Aranjuez, it was merely to protect the bienseances.

That same year, Bertaut is of the same opinion that the two would hardly have separated. He agrees with

Duchemin that they likely met at Cordova but added that from there they went to Granada, "oh ils avaient reve de sceller leur union.

Also in 1952, Duchemin was to publish his third major article on the subject.^ In June of that year he finally produced the missing document that he had been publicly hoping for since 1933. M. Louis Bassette, “Sil writing a study of Hector-Philippe d'Agoult, discovered 20?

a letter dated May 10, 1816, from the latter to his sis­

ter Olympe in Grenoble. He had seen Granada and descri­

bing the Alhambra said that he had seen two lines written

in Greek by Chateaubriand, which translated into French

said* "J'ai traverse les raers pour la voir et je ne l'ai

point retrouve." Duchemin concluded that nobody could

refute his hypothesis now.

He was wrong. The traditionalists were to chal­

lenge more than one aspect of this new evidence. The

Societe Chateaubriand proposed several weak arguments in

1953* beginning with a confrontation of this letter with

the contradictory lines supposedly erased by the Duke of

Laval, ^ By what authority was Agoult's version authen- r tic and Laval*s not? The Societe goes on to speculate

that Chateaubriand would have been quite incapable of

remembering Greek verses and as proof quotes a letter

written by him to Marcellus in 1823 in which he wrote

in Greek, only using Roman letters, saying* "Je ne sais

meme plus raes caracteres grecs."^ The Societe does,

however, neglect the letter's date. The "meme plus",

written sixteen years after the alleged incident should

imply every possibility that he did know Greek in 1807.

More damaging is the objection put forth by Dr, Le Savou-

reux who could not envisage a man of Chateaubriand's pride

publicly acknowledging defeat in love. 208

In March, 195^» Duchemin published his final argument on the subject* "Comment les dograes finissent,

Derniers echos d'une longue polemique•"^ Realizing the reluctance of his opponents to accept the veracity of his documentation, he can do no more than decry the direction that Scholarship was taking, warning of the inherent danger for all historical theses of reliance upon intui­ tion, The title alone is sufficient indication of his frustration and resignation.

In June, 195^» Dr*. Le Savoureux repeats the ar­ guments against Duchemin's theories, adding that there is no proof that Agoult's translation is an accurate one.

More importantly, he points out that there is no proof that the handwriting at the Alhambra was Chateaubriand's,

Dr, Le Savoureux concludes that the whole polemic is

"de mince interet pour la litterature comme pour la bio­ graphic, problems impossible k r^soudre jusqu'k nouvel ordre,"^ Duchemin, given a chance to have the last word, adds*

II y aurait sans doute quelque ingenuite & se laisser entraine sur les voies de la contro­ versy & propos d'une question dont nous venons de demontrer qu'elle est desormais definitive- ment resolue.

The polemic appears to end here, Letessier, in an appendix to his edition of the Abencerage. sums up with two conclusions. First of all, he suspects Agoult 209 of having given a general rather than a literal trans­ lation of the inscription. By the same token, he conti­ nues, the Laval version is sufficiently imprecise to pre­ vent the conclusion that Chateaubriand and Nathalie had met at Granada, Secondly, the fact that Chateaubriand gave Nathalie a pomegranate-shaped jewel is hardly proof that they had both travelled to Granada together. As both of them could have been there on separate occasions,

Chateaubriand could have brought her the jewel as a re­ membrance of mutual memories. Letessier goes on to sug­ gest that the polemic be laid to rest and the literary beauty of the work be considered rather than its histo­ rical authenticity.

The matter was indeed left undiscussed for a few years. Friedrich Sieburg summed up the situation with the followingi

Beide Liebenden bemuhen sich, die Spuren zu verwischen, schreiben irrefiihrende Briefe und tun alles, damit ihr Aufenthalt in Grenada nicht zum Gegenstand des Pariser Klatsches werde, ... 39

Levaillant, who had provoked the polemic thirty years before, expressed the prevailing calm in his Chateaubriand»

Prince des Songest "On s'est efforci d'en douter voil& quelques trente ansj les sceptiques sont moins nombreux aujourd,hui.,'1,,0

Suddenly, Pierre Christophorov resumed discussion 210 of the problem once again.^ According to Duchemin,

Chateaubriand took five days to accomplish the 282 kilo­ metre trip from Andujar to Aranjuez. Christophorov finds it absurd to think that a who had been travelling at great speeds for nine months should suddenly slow down so drastically. He concludes that the letter to Madame de Vintimille was insincere, for as it was common know­ ledge that Chateaubriand had refused his wife's company on this voyage, it would appear likely that this letter was intended to give Nathalie's meeting with Chateaubriand a fortuitous nature rather than risk public knowledge of the fact that she had travelled twenty-three days with him. There are times, according to Rousseau, when lies shouldn't be considered such. Christophorov concludes that this is one such occasion and calls the letter a

"temoignage de bonne foi."

The last word to date is again one of a tradi­ tionalist. Maurice Regard, in his fine introduction to his edition of Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. finds the brief rendez-vous before Granada, as suggested by

Marcel Duchemin, unlikely. He prefers to think that the two met at Cordoba and travelled together to Granada on a sort of pilgrimage. To escape observance by Hyde de

Neuville, Nathalie probably went alone ahead to Granada 211 and waited there for Chateaubriand,

We may offer here no more conclusive evidence than that which has been given for the past century and a half. We do offer, however, the following possibilities.

One might conclude that Duchemin was justified in saying that the two travellers met at Cordova, In an attempt to poeticize, Chateaubriand may have merely transposed the circumstances of reality in his nouvelle. It is pos­ sible that he found greater literary potential in the more exotic, more mysterious Alhambra than in Cordova.

It must be stressed that he was not writing a confession but a work of fiction and we should not seek a literal interpretation of the details of the story. The fact that Nathalie inspired the nouvelle should merely imply that a certain flavour was imparted to a beautiful story.

One may only hope that this unsatisfactory discussion has now been laid to rest.

e 212

NOTES - APPENDIX A

L'abbe Pailhes, Du nouveau sur Joubert, Chateau­ briand. Fontanes et sa fille... (Parisl Garnier freres, T900T*p7Ti351 2 * Letessier, ed. Le dernier Abencerage, p. 292.

%ainte-Beuve, Chateaubriand et son groupe litte­ raire sous 1 'Empire. II Maurice Allem ed. (Parisi Garnier fr&res, 1948), p. 73.

^Ibid.. p. 58.

-*Ibid.. p. 60

Villemain, La Tribune moderne. I f"M. de Cha­ teaubriand"] (Paris* Michel Levy, frSres, 1861), p. 1571

^Marcellus, le comte de, Chateaubriand et son temps. (Paris* Michel Levy, freres, 1859) p. 172. o Charles Benoit, Chateaubriand* sa vie et ses oeuvres, etude litteraire et morale, (Paris* Didier et c r e , ' “i ^ 5)/p.'"l^2 .------

^An exiled royalist, intimate friend of Chateau­ briand's and ultimately one of his literary executors. 10 Alexandre de Laborde, Le Voyage pittoresque et historique de l'Espagne, reprinted m Revue hispamque. LXIII (1925)".

^Francis Gribble, Chateaubriand and his court of Women, (London* Chapman Hall Ltd., 1909), p. 154. 12 Andre Beaunier, Trois amies de Chateaubriand. (Paris* E. Fasquelle, 1910), p. 1^3•

*%ules Lemaitre. Chateaubriand (Paris* Calmann- Levy, [1912]), p. 209. 14 Paul Hazard, "Une nouvelle espagnole de Chateau­ briand," Revue de Paris (15 decerabre 1924), p. 908. 213

1^Jean Cazenave, "Le Roman hispano-mauresque en France f"

Hazard and Durry, ed. Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage, p. viii.

•^Stinglhamber, Louis, "Chateaubriand & Grenade," P. 550. 1 8 Marjorie Chaplyn, Le Roman mauresoue en France. p. 136. ^ B u l l e t i n ae ia Societe Chateaubriand, (no, 2, 1931)» p." 3 ^ 20 Marcel Duchemin, "Un roman d ’amour en 1807* Chateaubriand II Grenade," Revue des deux mondes. (Jan., 1933).

21Emile Henriot, "Chateaubriand b. l'Alhambra," Dix-neuvifeme Siecle, I (Paris* Marcel Daubin, 19^8), p • 230.

22Marcel Duchemin, Chateaubriand* essais de cri» tigue et d'histoire litteraire (Paris* J. Vrin, 1938), p. 321.

23Ibid.

2'’Andre Maurois, Rene ou la vie de Chateaubriand. p. 212. 26 Pierre Moreau, "A propos du sejour de Chateau­ briand b. Grenade," Revue universitaire. p. I83.

2^Louis Martin-Chauffier, Chateaubriand ou 1'obses­ sion de la nurete (Paris* Gallimard, 19^3)»p« 136* 28 grenade in French,

2^Chateaubriand, L'ltineraire de Paris It Jerusalem, edited by Emile Malakis. (Baltimore 1 The Johns Hopkins University Press), p. 302, footnote 1.

^Marcel Duchemin, "Le Roman espagnol de Chateau­ briand et de Nathalie de Noailles," Bulletin de I'Asso- ciation Guillaume Bude, (no. 8, December 1949), p. 65. 214

•^Petit Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand, (no. 5)» p T T 5 ^

•^Bertaut, Jules, La Vie privee de Chateaubriand. (Paris* Hachette, 1952) p. 140,

-Parcel Duchemin, "Veritas filia temporis* Chateaubriand h. 1'Alhambra en 1807," Bulletin de L'Asso- ciation Guillaume Bude, II, (June 1952), p. 124.

*^A contemporary of Chateaubriand's who had achieved a certain notoriety as a diplomat and as plenipotentiary minister during the Restoration.

•^Petit Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand. (no. 5) i p. 16.

■^Chateaubriand, Correspondance. ed. Louis Thomas, IV, page. 298.

■^Marcel Duchemin, "Comment les dogmes finissent* derniers echos d'une longue poleraique," Bulletin de 1 'Association Guillaume Bude, (no, 1, MarciTT954yi

-^Henri le Savoureux, "A propos de la rencontre de 1'Alhambra," Bulletin de 1 'Association Guillaume Bude, (no. 2, June 1954).

■^Friedrich Sieburg, Chateaubriand, p. 231.

^Maurice Levaillant, Chateaubriand* Prince des Songes (Paris* Hachette, i960), p. 58. 41 Pierre Christophorov, "Le Voyage de Chateaubriand en Espagne (A propos d'une discussion litteraire)", in Connaissance de l'Etranger (Melanges offerts & la memoire de Jean-Marie Carre) (Paris* Marcel Didier, 1964). APPENDIX B

THE PREPARATION AND USE OF

COMPUTER-GENERATED CONCORDANCES

In recent years, computer studies have greatly influenced the formerly secluded world of literary study to assist the scholar in his task of analysing and inter­ preting. These projects are designed to provide the academician with a tool previously unavailable in his field and are not intended to be ends in themselves. The obvious advantage of computer assistance is two-foldi to begin with, tasks can now be accomplished that had previously been too complicated or too impractical in view of the perhaps limited results. Secondly, projects requiring years of painful application can now be done with greatly increased rapidity and accuracy, making certain otherwise unreasonable investigations possible and even desirable. Consequently, the computer should not be viewed with skepticism but with enthusiasm for it enables the average scholar to accomplish far more ambi­ tious research than had formerly been within his capabi­ lities.

We are particularly interested in the preparation and use of a "centre-of-the-page, key-word-in-contextH

215 216

(to be later referred to as KWIC) concordance of Chateau­ briand's Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. After a general description of the appearance of the concordance, we will go into the mechanics of its preparation and the method used to analyse it.

The Concordance

What is involved is essentially a re-arrangement of all of the words in the text into alphabetical order.

The words actually being concorded are listed vertically down the centre of the page (See Figure 1). To the left of the word is the head (that part of the sentence that normally precedes the word in the text) and to the right the tall (that part of the sentence that normally follows the word being concorded). Hence the word is left in its normal textual environment and is said to be in con­ text.

The KWIC format has several distinct advantages over others available. Of primary importance is the ease that it provides for a study of the word's range or field. By this term is generally meant the words go­ verned by the word concorded, in an effort to see if cer­ tain words recur when a particular terra is used. The word "coeur", for example, might always appear with the word "blesse" and consequently, the word "blessd" would SAMPLE CONCORDANCE

to 80) eau (0005) blee, lui presente un peu d'eau dans le creux de ses deux mai tx 293 01 aussi troubler la goutte d'eau dans le creux du rocher." tx 290 01 • Je me disais autrefois* l'eau de la mer qui dort h. l*abri d tx 290 01 ux, arrose par un courant d'eau limpide qui se repandait sur tx 283 01 et du soleil couchant sur l'eau. si beau? tx 316 06 eaux (0006) ce et laissait retomber ses eaux dans un bassin d'alb£tre.>. tx 287 01 loitres, 1'ombre mobile des eaux jaillissantes, et celle des tx 292 01 eurs et de la fraicheur des eaux. Ils penetr&rent ensuite dan tx 285 02 milieu de 1'edifice, et ses eaux, retombant en rosee, etaient tx 287 01 aux exiles ses fruits, ses eaux, sa verdure, son brillant so tx 255 01 nt la mousse a detoume les eaux1 regarde les jardins qui se tx 289 04- eb&ne (0003) x moustaches noires comrae l'eblne donnaient h. son visage natu tx 301 03 des castagnettes de bois d'eb&ne. Ses cheveux noirs tombent tx 279 02 e fait retentir le bruyant eb^ne, frappe trois fois la mesur tx 280 01

Figure 1 217 218

be described as appearing within the range of the word

"coeur." This is of great importance in preparing a

literary (as opposed to stylistic) analysis of the con­

cordance •

Of equal importance is the uniform appearance of

the lines on the page. There is no confusion as to which word is actually the one being concorded as can happen

in a "side-of-the-page" concordance. This latter variety, however, often used for condording poetry, has an advan­ tage that with the word at the left margin followed by the entire line in which the word occurs, the position

of the word in the line becomes readily apparent and con­ clusions may perhaps be drawn as to the word's introductory

or conclusive values, if any.

This particular concordance has many refinements not found in other existing concordances that have in themselves proven to be invaluable literary aids. To begin with, it is set up in both upper and lower case with all diacritical marks normally used in written French.

Italics are distinguished from normal typescript by their conversion to all-capital letters, italics as such not being available.

A distinction was also made between the actual text accepted by Letessier and the variants which appear on the manuscript, as noted at the back of his edition. 219 These were incorporated into the text of the concordance

at the appropriate spots and set off by greater-than and

less-than signs (<...«})• If the word concorded appears

between these two signs, then an asterisk is found on the

right-hand side of the line in front of the reference

numbers. It is felt that having both text and variants

together in such a fashion (see Figure 1) enables one to

study the subconscious processes of the author in a way

which is far more accurate and considerably less tedious

than constant reference to and from the notes at the back

of the book.

The right-hand side of the line is made up of the

reference by which the location of the word concorded is

found in the original text. The first column identifies

the part of the book in which the word belongs (Avertis-

sement QAv ] or text second the page and the

third the paragraph on that particular page. Thus, for

a fuller examination of the environment of any given word, it is relatively easy to locate it In the text

itself.

Also convenient is the use of titles. Each group

of words is preceded by the word followed by frequency

of the word in parentheses. Aside from the visual appeal

of having the page divided into groups, it is particularly

desirable not to have to count the frequencies by hand. Minor Words Intermediate Words a et apres dej& ils meme(s) pour sans h. 1' assez depuis jamais mpi pourquoi ses c' la aussi done 3* moins pres son ce le autre(s) dont je mon puis sous ces les avant elle(s) jusqu(e)(s) n* (e)(i) puisqu'(e) sur cet un avec en leurs non qu'(e)(i) tant cette uns avoir (all forms) lorsqu(e) nos(tre) quand toujours d' une bien encore lui nous quel(lle)(s) tout(s)(es) de unes celui enfin M 1 on quelque(s) vers du celle(s) entre ma o u r ) quoi votre ceux ete mais par rien vos comme etre (all forms) pas si vous contre eux me plus s* (e) y dans ici mes point sa mes (0017) tx 266 02 * tx 266 02 tx 316 03 tx 316 07 tx 324 07 tx 294 02 tx 328 01 tx 308 02 tx 290 01 av 251 02 tx 266 02 tx 288 04 tx 304 03 tx 304 03 tx 288 02 tx 324 05 tx 312 02

LIST OF INTERMEDIATE AND MINOR WORDS

EXAMPLE OF CONCORDED INTERMEDIATE WORD 220

Figure 2 221

Three things can happen after the title has been

printed. The computer can recognize the word as a major,

intermediate or minor word, based on the relative impor­

tance this word would have on the thematieal analysis

of the work. If the word is major, then a full concor­

dance is printed out as in Figure 1. If the word is minor, then only the title is printed. For intermediate words, only the references are listed for those who might eventually be interested in them. (See Figure 2).

At the end of the concordance are added two ap­ pendices. The first is a list of all of the titles, or

simply, a list of all the words in the book in alpha­

betical order with their frequencies. The second appen­

dix is a list of all of these words in descending order

of frequency.

The Program

Before the program was written, consideration was given to the way in which Les Aventures du dernier Aben-

cerage was punched on cards. As the keypuncher had only

upper case available, special signs had to be used to

flag capital letters, accented letters and cedillas.

The basic unit is the sentence, each new sentence begin­ ning on a new card. Card columns 2 through 72 were used and the end of the sentence is flagged by an at-sign (@). 222

When the following characters precede an alphabetic

character, they serve to modify that character*

+ Next character has a capital. Chien = +CHIEN * Next character has a grave. am&re ** AM*ERE $ Next character has an acute etees = $ET$EES / Next character has a circumflex memes = M/EMES = Next character has a trema naive = NATIVE § Next character has a cedilla langa = LAN#CA

The last card in the data deck is detected by having

in columns 2, 3 and **. Similarly, an end of paragraph

is recognized by having two at-signs in columns 2 and 3

on a separate card, A new page is identified by a sepa­ rate card having three at-signs in columns 2, 3 and

If the transition from one pafr.o to another occurs within the middle of a sentence, a vertical bar is placed after

the last word on the old page, a new card is prepared with the three usual at-signs, and the sentence continues

on the following card*

ex. This sentence breaks at the star | 026 but continues one card later.

Although a computer cannot think (it merely remembers information fed to it) it has thus been given ample infor­ mation enabling it to recognize certain phenomena found in the text.

Stage 1

The purpose of this stage is to take all of the 223

text, now stored on nine-track magnetic tape, and sepa­

rate the stream of words into the head-word-tai1-reference

format described earlier• The unit considered is the

paragraph recognized by the double at-sign card. After

determining what chapter, part and page of the book it

belongs to, the computer then scans it for accent and

capital letter flags. All words were translated into

lower case at the beginning of the program and capitals

are now re-converted to capital letters just as accent

flags cause the proper conversions to be made in their

following characters.

A word was defined as lying between the first

alpha-numeric character in the paragraph and the first

non-alpha-numeric character, such as a blank, period or

comma. Hyphens were considered part of this latter

group so that porte-monnaie would be concorded both

under porte and under monnaie. as this break-down could

prove to be of possible interest. As the words are picked

out, it is also determined whether or not they belong

to a variant and whether or not an asterisk is to be lo­

cated between the tail and the reference.

It was arbitrarily decided that there would ap­

pear no word more than twenty characters long. Conse­

quently, by the end of the first stage of the program, all of the words have been picked out and arranged in 224 context with their references in lines of fixed length.

This information is then all stored on 9 - track tape for future use. Had it been printed, it would have ap­ peared as in Figure 3*

Stage 2

This stage is concerned with the arrangement in alphabetical order of the words selected in stage 1. To do this we used an internal sort routine ("Sort8”) which is part of the IBM 370 procedure library. It is basically a crisscross technique sort with eight sort work disk data sets.

The lines are sorted on two basic fields. The first is that of all of the words translated into upper case, so that Amour doeB not necessarily precede or follow amour.

Subsequently, all groups of words (eg. all lines where the concorded word is "coeur") are considered and the lines are alphabetized in ascending order along the tails.

Consequently,"homme mechant” will precede "homme svmna- thique” which will in turn*come ahead of "homme tolerant.”

All of this information is again stored on 9 - track tape and reserved for future use. See Figure 3 .

Stage 3

This is the final stage of the basic concordance. CONCORDANCE AS IT APPEARS AT THE END OF STAGE 1

This is an example tx 025 01 This is an example of tx 025 01 This is an example of a tx 025 01 This is an example of a computer tx 02 5 01 This is an example of a computer ge tx 025 01 This is an example of a computer gene tx 025 01 This is an example of a computer generated con tx 025 01 an example of a computer generated concordance i tx 025 01 • e of a computer generated concorcance ■ tx 025 01

CONCORDANCE AS IT APPEARS AT THE END OF STAGE 2

This is an example of a computer gene tx 025 01 This is an example of a tx 025 01 This is an example of a computer generated con tx 025 01 t e of a computer generated concordance • tx 025 01 This is an example of a computer tx 025 01 an example of a computer generated concordance! tx 025 01 This is an example pf tx 025 01 This is an example of a computer ge tx 025 01 This is an example tx 025 01

Figure *3

PO ro Vj\ 226

The lines are scanned one by one, counting the concor­ ded words and establishing titles consisting of words and frequencies. These titles are stored on 9 - track tape to be used again in this stage and in a subsequent stage. The process is then repeated. The title is writ­ ten down first, followed by a blank line, followed by all lines containing this word as the concorded word if the word belongs to the major category. Otherwise, the appropriate adjustments are made as to the amount of information recorded. As the lines are printed, an adjustment is made in its length, eliminating the blanks lying between the concorded word and the tail, establishing a fixed length of 109 characters for the line. The re-

Bult will now be identical to the example given in

Figure 1.

Stage k

This involves the preparation of the two appendices described earlier. The first is merely a print-out of the information stored on the title-file established above, whereby all titles are listed in order. The second ap­ pendix is merely a repeat of the SORT8 procedure used in stage two, applied to the title file, sorting the frequen­ cies in descending order so that the words listed appear in descending order of frequency. 227

The Analysis of the Concordance

Ours was a specialized examination of the concor­ dance as we were interested in a purely literary inter­ pretation of the data. Consequently, we decided to es­ tablish a card system whereby each word was written up on a 5 x 8 inch file card, on which was also described all pertinent features of the use and appearance of the word. This was done by answering a set of pre-established questions (See Figure 4)•

Ultimately and ideally, there would eventually be a completed card for every major word in the concor­ dance. These cards were then grouped into pairs or slightly larger sets. For example, all words pertai­ ning to circle imagery would be set in one group, all words referring to trees in another and all words asso­ ciated with love into yet another. Having completed this process, it was in turn repeated several times so that eventually, all of the words in the nouvelle were dis­ tributed into several piles, each representing a fairly broad theme. These were in turn written up into chap­ ters and consequently formed a basis of a thematical analysis of the nouvelle.

Although we do not pretend that this analysis could not have been done without the aid of a computer, we maintain that this method was far more practical, ra­ 228

pid and accurate. One has, for example, every example

of the word Maure at one's fingertips. There is no room

for error or omission which is highly probable if done manually. Secondly, when all of these words are listed

in juxtaposition with the variants, certain aspects of

the author's thought processes become readily apparent whereas the same observations would have taken consi­

derable research done manually.

It is thus obvious that in a thematical analysis, where the word is of prime importance, this vertical reading of the text is a significant aid. It is hoped that this method may soon be applied to a much larger work on Chateaubriand and thus accomplish analyses that had formerly been done in a very general way or not at all. QUESTIONS TO BE CONSIDERED IN

THE ANALYSIS OF THE CONCORDED WORD

Frequency and Range

-The word occurs "X" times, -Are most occurences of the word in a particular location such as the introduction, variants or the denouement? -Are the synonyms or antonyms of the word used in specific parts of the work?

Grammatical or syntactical phenomena

-Is the word always in verbal or nominal form, etc.? -Does the word always follow or precede a parti­ cular conjunction, preposition, article or interjection? -Is the word always singular or plural? -Is the same tense always used in the case of a verb? -Is there an abundance of articles and prepositions? -Does the word stand alone or is it modified or dependent on other words? -Is the word close to the beginning or end of a sentence or paragraph? Consequently, is the word introductory or conclusive in meaning? -Does this meaning of the word differ when used as a subject or object?

Inferences regarding the Meaning of the Word

-Is the word concrete or abstract? -Is the word a symbol as opposed to a thing? -Does the word suggest a spectacle or an experience? Where is the author or hero in relation to the action? -Is the object specified or suggested? -Is the word prestigious, neutral or pejorative? -Does the word imply permanence or instability or evolution? of time? of motion? -Is motion involved?

Figure 4 230

-Is the word clean, pure and unblemished or is it damaged or tarnished? Is the dress of the heroine pure white or is it ripped or stained? -Does the word imply a large and precise location or is it small or undetermined? -Is the location visible? -Is the word charged with meaning or implication or is it merely a vehicle for another word?

The Meaning of the Word within the Work

-Compare the standard dictionary meaning of the word with possible definitions this word might have had for the author, as judged by the con­ cordance. -Check for recurring words within the word's range• -Does the word have different meanings? BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS CITED AND CONSULTED

Editions of "Les Aventures du dernier Abencdrage"

Chateaubriand, Francois Rene de. Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage in Oeuvres completes. Edited by Pourrat. Vol. XVIII. Paris* Pourrat fr&res., 1836.

_ . Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage in Oeuvres completes. Edited by Sainte-Beuve. Paris 1 Garnxer fr&res., 1861.

_ • Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. Edited by F. Ed. Schneegans. Strasbourg* J.H. Ed. Heitz, 1925.

. Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. Edited by Paul Hazard and Marie-Jeanne Durry. Paris* Librairie Champion, 1926.

______• Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage in Atala. Rene. Le dernier Abencerage. Edited by Fernand Letessier. Paris * Gamier fr&res, 1958.

______• "Un Fragment inddit du dernier Abencdrage." Edited by Bernard Gagnebin. Bulletin de la Societd Chateaubriand. XI-XII (1968-1969), 37-36. ______• Les AventureB du dernier Abencerage in Oeuvres romanesques et voyages. Edited by Maurice-Regard. Vol. II. Paris * Gallimard (Editions de la Pleiade), 1969.

. Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage in Atala. Rene. Le dernier Abencerage. Edited by Pierre Moreau. Paris 1 Livres de poche, 1971.

231 232 Other works of Chateaubriand consulted

Chateaubriand, Frangois Rene de. Atala in Ataia. Rene. Le dernier Abencerage. Edited by Fernand Letessier. Parisi Garnier fr&res, 1958.

. Le Genie du Christianisme. Edited by Pierre Reboul. Parisi Garnier-Flammarion, 1966,

______. L'ltineraire de Paris 5. Jerusalem. Edited by Emile Malakis. Baltimorei The Johns Hopkins University Press, 19^6.

______, L'ltineraire de Paris b Jerusalem in Oeuvres romanesaues et voyages^ Edited by Maurice Regard Parisi Galliraard (Editions de la Pleiade), 1969.

______• "Un Manuscrit retrouve des Mdmoires d'Outre- torabe." Revue des deux mondes. December 1, 1931 pp. 668-69.

______, Memoires d'Outre-tombe. Edited by Maurice Levaillant. Paris 1 Flammarion, Q19*1-9 J.

. Memoires d'Outre-tombe. Edited by Maurice Levaillant and Georges Moulinier. Paris 1 Gallimard (Editions de la Pleiade), 1951*

______• "Sur l'art du dessin dans les paysages" in Oeuvres completes. Edited by Sainte-Beuve. Vol. III. Paris 1 G a m i e r fr&res, 1861,

______. "Sur Le Voyage pittoresaue et historiaue de T^Esoagne oar M. Alexandre de Iaborde" in Oeuvres com-plates. Edited by Sainte-Beuve. Vol. VI. P a n s i G a m i e r frferes, 1861.

. Rene in Atala. Renef Le dernier Abencerage. Edited by Fernand Letessier. Paris 1 Garnier frferes, 1958*

Correspondence written by Chateaubriand

Chateaubriand, Frangois Rene de. "Trois lettres inedites de Chateaubriand b Joubert b son retour d'Orient." Edited by La Coratesse d'Andlau. Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand, VII (1963), 53-57. 233 Christophorov, Pierre. "L'ltineraire de Jerusalem h. Paris* entre Jaffa et Algesiras avec deux lettres inedites de Chateaubriand & Joubert." Bulletin de la Societd Chateaubriand. VIII (1964-), 47-58.

______. "Premieres impressions du Voyage en Orient avec trois lettres inedites de Chateaubriand Joubert." Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand. VII (1963)»

Thomas, Louis. La Correspondance generals de Chateaubriand. Paris* Champion, 1912.

Miscellaneous Nineteenth Century Writings

Balzac, Honore de. Pierrette in La Comedie humaine. Edited by M. Bouteron. Paris* Gailimard (Editions de la Pldiade), 1965.

Barr&s, Maurice. Mes Cahiers in Oeuvres de Maurice Barr^s. Edited by Philippe Barrfes. Vol. XX. Parxs* Le Club de l'honnete homme, 1968.

Boigne, Madame de. Recits d'une tante. M^moires de la comtesse de- Boigne. nee d*OsmondJ Vol. I. Paris* Eraile-Paul, 1921.

Flaubert, Gustave. .Correspondence. Vol. II. Paris* Louis Conard, 1933.

Goncourt^ Edmond de, and Goncourt, Jules de. Journal* Memoires de la vie litteraire. Monacoi Les Editions de 1'imprimerie nationals de Monaco, 1903.

Joubert, Joseph. Les Carnets. Edited by Andrd Beaunier. Paris * Gailimard, 1930•

Laborde, Alexandre de. Voyage pittoresaue et historiaue de l'Espagne in Revue hispaniaue. Vol. LXIII T1925), 1-572,

Laborde, le comte de. "Texte de trois lettres inedites de la duchesse de Mouchy h. Mme de Vintimille." Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand, vol. II, (1931)» 62-66. 234 Neuville, Baron Hyde de, Memoires et Souvenirs, Paris* Plon, 1888-92,

Potelin, Julien, Voyage de Julien & Jerusalem in Oeuvres romanesaues et voyages. Edited by Maurice Regard, Vol. II. Paris* Gailimard (Editions de la Pleiade), 1969.

Sand, Georges, Correspondence. Edited by Georges Lubin, Vol. II, Paris* G a m i e r frferes, 1966,

Stendhal, Journal in Oeuvres intimes. Edited by H. Martineau. Vol. II, Paris* Gailimard (Editions de la Pleiade), 1955*

Works Pertaining to "Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage"

Bdde, Albert. "Le dernier Abencerage en Italie." Revue de litterature comnaree. (1926), 504-7,

______. "Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage." Lreview of the 1926 Hazard-Durry edition]. Revue de litterature comnaree. (1927), 585"93*

Christophorov, Pierre. "Le Voyage de Chateaubriand en Espagne (Si propos d'une discussion litteraire)" in Connaissance de l'etranger (^Melanges offertes & la memoire de Jean-Marie Carre], Paris* Didier, 1964.

Le Deuxi&me paysan de la Vallee-aux-loups. "Autour d'un clair de lune." Le Divan. XVI, (1928), 59-70.

Duchemin, Marcel. "Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage." £review of the 1926 Hazard-Durry edition]. Revue d'hiBtoire litteraire de la France, (1927). 261-69.

_ . "Un roman d' am our en 1807* Chateaubriand & Grenade." Revue des deux mondes. (Jan. 1, 1933), 158-178.

. "Le Roman espagnol de Chateaubriand et de Nathalie de Noailles." Bulletin de 1’Association Guillaume Bude. VIII (December, 1949), 58-65. 235 . "Veritas filia temporist Chateaubriand & 1*Alhambra en 1807." Bulletin del*Association Guillaume Bud 6 . II (June 1952), 54-56.

______. "Comment les dogmes finissenti demiers echos d'une longue poleraique." Bulletin de 1 'Association Guillaume Bude. I (March 195*0» 89-9V.

Fernandat, Rene. "Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage de Chateaubriand." [review of the 1926 Hazard- Durry edition]. Revue Hebdomadaire. (July 16, 1927), 363-66.

Hazard, Paul. "Une Nouvelle espagnole de Chateaubriand." La Revue de Paris. XXXI (December 15. 1924), 906-928.

______* "Les enseignements d'un manuscrit inedit de Chateaubriand." Journal des Savants. (September- October, 1925)*

Henriot, Emile. "Chateaubriand et le dernier Abencerage." [review of the 1926 Hazard-Durry edition]. Le Temps. (June 15, 1926), 3 .

. "Chateaubriand k l'Alhambra." Le Temps. (February 11, 1933). 3.

______. "Chateaubriand k l'Alhambra" in Dix-neuvilrae Si&cle. Vol. I. [reprint of his 1933 article bearing the same title]. Parist Marcel Daubin, 1948.

Herpin, E. "La Romance du montagnard emigre" in Tiroirs de Chateaubriand in Les Annales romantioues. VIII (1911). 180-181.

Levaillant, Maurice. "Lecturers frangaisest une lettre de Blanca." Le Figaro. Saturday August 6 , 1932, p . 6 .

. "Un raythe amoureux de Chateaubriand," Le Figaro, January 7, 1933. P* ?•

Moreau, Pierre. "A propoo du sejour de Chateaubriand k Grenade." Revue Universitaire. (July-October, 1942), 182-SIk Rat, Maurice. "Chateaubriand n'etait pas seul au rendez­ vous de Grenade 1 Nathalie de Noailles y attendait." Le Figaro litteraire. July 2, 1949. P» 3* 236 Le Savoureux, Henri. "A Propos de la Rencontre de 1’Alhambra," Bulletin de 1*Association Guillaume Bude. II, (June, 1954)^ 103-104.

Stinglhamber, Louis. "Chateaubriand 2l Grenade." Etudes, CXCI, (June 5, 192?), 546-65.

______. "Chateaubriand & Grenade." Bulletin de TVAssociation Guillaume Bude, (December, 1952), 93-114.

Street, Jack David. "The Style of 'Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage' by Chateaubriand." Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1964.

______• "A Statistical Study of the Vocabulary of Chateaubriand's 'Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage." The French Review, XLIII, (October 1969), 42-45.

Vier, Jacques. HL'Orient d'une jaerle rare* Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage." Revue d'histoire litteraire de la France. LXIX, (March-April, 1969). 236-44”.

General Works on Chateaubriand

Andlau, Beatrix la comtesse d'. Chateaubriand et "Les Martyrs"* la naissance d'une epopee. Paris* Corti, 1.1952J,

______. "Cinquante-seizi&me reunion de travail." Petit Bulletin de la Societd Chateaubriand. V (October, 1953). 12-17.

Bataillon, M. "L'Espagne de Chateaubriand." Revue de litterature comparee. (1949), 287-99.

Beaunier, Andre. Le Roman d'une amiti6 . [Joseph Joubert et Pauline de^ BeaumontJ• Paris* Perrin et Compagnie, 1924.

. Trois amies de Chateaubriand. [Pauline de Beaumont, Mime Recamier, Hortense Allart]. Paris* E. Fasquelle, 1910.

Benoit%t Charles. ^ Chateaubriand* sa vie et ses oeuvres: etude litteraire et morale. Paris* Didier, 1665. 237 Berchet, Jean-Claude. "La Nuit et les incarnations de la sylphide" in Bicentennaire de Chateaubriand. Paris» Minard, 1971*

______. "Chateaubriand, po&te de la nuit." in Chateaubriand Today. Edited by Richard Switzer. Madisoni University of Wisconsin Press, 1970*

Bertaut, Jules. La Vie priy^e de Chateaubriand. Paris« Hachette, ( Collection* "Les vies privees"), 1931•

Berenger, Henri. Chateaubriand. Parisi Hachette, (Collection* "Figures du passd"), 1931*

Braz, Anatole le. Au Pays d'exll de Chateaubriand. Paris* Champion, 1909.

Clarac, Pierre. "Le Christianisme de Chateaubriand" in Bicentennaire de Chateaubriand. Paris* Minard, 1971. Collas, Georges, et. al. Chateaubriand* le livre du Centennaire" Paris * Flammarion, 194-9.

Di^guez, Manuel de. Chateaubriand ou le pofete face h. l'histoire. Paris* Plon, 1963*

Duchemin, Marcel. Chateaubriand* essais de critique et d'histoire littera~ire~. Paris * Librairie philosophique J. Vrin, 1938.

Dugas, L. "La Timidite de Chateaubriand." Mercure de France, (May 16 , 1913). 225-339.

Ercolano, Rosa Vallese. Le Th^me de la mer dans 1*oeuvre de Chateaubriand. Milan* Society anonima editrice Dante Aligheri, 193^.

Gauthier, Jean-Marie. "L'Expression des couleurs dans 1*oeuvre de Chateaubriand," Modern Language Notes. LXV, (January, 1950), 35-40.

Giraud, Victor, Pages choisies de Chateaubriand. Parisi 1911.

______. Le Christianisme de Chateaubriand. Paris* Hachette, 1925*

______• "Les Amours de Chateaubriand." Le Monde. December 3» 1948, p. 3 . 238

Gribble, Francis. Chateaubriand and his Court of Women. Londom Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1909.

Henriot, Emile. Livres et portraits. Paris* Librairie Plon, [1927T.

______. “Chateaubriand et Hyde de Neuville." in Dix- neuvifeme Sifecle. Vol. I. Paris* Editions Marcel Daubin, 1948.

Herriot, Edouard. Madame Recamier et see amis. Paris* Payot, 1924.

Lehtonen, Maija. "Chateaubriand et le th&me de la mer." Cahiers de 1*Association Internationale des etudes francalsesT XXI i (19^9)i 193-208,

Lemaitre, Jules. Chateaubriand. Paris* Calmann-Levy dditeurs, [l£l2].

Levaillant, Maurice. Chateaubriand. Madame Recamier et "Les Memoires d'outre-tombe* 1830-1850." Paris 1 Librairie Delagrave, 1939*

. Chateaubriand prince des songes. Paris * Hachette, i960." ' 1

. Snlendeurs. mis&res et chim&res de monsieur de Chateaubriand! Paris * Albin-Miche1," 1948.

Longi, Olga. La Terre et les morts dans 1*oeuvre de Chateaubriand. Baltimore 1 The Johns Hopkins University Press, 193^»

Marcellus, le corate de. Chateaubriand et son temps. Paris* Michel Ldvy fr&res, 1859.

Marin, Scipion. Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de Chateaubriand. Paris 1 Vimont, lAbraire,

Martin-Chauffier, Louis. Chateaubriand. Paris* Seghers, (Collection "Ecrivains d'hier et d'au3ourd*huiH), 1969.

______. Chateaubriand ou 1*obsession de la purete. Paris! Gailimard,' 1943.

Maurel, Andre. Essals sur Chateaubriand. Paris* Editions d¥"la revue blanche, 1898. 239 Maurois, Andre. Rene ou la vie de Chateaubriand. Parisi Grasset, 1938.

Mera, G. L'Esthetique de Chateaubriand! genfese et developnement. etude nsychologique. Parisi Librairie des Saints-pfcres, 1913.

Moreau, Pierre. Chateaubriandi l’homme et la vie. le gdnie et les livre“sT Paris t Garnier fr&res, 1927.

______, Chateaubriand. Paris* Hatier, (Collection ^onnaissance des lettres"), 1956.

______. Chateaubriand. Paris* Desclee de Brouwer, ^Collection "Les Ecrivains devant Dieu"), 1965.

. “Les Horizons chimdriques de Chateaubriand.” Revue des sciences humaines. XXXIII, no. 132, (October-December, 1968),

Pailhes, l'abbe. Du Nouveau sur Joubert. Chateaubriand. Fontanes et sa fille. Paris* Garnier fr&res, 1900.

Paleologue, M. “Madame d9 Chateaubriand." Revue des deux mondes. XLI, (February 1, 1889), 604- 641.

Pange, Madame la comtesse de. “Chateaubriand & Mereville." Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand. I, (1931). 1 Reboul, Pierre. “Georges Sand et Chateaubriand," Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand. V, (1961), 18-20.

Richard, Jean-Pierre. Paysage de Chateaubriand. Paris* Aux Editions du Seuil, 1967.

Riffaterre; Michael. “Chateaubriand et le monument imaginaire“ in Chateaubriand Today. Edited by Richard Switzer. Madison* University of Wisconsin Press, 1970. p. 63.

Sainte-Beuve. Chateaubriand et Bon groupe litteraire sous 1*Empire. Edited by Maurice Allem. Paris1 Garnier freres, 19^8.

Savoureux, Henri le. Chateaubriand. Paris 1 Les Editions Rieder, 1930. 240 • "Chateaubriand amoureux." Cahiers du Sud. L, (i960), 189-97.

Sieburg, Friedrich, Chateaubriand. Stuttgart* Deutsche Verlags Anstalt, 1959.

Steinmetz, Jean-Luc, "Chateaubriand et ses possibles," Annales de Bretagne. LXXV. (September 3, 1968), 649-65, I Edition dedicated to the "Colloque Chateaubriand" in Rennes, 1968],

Switzer, Richard, "Chateaubriand the poet" in Chateaubriand Today. Edited by Richard Switzer, Madison* The University of Wisconsin Press, 1970.

Tapie, Victor, Chateaubriand par lui-meme. Paris* Aux Editions du Seuil, (Collection "Ecrivains de toujours"), 1965,

Thoraval, Jean. "Chateaubriand paysagiste d'apres ses variantes." Bulletin de la Societe Chateaubriand. I. (1957), 30-35. Vauthier, G. "Les premibres relations entre Chateaubriand et Ballanche." Revue d*histoire litteraire de la France. XXIX, (1922), 268-28?,

Villeraain, M, Monsieur de Chateaubriand in La Tribune m o d e m e . Vol. I, Paris* Michel Levy, frbres, 1 5 3 5 : ;

Walker, Thomas Capell. Chateaubriand * s Natural Scenery* a Study of his Descriptive Art. [.The Johns Hopkins Studies in Romance Languages and LiteraturesJ* Baltimore* The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1946.

Miscellaneous Literary Studies

Barbey-d'Aurevilly, J. Portraits politiaues et litteraires. Paris* Alphonse Lemerre, 1898,

Baudelaire, Charles. Critique litteraire in Oeuvres competes. Edited by Claude Pichois and Y.G, Le Dantec. Paris* Gailimard, (Editions de la Pleiade), 1961. 24l Bordeaux, Henri. Les Ecrivains et lea moeurs. Paris* Albert Fonteraoing, 1900.

Cazenave, Jean. 'Le Roman hispano-mauresque en France de Zayde au dernier Abencerage." Revue de litterature comparee, (1925)t 594-640.

Chaplyn, Marjorie A. Le Roman mauresque en France de Zayde au dernier Abencerage. Paris * Nizet, 1928. Chasles, Philar&te. Etudes sur les hommes et les moeurs au dix-neuvikme si&cle^ Parisi Arayot, 1849.

Daudet, Leon. Le Stupide Dix-neuvifeme Si&cle. Paris* Nouvelle librairie rationale, 1922.

Deldcluze, Etienne Jean. Louis David, son ecole et son temps. Paris* Didier, 1055*

Doumic, Rene. Etudes sur la litterature francaise. Paris * Librairie academique Didier, 1900,

Duhamel, Roger. Aux sources du romantisme francais. Ottawa* Editions de l'Universite d*Ottawa, 1964.

Fortier, Paul A. "Etat present de 1'utilisation des ordinateurs pour 1'etude de la litterature frangaise." Computers and the Humanities. V, no. 3 , (January 1971)» 143-154.

Gracq, Julien. "Le grand Paon" in Preferences. Parisi Jose Corti, 1961.

Guiraud, Pierre. "Le Champ stylistique du gouffre de Baudelaire." Orbis Litterarum. XI, (1958) r 75-84.

Hemon, Felix. Cours de Litterature. vol. VIII. Paris* Librairie Deiagrave, 1.1919].

Hunt, Herbert J, The Epic in Nineteenth Century France. Oxford* Oxford University Press, 1941.

Jean, Raymond. La Litterature et le reel. Paris* Editions Albin Michel, 1965* 242 Lamartine, Alphonse de. Cours familier de litterature. Vol. XXVIII. Paris’* chez l'editeur. 1056-69.

. Prose. Edited by Mademoiselle Vincent. Paris* A. Taffin-Lefort, (Collection "Grands classiques frangais et etrangers"), 192?.

Lanson, Gustave. Histoire de la Litterature francaise. Parisi Hachette, 1894.

Nisard, D. Histoire de la litterature francaise. Vol. IV. Pansi Librairie de Firrain-Didot, 1883.

Noailles, le marquis de. Le Comte Mole, 1^81-1855* sa vie, ses memoires“ Vol. IV. Parisi Champion, 1930*

Poulet, Georges. Les Metamorphoses du cercle. Paris* Librairie Plon, 19<5l.

Renan, Ernest. L'Avenir de la Science in Oeuvres completes. Paris * Calmann Levy, 1949.

Thibaudet, Albert. Histoire de la litterature francaise de 1789 5. nos .ioursT Paris* Librairie Stock, 1936.

Vinet, A. Etudes sur la litterature francaise au TS3Y;dix-neuvikme sikcle. Paris* chez les Editeurs,