72-4560

MARTIN, John Stuart, 1937- CLARIFYING THE SEMANTIC M D GRAMMATICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NO* -COUNTABLE NOUN THROUGH CLASSIFICATION, CC MPARISON AND VOCABULARY.

The Ohio State University Ph.D., 1971. Education, general

University Microfilms, A XERQ\Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROF LMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED CLARIFYING THE SEMANTIC AND GRAMMATICAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN THROUGH CLASSIFICATION,

COMPARISON AND VOCABULARY

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

John Stuart Martin, A.A., B.A., M.A,

The Ohio State University 1971

Approved by

"Adviser English Education College of Education PLEASE NOTE:

Some Pages have in d istin ct p rin t. Filmed as received.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

!

I am indebted to the following persons who have aided me in the pursuit of ray studies in higher education beyond the M.A. level: i > .

To Professor Donald R. Bateman who has given his students the freedom to discover the things that they want to discover.

To Professor Wilfred Eberhart, who has not only successfully attempted to instill poise and confidence in his students but who has also allowed these students to discuss issues openly.

To Professor George M. Landon whose help and guidance both as a teacher and as the supervisor of teachers will not be forgotten.

ii VITA

October I, 1937 . • • Born - Columbus Ohio

1 9 6 U ...... A .A., Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia

1 9 6 5 ...... B.A., Linguistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1966-1967 ...... Teaching Assistant, Department of English, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1967-1968 ...... Teaching Assistant, Department of Linguistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1968 . . Planning Coordinator, Communication Skills, Higher Education Opportunity Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1968 ...... M.A., Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Department of English, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1968-1969 ...... Lecturer in English for Speakers of Other Languages and Assistant to Chairman, English as a Second Language, Department of English, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1969 to present . . . Chairman, English as a Second Language and Instructor in English as a Second Language, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: The Teaching and Administering of Courses in English for Speakers of Other Languages

Studies in English Education. Professors Wilfred Eberhart, Donald R. Bateman and George M. Landon

Studies in English for Speakers of Other Languages. Professors Dennis R. Preston, Shiela M. Goff and George M. Landon

Studies In Linguistics. Professors D. Terence Langendoen, Charles J. Fillmore and U s e Lehlste

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... 11

VITA ...... Ill

LIST OF TABLES...... v

Chapter

I. THE SCOPE OF THIS DISSERTATION...... 1

II. THE CRUCIAL LINK BETWEEN GRAMMAR AND MEANING . 5

III. MASS AND THE NON-COUNTABLE N O U N ...... II

IV. THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN AS AN EXPRESSION OF CLASS...... 21

V. IDEAS AS REPRESENTED BY NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS . 31

VI. THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN AS RELATED TO THE COUNTABLE NOUN ...... k2

VII. THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN AS RELATED TO THE ADJECTIVE...... 68

VIII. THE UNIQUE GRAMMATICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NON-COUNTABLE N O U N ...... 80

IX. SUMMARY ...... 88

APPENDICES, Introductory N o t e ...... 101

APPENDIX

A...... 102

B ...... 110

C...... Ill

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... ^

iv LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Mass Words, with Use in Sentence, Representing SolidB, without Particles...... 16

2. Mass Words, with Use in Sentence, Representing Solids, with Particles too Small to Count ...... 17

3. Mass Words, with Use in Sentence, Representing Liquids. 18

U. Non-Countable Class Words Primarily with Tangible Membership...... 25

5. Non-Countable Class Words Primarily with Non- Couhtable Membership...... 26

6. Non-Countable Words as a Reflection of Ideas or Abstractions...... 38

7. Two-Word or Prepositional WordB Used as Nouns .... 51*

8. Nouns Countable and Non-Countable Reflecting Mass where Not Counted ...... 58

9. Nouns Countable and Non-Countable which Replace Clans when Not C o u n t e d ...... 60

10. Nouns Countable and Non-Countable which Replace Ideas when Not C o u n t e d ...... 6l

11. Articles Used Exclusively with Countable and Non- Countable Nouns ...... 81

12. Countable Noun Used for Expression of Generic .... 8U

13. The Use of Markers with Non-Countable Nouns to Esqpress the Generic...... 85

lU. Non-Countable Words with Endings, Primarily not Countable ...... 88

15. Words with Endings, Non-Couqtable and Countable . . . 89

w \ CHAPTER I

THE SCOPE OF THIS DISSERTATION

This dissertation deals with the non-countable noun, the area of English syntax which makes the following sentences marginal:^

1. I like to go out to look at the sceneries (where we

would prefer, "I like to go out to look at the

scenery").

2. I messed up my clothes with an ink (where unless we

were speaking of specific varieties of ink, we

would prefer, "I messed up my clothes with ink'

or with some ink").

3. There were many skatings at the pond last night (where

one might prefer, "There was skating, much

skating, or a lot of skating at the pond last

night").

U. Ladies and gentlemen, we have examined much soil this

week (where the sentence "Ladies and gentlemen, we

have examined many soils this week" would be

preferred in the context of a class in botany or

agronomy and where types of soils are investigated). *

^These sentences are based on the mistakes made by interna­ tional students that X have recently observed. 2

5. In ay garden, I have a very rich soil (where one might

prefer, "In my garden, I have very rich soil").

Mistakes of this type are concerned with the English non-countable noun, often referred to hy teachers and linguists as the collective, mass or uncountable noun. Among other grammatical characteristics, words contained within the category of non-countable noun cannot usually be made plural and cannot usually be used along with the. indefinite article a(n). We must therefore pay particular attention to the fact that the plural or the indefinite article plays a part in all of the problems in the five sentences above (for Instance, sentence one is corrected when we say, "Like to go out and look at the scenery," sentence two is corrected by saying, "I messed up my clothes with ink," and so on). The non-countable noun presents many problems to foreign students, particularly to those from China, Japan and adjacent countries. In this dissertation, I shall first make the claim that students' problems originate with teachers and linguists who perhaps through a lack of knowledge or through a desire to maintain a particular philosophy about language, furniBh an in­ accurate or incomplete explanation of the non-countable noun. Second, by the use of examples, lists and rules, I shall present, for the benefit of teachers and Btudents, as complete an explanation as possible of this troublesome noun category.

In order to make the dissertation as comprehensive sb possible, it has been found necessary to assemble a bibliography, prior to the bibliography, several dictionaries are Indicated as sources for the corpus of over 5,000 non-countable nouns which this dissertation 3 treats. From this corpus, I have extracted the vords which occur

50 or more times per 1,000,000 words in the English language;^ these frequently vords have then been used in tables and as examples throughout the text.

The extensive explanation of the non-countable noun found in the dissertation is the primary factor contributing to its significance and originality. I also expect the dissertation to be original because of the two techniques that I shall use in order to make the explanation aB clear as possible— the techniques of classi­ fication and comparison. First, I shall deal with these nouns as a group totally separated from other grammatical categories such as adjectives, countable nouns, etc. By isolating the non-countable noun in this way, I shall relate the category to the world of ldeaB, attempting to illustrate the various ways that a student must think about the referent of a word in order to determine whether he is dealing with a non-countable noun. After the student has determined that he is indeed dealing with an idea which will be expressed by a non-countable noun, he will need a knowledge of the rules governing the cprrect use of his idea. The non-countable noun, as a sub­ group Isolated from other categories, will therefore be considered as a classification of ideas and as a grammatical expression of these ideas.

After dealing with the taxonomy of ideas and their overt realization or expression, I shall compare the non-countable noun

2The source of word frequency is Edward Ii. Thorndike, and JErving Lorae. The Teachers Word Book of 30.000 Words (New York: Columbia University Press , 19^). ’ to the category of countable noun (i.e.t those nouns that can take the plural suffix or the indefinite article a). In addition, I shall compare the non-countable noun to adjectives, for the non- countable noun shares many grammatical and notional or semantic characteristics with adjectives— characteristics that are at least implicit in the sources mentioned in the dissertation.

In summary, this dissertation will provide a thorough explanation of the non-countable noun, by the use of examples, by the use of vocabulary lists, and by the two expository devices of classification and comparison. Through these approaches, it is hoped that teachers of English as a second language will be able to explain thiB difficult sub-category more easily to students in their classes. CHAPTER II

THE CRUCIAL LINK BETWEEN GRAMMAR AND MEANING

At the beginning of the previous chapter, I stated that the problems of students dealing with the non-countable noun are caused by teachers and linguists who present incomplete or inaccurate information. Quite often, the information which linguists and teachers do not provide is concerned with the way a student must think about the referent of a word. For instance, Paul Roberts, a famous structuralist, directs his attention to nouns; after furnishing us with the various patterns in which concrete, abstract, count, mass and common nouns can occur, he makes the following statement:

You will notice that none of this description dependB on meaning. It may be true that there is a kind of general meaning common to nouns and other meanings common to other word classes. But this meaning is created precisely by similarity of occurrence in sentence patterns. The structure produces the meeuiing, not the other way wound. We do not, in our use of language, perceive that a word names a person, place, or thing and therefore occurs in a noun pattern. We perceive that it occurs in a noun pattern and therefore names a person, place or thing.1

Roberts appears to be instructing foreign students to express themselves before they have determined the meaning that motivates the expression. It is my contention that we must think first and then express ourselves based upon what we have in mind if we are to gain

S ’aul Roberts, Understanding English (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 153. 6 any command of the non-countable noun. If ve are thinking of an entity which has shape and which holds water, we can call it a glass; if we conceive of a mass with infinitely varied form, we can simply call it glass (not a glass).

One of several possible reasons for the tendency to place grammar ahead of meaning, as is illustrated in the previous quotation, or to disregard the various shades of meaning expressed by non- countable nouns is that many linguists have not believed that meaning and use were matters of grammar.2 L. A. Hill, like Roberts, states that the problems with all nouns, countable or otherwise, can be solved by recognition only of syntactic behavior:

I suggest that for the foreign learner, only a classifi­ cation baBed on behaviour in the sentence is of practical use; we can leave the problem whether fire is concrete or abstract, material or common, to the philosophers and physicistB; what our students want to know is whether they may say a fire, some fire, any fires. fire is...etc., and if so, under what circumstances.-^ *

p This disregard was a cardinal principle of some if not all structuralists who felt that it was impossible to talk about meaning since it was associated so closely with operations of the human mind that it (meaning) did not fall into the realm of scientific investigation. Knowing further details of the philosophy is not important for the understanding of information in this dissertation; however, if the reader is interested, the structuralist attitude is made quite clear in an article written by. W. F. Twaddell ("On Defining the PhonemeReadings in Linguistics. ed. by Martin Joos (Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 19^*5)* pp. 55-80) iri‘which he criticizes same of the thoughts of Edward Sapir ("The Psychological Realitv of the Phoneme," in Selected Writings of Edward Sapir (Berkeley: University of California Press, lyMJ), pp. Ut>-tJo)r.

^L. A. Hill, "Noun-Classes and the Practical Teacher." Selected Articles on the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1967)* p. 1. 7 The implication here, as with the previous comment by Roberts, is that all the Btudent must know is the grammatical behavior of each noun and he will gain a command of it. My comment on the above statement is that students must, in order to perform well under Hill's system, either memorize the grammatical "behavior of each and every noun in English or possess a dictionary which indicates whether the word is countable or non-countable.

It is virtually impossible to memorize the grammatical behavior of all nouns since our ability to form nominals from other parts of speech and since our habits of borrowing words from other languages make nouns infinite in number. As for our ability to check for grammatical behavior in a dictionary, there is only one large and easily available source— The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of

Current English*1— which lists types of nouns. The student, however, could not possibly perform well in all cases, even by using this particular reference book, since not every noun has been adequately marked. For example, cherry ("it is made of cherry") is not marked as countable or non-countable, and types of fish like sturgeon

("Tonight we are going to have sturgeon") also receive no special attention through marking. Although there are many other examples reflecting this type of omission (where the non-countable noun is a type of wood— cherry— or a type of meat or fish— sturgeon— etc.), perhaps the greatest area of inconsistency has to do with the various

**A. S. Hornby, E. V. Gatenby, and H. Wakefield, The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English (London: Oxford University Press, 195t>). " 8 suffixes associated with non-countable nouns (a topic which I shall deal with later). One instance occurs with the two words inflation and deflation, the first of which is marked as non-countable and the second of which has received no marking at all. These examples

t reflect the potentially; misleading policy stated at the beginning of the dictionary:

supplied liberally but it has not been considered necessary to add them in every case. No learner needs to be told that book, tree, box and similar words may be used in the pluralT^

Since many, many words like deflation have not been marked, the inexperienced foreign student may assume that, like book or tree

(mentioned in the above quote), it is always counted. However, the attempt at marking nouns as countable or non-countable is admirable; even more noteworthy at this point is the implication brought out by the rest of the above statement, which continues as follows:

The student soon learns, moreover, that many material nouns may be used in the plural to indicate varieties or kinds, as when we distinguish between hard and soft woods, although wood is a material noun not usually occurring in the plural (except, of course, with its other meaning of "land covered with growing trees"). It is worth noting, too, that abstract nouns may occasionally, usually in literary style, be used in the singular with the indefinite article. Thus we do not usually speak of "a bravery." But we might come across the sentence, "They fought with a bravery that surprised everyone." This is a kind of literary shorthand. The meaning is "a degree of bravery." Similarly an abstract noun such as indiscretion is marked HO . But it may occur in the^plural meaning "indiscreet acts of utterances."

A. S. Hornby, et.ol., The Advanced Learner * 3 Dictionary, p. x; in this quote the ITT] marking is synonymous with the term non- countabie that I shall use throughout the dissertation.

^Ibid., pp. x-xi. 9

What is Important about the above statement is that the author brings up the word meaning. What is being implied by A, S . Hornby

(the author of the above passage) is that to understand the grammatical behavior of non-countable nouns, the student must be aware of meaning and referents of words. He must know what thing or being or concept he is thinking about before he can determine the grammatical behavior of vords.

Other sources consider meaning to be important at least when considering the non-countable nouns. R. A. Close recognizes the importance of meaning in attaining total control of these nouns when he states that "To begin with, apple, beauty. child, etc., are WORDS; and the distinctions we are discussing in this book apply not to mere words but to what we have in mind when we use them. Similarly,

Christophersen recognizes that meaning is crucial, as is illustrated in the statement below. His unlt-word corresponds to a countable- noun while he uses the term continuate-word in making reference to non-countable nouns:

A unit-word calls up the idea of something regarded as single and complete in itself, an individual or unit belonging to a class of similar objects. It id viewed as a point. A contlnuate-vord represents something apprehended „ as continuous and extending indefinitely in space and time.

The details mentioned by Close and Christophersen may not be clear

at this time; what is important is Close's mention of the phrase

^R. A. Close. English as a Foreign Language (Cambridge; Harvard University Press, 1963), p. 1*8/

Paul Christophersen, The Articles (Copenhagen: E. Munksgaard, 1939), p. 2 6 . ' . . .. : ~ 10

11.. .what ve have In mind...” and Christophersen*s mention of calling '

" . . .up an Idea..." and of recognizing a word as M...apprehended..

What can he learned from the previous discussion is that the

grammarian or the teacher, because of his philosophy of language

learning or because of his inability or lack of desire to be complete,

can severely limit or slow down the learning processes of his students.

As we have seen, this learning process is concerned with the degree

to which meaning is included in learning. Many texts have been

prepared by the structuralists, and these books have characteristically 9 places little emphasis on meaning. The more traditional grammarians

have made greater attempts to explain the meaning and reference of

non-countable nouns, but even these people have fallen short of being

complete in their efforts. It is hoped that through this introductory

discussion of the problems resulting from a disregard of meaning and

reference, the reader will be further prepared for a discussion which

goes well beyond the grammatical behavior of the non-countable noun.

It is hoped that the reader will view the syntactic expression of a

non-countable noun as motivated first and foremost by an idea.

Q "'Ve therefore see, in English Sentence Patterns by R. Lado and C. Fries (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1966), excellent pattern practices, but poor sections on the choice of articles and non-countable nouns, because of the authors' inability or lack of desire to refer to what words mean. These two famous structuralists have, with English Sentence Patterns. written a book which has had one of the highest circulations of all texts in its field but which is weak in areas having to do with meanlng^only because of the overriding philosophy which inhibited these distinguished .writers. v ■ ■ CHAPTER III

MASS AND THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN

In the previous chapter, I stated that control over the non- countable noun begins with the thinking process and that this process is initially concerned with the referent of a word and not with its grammatical realization. In other words, it would be advantageous to the foreign student not only to be able to apply the grammatical rules governing these words but also, by thinking of the word in a certain way, to be able to recognize a non-countable noun without the aid of a dictionary. In order to recognize these words, the student must be aware of a range of abstraction as related to non-countable nouns. In the next three chapters, I shall set the limits of this range.

In Chapter Four, I shall deal with words the abstract nature of which might present problems to students. These will be class words such as furniture or luggage both of which stand as the heads of classes but the referents of which cannot, strictly speaking, be touched. For instance, included in the furniture class are chairs, tables and lamps; what the student must try to conceptualize is that he is touching the physical chair or the physical table and not the abstract furniture. Similarly, the student must remember that he will be much more precise if he picks up a valiBe instead of luggage, or

closes a suitcase instead of luggage; touchable and observable

II' 12 suitcases and valises are not luggage but are two parts of the class called luggage. The problem therefore occurs because of the fact that the membership of classes such as these is tangible and these members are often confused with the head of the class itself.

Chapter Four will deal with these nouns as well as with class Vords which have intangible membership. (Crime is a class word made up of acts of murder and vice, both of which are intangible.) . i In Chapter Five I shall discuss words the referents of which have no physical reality in themselves and which do not suggest class membership. In the fifth chapter I shall therefore discuss wordB such as fear, which cannot be felt in any physical way but only emotionally. Similar to fear is anger, which is felt but not in the same physical way we feel the wind or a fur coat. The label for such words will be ideas; and since they have independently intangible referents, they will be considered as non-countable nounB at their most abstract level.

Assuming that the more physical realities (the elements of the world that can be seen by the eye or felt by the hand) are more

easily recognized and therefore better understood by the foreign

student, I shall, in this third chapter, be concerned with repre­

sentations of physical mass.

At the outset, it must be made clear that here the terms mass and non-countable are not being used synonymously, The reason for this distinction is that the term non-countable noun suggests a

category of words that include both physical and non-physical objects, whereas the term mass, if used synonymously! could confuse the student into thinking that the entire category contains physical

(mass) objects.

Although he is dealing with a non-countable noun, the student can find satisfaction in the fact that mass words are realizations of a non-abstract, physical reality. In addition, ii ' the teacher is able to speak of this reality in more specific terms the student’s difficulties will be greatly reduced. In other wordit, the student would be aided if the teacher would place specific limits on the type of physical reality under discussion. One rule governing the non- countable use of many mass words is that they do not possess any particular shape at any two or more given times. It is therefore easy to see that ink, placed in a bottle at one point in dime has a consider­ ably different appearance than ink which has been sp:.lied. Similarly, snow which falls from the heavens and is newly formed on the ground is considerably different from snow which has been b!.own by the

Jespersen, in Essentials of English Grammar (U^riversity of Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1966), p . 20 6 , referred to the non-countable noun as a mass noun, classifying w^ rds such as ink, salt, snow, etc., as material mass nouns. It w; 11, however, be noted that the non-countable nouns such as human! t;£ do not make reference to physical mass or do not suggest physical mass to the same extent as does ink. Even though Jespersen*s clOssification of mass and non-mass is based on a grammatical disti notion, the student would perhaps become confused by Inadvertent disregarding the difference between grammar and concept. Ik wind, packed by a child into a snowman or affected by automobile tires or by the rising temperature of an early spring day.

Since the form of mass-noun referents is so delicate or so unstable, the student must be made aware that if he captures referents of these words in picture form on one occasion, he cannot expect to capture the same picture several minutes or hours later.

This problem with physical instability is referred to by Brown as a problem of "picturability" and 'Visual contour."^ Going one step further, we may also state that things in the real world which are represented by mass nouns are such that they need support in order to retain their stability. Ink therefore needs the aid of a bottle to keep it (the ink) from losing its shape.

Snow, even as it is formed from water condensation, forms into a flake of snow, the flake being the first shape that the snow takes

Thereafter snow may be referred to os a snowdrift, a snowman or a snow bank, all of these words (drift, man, bank) combining with snow to give it shape after the flakes have been destroyed. Water will continually change its form unless this liquid is given shape

in the form of a glass, a river bank or a pond.

We may refer to the mass non-countable noun aB representing not only objects which affect one or more of our senses but as

elements divided into the categories of unseen elements. Mast of

these are gasses, liquids and the solids which are composed of

%oger Brown, Words and Things (New York: The Free Press, 1958) pp. 21*8-250. 15 particles too small to count3 or which are of a more stable, unified

character. We see mass nouns representing solids such as dirt or

snow, but in these two instances the mass is composed of particles,

too small to count; a second type of mass non-countable noun is seen

in such vords as gold or ice where, if there are small particles

present, they are not immediately felt as such.

The following list as well as all other tables on word frequency

will represent those non-countable nouns that occur 50 or more

times per 1,000,000 words of running text. The source for word

frequency has made selection according to word shape and not according

to meaning. A word is therefore listed once regardless of whether

it has two meanings or whether it represents two or more parts of

speech.** We would therefore suspect that the word brush appearing

in the following table, refers to a brush for hair and not the low-

growing bushes which can be referred to as the non-countable brush.

Similarly in the following table we see the word felt which occurs

with great frequency only because it refers to the second and/or

third principal part of the verb to feel. In all cases these types

of vords have been included in this table as well as all the other

3An area with ".. .PARTICLES TOO SMALL TO BE COUNTED" was suggested by Jean Franinskas in Rapid Review of English Grammar (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. , 1959) > p. 53.

Sftie source of word frequency mentioned here (and used consistently throughout this paper) is Edward L. Thorndike and. Irving Lorge, The Teachers Word Book of 30.000 Words (New York: Columbia University Press, 19^). word-frequency tables In this dissertation. The student could become confused If these words were not included. For instance, the student when seeing the sentence, "The brush is on fire and the fire is spreading rapidly," would probably picture a burning hairbrush. Similarly, a beginning student seeing the sentence,

"Felt is beautiful," would have to reflect on the sentence for some time because he had seen only the verb form of the word felt. Such confusion is therefore eliminated by the inclusion of words such as brush and felt.

TABLE 1

MASS WORDS, WITH USE IN SENTENCES, REPRESENTING SOLIDS, WITHOUT PARTICLES

Mass Word As Used in a Sentence

bark Bark forms the outer surface of the tree. bread We must have bread for lunch. brush Brush can catch fire very easily. butter The value of butter has not been proved. cotton Damage to cotton can seriously hurt the Southern United States. earth One needB rich earth to grow delicate vegetables and flowers. fat Fat in our blood can shorten our lives. felt Felt is made more beautiful with a brush. gold He found gold in the hills. ice Ice is frozen water. land Land in Virginia is expensive. . lead Lead is known as a heavy metal. leather Saddles cure made of leather. pine Pine is abundant in Ontario. silk In our dress shops there is an abundance of silk. silver Silver is used in the manufacture of coins. steel Who can deny the strength and versatility of ■ steel? ^ wool Wool will keep you warm. 17

One notices the rather solid, indivisible nature of the objects represented by the above words, especially when one observes the comparative instability suggested by the referents of the non- countable nouns in the following table:

TABLE 2

MASS WORDS, WITH USE IH SENTENCE, REPRESENTING SOLIDS, ■ PARTICLES TOO SMALL TO COUNT

Mass Word As Used in a Sentence

flour Flour is used for making pancakes. grass Grass can be maintained in a healthy state if watered. hair A baby is often born without hair. powder Women use powder more often than men. refuse Don't forget to burn your refuse. salt Consumption of Balt should be increased in the summer. sand Many plants will not grow in sand. snow Snow takes many forms after falling from the heavens. soil Soil makes a difference in farming. sugar Sugar is beneficial in moderation. wheat Wheat is used for the making of bread.

Another type of mass noun is representative of liquids, and members of this category can be recognized through Bight, in addition to touch and smell. Evidence of this is seen in words such as water or ink, both of which are available to our sight. In the following list are included words representing liquids, not easily

converted to countable nouns and occurring 50 or more times per

1,000,000 words: 18

TABLE 3

MASS WORDS, WITH USE IN SENTENCE, REPRESENTING LIQUIDS

Mass Word As Used in a Sentence

blood When he left the house, he was dripping with blood. cream Would you like cream with your coffee? milk Milk is most necessary in childhood. oil Numerous products are made from oil. paint Paint costs $5.00 per gallon at that store. port Port is very expensive. rain Rain is quite infrequent in arid climates. tea Tea is more popular in England than in the United States. water I believe that water would help those flowers. wine We should have wine with this meal.

Although vords reflecting gases and related pheonmena cannot be seen, we can see the effects or feel the results of their presence.

For instance, the scientist can detect the presence of oxygen because combustion does not occur without this gas. The scientist also recognizes the presence of carbon monoxide by the effect that it creates of reducing oxygen in the blood. Gases are therefore recognized by what we might call the indirect evidence of the effects upon objects and organisms created by their presence or their absence.

It is interesting to note that there are only five possible non-countable nouns which represent this mass of invisible nature and which appear frequently in the language. '.Two of these are the words heat ("Heat, will ruin that plastic quite easily") and sun ("I have gotten too much sun today”). However, these could also be considered under the state or condition classification of ideas found in Chapter Five. The three remaining words steam,

("Steam is a vaporized form of water")* gas ("Gas can be deadly") I and air ("Why don*t you fill the tires with air?") could be

considered as gases. However, these words could Just as easily be

considered as the heads of categories and could therefore be placed

in the appropriate classes found in Chapter Four. One conclusion

drawn from these observations is that words representing gases and

other unseen physical entities— those entities that are felt if not

seen— are not among the most frequently occurring words of the

language. It must be remembered, however, that many teachers of

English to speakers of other languages have students who are in

scientific and technical fields and bheBe students may find these more obscure words to be most necessary. The teacher is therefore

encouraged to consult Appendix A for numerous examples in order to

satisfy this need.

Let us now summarize this chapter by making the following

statements:

(a) Mass nouns are representatives of physical reality but

since this reality is unstable or has no precise shape at any two

or more points in time, this mass needs another element in order

to retain its shape (snow must have a flake so that is can fall

from the heavens); it could not have existed without a flake and

must take other forms such as drifts or banks to retain shape after

the flakes have been destroyed through packing, melting, etc..

Similarly , soap is put in a box or in the form of a bar. and ink is

put. into a bottle so that they will retain enough shape to be 20 used in some manageable way.

(b) Because of (a) above, a student will have difficulty in drawing a picture of an object which is expressed by the mass non- 5 countable noun.

(c) The student, if he feels that he has drawn this picture successfully, must make certain that he has not drawn the element that supports or gives shape to the mass (the student will therefore not have drawn ink, but a bottle, will not have drawn lightning but a flash, will not have drawn milk but a carton or glass, and so on).

^Although the concept of plcturability is attributable to Roger Brown, the idea of drawing a picture, as well as the information and examples concerning class words with tangible members, found on the next two pages (pp. 21 and 22), represent the thinking of Phyllis R. Gunter. Her presently unpublished manuscript contains one of the better treatments of the non- countable noun and other grammatical areas. For future reference see Phyllis R. Gunter, The Structure of Simple English Sentences, unpublished manuscript, anticipated time of publication by Appleton, Century and Croft, Inc., to be 1972, or perhaps late 1971. CHAPTER IV

THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN AS AN EXPRESSION OF CLASS

Many of the parts of speech mentioned by traditional grammarians refer to or involve certain ideas. Verbs indicate either states or actions. Prepositions indicate such relationships as space, time, frequency and manner. The traditional grammarian tells the student that he can recognize a noun as indicating a person, place or thing. We observed in the previous chapter that non-countable nouns representing mass can refer to things— to physical entities— that can be observed by the senses. To this extent, the non-countable noun falls within the traditional grammarian's definition of the larger noun category mentioned above.

It must, however, be remembered that the traditionalists do not explicitly tell us whether the "thing" mentioned in their definition must have precise shape, and the foreign student might become quite easily confused by reading shape into the definition, especially when confronted with a non-countable noun, the referent of which probably has no consistent shape at all. In other words, if precise shape is necessary, then as we have seen, the non- countable noun denoting mass does not fall within the definition.

In addition, although it may be clear that, for Instance, the words

- ' 2 1 22 chair, sofa and table represent things with shape, it is unclear whether the Buperordinate word furniture represents any precise physical entity at all. In other words, when an individual is asked to draw a picture of furniture. it will be uncertain whether this person should draw a chair, a table or a sofa. Furniture, then, represents only a collection of physical entities and has no physical reality in itself. ThiB type of non-countable noun is one of several words which represent classes of tangible and intangible entities and which will be the subject of this chapter.

Words mentioned in this chapter are those which are not easily converted to countable nouns; the first of these types that

I shall discuss are those that refer to classes of items some of which or all of which have a non-abstract reality— those words which refer to physical, touchable reality. Therefore, under class with tangible referents are listed such words as fruit, which is composed of apples, oranges, bananas, etc.. We notice that the head of the class (fruit) is uncountable and that its members (apples, etc.) have physical reality or can be observed, touched, and so on.

Other examples of this type are luggage. which is the label for a class that includes valises, suitcases, satchels, etc., and Jewelry, which is the class head that includes necklaces, rings, bracelets, etc/ Of some note here is the fact that fruit, luggage and Jewelry themselves are not physical entities. We eat examples of fruit called apples. We carry examples of luggage called suitcases. We wear examples of Jewelry called bracelets.

The foreign student may experience difficulty with class words 23 for he may believe that he can touch fruit, handle luggage or wear

Jewelry. In reality the student is employing one or more of his senses on observation of the class members and not on the super­ ordinate word itself. If, however, the teacher employs the concept of picturability mentioned in the previous chapter, this problem can be solved. For example, a teacher could instruct her students to draw an apple. The teacher than draws the picture of the apple on the blackboard, a picture which is drawn to the satisfaction of the entire class. After successfully completing the same process with peaches, bananas, etc., the teacher instructs students to sketch fruit— meaning one type of fruit. Although each student sketches one type of fruit, it would be coincidental if all the studentB, after such instructions, drew an apple or an orange. The resultant sketches will produce so many types of fruit that no composite can be found on a blackboard. This practice should demonstrate to the students that what they are drawing are the example within the category, the superordinate word of which represents nothing tangible in itself.

Before listing these special class words with tangible membership, it will be necessary to discuss briefly the process of transferring the names of famous persons, places and things into class words . In other wordB, we can make reference to several entities such as writings or products by making reference either to the person who made the works famous or to the famous product which has become associated with the class of products. This was 2k brought to-my attention by L. A. Hill,'1' who has listed the example of Shakespeare as a word which stands for the collection of

Shakespeare's achievements. We may then say, "I really love

Shakespeare." These words appear to behave conceptually in no different way than any other non-countable class noun. In addition, these words should be treated here since the referents with the class are tangible (the writings of Shakespeare are tangible— can be touched). Similar in behavior are words like Jello. obviously a trade name, which has come to stand for various types or brands of gelatin. One notices, in the case of Shakespeare and of other famous persons, that there exists ,a problem with meaning which cannot be clarified until reference is made to context or to setting (in one case, we could love Shakespeare himself and in the other case, only his writing^.2

The following class words have membership primarily of tangible members and occur 50 or morb times per 1,000,000 words. For each word, I have furnished three examples of subordinate words, trusting that through this effort, students and teachers will observe the tangible nature of the referents within the class. As in the

^L. A. Hill, "Noun-Classes and the Practical Teacher," Selected Articles on the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1967)* p . 10.

2The problem is dealt with quite extensively by Jerry A. Fodor and Jerrold J. Katz, in "The Structure of a Semantic Theory," The Structure^ of Language (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 196h), p. h87; they discuss the triple ambiguity of "He follows Marx," meaning that someone follows Groucho Marx around a room, follows the writings of Marx (here is the non-countable use) or follows Marx in time— in the historical sense. 25 previous chapter, I shall place primary emphasis upon words which are not normally counted (except under the conditions that I shall mention in Chapter Six):

TABLE U

NON-COUNTABLE CLASS WORDS PRIMARILY WITH TANGIBLE MEMBERSHIP

Clash Word Three Examples of Members

fruit 1. plums 2. apples 3. oranges clothing 1. dresses 2. shoes 3. uniforms furniture 1. chairs 2. desks 3. sofas machinery 1. tractors 2. bulldozers 3. dryers mail 1. packages 2. postcards 3. letters matter 1. rocks 2. vegetables 3. textiles money 1. dimes 2. dollar bills 3. checks music 1. sonatas 2. symphonies 3. songs produce 1. tomatoes 2. strawberries 3. artichokes

One notices from the above discussion and from the above examples that the nori-countable class word is often composed of physically observable members. This, however, should not be considered as a general rule covering class words, because quite often the abstract members of a group are at least non-countable. if not intangible. For example, business stands for the abstract, intangible commerce and finance. Similarly, the word crime is a superordinate word which is composed of the acts of theft, robbery, murder, etc.3 The following list of words, selected according to

^Edward n . Hoare, in English Roots: and the Derivation of Words for the Ancient Anglo-Saxon (Dublin: Hodges, Smith and Co., no date indicated), discusses class membership examples of this type in connection with the origin of words . He states that words which head a class (like crime) are often of Latin origin, whereas the members of the class will often be of the more specialized vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon origin (theft, robbery, murder, etc.), p. 139ff•

i the sane procedure as previous lists in this dissertation, reflect class with words that refer to non-countable members, with some of these members also mentioned:

TABLE 5

NON-COUNTABLE CLASS WORDS PRIMARILY WITH NON-COUNTABLE MEMBERSHIP

Class Word Three Examples of Members

capital 1. money 2. stock 3. real estate food 1. meat ■ 2. poultry 3. milk fuel 1. oil 2. coal 3. wood meat 1. beef 2. lamb 3. pork metal 1. gold 2. iron 3. silver stuff 1. garbage 2. litter 3. trash wood 1. cherry 2. pine 3. oak

The final set of class words is that composed of members representing two typeB of intangible members. Although frequently 4* occurring words in this group are quite small, the category of infrequent words could be made quite large by the use of the ending

-tion (as in pollution, rehabilitation. etc.). Mastery of this final class category might pose the most difficult problem to both teachers and students. The reason for this is that some of the intangible members of the class are not intangible things. but seem to be states and/or processes. This will be made clearer in the next few paragraphs.

Alfred Ayres, in a chapter criticizing the news media and others for what he considered to be a haphazard, careless mutual substitution of gerunds for other non-countables hits upon a 27 relationship, the importance of vhich he does not realize. Ayres first makes reference to the following quotation from the New York

Sun newspaper: l At the present state of the canvass no occupation is less profitable than the construction of tables of the electoral vote showing the probable resultB in November.^

Ayres then reacts in the following way to the above statement:

The act of constructing a table, which is what is here meant, is one thing; the construction, the make-up, of a table, after it has been constructed, is quite another thing. The same word should not be used to express the thought in both cases. In strictness, we must employ a verb in some form properly to express a doing. The using of nouns where verbs are required— or, I should say, perhaps, the making of nouns to do verbal service— is well nigh universal. Is it, or can it ever become, good grammar? I think not.5

Putting this statement into the context of his entire chapter,

Ayres is stating first that the noun construction that expresses action without employing a verb (that is, a gerund) is wrong since the verb denotes action; the nominal form, if it is to signify action, must be a verbal noun. Second, he stateB that the action and the result of this action should not be referred to by the same word; stating it differently, constructing should have been used in the newspaper article instead of construction because the implication is obviously one of action and not one of all of the forces and Influences, including constructing. which produce construction,.

1. Alfred Ayres, Some Ill-Used Words (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1901), p. 31.

'' *Ibid. 28

If given a chance to defend himself, the reporter responsible for this quotation from the Nev York Sun might inform us that he did not intend to convey movement, but that he wished to express either the result of this movement or collections of various ideas and forces including the act of constructing. The important thing here is not the argument but what Implicit information we can glean from it.

The first implication is that the referents of some words might be the result of actions. For instance, the construction of a building is the result of constructing it (or the rehabilitation of a boy is the result of all of the acts of rehabilitating him).

Perhaps a more Important Implication of this argument is that constructing can be conceived of as part of the total concept called construction— that construction is an abstract head of a class which includes the activity celled constructing. What I am saying is that blueprints, men, mortar, brick, contractors and constructiu£ are all part of the class or collection labeled as construction— that we cannot have construction just with men and equipment, but that we need the process signified most often by the gerund in order to make the class complete.

The relative functions of the referents of the superordinate word plus the action of the process member upon objects and people belonging in the class could be represented in the following* way:

blueprints | bricks > constructing . construction laborers J ■ , ■ ' 29

i We therefore see from the above diagram that constructing is

the activity by which blueprints, bricks and laborers are combined

to produce construction. More important is the fact that blue­

prints, bricks and laborers can never be part of a class called

construction unless there is some constructing going on. In other

words, we might say that it is the action of constructing that

actually makes the class possible. A laborer could be unemployed,

a brick could be UBed as a decorative piece and a blueprint could

represent the daydreams of an architecture student; it is only

when constructing unites the three together that we have a class

called construction.

Apples, oranges and peaches are examples of a physical, non­

abstract variety that are included in the category called fruit.

Theft, murder and rape cure of a more abstract sub-category that are

part of the superordinate class of crime. However, ve must not

forget a third sub-category that places emphasis on a process or

action as a member; the only frequently occurring word without

suffixation that fits into this third sub-category is art, which s.is composed not only of sculpture, architecture and design but,

in order to make art possible, the process of painting or sculpting.

The question might arise as to why so much time should be spent

discussing the circumstances behind only one word (art); the

answer, perhaps not so obvious if not mentioned, is that many of

the more obscure words that end in-tion or-ment are heads of

classes that include this process. We can then see that part of the :

classknown as creation is not only the creator but the process of 30 ■" ' ■ creating, or that "the establishment" is a superordinate word brought about by establishing* CHAPTER V

IDEAS AS REPRESENTED BY NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS

In illustrating the difference between such wordB as constructing

and construction, I felt it necessary to place my greatest emphasis

upon the conceptual relationship between the referentB of these

two words. The reason for emphasis on the conceptual relationship

is my feeling that the student must recognize this association before

he can put it to any grammatical use. In addition, I feel that a

student should not, so far as is possible, be introduced to both

grammar and to reference at the same time since it might tend to

clutter his mind with too many details in concentrated amounts.

Therefore, when I spoke of the word constructing, I tried as far as was possible to emphasize the fact that it reflected a process.

Similarly, I tried to indicate that the word construction was the

superordinate word that included not only laborers, brick, mortar,

etc., but also the action or process that unites these materials—

the process of constructing. There was, in other words, little

emphasis on grammar-— on the fact that one of these words was a

gerund, or type of noun formed by adding the suffix -lng to a

verb, or that the other word ended in a suffix which also forms

nouns from verbs (construction).

At this point in my dissertation, I feel that an Intentional 32 disregard for grammar would no longer serve any useful purpose.

In addition, the topic of this chapter, the non-countable noun as an expression of abstract ideas, cannot be discussed without mentioning grammar. The reason is that many of these concepts are realized as gerunds or as words with suffixes which entered modern- day English through Anglo-Saxon and through French and Latin (we shall later observe the strong influence of French and Old English on English suffixation in Chapter Eight).

It is important to note that ideas do not carry with them any implication of mass or class; an example is the word harm

("Harm will not come to you if you are careful"), which does not reflect mass, as does ink, or class aB does crime, but seems to refer only to a concept existing in the mind. This non-countable noun category contains the largest number of words simply because the size of the category is made limitless by the inclusion of the grammatical devices that I discussed in the above paragraphs— by the inclusion of gerunds and words which can be formed through affixation. Many non-countable nouns and what appear to me to be an unlimited number of verbs can be placed into the category of ideas by adding -ing. skate becoming skating, sleep becoming sleeping, pipe becoming piping. (I have in mind here the formation of the word piping from the verb to pipe. Very frequently, -ing is added to nouns— a process that results in a mass word. We therefore see the verb to pipe. as in "They pipe the oil all the way from Texas," transferred into piping as in "Piping that oil was difficult," and the nouns pipe and tube as in "I repaired the plumbing Bystem, with a pipe and a tube," transferred into "Piping

and tubing repaired the plumbing system satisfactorily.")

From the writings of Henry Sweet and George Curme come .some

of our most illuminating information concerning the gerund as a

non-countable noun and the relation of the gerund to the infinitive.

This whole discussion centers on the relation of a statement in a neutral situation versus a statement in action or activity versus

something static. I think that Sweet correctly observes that when

separated by the copula be, both the infinitive-plus-infinitive and the gerund-plus-gerund refer to a cause/effect or result relationship.

It is therefore easy to see that either in the example "to see is to believe" or in the sequence "Seeing is believing" that the referent of the noun after be is the result of that which precedes this copula. Sweet then takes us. a step further by stating that the infinitive pattern is used for "weakening the sense.What he appears to be saying here is that "To know him is to love him" is used for'denoting a neutral or de-emphasized situation while "Knowing him is loving him" is employed when the speaker wants to emphasize this result relationship. \ Further evidence of the distinction between the gerund and infinitive is seen in the writings of Curme who makes the following statement:

Similarly in the objective predicate relation, i.e. when the activity is predicated of an object; I got the machine running (part.) or to running (gerund). That set

^■Henry Sweet, A Kew English Grammar (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955), Part II, p. 120. 3U

me thinking (part.), or to thinking (gerund). The present participle and gerund here have descriptive force, representing the resultant activity as proceeding steadily. When it is desired to state a bare result, the infinitive is used here: I got the machine to run. I got to talk vith him. 2

He thus makes it clear that at least in cases where an activity is the predicate of an object, the infinitive is used for straight result while substitution of a gerund places emphasis on result in progress.

In another case, Curme also makes reference to the distinction between the gerund and the infinitive when they are used in an attributive sense:

Though the attributive genitive gerund is very common, it cannot be used at all when the idea of desire, wish, demand, intention, or modality is present, in which cases the prepositional infinitive is usually employed: There is a strong public demand for him to take the place, not of his taking the place.^

With this evidence in mind, it would perhaps be best to speak of the infinitival nominal as making reference to a state, to something at rest or to a fact, while the substitution of a gerund either changes the state into action or emphasizes the fact or phenomenon as being something that is in action, minute by minute.

The uses of the non-countable noun known as the gerund can be summarized as follows. First, we saw in the previous chapter that

gFrom English Grammar by George 0. Curme, p. 278. Copyright (c*) 19^7, reprinted by permission of Barnes and Noble Publishers , New York, New York.

^From English Grammar by George 0. Curme, pp. 279-80. Copyright £) 19^7* reprinted by permission of Barnes and Noble Publishers, New York, New York. 35 the gerund form of a word like creating might be used as one member of a class (creation). In addition, we might consider the gerund to be one or more of the causes in a cause-effect relation, as with creation, which could be the result of creating* Second, the gerund is used on either side of the copula (be) to indicate result ("Knowing him is loving him"). Third, the gerund is pre­ ferred over the infinitive in a comparable construction (with be) or in any other construction to show emphasis, to strengthen the activity, to place emphasis on a minute-by-minute progression while the activity is going on, and to create movement out of state or modality.

At the beginning of this chapter, I mentioned the word harm as referring to an entity which does not suggest either mass or class, but which seems to suggest only an idea within the mind.

Many of the words falling into this category appear to call up areas of meanings. Pranlnskas suggests that abstractions be sub­ divided into ideas, ideals, modes of behavior, and emotions.^

Sweet, on the other hand, breaks abstractions into more specific categories.*’ By taking the categories mentioned by both Praninskais i and Sweet and by applying them to the non-countable words which occur 50 or more times per 1,000,000 words and which are very seldom counted (the words which are easily counted will be mentioned in the next chapter), we find that the areas involved cure concerned

^Jean Pranlnskas, English Grammar (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959), p. 53.

^Henry Sweet, New English Grammar (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1955), Part I, pp. ^59-U63 and h83-**09. • . 36 vlth action, behavior, human condition, emotions, ideals, means,

quality, result and state.

Several of the above areas are represented only by one or two words. Behavior, for example, is represented only by the word

conduct (11 Conduct of that type will not be tolerated"). The two words which suggest ideals--those goals toward which humans strive—

are power ("He is hungry for power ") and fame ("Fame is. not

achieved unless by hard work"). A further sub-category— that

suggesting meanB— in represented by the one word cost ("CoBt is the means by which we can live"). Of the words that fall into the non-countable reflection of ideas, no other frequently occurring words appear to be concerned with the three areas that I have just mentioned (behavior, ideals or means).

Numerous words fall within the other categories that are previously referred to and these will be introduced at this time.

It must be remembered that these words, just like thoBe mentioned

in the previous chapters concerned with mass and class, are selected with the following limitations. First, no word occurs less than

50 times per 1,000,000 words. Second, theBe words are primarily non-countable(they are not easily counted as normally used in the language. Finally, they are not words with affixation which would mark them grammatically as non-countable. Words that are both

countable and non-countable and those with suffixes will be dealt with in succeeding chapters.

The headings such as means, action, and result that appear here as well as in the tables concerned with idea words are suggested 37

by Henry Sweeti** I have, however, made the decision as to whether

a particular word is action rather than result, or condition rather

than emotion, and bo on. In my opinion, aid, give, pull, and

strain suggest a type of effort or action not found in words such

as ease, evil, sleep, etc., which are acceptable and expected

attributes of humans— part of the human condition. Similarly, I

feel that pay is the result of work, that supply is the result of

demand or that good yield is the result of careful farm management

and that result is not felt as strongly in cases such as .joy, which suggests an emotion, or dash ("He has a lot of dash in his

personality "), which we would expect many normal men would want

and which is therefore placed under condition. In any case, each

individual may desire to place the words under different headings

that are not listed here. The words nevertheless suggest these headings to me and X feel that a classification procedure of this

type is useful as a teaching techinque.

TABLE 6

NON-COUNTABLE WORDS AS A REFLECTION OF IDEAS OR ABSTRACTIONS

Category Frequently Occurring Members

action 1. aid ("The act of aid will save him.") 2. give 3. harm k. help 5. pull 6. recall 7. sight 6. strain

^Henry Sweet, New English Grammar Part I . pp. U83-h89. 38

TABLE 6— Continued

Category Frequently Occurring Members

9. taste 10. travel 21. waste condition 1. danger ("Danger is a condition we cannot avoid,”) 2. dash 3. ease 1*. evil \ 5. hurt 6. might 7. sleep 8. trouble 9. want emotions 1. concern ("Concern for others is something we should be thankful for.” ) 2. delight 3. hate U. hope 5. interest 6. Joy 7. love 8. pride 9. shame 10. sorrow 11. wonder color 1. black ("The color of black of often ossociated with evil thoughts.") 2. brown 3. green U. orange 5. pink result 1 . blame ("One of the results of murder must be blame.") 2. consent 3. credit 1*. gain 5* newB 6. pay- 7. ruin 8. supply 9. wear 10. yield state 1. dark ("Dark will come to the earth soon.") 2. dawn 3. lack midnight noon •' . ' V : TABLE 6— Continued

Category Frequently Occurring Members

6. peace •7- quiet 8. shine 9. weather

Let us summarize this chapter on ideas toy relating it to

previous sections on mass and class. In Chapter Three, I illustrated the fact that mass words do not possess any consistent shape which

can toe captured in a picture. The inability to draw a consistent picture of referents for mass words like ink can also be applied to all non-countable nouns, Including those which name classes and ideas. We recall from the preceding chapter that fruit is a class word that includes apples, oranges, etc., as members. A student can­ not sketch a picture of fruit but only one of the examples in the class. The same inability to create a picture exists with ideas, for although we may perhaps draw a picture of a fearful woman or a peaceful scene, we cannot draw a consistent picture of fear or peace. If a teacher's class 1b composed of beginning students, he can inform them that there sure two types of nouns or designations of persons, places, or things that can often be divided according to the degree to which a picture can be drawn; and that words whose referents cannot be drawn will often differ grammatically from those whose referents can be drawn with consistent shape. On the other hand, a teacher's class might be composed entirely of students who are already familiar with the term non-countablc noun and who are familiar with the grammatical characteristics of both these

nouns as veil as countable nouns; however, if these more advanced

students cannot recognize non-countable nouns, they can be told'that

if they have difficulty in drawing a picture of a noun referent because of the fact that the entity changes its form or because it has several members or because it has ho existence by itself, they are often dealing with a non-countable noun. This rule, inspired by Brown's comments on visual contour and picturability,^ is the most helpful general rule for students who desire mastery over the non-countable noun.

The non-countable category of nouns conceptually encompasses all of those referents from those which have quantity but no consistent form (I n k , dirt, etc.) to those which are only ideas or attributes gained through the expression of the idea or attribute in countable form (evil as witnessed through a person who is evil or beauty as Been in a woman of beauty). In other words, we see, at one extreme, words like ink, milk. oxygen. etc., the referents of which can he touched or felt in some way, and at the other extreme, words like fear, e v i l . Joy, etc., the referents of which, in them­ selves, have no physical reality. In addition, as we work ourselves . in a direction toward emphasis on grammar (one must observe that , thus far I have only hinted at the grammatical expression of these nouns in such instemces as discussion of the gerund and widely scattered examples with suffixes), we shall see that the non-countable

See Footnote 2, p. lU of this dissertation. 1*1 noun will run a range from a true countable noun (expression of quantity) up to, but not including, a true adjective (expression of quality or of attribute). We shall soon see that the non- countable noun, if not truly an attribute, can be used as an adjective or at least suggest attributive characteristics. And further, we shall learn under what conditions some of the vordB which can normally be expressed as non-countable nouns can attain consistent shape, can be consistently pictured or, in other words, can become countable nouns. CHAPTER VI

THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN AS RELATED

TO THE COUNTABLE NOUN

Jespersen, in discussing nominals, criticizes two of Sweet's subdivisions. Sweet had divided nominals into many areas, two of which were abstract and material. He (Sweet) makes the following comments concerning these two areas:

The secondary use of nouns as regards their meaning is to express attributes and phenomena, attribute-nouns and phenomenon-nouns being included under the common designation abstract nouns.^

Sweet also makes mention of what he calls material nouns and makes the following statement:

Such words as iron. glass, bread, water do not express any definite thing, as the class words tree, etc., do, but each of them Includes the whole mass of matter possessing the attributes implied by the word.2

Putting the first quotation above into context, Sweet furnishes words like redness, formed from an adjective. Jespersen states that these two categories (abstract and material) should be combined because there is no difference between them:

According to Sweet, the chief division is lfcto . substance-nouns or concrete nouns and abstract nouns ...Sweet does not see the essential similarity between

*Henry Sweet. A New English Grammar (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1955)» Part I, p. 6lT

p. 56. 1*2 1*3

his 'material nouns' and 'abstract nouns'; nor is his 1 name 'material nouns' a fortunate one, "because many names of immaterial phenomena present the same character­ istics as iron or glass.3

In the quotation immediately above, Jespersen*s "immaterial" is synonymous with Sweet's "abstract." Upon closer examination, one can see that the issue rests upon semantic versuB grammatical analysis.

It appears that Sweet prefers (although he does not state this explicitly) to distinguish between non-countable nouns which, on one hand, can be touched (iron) versus those which are more abstract

(redness). He may also prefer such a division to separate words composed of suffixes that came into English through French. Jespersen therefore appears to be speaking as a grammarian, divorcing himself from the semantics or reference of these w o r d s , when he says that there is no difference between Sweet's two categories.

It can be seen from the above argument that the reference of words and phrases represents only part of a discussion. What remains to be studied are the various grammatical devices which are used and the changes of meaning which arc signaled 'by syntactic variation.

With this in mind, I shall bring up further points concerning the meaning or shades of meaning involving non-countable nouns, but this will be done with emphasis on its grammatical realization or within a syntactic framework. In previous passages, I have hinted at the fact that non-countable nouns run a conceptual range from those words which have some sort of quantity to those which can be used

^Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1965). p. 201. kk as expressions of attributes; it would therefore he useful, for discovering the exact limits of this range, to determine both what characteristics the non-countable noun shares with countable nouns and with adjectives and what grammatical qualities seem to be peculiar to the non-countable category itself. We shall first relate the uncountable noun to the entire noun category.

If we refer only to grammatical environment, we can observe that some of the features of the regular noun class are also present for the non-countable noun. First, both types can appear after some, a lot of. and all definite articles that are not involved in generic reference. We may therefore say, ”1 have some ink" (non- countable) or ”1 have some pens" (countable), ”She has a lot of ink" or "She has a lot of pencils” and "I have the ink that belongs to you" or "I have the pencils that belong to you” (the definite article in the last pair being used for the purpose of referring to specific ink or specific pencils and not to all ink or all pencils).** It is also quite obvious that the noii-countable noun shares still another characteristic with the entire noun category, in that an adjective can immediately precede it. This is exemplified in "This building

**Ann Nichols in English Syntax (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1965), P* lb» states that one of these articles— a lot of— is substituted for many and much when the speaker desires to change emphasis. We would then say, Vi. had a lot of difficulty (or difficulties) with that problem" instead of "I had much difficulty (or many difficulties) with that problem” if we wish to emphasize or intensify the urgency of the problem. I feel that the observation made by Nichols is correct , although there may be some who feel that there is no difference in emphasis. 1*5 has incredible beauty" and "This building has incredible problems"

(the latter sentence meaning that it possesses architectural problems, is expensive to operate, etc.).

An additional trait that links this sub-category to the countable noun is its characteristic appearance as a subject of a verb or as the object of a verb or preposition. It is therefore quite easy to see in examples such as "Thunder and lightning alvays scare me" as compared with "Boys and girls alvays scare me" or in examples such as "They do not like the idea of thunder and lightning" as compared with "They do not like the idea of boys and girls" that the non-countable noun is truly a nominal if position or function in a sentence is used as a defining factor. However, I would suggest that some non-countable nouns should be examined n greater , detail because, for instance, when we say "The thunder and lightning scared me," we may actually be referring to a thunderclap and a lightning bolt. In other words, the elements clap and bolt do not appear in the sentence and have been deleted because of context.

From this it should be noted that if thunder is actually a thunder­ clap and lightning iB in reality a lightning bolt, these non- countable nouns are no longer heads of noun phrases but are attri­ butes of other words which we understand in discourse, these other

■ • ■■ words being countable nouns (bolt and clap in these examples).

Since the reference of attributes is most often realized grammatically as an adjective, I shall discuss this situation further when I compare non-countable nouns to adjectives.

A further problem encountered by foreign students is whether 1*6

non-countable nouns, especially those whose referents cannot be

visualized, can be counted. Several writers deal with this trans­

fer from non-countable to countable and vice versa, one of whom is

Jean Praninskas, who makes the following comment:

Certain nouns in English are not used in sinpuLar noun constructions and they do not have plural forms. We say these nouns represent uncountable things, although you may feel that some of them are countable. . . .Following is a short list of some of the most troublesome words in this group. As you encounter others with which you have difficulty, add them to the list

Of particular interest in the above statement are Praninskas *

comments that students should make lists of words which present

them (the students) with particular problems and that students often

"feel" that uncountable nouns should be counted. Students can

detect non-countable nouns if their referents cannot be physically

conceptualized to an extent where a picture of them can bedrawn or where one or more of the senses can detect them. However, many of

these nouns have countable counterparts which take on all of the

grammatical qualities of the countable nouns. When we have somehow

changed the referent of a non-countable noun, we shall, to use the word that Franiskas employs, "feel" that the situation has changed

in such a way that this noun can be more easily counted. This should

be felt by students when the referents appear to be picturable or

appear to possess some sort of visual contour. Of the three types

that have been discussed, mass (soil, ink, etc.) is easiest to

5 j e a n praninskas, Rapid Review of English Grammar (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, inc., 1959), p. 52. discuss since) as I have stated, it can he observed even in its non-countable, changeable mass form. It would therefore be logical to think of an extraction from thiB mass as more picturable and hence countable if, in our minds, ve have come to associate the referent with only one shape. Therefore, a glass is countable because it is made from mass and because it is commonly associated with the picture ( ). Brown's statement concerning shape is useful:

While we say a barn, for instance. <#e do not ordinarily speak of a rice but rather of some rice. The semantic difference between these two classes of noun is suggested by the designations "mass" and "particular." Mass nouns usually name extended substances having no characteristic size or shape while particular nouns name obJectB having size and shape. There are, of course, cases in which this semantic-formal parallel is not preserved. It would seem, for instance, that we ought to speak of some martini as we dp of some milk or some orange juice. Instead, of course, ve say a martini but, perhaps, that is because martinis regularly come-in the following shape: 5^ Many nouns can function in either a mass or particular way with attendant shifts in the speaker's view of the referent. Some cake is a chunk of a mass while some cakes are either cupcakes or layer cakes arranged in a row.®

Close refers to the phenomenon mentioned by Brown in the previous quotation in terms of "mass in general versus units in general," illustrating his point with the word aggie.^ Close furnishes us with a rectangular diagram displaying one apple. This figure is designed to represent the thinking behind mass in general.

This is exemplified in such sentences as "You have apple all over

£ Roger Brown, Words and Things (Mew York: The Free Press, 1968), p. 250.

Tr . A. Close, English as a Foreign Language (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Fretss, 19^3), l>. 51. 1»8 your tie.” On the other hand, a second diagram reveals several apples within the rectangular figure and is designed to represent the thinking processes behind units in general. Applying the figure or this latter type of thinking process to an example, we can say, "I picked apples off the tree today." Mass is therefore represented by non-countable nouns while distinguishable units are signaled by countable nouns.

Sweet prefers to signal the extraction from a mass as "an individual object."® Whatever terminology we may employ for this phenomenon (and I think that it is useful to mention as many synonyms for this situation as possible for purposes of clarity), we muBt understand that we have a situation where one thing is being made from a mass and which is therefore picturable and count­ able. Even if the extraction from the mass does not have a definite shape (a rock, for instance, which is extracted from rock, could designate no consistent shape to some people), the student should be suspicious of its countability Just because it is taken out of the whole.

A second area where a non-countable noun can be counted occurs when reference is made to single occurrences. Curme refers to the ability to make this type of conversion in the following way:

From their very nature these nounB do not usually admit of a plural: wine, gold; silk, etc.; beauty. liberty, etc. But these nouns have a plural when they indicate different kinds, definite individuals, persons or things, distinct actions or manifestations: Rhine

®Henry Sweet. A New English Grammar, p. 56. vines; a fine stock of linens (linen goods); the beauties of nature; the rustic beauties (beautiful women) of our village; the latest deaths (cases of death) in our community, etc.9

It is therefore possible to refer to death as a death if this occurred to a specific person ("There was a death in our family yesterday"), or to refer to rain as a rain if an example of this normal occurrence can be found or if the "manifestation” is associated with specific time ("What a rain we had yesterday!").

Notice also that ve do not appear to be referring to a death but to the person who exhibits the attribute of death nor to a rain but to a single occurrence of rain.

The rule concerning picturability— the conceptualization in the form of a picture or a snapshot— is reasonably useful with international students, but since pictures can only be seen as physical entities, it will not be useful when deciding on the counting of non-physical referents of nouns that are normally non- countable. With this in mind, I would like to turn to sources previously mentioned and then propose a rule concerning the trans­ formation of maBS, class and idea words into those that can be counted.

Many persons have made reference to the singularity or differentatlon within a whole that exists when uncountables are

^From English Grammar by George 0. Curme, p. 20?. Copyright (c) 19U7 . Reprinted by permission of Barnes and Noble Publishers, New York, New York. 5° counted. Brown speaks of the difference Between personality and

personalities in the following way:

Many words in the vocabulary of psychology have this double potentiality. Although the psychologist deplores such usage, the layman speaks of someone having a. lot of personality or very little temperament. The professional insists that personality is not an undifferentiated substance of which one can have more or less. Personalities are like cupcakes— -all of a size and one to a customer— with only their frostings to make them unique.10

Similarly, Hill furnishes us with both an uncountable and a

countable "Shakespeare," which, if referring to the writings of the man, cannot be counted but if designating people who imitate or are talented in somewhat the same way as the man, can be counted,

especially in. comparison; Hill demonstrates this situation with the

example, "Shakespeares are rarer than Napoleons.1,11 Brook, referring to non-countables as collective nouns, Bays that such a

noun "may be used with a singular verb if we think of the thing

represented as a whole but with a plural verb if we are thinking of

its members separately."12 Nichols, in speaking of the difference

in emphasis signified by a lot of and many uses the word difficulty

and states that "difficulty refers to the aggregate of difficulties that arose when the student worked the problem.. .difficulties

10Roger Brown. WordB and Things. p. 250

13,L. A. Hill, "Noun-Classes and the Practical Teacher," Selected Articles on the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language, p. 7. \ 12G. L. Brook, A History of the English Language (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 196U), p. 1^9. 51 i emphasizes the various, individual problems.^

I should like to demonstrate this difference by referring to certain articles that are used with countables. In English we have the ability to make plural reference but both with singular and with plural grammatical realization. We may therefore speak of

(l) all people, (2) every person and (3) each person. In all cases i we are making plural reference but with increasing emphasis on the individuality of the whole as we progress from example one through two to example three. When we refer to all people, we make no distinction among the whole. However, when we use every, we make this distinction as if we are saying "all people" but checking on every one, one by one hy one until the total is reached. When we uBe each, we are perhaps placing emphasis upon the fact that the singularity is so important that we will count heads with care or that we will even see each person privately, until the total is reached. A more detailed explanation of these three articles can .. ill be found in Sapir's Totality. The relevance of this to our discussion of non-countables is that when we are thinking of difficulty, we may be placing emphasis on an undifferentiated whole aB in all people, whereas with difficulties, we may either wish to speak of several discrete manifestations of the whole or Indeed to speak of all difficulties . one by one by one, until the whole is reached. ■

^Annc Nichols. English Syntax, p . lU. ■ ^

^Edward Sapir, Totality (Baltimore: Waverly Press, Inc., 1930) , .pp. 12-lU. 52

I should now like to suggest that whenever we are concentrating on differentiation within a totality, whether we are able to make this totality plural or whether we must be content with a non- countable noun, we are able to compare. The rule presented here 1b that if the referent of a noun can be compared (expecially unequally compared) to a different referent which, in expression, has the same spelling, then this referent can probably be counted.

If, for example, we are able to "stand back and see" only emotion, then this is non-countable; if we are able to visualize both anger and fear, the first of which is emotion (anger) and the second of which is emotion (perhaps a different kind of emotion— that of fear), then we are able to say that a person has two emotions. This rule not only applies to non-physical entitles but to those which can be more easily observed. If, for example, a botany teacher holds up a soli for his class to see, he Is displaying the soil in relation to other soils, some of which are different but all of which can be compared and thus counted.

When speaking of non-countable words that can or cannot be counted, we must take into consideration the native language of a person who is learning English and the relation of English to Anglo-

Saxon and to other languages which have influenced English. Kellner states that the entities which we now consider as abstract could be more easily counted and conceptualized in Anglo-Saxon:

The plural of abstract substantives, even when no more than one person was referred to, which was very frequent in older periods, becomes rare in modern English. We cannot say mights., strengths., which were quite common in Old- and Middle-English.- This change 53

of usage is accounted for “by the fact that abstract nouns were not quite -the sane thing in older periods as they are now. In -the Gothic instance wmahtins mikiles gatavidedum" (we did powerful things, Matth. vii. 22), mahts is not exactly power but something powerful.

Therefore, when speakers of Old English spoke of strengths,, they were referring to the thing or person who possessed the quality of might. This idea is similar to my previous discussion about a death signaling a dead man or rain referring to a rainy scene.

Jespersen furnishes us with information concerning what can or cannot be counted in other languages. Speaking first of mass words and then about abstract uncountables, he makes the following statement:

Mass-words are often made into names for countables, though languages differ considerably in this respect. Thus in E., but not in Danish, tin is used for a receptacle made of tin— in English, bread is only a mass- word, but the corresponding word in many languages is used for what in E. is called a loaf : un peu de pain. un petit pain - a little bread, a small lo a f .. .Immaterial... words...come to stand for a single act or Instance of the quality, as when w e talk of a stupidity. . .this usage, however, is not so universal in English as in many other languages, and the best rendering of eine unerhorte unverschamtheit is a piece of monstrous impudence... this construction is strictly analogous with a piece of wood, two lumps of s u g a r . etc.l°

Reference is made to t h e above sources because I feel that the

Information contained therein will be of interest to teachers; however, more important is the fact that because of the change of

"^Leon Kellner, Historical Outlines of English Syntax (London: Macmillan and Co., 1892), p. 18. .

^Otto Jespersen. The Philosophy of Grammar, p. 200. our language from Old English and because of interference that will he caused by the learner's native language, the teacher may have to do away with rules in many cases (as with examples like strengths, tin and bread, which were cited by Kellner and Jespersen on the previous page) and deal with vocabulary, word by word and student by student.

The behavior of non-countable nouns which have been formed from verbs presents difficulties. One of the more interesting transformations of this type concerns the use of the prepositional or two-word verbs as nouns. Lindelof correctly observes that these two-word verbs, the second of which is a preposition, are used as nouns in over fifty percent of the instances where they have been converted and that "The great majority of these words have a decidedly unfavourable or derogatory meaning."1^ Random examples are furnished for the benefit of the reader:

TABLE 7

TWO-WORD OR PREPOSITIONAL WORDS USED AS NOUNS

Two-Word Noun As Used in a Sentence

hang-up You must get over this hang-up. go-between He was a go-between for the Mafia. draw-back That solution has one draw-back. hang-over These hang-overs must stop * come-on This advertisement represents nothing but a come-on. stick-up We cannot find the man who made that stick-up.

ITU. LindelSf, "English Verb-Adverb Groups Converted into Nouns, CommentatloneB Humanarum Litterarum, Vol. 9. (1938), p. 3^. 55

The International student must, however, pay close attention to my observation that these verbs, whether considered by some as abstract in character or non-abstract (many of them do not refer to people or things) are countable in noun form. In summarizing the phenomenon, the student should be told that if these verbs are used as other parts of speech, this use will probably be as a noun, it will often have derogatory reference and the noun, even though it might appear to some to have abstract reference, will be countable.

Another great problem In the forming of nouns from verbs is the gerund. Although we discussed one or two of the referents of gerunds in Chapters Four and Five, I should like to place emphasis on further reference at this time since this information, in part, has to do with the possibility of counting these words. Generally, the gerund .is one of the most "stubborn" of all nouns when we speak of transferring into a countable counterpart. Although we do have examples of gerunds with the plural suffix, the concept of action is destroyed. One only has to look at sentences such as "Skating is fun," or "Bombing that city will result in much unpopularity" or

"Sewing can be difficult" to see that the act of skating, bombing or sewing has been preserved or that the referents for these three nouns are types of movements. We can certainly detect this same feeling in words such as misunderstanding. as exemplified in

"Misunderstanding him could cause you trouble." or feeling, as shown in "Feeling a rock often leads to its composition," each sentence of which displays the process. Notice, however, the change to a more static attitude when the plural suffix is added to such words; notice the relatively more calm, neutral behavior of misunderstandings in "We must deal effectively with such misunder­ standings" or of feelings^ in "Please do not hurt his feelings."

In the two previous chapters, we spoke of active versus passive force and its relation to the infinitive and the gerund; I would also say here that the addition of the plural suffix or of the indefinite article or, in other words, the transference of the gerund from a non-countable into a countable noun has the effect of injecting passive quality by virtue of the destruction of any activity.

Many of the more useful rules and examples concerning the conversion from non-countable to countable noun have been discussed in this chapter. What remains, however, is the introduction of mass, class and idea words which occur most frequently in the language but which, unlike the examples cited in previous chapters, are easily converted from uncountable to countable and vice versa. Previous lists, in other words, contained words which, only under specific conditions, could be used as countable nouns— countable and non- countable nouns which reflect mass in non-countable form.

The entities which have expreBBion both as countable nounB and uncountable nouns always display some change in meaning because with the countable form of a word emphasis will always be placed upon what Curme refers to as the "manifestation" of a thing or what

Sweet referB to as "an individual object" or what Close calls "units."

However, these changes from non-countable to countable signal shifts from an undifferentiated whole in the direction of an example of the whole or part of the whole. This is the type of meaning 57 shift occurring most often with such grammatical changes and is reflected in cases such as cake, glass or flame in Table 8.

However, a more dramatic semantic shift often occurs in the case of other words— shifts probably brought about by. usage or shifts which do not reflect the rule of undifferentiated whole (represented by non-countable nouns) versuB an instance of the whole or, as

Close refers, states, the whole as divided up into "units"

(represented by countable nouns). Such a situation is exemplified in the countable corns— the corns on a person1 s foot— which can hardly be considered as instances of corn. Another shift which goes beyond the expected undifferentiated whole/ example-of-whole change but which is not so drastic as that involving corn/ corns, is the word print. When print is applied to a page, an image is created on paper. The concept of image is then transferred from the process of printing to the process of photographing or developing pictures. The semantic link between the referent of non-countable and countable noun is therefore retained due to the fact that printing (type) creates an image while print is an image but

created through what we refer to as the developing process. 58

TABLE 8

NOUNS COUNTABLE AND NON-COUNTABLE REFLECTING MASS WHEN NOT COUNTED

Mass Word Sentence Examples

Unseen entities breath 1. Breath is necessary for life. 2. I could count his breaths. Liquids sea 1. Rolling sea can make you sick. 2. The seas were filled with fish. Particles too small to count corn 1. Corn is good to eat. 2. liis feet have corns. current 1. Current is necessary in modern life. 2. These currents warm the shore. print 1. Commerce would be useless without print. 2. These prints are beautiful. type 1. That man can set type. 2. Avoid thoBe types of people! Solids without particles apple 1. I spilled apple all over the floor. 2. I spilled apples all over the floor. apricot 1. Apricot grows plentifully here. 2. These apricots are delicious. board 1. I charge £.50 per foot for board. 2. What do these boards cost? cake 1. We will serve cake for brunch. 2. These cakes are not fresh! chicken 1. Chicken has highly concentrated protein. 2. I raised chickens in I960. coal 1. Coal is a prime product of Pennsylvania. 2. I cleaned the coals out of the fireplace; country 1. I have never seen such beautiful country. 2. The leaders of those countries will not tolerate invasion. egg 1 4 Get the egg off his clothes! 2. Those eggs are rotten. fire 1. Fire destroyed the forest. 2. These fires must be stopped. 59 TABLE 8— Continued.

Mass Word Sentence Examples ^

flane 1. Can't you get flame from that burner? 2. The flames Burnt his entire body. glass 1. Glass is all over the street. 2. Those glasses hold ten ounces. goat 1. Do you mean that I Just ate goat? 2. A goat is a stubborn animal. hide 1. Hide of this type is expensive. 2. These hides are ruined. paper 1. Joe, do you manufacture paper here? 2. The president misplaced his papers. pie 1. Can't ve have pie, Mommy? 2. Don't you want to buy a pie? potato 1. Don't you have any taste for potato? 2. Potatoes mature under the ground. rope 1. I need plenty of rope for this Job. 2. The cowboy handled his ropes expertly. shot 1. Just put the shot in the barrel! 2. He took several shots at me. shoulder 1. Shoulder is a medium grade of beef. 2. His shoulders are sagging. skin 1. We must sew his wound with additional skin. 2. These skins are worthless. string 1. String is not strong enough to serve as a clothesline. 2. The guitar has lost a string. thread 1. A seamstress Is at a loss without thread.. 2. I removed a thread ffrom her .dress'. vash 1. When can vash be done in this building? . 2. Stuart, I shall do no more than two washes for you today! wire 1. Why do you need wire for such an easy Job? 2. Get these defective wires out . of this chouse !: 6o

TABLE 9

NOUNS COUNTABLE AND NON-COUNTABLE WHICH REFLECT CLASS WHEN NOT COUNTED

Class Word Sentence Example

Partially composed of process exercise 1. athletics 1. Exercise promotes health. 2. tumbling 2. Do your exercises daily! 3. a dive fashion 1. clothing 1. These are not in fashion now. 2. modeling 2. These fashions reflect 3. make-up Italian attitudes. trade 1. goods 1. The Common Market could not 2. shipping exist without trade. 3. money 2. Carpentry, plumbing and masonry are three important trades. Words with countable members fish 1. a perch 1. Fish is good if undercooked. 2. a catfish 2. These fish are spoiled. 3. a bass fur 1. a mink 1. Fur is often synthetic these 2. a fox days. 3. a leopard 2. Juan D'albert's handles furs. game 1. a deer 1. Game must be saved In this 2. a quail dirty environment. 3. a turkey 2. These games bore me. material 1. a brick 1. Why can’t you fix it with 2. abeam adhesive material? 3. aboard 2. Why did you pay so much for these materials? noise 1. a bark 1. Stop that noise. Artie! 2. a roar 2. I can't stand those horrible 3. a whistle noises outside. supper 1. a compote 1. Supper will be served soon. 2. a casserole 2. They have inexpensive 3. a dessert suppers here.

Words primarily with non- countable members business 1. banking 1. Business is worse than ever. 2. trade 2. These businesses must close! 3. commerce cloth 1. cotton 1. Cloth remains invaluable. 2. linen 2. How did these cloths get 3. corduroy soiled? TABLE 9— Continued

Class Word Sentence Example

Words primarily with non­ count able members— c ont i nued color 1. green 1. A change of color can change 2. yellow a mood. 3. orange 2. Change a color and you often change a mood. crime 1. murder 1. Crime 1b rising in Cincinnati, 2. rape 2. Crimes are increasing in 3. vice Cincinnati. disease 1. cancer 1. We must rid India of disease. 2. measles 2. Cancer is a dreaded disease. 3. polio grain 1. flax 1. I take grain to the market 2. wheat each Tuesday . 3. barley 2. I counted 50,000 grains of corn on that stalk. stone 1. shale 1. He carved it out of solid 2. marble stone. 3. quartz 2. These stones came from the park. substance 1. sand 1. Substance is something like 2. coal material. 3. oil 2. Do these substances burn?

TABLE 10

NOUNS, COUNTABLE AND NON-COUNTABLE, WHICH REPLACE IDEAS WHEN NOT COUNTED

Idea Word Sentence Examples

Fields requiring skill catch 1. Let's play catch. 2. Johnny Bench made ten catches. .. law 1. Law is law and that * s final! 2. What terrible laws! sport 1. We can do without such sport. 2. They are poor sports. voice 1. I'm not in good voice. 2. The voices were thrilling. . . ■ ' ;'; :J 62

TABLE 10— Continued

Idea Word Sentence Examples

i Action aim 1. Aim is not all to archery. 2. His aims are not completely honest. battle 1. Don't do battle unless necessary. 2. He wins all of his battleB. cause 1. Can he show cause for his actions? 2. The murder could have several causes. change 1. Change is inevitable. 2. Are those changes necessary? claim 1. If you have identification, claim can be made. 2. Her claims have no foundation. control 1. She can keep control. 2. The machine has complicated controls. demand 1. Demand is the reason for supply. 2. I can't live with these demands. escape 1. Escape is impossible. 2. We've already had ten escapes, warden. exchange 1. I suppose exchange can be managed. 2. Exchanges for this sire not allowed. flight 1. Flight will do you no good. 2. How many flights leave today? iBsue 1. Issue of uniforms will take place tonight. 2. These issues will not be discussed. method 1. You need vocal method to sing opera. 2. What disgusting methods! note 1. Note will be made of that. 2. I made notes on the lecture. prayer 1. What is Sunday without prayer? 2. I said zny prayers as a child. protest 1. Bus protest is so commonplace. 2. President, are protests necessary? speech 1. Man is unique because he possesses speech. 2. I'm tired of your speeches. speed 1. What is baseball without speed? 2. He travels at excessive speeds. support 1. Shouldn't the poor have support? 2. The building lost Its supports. talk 1. Talk 1b often useless. 2. He gives such useless talks. tax 1. He paid tax on that. 2. Did he pay his taxes? 63

TABLE 10— Continued

Idea Word ■ • Sentence Examples . ' 1 Action— continued track 1. I went out for track. 2. I followed his tracks. war 1. War is so senseless*. 2. He fights his ows wars dally. work 1. What is school without vork. 2. I admire Verdi * s works.

Behavior character 1. What noble character! 2. The play had interesting, characters. charm 1. I was captivated by her charm. 2. The bracelet has ten charms. custom 1. Is custom necessary in all cultures? 2. Their customs are strange. drive 1. Such drive I have never seen. 2. We take drives every day. fault 1. How much fault can you find, sir? 2. She certainly has her faults. habit 1. Is habit the reason for regularity? 2. My eating habits are unbelievable. manner 1. Adverbs often describe manner. 2. We'll help you with your manners. reason 1. Reason makeB man unique. 2. I do not have to give any reasons. reserve 1. She has such reserve. 2. He does not have many reserves of fuel. style 1. Style is part of man. 2. These styles are worn out. trust 1. With friends you must have trust. 2. Last year the bank opened 50,000 trusts. wit 1. I can do without such wit. 2. I am losing my wits.

Condition company 1. Will company come tonight? 2. I'll put these companies out of business. fate 1. Can fate cause this much trouble? 2. The governor will decide ■! their fates. life 1. Life will continue, don't worry. 2. Their lives have been ruined. man 1. Is man all that necessary? 2. / Yes, men are necessary. 6k

TABLE 10— Continued

Idea Word Sentence Examples i Condition— continued need 1. Need is associated with poverty. 2. Please try to suit his needs. pain 1. Is pain part of the human condition? 2. She had sharp pains before she died. race 1. Race has created much trouble. 2. Man is divided into three major races. rule 1. Man becomes demoralized without rule. 2. Ve will all obey her rules. shock 1. Can we give him shock? 2. I have suffered many shocks already. sin 1. If you destroy sin you destroy man. 2. I shall forgive your sins. smell 1. Is smell as useful as all that? 2. Get these smells out of the kitchen. soul 1. Soul can make angels of murderers. 2. Have mercy on their souls. spirit 1. What spirit! , 2. The spirits come back to haunt me.

Emotion alarm 1 • No sense for such alarm, Barbara. 2. Can you stop the alarms now? care 1. Handle the package with care, please. 2. He cannot rid himself< of his cares . desire 1. Man would fall to pieces without desire. 2. My desires for food will disappear. doubt I. I am filled with doubt right now. 2. I can't erase his doubts. fear 1. But with fear you will fail. 2. My fears are well founded. urge 1. With urge, he will succeed. 2. I am afraid of his urges. worry 1. I'm not kidding, worry will kill you. 2. My worries are killing me.

Ideals fortune 1. Good fortune befell me. 2. They assembled great fortunes. grace 1. I shall give you grace. 2. There are ten graces in that book. meaning 1. There's meaning in his voice. 2. That word has 50 different meanings. purpose 1. I have no purpose in my life i ^ 2. I think his purposes are deviant. 65

TABLE 10— Continued

“ ' - --- :----- 1r . , ..... Idea Word Sentence Examples

Ideals— continued rank 1. ^y goal is high rank of some kind. 2. He went through the ranks solemnly. right 1. Right is more important than might. 2. Our rights have been abused. title 1. He has no title to that property. 2. I want to change these titles. virtue 1. The devil wants to eliminate virtue. 2. One of his virtues is cleanliness.

Place church 1. Let's go to church today. 2. Those churches cure magnificent. home 1. How can home ruin a child? 2. We bought a home yesterday. market 1. I took beef to market yesterday. 2, I went to three markets last week. school .1. He's been late to school every day. 2. There is only one school here.

Quality detail 1. Detail gives his paintings life. 2. Pay attention to details! form 1. With good form, she will win. 2. Did you misplace my forms? height 1. You could play basketball with additional height. 2. He will reach fantastic heights. light 1. Is light really necessary for life? 2. Turn off the lights! pattern 1. Our lives are built on pattern. 2. I cut the patterns yesterday. shape 1. That doesn't have much shape at all. 2. Notice all the shapes in that stained glass window. •pace 1. I have never seen space like this in an apartment. • 2. Leave ten spaces between lines. tone 1. Tone is more valuable than noise. * ■ 2. That stereo has fine tones. weight 1. He is carrying such weight on his shoulders. 2. Did he really lift those weights? 66

TABLE 10— Continued

— — Idea Word Sentence Examples

Result benefit 1. Benefit will not come so easily. 2. He reaped many benefits from that. delay 1. Belay might mean failure. 2. Can't you stop these delays? loss 1. Loss will be covered by insurance. 2. That baseball team suffers many losses. price 1. Price will be set by the marketplace. 2. Such inflated prices I have never seen. profit 1. Profit will never come that easily. 2. The profits of our company are way down. shelter 1. We may find shelter here. 2. After the war, 25 shelters were built. value 1. I don't see how value on that could change so much. 2. Your values have changed that much!

State cover 1. Can cover be supplied to those soldiers? 2. These covers will keep you warm. defeat 1. Defeat is inevitable, General. 2. We will suffer no more defeats. evening 1. Evening is a nice time of day. 2. We enjoy our evenings. fact 1. There is not much fact in the argument. 2. The facts are there before you. mass 1. Mass has no shape. 2. I saw a mas b of people at a mass in church two days ago. morning 1. Morning is a good time to finish one's ' work. 2. Our mornings are busy . night 1. I didn't expect night to come so soon. 2. The nights have been warm. order 1. We must have order here. 2. Here are your orders, Sergeant. rest 1. You cannot live without rest. : 2. This music has 30 rests. shade 1. Is there shade in your back yard? 2. I think I saw three windows without shades. size 1. Can size make that much difference? 2. I missed that dress by three sizes. 67

TABLE 10— Continued

Idea Word Sentence Examples

State— continued spring 1. Spring has much ’’spring." 2. All of the springs have passed by. summer 1. In summer we will swim. 2. Aren't the summers getting warmer? volume 1. We could cut down on volume. 2. I have loBt one volume, Joe. winter 1. Winter will come late. 2. tty winters are all so useless.

Thus far, we have discussed some of the conceptual and grammatical complexities involved in the non-countable noun, the qualities that this category shares with countable nouns and the conditions under which they can be counted. I have made sporadic reference to mass, class and ideas as having attributive qualities. Since the adjective represents the category of attribute reference, I shall, in the next section, spend some time in comparing the non-countable noun to the adjective, placing increased emphasis on its grammaticid. similarities. ! i <

CHAPTER VII

THE NON-COUNTABLE NOUN AS RELATED TO THE ADJECTIVE

I attempted to make clear in the last chapter that the non- countable noun differs somewhat from the countable noun both conceptually and grammatically. As a result, a question might and should arise concerning its relation to other categories. It is my hope that since we have associated the non-countable noun with such ideas as color, size, quality and the inability to picture the referents of these words, we might draw a few comparisons with adjectives which also seem to make reference to these attributive notions. Before discussing grammatical similarities, I should like to focus upon conceptual parallels, with special emphasis upon the specific subordinate categories of mass, class and idea.

Teale, in discussing the English system of new word formation, states that mass nouns become adjectives when the head word is the substance out of which the adjective is made. Paper is therefore an adjective or at least becomes an adjective in the phrase a box of paper or in a paper box if the box is made of paper. However, paper is a noun in a box of paper or in a paper box if the box is used for paper, i.e., used as a receptacle for the paper.1 Such a

^F.' Horace Teale, The Compounding of English Words (New York: John Ireland, 1691), pp. 5^-57. definition of the adjective appears to me to be a bit narrow. An adjective complements a word, making it distinct from all other words that are represented with the same spelling. The referent of an adjective (for instance the referent of red) complements the referent of a noun (the referent of book) and makes it different from the referents which are represented by the same spelling

(different non-red books). A paper box is different from all other boxes because it is made of paper. Teale neglects to tell us that a paper box is also distinct from all other boxes because it is used for the holding of paper. In both cases, the word paper is used to change or narrow the referent of box in different ways.

This non-count able noun or adjective is being used as an attributive in both cases.

An additional definition of the mass noun is contained in the writings of Sweet, who makes the following statement:

Such words as iren, glass, bread, water do not express any definite thing, as the class-words tree. etc., do, but each of them includes the whole mass of matter possessing the attribute Implied by the word. Thus iron means not only the nails and the hammer I may have~in my hands at this present moment , but all the iron in the universe, whatever may be the form or quantity of each portion of it. Material words thus make us think more of the attributes they suggest than of the thing itself.

As a result of the above statement, we can see that Henry Sweet while not calling the non-countable noun that refers to mass an adjective, makes the statement at least implicit through use of the word attribute.

2Henry Sweet. Hew English Grammar. Part I. p. 56. ' 7°; If ve had not engaged in the previous discussion by adding to the comments of Teale and Sweet, ve might conclude that the mass noun appears to Bhare very little in common with adjectives. The reason for this is that these , nouns do appear to have quantity in and of themselves; ink is a mass and can be touched; air, while it cannot be touched in the strictest sense of the word, can at least be felt; pipe can be observed by more than one of the senses.

The other nouns in the non-countable category represent concepts, having no consistently picturable reality in themselves.

In other words, where mass words have physical referents, class words represent the heads of collections (fruit is the head of the category including oranges, etc.) and therefore have no physical reality in themselves unless "given life" by being associated with something physical— something picturable (fruit is given life by being "attached" to an apple).

We detect a similar situation with idea-vords— those which seem to make no reference to collections. Therefore, the referents for the words humanity or beauty only become entities when they are attached to something physical. They are qualities which avoid definition until they are given quantity. Beauty is an idea or an attribute of something else, as can be seen in the difference between "Beauty is magnificent" and "A thing of beauty is magnificent."

Perhaps these two sentences mean the same thing since beauty must be demonstrated through objects of beauty before we can ever grasp the idea itself. I am wondering if, at this point and with this reasoning, we cannot conceive the word beautiful in the same way; ' 71 . this adjective and truly almost all other members of the adjective category refer to size, color, shape and other qualities, but only when associated with the referent of a noun which gives "life" to the attribute.

The literature does not abound with sources which agree with this approach. However, we see implicit statements along these lines not only from the writings of Sweet in the immediately preceding quotation but also of Nichols who states that "the nouns

Justice and honesty refer to mental abstractions that do not exist except in individual acts that are JUBt or honest." Perhaps the comment that attracts the most attention is from the writings of the

Port-Royal Grammarians. The Messiers de Port-Royal divide noun phrases into substantives and accidents and then refer to the ambiguous ("confused") nature of these two categories; they state that the referents of "nouns substantive has been given to all those words, uhlch subsist by themselves in discourse, without wanting to be Joined to another noun, even tho' they signify no more than accidents,"1* More specifically, they appear to be saying that the referents of these words have an infinite number of meanings and that the precise referent is not determined unless there is connotation or until an exact meaning is determined by the discourse.

For instance the word beauty could have no meaning unless the

^Anne Nichols. English Syntax, p. 13.

^R. C. Alston, ed., A General and Rational Grammar 1753 (Menston, England: The Scholar Press Ltd., 1968), p. 26. 72 listener or reader was able to determine from the discourse (or from his previous experience) that the other noun (beautiful woman, thing of beauty, etc. ) had overtly been mentioned or had been implied. The non-countable noun* represented by beauty, is therefore ambiguous until ve can determine from a conversation, from discourse or from context the overt thing of beauty about which we are speaking.

Beautiful and beauty are both ideas in the mind but these attributes could never have been conceived by children in the process of learning our language unless they were given life— beautiful in "The girl is beautiful" and beauty in "The statue is a thing of beauty." Although non-countable nouns share some grammatical features with the adjectives (as we shall very shortly see), this is as close as mass, class and ideas come to the sharing of conceptual characteristics— the fact that they are, like adjectives, either attributes of something else or are ideas which occur due to association with other nouns (i.e., words mentioned by the Port-Royal Grammarians, the properties of which become clear only when we can determine, from discourse, the distinct signification).

There appear, on first glance, to be only two grammatical qualities that non-countable nouns share with adjectives. First, words in this category are almopt always known to appear without the indefinite article a. Second, the speaker of Knglish cannot place plural affixes on either uncountables or on adjectives, although affixation on adjectives for agreement with nouns is a 73 common grammatical device in many Indo-European languages. The speaker can instead place the affix on the countable noun for purposes of carrying the plural message. The speaker may therefore either say, "I saw two girls_ who were beautiful" or "I saw two hottlej3 of ink." An additional shared characteristic of these two categories concerns the absence of the -s. suffix when certain words are used in the possessive. The sentence, "I observed the parts of the machine" can be paraphrased as "I saw the machine’s parts," adding the -a suffix. However, the paraphrase of the sentence, "I saw the bottle of ink" is "I saw the inkbottle," the addition of an

-s suffix rendering the sentence ungrammatical. Although the countable noun which appears before and which modifies its head noun must take as an affix, the non-countable noun which modifies the head noun cannot take the ending. This previous rule also applies to adjectives, as can be seen in the two sentences, "I have the inkbottle" and 111 have the broken bottle."

In addition to the above quality, the non-countable noun also shareb two additional characteristics with adjectives. The firBt of these concerns the use of the articles much, many, a little and a few. When one examines the appearance of those articles, one notices that much and a little appear with non-countable nouns while many and a few are articles appearing with countable nouns. We mew therefore say, "I have much emotion" or "I have many emotions,," with no possibility of interchanging the two articles . It appears to be equally possible, in comparison of inequality, and perhaps with comparison of equality, to use much with adjectives when they TU are placed In the predicate, with no possibility of using many under the same circumstances. Let us examine the following

sentences: i 1. Joan is much more beautiful than Jane.

2. Joan has much more beauty than Jane.

3. Joan has many more pens than Jane.

Notice that sentences one and two above are equally grammatical.

Moreover, the article much cannot appear with a countable noun which was transformed from the uncountable category, as is seen In the ungrammatical sentence, "*Joan has much more emotions than Jane"

(the sentence being made grammatical by saying "Joan has many more

emotions than Jane"). The article phrase a few is UBed with

countable nouns ("She has a few more pens") while a little is used both with adjectives and with non-countable nouns ("She is a little more beautiful" and "She has a little more beauty"). It can there­

fore be seen that those articles that can appear only with non- countable nouns are also those which can occur with adjectives when

the adjective appears in the predicate and when two nouns of unequal status are being compared.

A roughly parallel situation with both adjectives and non-

countables might exist with comparison when two things are equal.

However, the truth of this statement may rest upon the willingness

of the reader to accept all three of the following sentences:

1*. He exerts almost as much energy as you.

5. lie exerts energy, almost as much as you.

6. He is energetic, almost as much as you. There cure some persons vith vhom I have come into contact who will not place their approval on one or more o f the above sentences.

If these sentences are grammatical ve can see that the substitution of many would render the sentences totally unacceptable— "#He exerts energy, almost as many as you" and "*He is energetic, almost as many as you."

In a previous passage, I spoke both about the possibility of a sequence of two nounB, the first a non-countable attribute of its following noun head and also about the option o f deleting this head word. Thus, the sentence, "I saw the thunderclap and the lightning bolt" can be rendered as "I saw the thunder and the lightning." Nov if we turn to a similar use o f adjectives in sentences, we shall see that perhaps the same type of deletion takes place, as is exemplified in the two paraphrases, "Love can be a blessing upon the rich and the poor people of the world" and

"Love can be a blessing upon the rich and the poor of the world."5

An investigation of the grammatical environment of such sentences where head nouns iare deleted is important for purposes of clarity. Two of the grammatical areas that should receive particular attention at this time are the article and the form of the verb, and the relation of both of these to the countability of the noun that has been deleted.

^The non-countable noun is also used as an adjective to modify other non-countables. This head noun can also b e deleted as in the examples furnished by Hixson and Colodny of ghina, which is really chinaware and madras, which, if no reference is being made to the province, is madras-cloth. Jerome C. Hixson a n d I . Colodny, Word Ways (New York: American Book Company, 1939)* p. 11^• 76

Noun deletion is seen in the examples of both Curme and .

Jespersen. Curme, in the context of adjectives used as nouns and of the deletion of the definite article, makes the following statement:

Nouns made from adjectives may drop the article in a generalizing sense, Just as nouns may drop i f here, as in "Man is mortal": Sweet seventeen is given to day-dreams. Eleven years olcl does this^-sort of thing easily. Slow and steady wins the race.

Much useful information can be inferred from the above quote.

Curme implies, in the sentence, "Slow and steady wins the race" that a noun is made from an adjective. In this case we have one of our strongest examples illustrating the close relationship between the adjective and the non-countable noun. These two words— slow and steady— appear to be employed as non-count able nouns and the verbs remain singular, even though, grammatically, there is a compound subject. We certainly understand the sentence as "Slow and steady progress wins the race" Just as we understand the sentence

"I saw a lightning flash." Grammatically speaking, however, ve. may say that the adjective carries the message of the deleted noun progress unless of course we choose to interpret the sentence as

"Slowness and steadiness wins the race." In this latter case, the

adjectives are actually understood as non-countable nouns with deleted endings and are both taken as one unit if we choose to use the verb wins}and as two unitB if we choose to use the plural form

^From English Grammar by George O. Curme, p. 230. Copyright (?) 19^7* Reprinted by permission of Barnes and Noble Publishers, New York, New York. win (i.e., "Slowness and steadiness win the race" versus "Slowness and steadines wins the race"). Certainly the sentence with a singular verb form is no more or no less grammatical than the sentence employing a plural verb. Other examples furnished by

Curme that illustrate this behavior are "Sweet seventeen is given to day-dreams" and "Eleven years old doeB this sort of thing easily." It should be noted that Curme prefaces this whole series of examples with a statement that ties adjectives and non-countable nouns even more closely together. He states, "Nouns made from adjectives may drop the article in a generalizing sense, Just as nouns may drop it here, as in 'Man is mortal'." The only nouns used in the singular where an article must be dropped for the generalizing sense are non-countables, and man, as it is used here, is non-countable. The same behavior is exhibited in the examples above— examples that involve not uncountables but adjectives.

A last example concerns nationalities; the sentence, "The

Swiss people are strong" can be rendered as "The Swiss are strong" with no possibility of changing the verb to singular form. This attestB to the fact that the adjective is carrying the load of a deleted countable noun, and we might also note that adjectives of this type that reflect nationality and that end in -n are followed by the -is suffix of the deleted countable noun as in American people-Americans / Cambodian people-Cambodians , and so on.

Jespersen furnishes other examples of deletion. He makes reference to the difference between entities considered as non-

countable on one hand or on one occasion and as individual members ' 7 6 of a mass at other times. Thus ve may refer to oaks and willows

(or oak trees and willow trees) if we are concerned with trees but to oak and willow if we want to refer to the whole orchard or the entire forest of trees.7 An observation, not brought out by

Jespersen, can be made after looking at the two sentences, "Oak and willow abound here" and "Oak and willow abounds, here." Each person,

after observing both of these sentences could very easily consider one of them as ungrammatical. However, these people would perhaps

* not correctly have observed either that "Oak and willow trees

abound here" or that "Oak and willow wood abounds here ." noticing that in this second sentence, with a singular verb, we would under­

stand wood to be one unit made up of two types. Those who accept the sentence with a singular verb would do so for the same reason that they would accept the grammaticality of "Two dozen is sufficient," the plural number of the noun again being considered as one unit,

and hence the use of the singular verb. The confusion is perhaps

even more dramatic when we speak of one modifier instead of two; we may say, "Oak grow here" or "Oak grows here," the first referring

to a countable entity (perhaps trees), the second to a mass (perhaps wood).

One might consider the above examples or the essence of part

or all of this chapter as trivial or as irrelevant; I present the

discussion in this dissertation so that the teacher might consider

appropriate rules and examples concerning the non-count able noun

70tto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar, p. 200.

full 79 when he is discussing adjectives with her classes of students in

English as a Foreign Language. The important point here (as in perhaps all other cases that I have mentioned in this section) is i that a non-countable noun, is exerting a strong adjectivizing influence, which is often seen only after a deleted head noun

(willow-willow tree, willow-wood, china-chinaware. madras-madras * cloth, lightning-lightnlng bolt. etc.) is re-inserted into the sentence. The available sources leave us in much confusion concerning these mass entities and other non-countable nouns. At one extreme, we.have dictionaries which liBt words like willow, silt, etc., as nothing but nouns; at the other extreme, we have persons like Teale who, as I mentioned previously, tell us that ft some non-countable entities can be used as adjectives. Instead of claiming that a non-countable noun is an adjective, I shall allow the teacher to arrive at his own conclusions based upon my previous description of this non-countable category and its relation to the adjective.

®F. Horace Teale, The Compowidlng of English Words, pp. 56-57» previously referred to on page 68 of this dissertation. CHAPTER VIII I

THE UNIQUE GRAMMATICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

NON-COUNTABLE NOUN

One should be reluctant in calling the non-countable noun an

adjective, not only because such nouns can often easily be

"transformed" into countable nouns but also because of the

grammatical qualities peculiar to this category (the non-countable

sub-category) that are not shared by adjectives, by countable

nouns or by any other part of speech. Of greatest concern here is

the appearance of articles which are used in specific ways and of

certain endings which often mark a noun as non-countable— endings

which have intentionally been used in examples throughout this

. dissertation but which have not as yet been investigated in detaii

in this dissertation.

In English there exists a set of articles that place an

implication of quantity on the referents of countable nouns; for

the referents of non-countable nouns there exists a similar set of

articles which is used somewhat for the same purpose— for designa­

tion of quantity. These articles often parallel each other, in

that an article that is used with a countable noun will often have

roughly the same appearance as an article used for the quantifi­

cation of a non-count noun. This similarity can be seen in the

' 8 0 ;.v r;- 81 artlcle-palrs used in the following sentences:

TABLE 11

ARTICLES USED EXCLUSIVELY WITH COUNTABLE AND NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS

Article Sentence Examples

much (with non-countable 1. He expresses much emotion. nouns) 2. He shows too much emotion. 3. Did he show very much emotion? many (with countable nouns) 1. He expresses many emotions. 2. He shows too many emotions^ 3. Did he show very many emotions? little (with non-countable 1. Little trouble was experienced. nouns) 2. Too little trouble was experienced. 3. Very little trouble was experienced. few (with countable nouns) 1. Few troubles, were experienced. 2. Too few troubles, were experienced. 3. Very vew troubles, were experienced. a little (with non- 1. A little authority will help in countable nouns) this case. 2. Too little authority will ruin this case. 3. Very little authority will aid her. a few (with countable 1. A few authorities, will help this nouns) case. 2. Too few authorities, will ruin the case. 3. Very few authorities, will aid her. a lot of (with both count­ 1. There was a lot of division in able and non-countable the army. nouns) 2. There were a lot of divisions, in the armny.

There may he some question as to why countable nouns were included in the above table; the reason for including these nouns is to illustrate the similarity in appearance of determiners or articles which appear with both countable and with non-countable nouns (much/many and a little/a few). Secondly, although many, perhaps moBt, grammarians consider much and little to be articles which uniquely appear with non-countable words, there is a question is toy mind as to whether these two articles appear only with these words; it will be remembered that the articles much and little co­ occur with adjectives in comparison of equality and inequality— a situation that was discussed in the previous chapter. However, since this co-occurrence with adjectives is limited only to comparison, the claim could still be made that much and little are the exclusive domain of the non-countable noun.

A third and final question concerning the previous table is the inclusion of a lot of which, as I indicated in the table, occurs both with countable and with non-countable nounB. The reason for the inclusion of this particular phrase is that, while a lot of mav occur with words in both sub-categories, the phrase with a substitution for the word lot is found most commonly with non-countable nouns. This phrase serves as the counter for the non-countable category ("it is a thing of beauty.11 ”l have a barrel of fruit.” ’-I have a bottle of ink.” etc.J.V The preposition of is also used to establish mutual understanding in non-countable

^Guy Miege, in The ^English Grammar 1688 (Menston. England; The Scholar Press , Ltd., 1969), p. 29 ff.» hints at the adjectival or at least the attributive quality of the phrase a — of by saying that this is one of the ways of rendering a s e n W H W CSHTaining the substantive, the second of which is dependent oh the first (in a loaf of bread. the bread is dependent upon the loaf for its existence). 83 nouns and appears equivalent in function to the relative pronoun for countable nouns. We can therefore speak of a certain type of philosophy (i.e., to let the reader or listener know which I philosophy the writer or speaker is talking about) as "The philosophy of Plato” or a certain pen as ’’Th e pen which I bought," of being used in the firBt sentence along with the non-countable philosophy and which being used with the countable pens. This is not to say that the relative pronoun cannot be used with non-countable nouns for we may say, "This is the philosophy which was written by Plato.1'

However, of cannot be used with the definite article to establish mutual understanding when countable nouns are Involved. This can be seen in the unacceptable sentence,*"This is the pen of I bought" or the sentence (perhaps marginal), "Here is the pen of mine."

Another unique characteristic of the non-countable noun is concerned with absence of the definite article when generic reference is intended. In order to clearly define the term generic it is necessary to use examples that involve the countable noun: it is therefore possible to speak about all referents to a noun or to a potential quality or ideal situation concerning all of these referents if the use of articles or if the use of the plural is placed in a certain context. The following table should help to make this clear: 81*

TABLE 12

COUNTABLE NOUN USED FOR EXPRESSION OF GENERIC

Generic Marker Sentence Example

a (indefinite article) 1. A cat is a friendly animal. 2. A Persian cat is a friendly animal. 3. A cat that uses its claws 1b not necessarily dangerous. the (definite article) 1. The cat is a friendly animal. 2. The Persian cat is a friendly animal. 3. The cat that uses its claws is not necessarily dangerous. -s (plural marker) 1. Cats are friendly . animals. 2. Persian cats are friendly animals. 3. Persian cats that use their claws are not necessarily dangerous.

It will be noticed that all of the above sentences can, in the proper context, refer to one or both of two characteristics about cats. First, the sentences can refer to all cats, in which case the reader assumes that the quality of friendliness applies to the entire category of cats. Second, the sentence can refer to an ideal or potential quality of all cats, but with a possible exception to the general rule; this second quality 1b perhaps made evident when we make an addition to one of the above sentences— -

"The cat is a friendly animal, but mine isn't," "PerBian cats are friendly animals, but mine isn't," etc., the implication being that all cats are expected to be friendly, but that an exception to the rule would be possible.

. Let us now attempt to use these articles with non-countable nouns and also make an addition to the above table: 85

TABLE 13

THE USE OF MARKERS WITH NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS TO EXPRESS THE GENERIC

Generic Marker 1 Sentence Example

a (indefinite article) 1. "A music is beautiful. 2. "A Gregorian music is beautiful. 3* "A music that developed from jazz is not necessarily beautiful. the (definite article) 1. "The music is beautiful. 2. "The Gregorian music is beautiful. 3. "The music that developed from Jazz is not necessarily beautiful. -s 1. "Mu b Ics are beautiful. 2. "Gregorian musics are beautiful. 3. "Musics that developed from jazz are not necessarily beautiful. zero marker (no marker) 1. Music is beautiful. 2. Gregorian music is beautiful. 3. Music that developed from jazz is not necessarily beautiful.

The asterisk (*) marked beside most of the sentences above indicates that the sentences, for expression of the generic (for expression of all members of the category--in this case, music— or for expression of an ideal or potential quality of the entire

category with occasional exceptions) are, in my opinion, not

grammatical. In other words, while the interpreter of the above

sentences may consider one or more of the sentences to be correct , he is not observing the difference in context between the generic

and non-generic; for instance, the reader may very well accept

sentences 1, 2, and 3 as used with the definite article above

("The music.... "The Gregorian music.. . and "The music that

developed...") but the Interpretation will not be one referring to 86 all music but only to a specific type of music established between two or more persons (i.e., the music that both you and I listened to last night, the Gregorian music that was performed at the concert, etc.). Further, I voiced only an opinion that all of the sentence were ungrammatical; my reservation concerns sentence 3 * used with the definite article— "The music that developed from Jaaz 1b not necessarily beautiful." I believe that this sentence is acceptable for expression of the generic but that acceptability is a matter of degree and that the use of the zero marker— no marker at all— is the most acceptable, and most common indicator of the generic with non- countable nouns (i.e., the three sentences mentioned in Table 13 under

"Zero Marker11— "Music is beautiful," "Gregorian music is beautiful," and "Music that developed from Jazz is not necessarily beautiful").

We may then state that one of the unique characteristics of the non- countable noun is the absence of any grammatical marker as an aid to the expression of the generic.

There exist, in the English language, a few nouns which appear to be countable because of the presence of the definite article for expression of the generic or because of the existence of a plural suffix. Some dictionaries list such noun phrases as (the) fine arts.

(the) humanities, etc., as noun plurals even though we say, "(The) fine arts is an interesting field of study." Jespersen prefers to think of such words or phrases as the above as plural mass words; under this type of word, he furnishes examples as the blues, the creeps. the sulks, etc., which he treats in a special way, stating that they make reference to unpleasant states of the mind.** I would consider such word phrases as the blues, the fine

arts, etc., as non-countable since they often take the singular

form of the verb ("The blues Is often the result of a break-up” ).

Although these are marked at one and the same time both with the

definite article and the plural suffix, there are some phrases where

the article is present with no affixation (”The clergy is laay in

this town") and many words where affixation occurs with no article.

These words concern areas of study, especially where physical

activity is involved ("Gymnastics is required of all freshmen").

The grammatical device which perhaps identifies the non-

countable noun more readily than any other syntactic marker is the

existence of various suffixes. These endings, originating for the

most part either in Anglo-Saxon or from the influence of French upon

English, are most often a reflection of ideas (i.e., not concerned

primarily with mass and class). Just as in the case of other words

contained in tables in various parts of this dissertation, some of

these words are countable only under restricted conditions and some

others are more easily counted.

i , The following table represents words that are primarily non-

countable. These words are selected because of their frequency of

occurrence— a frequency of 50 or more times per 1,000,000.3

2Otto Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar, p. 199.

^The source of word frequency is, as has been consistently used throughout the paper, Edward L. Thorndike and Irving Lorge, The Teachers Word Book of 30.000 Words. 8 8

TABLE lU

NON-COUNTABLE WORDS WITH ENDINGS, PRIMARILY NOT COUNTABLE

Affix Non-Countable Noun Sentence Examples

-age courage We must all have courage. -ance balance Gymnastics takes balance. -dom freedom Will we be allowed enough freedom? -ect respect■ Respect is attained through training. -ence confidence You gain confidence through speaking. evidence H o w much evidence do you need? influence I must exercise more influence. presence Presence is important in public speaking. -ense defense T h e team needs more defense. -ess progress Our aim is progress. success Success Is often found through pain. -ief relief He will find.relief from the heat. -ise praise Give your child a little praise. -ity pity Pity will not help this situation. -ledge knowledge They won't go far without knowledge. -ness darkness Darkness came about two hours ago. happiness I have never known such happiness. -or labor X need cheap labor for this job. -rce commerce Commerce will never stop. -HL glory Won't you let him have any glory at all? -ship worship Worship will help you in time Of need. -tion attention Please give me some attention! information Information of that type is hard to get. -tjr beauty There is much beauty in her face. safety That organization discusses safety. plenty Such plenty will spoil us. -th death Death will come to him soon. faith Please have faith in him. health Will that doctor keep him in good health? growth His growth will depend on good nutri- ■ -tion. strength I am gaining strength each day. wealth I wonder if wealth will destroy him. worth His worth is two-million dollars. -ure nature H o w quickly will we destroy nature? pleasure He getB pleasure from, strange acts.

Neither the Above table nor the table that follows reflects all of the endings that a student can use in order to recognize non-countable nouns. These endings appear only 'because they occur with the most frequently used words in the language. A summary of all suffixeB for words that do not appear on these lists will be ■ 1 ' ■ furniBhed after I have indicated, in the following table, the words that appear with endings but which can easily be converted to countable nouns:

TABLE 15

WORDS WITH ENDINGS, NON-COUNTABLE AND COUNTABLE

Affix Non-Countable Noun Sentence Examples

-age language 1. Such language is intolerable! 2. Romance languages are beautiful. marriage 1. Marriage is a noble institution. 2. There have been ten marriages here this year. passage 1. Passage can be arranged for ten dollars. 2. Have you rehearsed those passages in the play sufficiently? -ance chance 1. Chance plays a great role in life. 2. He will get three more chances. circumstance 1. Did circumstance cause this trouble? 2. Did circumstances cause this trouble? distance 1. Distance has nothing to do with the success of that race horse. 2. Those distances are incorrectly plotted. policy 1. Policy dictates that you must go. 2. Do you think that isolationism is a good policy? -ence experience 1. Diplomacy comes with experience. 2. His experiences have been varied. science 1. Science can extend human life. 2. These sciences will not be necessary in the future. silence 1. Silence is often more useful than chatter. 2. X cannot tolerate such sllenceB. 90

TABLE 15— Continued

Affix Non-Countable Noun Sentence Examples

-ense expense 1. Real estate entails much expense. 2. I cannot meet my own expenses. -er murder 1. Murder is, strangely, our number one crime. 2. Can't we put a halt to these murders? -ort comfort 1. He will give you comfort. 2. Comforts are types of blankets. effort 1. That feat came from effort. 2. His efforts amazed us. -Ice justice 1. Justice will come to him. 2. He packed the court with Justices. notice 1. Notice will be taken of that. 2. I only mailed two notices. practice 1. Practice will make him a better musician. 2. Your devious practices will catch up to you. sacrifice 1. X have given my life to sacrifice. 2. My sacrifices were only for your benefit. service 1. Service to others was the butler's goal. 2. Your services will be cut off if you don't pay your bills. -ion opinion 1. Opinion i s the reason . for democracy. 2. Whose opinions are those? • religion 1. He has certainly survived without religion. 2. We have representatives of many religions in this community. union 1. Marriage will only be successful through union. 2. Those unions are ruining my business. -ise promise 1. Her words held much promise. 2. She has broken her promises more than once. surprise 1. Her voice was filled with much surprise. 2. He can do without surprises like that. -it£ activity 1. He should cut down on activity. 2. He should cut down on his activities. ■■ TABLE 15— -Continued

Affix Non-Countable Noun Sentence Examples

-itjr authority i. Our government could not survive if authority were destroyed. S. The authorities arrested her quickly. necessity 1. Necessity dictates these actions. 2. We cannot live without certain baBic necessities. opportunity 1. Will opportunity ever come to me again? 2. Please take advantage of your opportunities. quality 1. Quality goes into every automobile. 2. One cannot deny her qualities. quantity 1. Couldn't we have a little less quantity? 2. I don't need that in those quantities. -ment development 1. We need development in this factory. 2. These developments have hurt us badly. government 1. Can't government be stopped? 2. Can't governments be stopped? Judgment 1. Part of law is judgment . 2. He has made several difficult judgments this year. movement 1. Movement will give us away. 2. The dancer had graceful movements. settlement 1. Will settlement be possible today? 2. They fired upon those settlements with little’ discretion. -ness witness 1. Expert witness will be required. 2. Witnesses were not available. -or favor 1. Please grant favor upon us. « 2. I've had enough of your favors. honor 1. I must try. some other way to achieve honor. 2. Honors have been heaped upon him. -SSL history 1. History can be made interesting. 2. I have reaid several histories of that. memory 1. How can memory be improved without .. some practice? 2. I have pleasant memories of the east coast. TABLE 15— Continued

Affix Non-Countable Noun Sentence Examples

-ory theory 1. Pact often develops from theory. 2. I could accept those theories. victory 1. Victory can be ours by morning. 2. Can these victories do us any good? -rce force 1. Force was not necessary to quell the riot. 2. We gathered our forces for the fight. -SL industry 1. I have fought a loBing battle with industry. 2. I have given much time and money to the industries in this state. -ship friendship 1. Is friendship ever costly? 2. I have lost much money because of my friendships. -sion commission 1. He works only by commission. 2. Put your trust in those commis­ sions . division 1. Division will never come to us. 2. There were seven divisions in the field. expression 1. You will find expression in these books. 2. 1 have seen enough of these expressions. passion ' 1. PasBion will overcome us. 2. We will see more of their passions. possession 1. Possession is needed for dignity. 2. I fear that he will lose all of his possessions. -th length 1. Can11 length be better achieved in this room? 2. I need ten lengths of yarn. truth 1. Truth will always yin; 2. These truths cannot prevail. youth 1. Youth often creates turmoil. 2. These youths have broken every rule in the book. -tion action 1. Action must be taken immediately. 2. His actions greatly annoyed me. condition 1. Physical condition is important for the football game. 2. What are the conditions on the . field right now? 93

TABLE 15— Continued

* ■ Affix Non-Count able Noun Sentence Examples

-tion convention 1. Convention has decreed that the leader will be sole ruler. 2. I attended several conventions in the early I960’s. conversation 1. I hope that conversation will be held to a minimum tonight. 2. We could have done without conversations of that type. direction 1. Do we all really need direction in our lives? 2. The dog wandered aimlessly in all directions. education 1. Education is not always found in classrooms. 2. Their educations are at stake. foundation 1. Will we find suitable foundation for the building? 2. The building was built through the efforts of many foundations. motion 1. Motion will come if fuel is added. 2. The acrobat went through several warm-up motions. operation 1. Successful operation of that wrecked car is impossible, 2. I have undergone several unsuccess­ ful operations. population 1. Population will be controlled very soon. 2. The world's populations are all different. position 1. Position is important in decorating a house. 2. My son haB held several positions in that company. proportion 1. Proportion is important to artists. 2. The proportions that you gave me • , were Incorrect, production 1. Production must be. increased for the* next fiscal year. 2. The traveling company staged several important and ■ difficult productions. TABLE 15— Continued

Affix Non-Countable Noun Sentence Examples

-tion revolution 1. Revolution here is only a matter of time. 2. That country has undergone many unsuccessful revolutions. - * z difficulty 1. He experienced much difficulty when typing that paper. 2. He was never able to live with his difficulties. duty 1. Is duty really that important? 2* The duties of that officer seem terribly unimportant. liberty . 1. I granted liberty to all of the men on the second deck. 2. I took a few liberties when designing those dresses. society 1. Society cannot be forgiven for that. 2. These societies are quite a bit different from each.other. variety 1. I would not be able to live without at least a little variety. 2. These varieties of birds dis­ appeared many years ago. -ure temperature 1. Exeessive temperature will hurt that wood. 2. Excessive temperatures dominated the weather patterns. - z study 1. Study will make you a perfect man. 2. He is neglecting his studies.

Ab previously mentioned, the endings that appear in Tables lU and 15 above are only those which coincidentally occur with the most frequently used non-countable nouns in the language. The other affixes therefore occur with lesser frequency, but since students who might need control of the non-countable noun are in technical fields or in other areas requiring a knowledge of abstract language, these endings are Important. Of the endings which are native to 95

English or which are derived from endings that originally existed within the Anglo-Germanic language family, the -dom, -ness, -ship

and -th endings have already ‘been introduced; -dom is reflected in

freedom, -ness is used to affix darkness. -ship as in friendship and

the -th is found as the suffix for death. Baugh speaks of the

suffixes which were found in Old English and furnishes us with a

small list which is not reflected in the above table; these include

-hood as in brotherhood, -lock as in wedlock and -red as in hatred.^

In addition, Sweet furnishes us with -itude as in attitude.

beatitude or lassitude. ^ ■

Henry Sweet’s list of non-countable noun-forming suffixes which

originated outside the English language goes well beyond those suffixes mentioned in Tables lb and 15; these additional endings, not in the tables, include -ad as in nomad, -ade as in blockade, -ana found in

Shakesperiana or in Americana, -ancy which is affixed to infancy.

-ate, attached to consulate. -ency which is used as a suffix in

consistency, -icism and -ism which are used to form fanaticism and

egoism respectively, -our as in liquor and -y, found in fury. The

Sweet volume also contains foreign prefixes, but mention of these

is of no real concern to us since the words formed in such a way

are members of all partB of speech, and those that are used to form

^Albert C. Baugh, A History of the English Language, p. 225*

•’Henry Sweet, A New English Grammar. Part I , p . U89.

6Ibid.. pp. l»83-b89. 9 6 abstract or non-countable nouns are used to somewhat the. sane degree in forming concrete or countable nouns J Knowledge of these prefixes might, however, be useful to the teacher since the introduction of non-countable suffixation could be made part of a unit on affixation in general.®

The teacher should be aware of the unique grammatical character­ istics of the non-countable noun; with such knowledge of these attributes, the student can be taught to use the dictionary in a most interesting and novel way. For instance, if the student is not certain whether a noun is countable, he may consult the dictionary in order to detect the occurrence of much or (a) little (instead of many or (a) few) or a of in the definition. Similarly, if a word has no ending or if a suffix is detected but is questionable due to a student* s lapse of memory, the synonyms found .in the dictionary will often be recognized as non-countable or will'be affixed

complete listing of the prefixes and roots which originated in Latin and Greek and which have become a part of English can be found in a book by Joseph V. Collins, English Words of Latin and Greek Origin (Stevens Point, Wisconsin: Worzalle Publishing Co., 1939).

®The subject of affixation is related to the area of derivation, where the referent of a word is qualified by means of changing the form of the word. This as well as other concepts are discussed by Edward Sapir in Language (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 19l*9), pp. 83-85. W. Kelson Francis in The Structure of American English (New York: The Ronald PresB Co., 1958), pp. 207-208, discusses derivation and indicates how suffixes are added to or how they merge with complex words, simple words and smaller units. Knowledge of the theory concerned with derivation is not necessary for an understanding of the information in this dissertation; however, the teacher as well as more advanced students might find the area interesting and helpful. 97 with endings that will be immediately recognized. Since there is only one recognized dictionary which lists non-countable nouns, but which is not always available, not totally consistent with non-countable noun marking procedures and perhaps not reflective of American English speech habits, the student should be made aware of all grammatical traits so that any dictionary can be used. But perhaps more important is the fact that a student would recognize a non-countable noun immediately even if he had never before encountered the word and would therefore not need a dictionary.

This immediate recognition would be possible if the student, through his own efforts and through the efforts of his teacher, knew the rules governing mass, class and idea, including recognition of the unique grammatical characteristics of the non-countable noun. CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY

My concluding comments will be concerned with ways that a

teacher might go about integrating the information contained in

the dissertation into an overall pattern of classroom exercises

for foreign students. A first step is to apply the organizational

principles of this dissertation— to isolate the non-countable noun

and to compare it with other parts of speech with which it shares

notional and grammatical characteristics.

The isolating of the non-countable noun has at least two useful

purposes. First, we are able to create a taxonomy, dividing the

words into mass, class and idea. Second, from this taxonomy, we

are able to detect a range of abstraction with mass words making

reference to observable entities at one extreme and idea words

representing, in themselves, nothing physical. From these techniques

of classification and progressive abstraction, one might attempt

to construct useful patterns and exercises for use in the classroom.

One approach, utilizing degrees of abstraction, is to present

the student with a type of vocabulary the referents of which, over

a period of weeks or months, become increasingly more obscure to

the student's senses. This approach is used by Richard Samson, who

believes that the student should first speak and write about the ■' : ; -j : /■ V :-v; y;-:- V;:: representatives of words that he can see and then slowly work away from this point, terminating with words most distant from physical reality.^- The process not only allows the student to start with tangible, and therefore easily understood referents, but also encourages him to think with greater and greater abstraction over a period of time.

Applying the principle to the teaching of the non-countable noun, the student is first given the benefit of working with words that represent mass. These mass nouns are words such as ink which represent tangible things. The student is then slowly introduced to class words which do not represent anything real but which serve as the heads of collections which are observable. These class nouns are words such as furniture which represent the super­ ordinate category containing the tangible chair, table, etc.

Finally, the student must deal with the non-countable noun at its most abstract level when he encounters the referents of ideas. He must, at this* level, deal with nouns such as beauty, which finds its reality in an unusual woman, a precious stone or a great structure.

The dissertation, in addition to clarifying the notional and grammatical characteristics of the non-countable noun through classification, was to be used as a vehicle for comparing the non- countable noun to countable nouns and as a way to elucidate the

^Richard W.. Samson. The Language Ladder (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., 1967). 100 grammatical characteristics that are unique only to this particular category. In this framework, I introduced many examples which illustrated the extent to which non-countable nouns were parallel to, or different from, other categories. These examples have hopefully illustrated to the teacher the great variety of situations under which the words in the non-countable area can be mentioned.

For instance, the nouns can be studied simultaneously with the article in order to determine how words behave when used generically or in specific or undetermined situations.

Other instances where the non-countable noun could be used is with conjoining sentences or discussions of verbs or with a unit on affixation. It was interesting to note that the same articles appeared both with non-countable nouns and with adjectives in certain instances where equality and inequality were being compared.

Since exercises in comparison often involve the merging of two sentences, the article, the adjective and the non-countable noun can be used simultaneously when the student is learning to put sentences together. Two final examples concern the introduction of the gerund immediately before, after, or simultaneously with a discussion of verbs or the handling of idea words with endings at a time when affixing is studied.

In this dissertation, I have isolated the non-countable noun, classified it and compared it hoping in the process not only to reveal the semantic range of the category but also to demonstrate its grammatical characteristics. It is hoped that such an approach will be of benefit both to teachers and to students of English as a second language. # t INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO APPENDIXES

The corpus contained in the following three appendixes was obtained from perusal of the following sources:

1. The Advanced. Learnerf3 Dictionary of Current English (London: Oxford University Press,

2. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition (New York: Random House, 1968)7

3. .The Teacher*s Word Book of 30,000 Words (New York: Columbia University Press, 19UU).

U. Websterfs New World Dictionary of the American Language, College EditionT(New York: The World Publishing Co. , 1959). Words have been classified according to mass (Appendix A ) , class (Appendix B), and idea (Appendix C). A number appearing after a word indicates its frequency of occurrence per 1,000,000 words

as listed in The Teacher’s Word Book of 30,000 Words (complete bibliographical information indicated in 3 above). Words with no numbers indicate that the word did not appear in the 1,000,000 word sampling but appeared in the other dictionaries listed above.

Frequently occurring words (those occurring 50 or more times per

1,000,000 •) that were listed in previous tables are also included

in this corpus. Of these frequently occurring words, A after a

word will indicate that it occurs between 50 and 99 times per

1,000,000, while AA will signify 100 or more occurrences per 1,000,000.

101 102 APPENDIX A

WORDS WHICH CAN BE USED AS NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS REFLECTING MASS

acetylene (l) beetroot buttermilk (l) acreage (h)' bellows (2) cabbage (l6) adamant (2) belongings (6) cackle (It) agate (2) benzene (l) cactus (2) air (AA) bicarbonate cake (a ) alabaster (3) bilge calcium (9) alcohol (15) birch (1 6 ) calcium carbide ale (13) bison (l) calf (lh) alfalfa (U) blackberry {5) calico (7) alms (6) bleach (9) cambric (2) alpaca blight (6) camphor (2) aluminum (6) blood (AA) candlelight (2) amber (9) blood money candy (32) ambrosia (l) blotting- paper cane (19) ammonia (5) blubber (l) cane-sugar anchovy (l) board (AA) canker (It) anthracite (5) booze (2) canvas (21) antimony (l) borax (2) caramel (2) apple (A) braid (10) carbolic acid applesauce bran (5) carbon (23) apricot (A) brandy f7) carbonic acid (10) arsenic (3) brasB (32) cardboard (5) abestos (l) bread (A) cargo (15) ash (37) breath' (A) carp (l) asparagus (6) breeches (8) carrion (2) aspen (1) breeze (29) cash (1+6) asphalt (5) briar (ll) cashmere aspirin brick (1*9) cast-iron (l) aster (3) brimstone (2) castor oil (2 ) bacon (12) brine (3) catfish (2 ) bagatelle broadcloth (2) catgut banana (13) brocade (3) catnip (l) bark (A) broccoli (l) cauliflower (2) barley (12) bromide (2) caviar (2) barm bronze (19) cedar (17) basalt broth (5) celery (9) basil (1) brush (A) cellophane bass (7) brushwood (l) celluloid (l) bathos ' buckram cellulose (2) beaver (23) buckskin (2) cement (17) bedclothes (2) buckwheat (h) cereal (10) bedrock , buffalo (19) chaff (7) beech (10) . bullion (6) chalk (13) beef (20) burlap (l) chamois leather (l) beer (23) burr (It) champagne (It) beeswax butter (AA) charcoal (11) APPENDIX A— Continued cheese (1*5 ) cord (3 0 ) driftwood (2 ) cheescloth (l) cordage (l) drippings (l) cherry (35) cordite dropsy chestnut (l6) cordon dross (l) chewing-gum corduroy- (l) duck (1*9) chicken (A) cork (1 1 ) dung (2 ) chiffon (5 ) corn (A) dust (A) china com-bread dye (23) chinaware corn-starch dynamite (5 ) chintz corrugated (l) earth (AA) chloride (2 ) costume (25) earthenware (3 ) chlorine (3 ) cotton (AA) earthwork chloroform (l) country (AA) ebony (1*) chlorophyll (2 ) cowhide (l) edging (3) chocolate (20) crab (l6 ) eel (U) chowder (l) crackle (9 ) egg (AA) chrome (l) crackling eggnog chromium (l) crape (l) eggplant (l) cider (5 ) cream (A) egret (l) cinnamon (6 ) cream of tartar eider citron (2 ) creosote elastic (1 2 ) clapboard (l) crepe (8 ) elderberry claret (l) cress (2 ) electricity (1 8 ) clay (1*3) cretonne (l) electron (l) clove (8 ) crimson (19) elk (7) clover '(12) crochet (5 ) elm (1 6 ) coal (AA) crockery (2 ) embroidery (9 ) coating (l) cross-stitch embryo (U) cobalt (l) crystal (2 7 ) emery (3 ) cobblestone (l) cud (l) enamel (6 ) cobra (l) curd (2 ) enamelware cocaine (1 ) curl (1*5 ) endive cochineal current (A) engraving (3) cockle (2 ) curry (3 ) epidermis (l) cocoa (9 ) custard (5 ) equipage (l) coconut (8 ) cutlery (l) ermine (3) cod (1 0 ) damask (U) escarole coffee (A) damp (2 7 ) estrogen cognac (l) data (6 ) etching (2 ) coinage (9 ) debris (3) ether (1*) coke (5 ) delft ethyl (l) cologne (5 ) denim (l) excelsior concrete (15) dentifrice excrement (l) confetti (l) dessert (12) exhaust (2 8 ) consuming . dew (3 0 ) fallow (3 ) contact print dirt (2 1 ) fancy-work convoy (3 ) doeskin ; fat (AA) copper (1*6 ) dough (1 1 ) fauna (!) copra drapery (9 ) feldspar (2 ) coral,(1 9 ) draught (16) felt (AA) 10U

APPENDIX A— Continued

fennel (l) gilding gutta-percha fig (13) gilt (5) jhabiliment (i) filament (7) gin (9) haddock (l) filigree ginger (13) hail (1*0) film (31) gingerbread (6) hair (AA) filth (1*) gingham (5) hake fir (11). glass (AA) hale (1) fire (AA) glassware (l) halibut (1) firewood (3) glitter (33) halide flagstone (1) glucose halite flame (A) give (15) ham (17) flannel (9) gluten (1) hamburger flannelette glycerin (l) handiwork (1) flare (10) goat (A) hardcoal flax (lit) gold (AA) hardtack flesh (A) gold-leaf hardwood (2 ) flint (9) gold-plate hash (2) flooring (2) goose (1*5) hay (1*6) flora (7) . gore (7) heat (AA) floss. (3) ' gorse heather (5 ) flounder (6) gossamer (l) helium (l) flour (A) graffiti hemp (5) fly-paper graham flour heroin foam (21) grain alcohol herring (9) fodder (it) granite (15) herring-bone fog (18) granulated sugar hexane foil (7) grape (3*0 hickory (5 ) foliage (12) grapefruit (2) hexaclorophene foot-wear grape shot hide (A) forage (5) graphite (U) histamine fox (25) grass (AA) hoarfrost (l) framework (6) grating (7) hod (1) frankincense (l) gravel (15) hog (lk) fresco (2) gravy (8) hollondaise freshness (6) grazing-land hollovvare fret-work grease (l6) holly (1*) frieze (3) greenery hominy frost (1*1) grime (l) honev (A) ■ frost-hlte grit (5) honeycomb (1*) frosting grog honeydew froth (3) ground (AA) honeysuckle (5 ) gabardine (3) grouse (8) horse chestnut garb,(7) grub (11) horsehair (2 ) garbage (1*) gruel (l) horsehide garlic (3) guard horseradish (l) gas (A) gum (ll) horse shoes gasoline (15) gun cotton hosiery (2) ; ■ giauze (6) gunpowder (6) ice (AA) gelatin (7) gunshot ice cream (2) georgette (1) gypsum (l) icing (l) 105

APPENDIX A— Continued

India paper lam€ mallow India rubber land (AA) malt (U) Indian com lanolin maltose incot (l) lard (9) ; mandragona ink (20) larkspur (l) manganese (l) inlay larva (10) mango (l) insecticide latex manna (l) insignia (l) lath (2) manure (8) insulin lather (2) maple sugar intestine (It) latticework marble (38) iodine (2) laurel (12) marcasite iridium lava (12) margarine ;iron (AA) lavender (ll) aurjoram ironwork lawn (37) marmalade (2) isinglass lead (AA) marquetry ivory (13) leather (A) marquisette ivy (11) lemon (27) marrow (5) Jade (k) lettering (l) marshmallow (l) Jam (l6) lactose mash (9) Jasmine (l) lamb (1*5) masonry (k) Jasper (2) lemonade (7) matting Java lettuce (12) ' matzoth Jazz (5) licorice mayonnaise (5) Jelly (19) lignite (1) mead (10) Jellyfish (2) lime (27) medulla Jersey (21) limestone (20) melon (5) Jetsam lineament (1) menthol Juice (37) linen (1*7) meringue (l) Jungle (l6) liniment (1) mesli (6) Juniper (3) linoleum (1*) mesquite Junk (6) linseed (3) methane Jute (l) lint (2) methanol kaffir (l) lipstick (U) methyl kale (l) lisle mica (U) kalsomine lithium mildew (3) kapok llvervurst milk (AA) kelp lobster (7) milk of magnesia kerosene (7) lotion (2) mincemeat (l) khaki (1) lye (1) minestrone kidskln macadam (l) mink (5) kidney macaroni (2) mint (13) kindling (l) mace (3) mist (29) kitchenware mackerel (l) mistletoe (l) kohlrabi madras (k) mohair (l) kumquat magnesia (l) '.'moire:;.;: lace (32) magnesium (3) molasses (7) lacquer (3) mahogany (7) ■ mold (22) lager maize (3) molybdeinum lambskin malachite morocco (3) 106

APPENDIX A— Continued

morphine (l) obsidian pemmican mortar (8) ocher (l) penicillim moss (22) octopus (2) ^pennyroyal mother-of-pearl offal (1) . pepper (27) ' mucilage offset (5) peppermint (1) muck (5) oil (AA) pepsin mucous (1) oilcloth (3) peptone mud (1*7) oilskin (l) percale (l) mullet okra perch (23) mulligan oleander perfume (21) mulligatawny oleic acid perfumery muriatic acid olein permangamate muscatel oleomargarine peroxide muscle (35) oleoresin petrolatum mush (2) onyx (l) pewter (3) muslin (7) ooze (6) 1 phlegm mustard (1) opal (7) phloem mutton (10) openwork phosgene myrrh (l) opium (7) phosphate (1*) myrtle (6) oxalic acid phosphite nankeen oxide (U) • phosphoric acid naphtha (l) oxygen (25) phosphorus (2 ) naphthalene ozone piccalilli nebula (6) paint (AA) pie (A) nectar (2) palladium (l) pig iron needlepoint palmitic acid pigment (k) needle work palmitin pigmentation neodymium , paneling pigskin (l) neon panocha pigweed: nepenthe paper (AA) pike (6) . netting papier-mach€ pimento cheese newsprint paprika (U) pine (A) nickel (11) papyrus . (2) pineapple (15 ) nicotine (l) paraffin (3) piping (k) niobium parchment (8) pistachio nitrate (2) paregoric pitch (k3) nitric acid parquet pitchblende nitride parquetry plaiting nitrite parsley (8) planking nitrogen (12) paste (17) plankton nitroglycerin pasteboard (l) plasma (l) nitrous acid pastry (12) plaster (16 ) nitrous oxide patchwork (l) plastic (3) ■ nog patS (2) plateglass nought patent leather plating nutmeg (2) peach (29) platinum (h) oak; (A) pearl (Vf) plum (23) oakum (l) peat (U) plywood oat,(23) ■ pectin (l) poison ivy oatmeal (5) pekoe poison oak 107 APPENDIX A— Continued poison sumac raspberry (1*) sandstone (7 ) polonium rattan sap (l8) pomace ravioli sateen (l) pomade rawhide (l) satin (15) pongee rayon (l) satinwood poplar (8) reed (22) sauerkraut (l) poplin (l) refuse (AA) sausage (10) porcelain (8) relish (10) sausage meat park (Ik) rennet sawdust (2 ) porridge (2) resin (3) saxifrage port (A) rhenium scaffolding (l) possum (7) rhodium scotch (16) pot (1*7) rhubarb (13) scrap (18) potash (3) ribbon (3 6 ) scratch (30) potassium (3) rice (38) scru potato (A) rock candy screen (39) pottery (5) rock crystal scrip (l) poultry (11) rock salt script (5) poundcake rope (A), scrub (lU) powder (A) rosemary (l) scud (2) prairie (2 5 ) rose water sculpture (1 2 ) pretroleum (8) rosin (l) scum (2 ) print (A) rouge (9) scurf procaine rubber (35) sea (AA) protein (6) rubbish (8) seal (1*5) protoplasm (5) rubble (l) sealskin pudding (17) rubidium seasoning (3 ) puff paste rum (7) seaweed (6 ) pulp (8) rusk sedge (It) pulpwood rust (l8) seed (A) pumice (l) rutabaga seed pearl pumpkin (13) sable (9) semen puree saccharin senna pus sachet sepia putty (2) sack (30) serge (1*) pyroxylin sackcloth (l) serum (3) quail (7) saffron (2) sesame quartz (lU) sage (12) sewage (l) quick-lime sagebrush (1) shad (l) quicksand (l) sago shag (l) quicksilver (3) sailcloth shagreen quinine (3) saliva (3) shale (5) rabbit (1*3) salmon (ik) shammy radium (2 ) salt (AA) shampoo (l) raffia, saltpeter (2) shantung (l) ragout salve (3 ) shark (7) ragweed salvolatile sheepskin (2) ragwort sand (A) sheeting raiment (6) sandalwood shellac (2) rain (AA) sandpaper (3 ) sherbet (2) 108

APPENDIX A— Continued sherry (2) soot (3) swordfish shingle (8) soup (36) sycamore (b) shortbread soy syrup (6) shortening (6) spaghetti (l) tabasco shot (AA) specie tableware shoulder (AA) spelt taffeta (2) shrapnel (l) sperm (2) taffy shrimp (3) spermaceti talc (l) siding (l) spikenard talcum powder sienna spinach (8) talipot silage spit (13) tallow (10 silica (2) sponge (12) tamale silicate sprat tamarack silicon (2) spruce (ll) tamarisk silk (A) spume tantark silt (1) Sputum tannin silver (AA) squirrel (2*0 tape (8) silverware (2) starch (10) tapestry (8) sirloin (1) steak (lit) tapeworm sirocco steam (A) tapioca (2) sisal steel (A) tar (10) skim milk steenbok tarnish (2) skin (AA) steering gear tarpon skunk (13) sterling (6) tartar (2 ) slack (7) stew (ll) tartar sauce slag (2) stiffening (8) tea (A) slate (11) stomach (30) teak slaver straw (Ul) tear gas slaw strawberry (19) tenderloin sleet (5) string (A) terbium slime ( M strychnine (2) terra cotta (l) slobber stubble (5). terry (3 ) sludge stucco (2) tetroxide slush (1) stuffing (1) thallum smoke (AA) sturgeon thistle (8) smoulder (2) subsoil (l) thistledown (l) smudge (2) suds (3) thorium' snail (8) suede (l) thread (A) snake (28) suet (1) thurbium snipe (2) sugar (AA) thyme (2) snot sulphur (21) ticking (l) snow (AA) sun (AA) tile (15) snuff (8) sunflower (2) timber (30) soap (37) surf (U) timothy (ll) sod (10) swag tin (36) soda (12) sward (l) tinder (2) sodium (3) sweat (19) tinfoil (l) soil (AA) sweepings (3) tinsel (2) solder (2) ’ swiii tissue (12) sole (25) swine (8) titanium 109

APPENDIX A— Continued toadflax velveteen (l) wire (A) toast (20) veneer (l) wiring (l) tobacco (36) venison (6) witch hazel tolvene venom (5) wood alcohol tomato (ll) verdure (U) woodland (1 6 ) tomcod vermillion (2) woodwork (b) topaz (2) vermouth wool (A) tourmaline (l) vinegar (12) • worm gear toweling vinyl wormwood (l) trash (3) vodka wrapping (5) trimming voile (l) wrought iron tripe (l) vulcanite xenon trousers (21) wallboard xylonite trout (17) wallpaper yarn (16) tubing (l) walnut (ll) yarrow tulle walrus (2) yeast (7) tumbleweed wampum (l) yeast-povder tuna ware (id) yellow ochre tundra wash (AA) yew (5) tungsten (l) water (AA) yolk (3) turbot water chestnut yucca (1) turf (10) water color (l) zebra (2) turkey (20) water cress (2) zebu tumeric waterfowl (l) zinc (10) turpentine (U) watermelon (l) tweezers (l) water wings twill (1) wax (28) twine (13) wax myrtle type (AA) wax paper umber weather board umbrage weather stripping underbrush (8) webbing underclothes (l) whale (8) underwear (6) whalebone (l) unguent wheat (A) uranium whiskey (9 ) urea ; whitefish urine (l) white lead vaccine white meat vanadium whiting vanilla (5) whitewash vapor (27) wicker (3) 1 varnish (6) wickerwork vaseline widgeon veal (5) wildfowl vegetation (ll) wild oat vellum (l) willow (2U) velour wind (AA) velure windowpane (l) velvet (32) wine (A) ' ^ APPENDIX 6

WORDS WHICH CAN BE USED AS NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS REFLECTING CLASS

I acrobatics game (AA) upholstery (2) adornment (3) grain (A) wood (AA) advertisement (ll) hardware (8) agriculture (1*1) jewelry (12) aircraft (2) laundry (9) ammunition (9) lingerie (2) armament (8) liquid (31) armour (37) liquor (3b) art (AA) livestock (1) artillery (3) loot (3) baggage (ll) luggage (10) bait (lb) lumber (3b) ballet (2) machinery (A) ballast (2) mail (A) banking (6) make-up (9) burlesque (3) material (AA) business (AA) matter (AA) capital (A) meat (AA) cloth (A) merchandise (lb) clothing (A) metal (A) color (AA) millinery (l) combat (18) mining (17) confectionery (l) money (AA) contraband (2) music (AA) cookery (5) noise (A) craft (21) ointment (5) crime;:(A) ore (18) currency (lb) poison (b2) decoration (19) produce (AA) disease (A) real estate (b) drama (23) saddlery dramatics (l) salad (38) exercise (AA) sauce (27) fabric (21) sediment (3 ) fashion (A) shellfish (l) finance (35) shrubbery (b) fish (AA) spice (17) flavoring (2) stationery (2) food (AA) statuary (2) fowl (20) stone (AA) freight (3b) stuff (A) fruit (AA) substance (A) fuel (21) ; supper (A) fur (A) toiletries furniture (A) trade (AA) Ill APPENDIX C

WORDS WHICH CAN BE USED AS NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS REFLECTING IDEAS

abandon (38) adherence (2) algebra (3 ) abatement (l) adhesion (l) alienation (l) abbreviation (l) adjournment (l) alignment (l) abdication (l) adjustment (13) alimony aberration administration (b9) allegation (l) abeyance (l) admiralty (2) allegiance (10) abhorence (l) admiration (29) allegory (l) ability (1*9) admission (15) alliteration abjuration admittance (l) allotment (2) abolition (7) admonition (3) allowance (15) abomination (S) adolescence (l) allurement (3) abridgement (l) adoption (12) allusion (7) abrogation adoration (b) almond (8) abruptness adulation (l) aloofness (l) absence (31) adulteration (l) altercation (l) absorption (8) adultery (2) alternation (6) abstenance (2) advance (AA) alteration (2) absurdity (5) advancement (8) altitude (lb) abundance (23) adventure (A) altruism (l) abuse (22) adversity (5) amalgamation (2 ) access (ll) advertising (20) amazement (19) accession (5) advice (A) ambiguity (l) accidence advocacy (l) ambition (U2) accommodation (9) affability (l) amendment (2 6 ) accomplishment (ll) affectation (3) amenity (l) accord (2b) affection (37) amity (2) accountancy affiliation (l) amnesty (l) , accuracy (ll) affinity (5 ) amplitude (l) accusation (9) affirmation (l) amusement (22) achievement (23) affliction (1*) analogy (3) acknowledgment (3) affluence (l) anelysiB (lU) acme (l) aggravation anarchism (U) acoustics aggregation anarchy (b) acquaintance (b6) aggression (3) anatomy (7 ) acquiescence (2) aggressiveness (l) ancestry (2 ) acquirement agility (2 ) anchorage (3 ) acquisition (4) agitation (12) anesthesia (l) acrimony agony (2b) anger (A) acting (1 6 ) agreement (31) anguish (12) action (AA) aid (A) animation (3) activity (A) aim (A) cmlmoslty (b) actuality (l) airmail annexation (2) acumen alacrity (l) annihilation (2) adaptability (l) alarm (A) announc ement (11) adaption (6) alchemy (l) . annotation addition (A) alertness (l) annoyance (7 ) 1X2

APPENDIX C— Continued antagonism (3) aspiration (7) backwash anthrax assassination (4) badminton anthropology (1) assemblage (2) balance (A) anticipation (8) assent (13) baldness antics (3) assertation (9) balm (7) antipathy (2) assessment (l) banishment (6) antiquity (8) assiduity bankruptcy (5) antithesis (l) assignment (4) baptism (?) anxiety (22) assimilation (2) barbarism (l) apathy (3) assistance (2 6 ) bareness apology (8) assurance (18) baseball (15 apoplexy (l) asthma (l) baseness (l) apostasy (l) astonishment (20) basketball (1) appeal (A) astrology (2) battle (AA) appeasement (6) astronomy (?) bearing (11) appendicitis (1) atheism (l) beatitude appetite (24) athletics (7) beauty (AA) applause (13) atmosphere (38) bedlam (l) application (32) atrophy (l) bedtime (6) apportionment (l) attainment (4) beggary (1) appreciation (15) attendance (13) behavior (id) apprehension (ll) attention (AA) belief (39) apprenticeship (3) attraction (17) belligerency approbation (3) attractiveness (l) benevolence (3) appropriation (8) attrition . benediction (3) approval (it) audacity (5) benefaction (l) approximation (l) augmentation (l) beneficence (l) aptitude (2) augury benefit (A) arbitration (5) austerity (l) benignity archaeology autarchy bereavement (l) archery (2) authenticity (l) beri beri architecture (14) authority (A) betrayal (l) ardor (7) authorship (2) betterment (2) argument (48) autocracy (l) bewilderment (4) aridity automation (l) bias (5) aristocracy (6) autonomy (l) bigness (l) arithmetic (9) autumn (49) bidding (3) array (20) availability bigotry (1) arrival (36) avarice (4) billiards (2) arrogance (4) aversion (3) bimetalism (l) arson aviation (8) biography (5) articulation (1) avidity (1) biology (5) ' artifice (3) avoidance (l) bitterness (l4) ascendancy (l) avowal (l) black (AA) ascension (l) awe (17) blackmail (4) ascent (10) awkwardness (2) blame (A) ascription babble (9) blandishment (l) aspect (27) babyhood (2) blasphemy (3) aspersion (1) backbone (7) blindness (9) asperity backwardness bliss (12) APPENDIX C— Continued

bliss (12) cancer (?) chemistry (ll) blood poisoning candidacy (2) chess (2) bloodshed (hi) candor (?) chicken-pox bloom (3?) cannibalism (l) childbirth (l) bluff (12) cant (3) childhood (27) bluntness capability (2) chivalry (10) bluster (3) capacity (3T) cholera (h) boarding (3) capitalism (3) christening (2) boastfulneBB caprice (2) chronology (l) boldness (?) captivity (10) church (AA) bondage (?) capture (hh) circulation (16) boorishness ■ care (AA) circumlocution booty (5) carelessness (7) circumscription boredom (l) caricature (2) circumspection (l) bosh carnage (1) circumstance (A) botany (3) carpentry citation (l) bother (30) carriage (h6) citizenship, (9) bounce (10) carving (?) civility (6) bounty (10) castigation civilization (3?) boyhood (12) casuistry claim (AA) bravado (l) catch (AA) clamor (lh) bravery (9) catechism (l) clarity (1) brawn (l) cause (AA) . classification (6) breakage (l) caution (l?) cleanliness (8) breeding (5) celebration (13) cleanness brevity (2) celebrity (h) clearness (h) brightness (11) celerity clearance (l) brilliance (3) celibacy clearness (h) bronchitis (l) censorship (2) cleavage (3) brotherhood (10) censure (8) clemency (l) brown (AA) centralization (1) cleverness (3) brusqueness ceremony (25) climate (hi) brutality (3) certainty (13) clockwork (2) bubonic plague certitude closeness (2) buff (5) cessation (3) clumsiness buffoonery cession (l) . coagulation bulk (20) chagrin (3) coalescence bull (36) chairmanship (l) coarseness (l) buoyancy (l) championship (7) code (21) burdensome (l) chance (AA) coeducation bureaucracy (l) change (AA) coercion (l) burglary (l) chaos (9) co-existence bustle (10) character (AA) cogency cadence (5) charge (AA) cogitation (l) calamity (9) charity (36) cognizance (l) calculation (9) charm (A) coherence , calibre (1) chastisement (2) coincidence (6) calmness (3) .. chastity (2) coldness (3) camouflage (2) chatter (23) colic cancellation (l) cheerfulness (?) collaboration (l) APPENDIX C— Continued collapse (l6) compunction (l) conscription (2 ) collateral (2) computation (1) consecration (U) collection (Vf) concealment (U) consensus (l) | college (AA) conceit (5) consent (A) collision .(U) concentration (10) consequence (U3) colloquy (l) conception (19) conservation (7) collusion (l) concern (A) conservatism (l) colonization (3) concession (10) consideration (UU) combination (Uo) conciliation (2) consignment (2) combustion (9) conclusion (39) consistence comedy (17) concoction consolation (5 ) comeliness (3 ) concord (10) consolidation (2) comfort (A) concordance consonance comity concurrence (l) conspiracy (12) commemoration (l) concussion (l) constancy (1*) commendation (U) condemnation (U) consternation (I*) comment (38) condensation (3) constipation (l) commerce (A) condescension (l) constitution (1*6) commiseration (l) condition (AA) constitutionalism commission (A) condolence (l) constraint (2) commotion (7 ) conduct (A) constriction communication (25) conduction (l) construction (37) communion (6 ) confederation (5) consultation (8) communism (2 ) conference (U8) consumption (lU) commutation conferment contact (31) companionship (12) confession (1 6 ) contagion (2) company (AA) confessional contamination (l) comparison (25) confidence (A) contemplation (6) compassion (9) configuration (l) contempt (18) compatibility confinement (*0 contention (8) compensation (13) confirmation , (6) contentment (8) competence (2 ) confiscation (2) contiguity competency (l) conflagration (2 ) continence competition (2 8 ) conformity (b) continuance (5) compilation (l) confusion (3 6 ) continuation (5) complacency: (2 ) confutation continuity (2) complaint (2 2 ) congestion (3 ) contortion (l) complaisance conglomeration contraction (7) completion (7) conjecture (7) contradiction (5 ) complexity (3) . conjugation (l) contrariety compliance (l) conjunction (6) contrast (33) complication (5 ) conjuring contravention complicity connection (1*7) contribution (19) composition (19) connivance contrition (i): composure (5 ) connotation ; contrivance (5) comprehension (U) conquest (2 6 ) control (AA) compression (2 ) consanguinity controversy (12) compromise (17) conscience (37) contumacy convulsion (3) consciousness (1 6 ) contumely (l) 115 APPENDIX C— Continued contusion cremation debasement convalescence (2) crlbbege debate (2U) convenience (l6) criminology debauchery (l) convention (A) crispnes8 debility conversation (A) criticism (25) decadence (l) conversion (6) critique decay (33) conviction (2U) croquet (1) deceit (8) convexity cross-examination decency (5) conveyance (6) cross-fire deception (U) conviviality crossness decision (4f) convocation (2) croup(l) declamation (l) convolution (l) crucifixion (l) declaration (18) convulsion (3) crudity declension (l) coolness (U) cruelty (15) declination (l) co-operation (20) crystal-gazing decomposition (3) coordination (1) crystalization decorum (2) copartnership cubism decrease (25) copyhold cuisine (l) decrepitude copyright (7) culmination (l) dedication (2) coquetry (l) culpability (10) deduction (3) cordiality (2) cultivation (13) defamation corpulence culture (23) default (2) correction (7) cunning (2 8 ) defeat (A) correlation cupidity defection (l) correspondence (17) curfew (l) defense (a ) corroboration curiosity (30) deference (V) . corrosion curriculum (l) defiance (12) corruption (8) curtailment (l) deficiency (6) cost (AA) curvature (l) definition (9) costliness (2) custody (5) deflation (l) coughing custom (A) deformity (U) countenance (2 6 ) cynicism (l) defrayment counteraction cycling degeneration (1) counterbalance (2) daintiness (l) degradation (5) counterpoint (2) daliance deification coupling (2) dairying deity (9) courtesy (19) damage (32) dejection (2) courage (A) damnation (l) delay (A) courtliness dampness delectation courtship (U) dancing delegation (6) cover (AA) dandruff deletion covetousness danger (AA) deliberation (6) cowardice (5) daring (9) delicacy (ll) coyness dark (AA) delight (A) craftsmanship darkness (A) delimination craftiness dash (A) delineation (l) craving (t) dawn (A) delinquency (l) creation (23) deafness (l) dcflirlum (2) credence (l) dealing (1 6 ) deliverance (7 ) credibility. '■, dearness delivery (lh) credit (A). dearth (k) delusion (5) credulity (I*)- ; : death (AA) deniagogy 116

APPENDIX C— Continued demand (AA) destitution disaffection (l) demarcation destruction (37) disagreement (3 ) demeanor (6) desuetude disappearance (1+) demesne detachment (8) disappointment (22) demobilization detail (A) disapprobation democracy (20) detection (3) disapproval (5 ) demolition (l) detention (l) disarmament (6) demonstration (18) deterioration (2) disarrangement demoralization determination (19) disaster (23) demos detestation disavowal demur (3) dethronement disbelief (l) denial (4) detonation (l) disbursement denomination (6) detraction (l) discernment (l) density (5) detriment (l) discharge (30) dentistry (l) devastation (2) discipline (6) denunciation (2) development (A) disclosure (2 ) departure (23) deviation (l) discoloration (l) dependence (5) devotion (21) discomfiture (2) depletion dexterity (4) discomfort (6) deployment diabetes (l) discomposure depopulation diagnosis (3 ) discontent (15) deportation (3) dialect (7 ) discord (6) deportment (1*) dialogue (8) discordance deposition (2) diarrhea discouragement (1+) depravity (l) dictation (3 ) discourse (13) depreciation (3) dictatorship (3) discourtesy depredation (2) diction (l) discredit (5) depression (25) diet (27) discrepancy (2) deprivation (l) differentiation (l) discretion (9) depth (1+9) difficulty (A) discrimination (3) deputation (l) diffidence (2) discussion (32) derailment diffusion (2) disdain (10) derangement (l) digestion (6) disenchantment derision (5) dignity {3 6 ) disestablishment derivation (l) digression (l) disfavor (l) descent (ll*) dilapidation disfigurement description (30) diligence (5) disfranchisement desecration dilution disengage (20) desertion (1+) . dimness (l) disguise (23) designation (l) diminution (3) disgust (21) designing (l) din (11) dishonesty (l) desirability (ll*) dinginess dishonor (8) desire (AA) dip (31+) disillusion (3 ) desolation (8) diphtheria (3) disinclination (I) despair (38) diplomacy (5) disinfection desperation (6) direction (AA) disinheritance despondency (1) directness (l) disintegration (2 ) despotism (2) dirtiness disinterment I destination (12) disability (3) dislocation (l) destiny (17) , disadvantage (10) di sloyalty {2) 1X7

APPENDIX C— Continued dismay (20) distribution (2^) dullness (3 ) dismemberment distrust (10) dumps dimension <10) disturbance ((l5) duplication dismissal (3) disunion duplicity (1 ) disobedience (3) disuse (2) duration (6 ) disorder (l6 ) divergency (l) duress (1 ) disorganization diversion (9) dusk (lk) disparagement (l) diversity (5). duty (AA) disparity (l) divination (l) dysentery (l) dispatch (18) divinity (8) dyspepsia (1 ) dispensation (2 ) division (A) eagerness (13) dispersion (l) divorce (29) earnestness (k) displacement (3) . divulgence earnings (6 ) displeasure (7 ) dizziness (l) ease (A) disposal (10) docility (l) easement disposition (22) doctrine (30) ebulience ? dispossession doggedness ebullition (1 ) * disproof doggerel (l) eccentricity (2 ) disproportion (l) . dogma (3) ecology dispute (Uo) dogmatism economics (8 ) disqualification doldrums economy (2 1 ) disquiet (3) domestication ecstasy (1 0 ) disregard (9) domesticity eczema disrepair dominance (l) edema disrepute domination (4) edibility disrespect (2) dominion (17) edification disruption ,(l) donation (2 ) education (A) dissatisfaction (k) doom (20) effacement dissection (l) dope (5) effectiveness (2 ) dissemination (1 ) dotage (l) •effeminacy dissension : doubt (AA) effervescence (l) dissent (V) drafting efficacy (3 ) dissimilarity drainage (9) efficiency (1 8 ) dissimulation . dramatization effort (AA), dissipation (l) drawing (6) effrontery (1 ) dissociation dread (U5) effulgence (l) dissolution (6 ) dreariness effusion (l) dissonance dressing effusiveness dissuasion dressmaking (l) egotism (1 ) distance (AA) drift (36) ejaculation (l) distaste (2) drill (21) ejection distemper (3) drive (AA) I elaboration (1 ) distension droop (2 6 ) elasticity (3 ) distillation (2 ) drought (6 ) elbow grease distinction (2 6 ) drowsiness (l) elbowroom distinctness (1 ) drudgery (3) electrification distortion (l) drunkenness (3) electrocution distraction (3 ) dryness (l) electrolysis. ■distraint''.';::^ ducking electrolyte ’ (l) distress (38) ductility electronics APPENDIX C— Continued elegance (5) endurance (10) erudition (l) elephantiasis energy (hi) eruption (5) elevation (10) enforcement (9) escape (AA) eligibility (l) . enfranchisement (l) escapism elimination (1*) engagement (2*0 escarpment (l) elocution (l) engineering (15) espionage (l) elopement (l) enhancement espousal eloquence (9) enjoyment (13) esprit elucidation enlargement (2) establishment (25) elusiveness enlightenment (l) esteem (17) emaciation enlistment (l) esthetics emancipation (U) ennoblement estrangement emasculation enormity (l) eternity (10) embargo (l) enquiry ethics (3 ) embarkation enrapture (l) ethmology embarrassment (9) enrichment etiology embellishment (l) enrollment (l) etiquette (5) embezzlement enslavement etymology (l) emblazonment entanglement (2) eugenics embolism ei^ertainment (21) eulogy (l) embroilment enthusiasm (28) euphemism embryology . enticement euphony emergence entombment euphoria emigration (2) entomology euthanasia emission (l) entrenchment evacuation (3) emolument (l) entroversion evaluation emotion (3*0 entrusion evanescence empathy entry (17) evangelism empericism enumeration evaporation (5) emphasis (10) enunciation (l) evasion (2) employment (28) envelopments evenness emptiness (2) environment (13) evening (AA) emulation (2) envy (27) eventide (2) emuls ificat ion epilepsy (l) evidence (A) . emulsion (2) epithelium evil (A) enactment (3) equability evocation encampment (l) equality (10) evolution (9) encephalitis. equalization (l) exacerbation enchantment (8) equanimity (l) exaction encomium equilibrium (3) exactitude (l) encompassment equipment (31) exactness (l) encouragement (ll) equity (5) exaggeration (3 ) encroachment (2 ) equivalence exaltation (2) encrustation equivocation examination (2 8 ) encumbrance eradication exasperation (l) endearment (l) erasure excavation (5) endeavor (32) erection (3 ) excellence (8) endorsement (1) erosion (2) excess (22) endovment (3) error (3 6 ) exchange (A) 119 APPENDIX C— Continued excise (2) extraction (2) felicity (3) : excitation extradition (l) fellowship (9) excitement (1*3) extravagance (7) felony (l) exclamation (9) extremeness feminism. exclusion (U) extremity (10) fencing (A) exclusiveness exuburance ferment (5) excommunication (l) exudation fermentation (3) excoriation exultation (3) ferocity (U) excretion (l) eyesight (3) fertility (5) execution (l6) eyestrain fertilization (l) exempli fi cation fabrication (l) fervor (6) exemption (2) facility (23) festivity (t) exertion (7) fact (AA) feud (6) exhalation (l) faction (8) feudalism (l) exhaustion (9) faculty (22) fever (b5) exhibitionism failing (3) fiber (15) exhiliration (l) failure (U8) fickleness (l) exhortation (3) faintness (l) fiction (lk) exhumation fairness (li) fidelity (6) existence (1»5) faith (A) fierceness (3) exorbitance faithfulness (3) fight (AA) exoneration falconry fill (AA) expansion (12) fall (AA) filthiness expatriation fallacy (2) finality (2) expectoration fallibility fineness (3) expedience (l) falsehood (11). finery (2) expediency (l) falseness finesse (2) expenditure (16) falsification firelight (3) expense (A) falsity firmness (6) experience (AA) fame (A) fishing (AA) experimentation (l) familiarity (5) fitness (5) expertness famine (15) fixation (l) expiation fanaticism (2) fizz expiration (l) fantasy (U) flab explanation (31) farce (5) flabbiness exploitation (2) fascination (7) flair (l) exploration (13) fastness (2) flamingo (2) exportation (2) fatality (2) flattery (8) expostulation (l) fate (A) flavor (23) exposure (11) fatherhood fleetness expression (A) fatigue (19) . flex" expropriation fault (A) flexibility (1) expulsion (3) favor (AA) flight (A) expurgation favoritism (l) flippancy expectation favn (13) flirtation extension (18) fear (AA) flotation extermination (2) fealty (2) flotsam extinction (3) fecundity (l) fluctuation (U) extirpation federation (1 6 ) fluency.' extortion (2) fee (21) fluff (2) extract (1 6 ) feed (A) fluid (15) 120

APPENDIX C—-Continued fluidity frippery (l) flux frivolity (2) geometry (3) focus (ll) frolicsome (l) germination (2) folklore (2) frontage (l) gesticulation folly (29) frostiness gesture (28) fomentation frugality (l) gibberish fondness (5) fruitfulness (l) giddiness foolery (1) fruition (l) girlhood (2) foolhardiness frustration (l) girth (3) foolishness (h) fulfillment (h) glue (AA) football (26) fullness (7) gladness (7) forbearance (3) fulmination glamour (li) forboding (3) fumigation glare (26) force (AA) function (3 6 ) glaze (9) foresight (7) furtherance glee (9) forestry furtiveness gloom (18) forethought (l) fury (29) glorification forfeiture (2) fusion (2) glory (A) . forgery (3) fuss (ll) gloss (U) forgetfulness (6) futility (2) gluttony forgiveness (10) futurity (l) godliness (l) form (AA) gabble (2) god-speed (l) formality (7) gaiety (5) gplf (26) formation (19) gain (AA) goodnesB (3*0 fonnula (ll) gait (9) good will (10) formulation (l) gall (7) gossip (16) fornication gallantry (U) gout (1) fortification (7) galvanism government (AA) fortitude (5) gambling governorship (l) fortune (A) gaining grabbing forwardness gangrene (l) grace (A) foundation (A) gardening gracefulness fracture (7) garrulity gracelessness fragility gastritis . graciousness fragrance (12) gastronomy gradation (2) frailty (3) gear (9) gradient frankness (?) gender (l) gradualness fraternity (8) genealogy gradualism fratricide generality (2) graduation (?) fraud (10) generalization (1) graft (8) freedom (A) generation (h8) graftage freemasonry generosity (lb) graininess free-thinking genetics grammar (10) frenzy (7) geniality grammar school (1) frequency (h) genius (30) grandeur (9) friction (9) gentility (l) grandiloquence friendliness (6) gentleness (7 ) graphemics . friendship (A) genuineness (l) graphic arts fright (39) geography (lh) graphology frigidity geology (2) grasp (36) APPENDIX C— Continued grass roots hallmark height (AA) grassiness hallucination (l) heirdom gratitude (2 2 ) hallucinosis heirship graveness handball heliotrope (l) gravitation (U) handicraft (2) heliotherapy gravity

inconsistency (2) infidelity (l) Instability (l) inconstancy infiltration installation (5) inconvenience (8) infinitude instigation (l) inconvertibility infinity (2) instinct (30) incorporation (l) inflamation (2) institution (h9) incorruptibility inflation (U) instruction (h?) incredulity (2) inflection (2) Instrumentality (1) increment (l) Infliction (l) insubordination incursion (l) influence (A) insufficiency (l) indebtedness (l) Influenza (?) insularity indecency influx (2) insulation (l) indecision (l) informality insurance (32) indecorum information (A) insurrection (6 ) indelicacy infraction (l) intake (l) indemnity (3) infrequency inteuigibility indemnification infringement (l) integration indentation (l) infusion (l) integrity (8) independence (36) ingenuity (10) intellect (8) indication (13) ingress intelligence (32) indictment (6) inheritance (11) intelligentsia (l) indifference (13) inhibition (l) intelligibility indigence Inhumanity (l) intemperance (l) indigestion (3) iniquity (1*) intensification indignation (17) initiation (2) intensity (12) indignity (3) initiative (10) intention (33) indigo (5.) injection (l) interaction (l) indiscretion (2) injunction (7) intercession (l) Indisposition (l) injury (2h) interchange (?) individualism (l) injustice (12) intercourse (8) Individuality (?) innocence (lh) interdependence (l) indolence (1) innovation (4) Interest (AA) indorsement (l) innuendo (l) interference (ll) inducement (3) inoculation (l) interjection induction (2) inquiry (22) Intermarriage indulgence (7) inquisition (3) Interment (l) industry (AA) insanity (?) intermission (2) inefficiency (2) inscription (12) internationalism ineptitude insecurity internationalization inequality (2) insertion (3) internment inequity insight (?) interpellation inertia (2) insignificance Interplay inexperience (1) insincerity interpolation infallibility (1) Insinuation (l) interposition (1) infamy (2) insipidity interpretation (10) infancy (7) insistence (U) interrogation (l) infanticide insolence (3) interruption (8) infantry (10) Insolubility intersection (3) Infatuation (2) insolvency (l) intervention (6) infection (8) insomnia (1) intimacy (6) inference (7) inspection (12) intimation (2) • inferiority (2) inspiration (10) intimidation 12U

APPENDIX C--Continued intolerance (l) Joy (AA) landscape (19) intonation (l) Joyousness (l) landslide intoxication (2) jubilation language (A) intrenchment (l) Judgment (A) languidness intricacy (l) Judicature languiBhment intrepidity Jugglery languor (l) introduction (31) Juiciness lankness introspection jujitsu lankiness intrusion (?) Junction (8) lapidary intuition (2) juncture (2) lapse (8) inundation (l) jurisdiction (8) larceny (l) invalidation Jurisprudence (l) largeness (l) invasion (lU) justice (A) IsrgesB (1) invective (l) justness laryngitis invention (k2) justification (5) lashing inventory (2) juxtaposition (l) lassitude (l) inversion (l) keenness (l) latency investigation (23) kickback lateness investment (23) kilter latitude (12) invincibility kin (13) laud (1) invisibility kindergarten (3) laughing Invitation (35) kindness (35) laughter (U?) invocation (l) kingship (l) lavishness inwardness kinsfolk (l) law (AA) irascibility kinship (2) lawfulness ire (1) kith lawmaking iridescence kleptomania laxity (l) ironmongery ' knavery laxness irony (k) knighthood (6) laziness (2) irregularity (3) knitting leadership (18) irrelevance; know-how leading (A) irresolution knowledge (AA) leakage (l) irreverence kuchen leapfrog irrigation (8) kudos learning (21) irritability (l) labeling lease (lU) irritation (5) labor (AA) lechery irruption (l) laceration leeway ; isolation (k) lack (A) legacy (U) issue (AA) lacroBs€ legality (l) iteration lactation legation (1) Jail (22). v lactic M i d legend (22) jargon (I) laeiness legerdemain jaundice (l) laisez fairg legibility jQaiDuByAttflv ilj/l \J -, XBULvjr 1 \/ll A / XQglBXttvAQQ \ £ J Jeopardy (2) lambency legitimacy Jest (20) lamentation (8) leisure (19) Jet propulsion lamination leit motiy the Jitters • landfall length (AA) Jollity (1) landing (6) leniency (1) Journalism (h) landownership leprosy (2) 125

APPENDIX C— Continued

lethargy (l) logrolling . malleability leverage loneliness (ll) malnutrition levity (l) longevity (2) malpractice lexicography longing (11) man (AA) liability (7) longitude (5) management (27) llason (l) lopsidedness manfulness libation (l) loquacity manage libel (2) lordliness manginess liberal arts lore (h) manhood liberalism (l) loss (AA) •, mania (2) liberality (2) ' lottery (k) manifestation (5) liberalization loudness (l) mcmipulation (2) liberty (A) love (AA) mankind (31) libido loveliness (8) manliness 91) license (22) lovness manner (AA) licentiousness loyalty (19) manslaughter (l) licking lubrication manufacturing lien (3) luck (h6) manumission life (AA) luminescence market (AA) lifeblood lunacy (l) marking lifelessness lunch (39) marriage (A) lifetime (lU) lust (6) martial lav life work luxury (39) martyrdom U) light (AA) machination (l) masculinity lighting (7) madness (12) masquerade (5) lightness (2) magenta mass (A) lightning (31) magic (39) massage (3) likelihood (3) magistracy (l) massiveness likeness (10) magnanimity (l) masterdpm limbo (l) ; magnetism (3) mastication limitation (13) magnetization mastoiditis.1 lineage (2) magnification materialism (l) lingo magnificence (7) maternity (2) linguistics magnitude (7) mathematics (8) linkage maidenhood mating liquidation (2) maincenance (ll) . matriculation liatlessness (l) majesty (31) matrimony (3J literacy maladjustment (l) maturation literature (ho) malady (6) maturity (6) lithography malaise mauve (l) litigation (l) malaria (U) mayhem . livelihood (6) i malediction ; maziurka living maleficence n»alt^se- localism malevolence meaning (A) . location (16) malfeasance meanness (l) lockjaw malformation means locomotion (l) malice (10) measles (3) locution . maliclqu8ness' measurement (11) lodging (13) malignancy . mechanics logic (11) malignity (l) mediation (l) 126 APPENDIX C--Continued medication milieu monasticism medicine (U6) militarism (3) monochrome medievalism milling monogamy mediocrity (l) mimicry (l) monomania meditation (8) mindfulness monometalism meekness (3) mineralogy monopoly (13) megalomania minimum (13) monotheism melancholia ministration (l) monotony (U) mellowness ministry (ll) mood (27) melodrama (l) minority (10) moodiness melody (15) mintage moonlight (27) membership (13) minuet (l) morale (3) memorabilia mirth (l6) morality (7) memory (A) misanthropy morbidity mendacity misapprehension (l) morning (AA) meningitis misappropriation morphology menstruation miscalculation mortality (8) mensuration miscarriage mortification (2) mentality (2) miscegenation mosaic (3) mercantilism miscellany (l) motherhood (2) mercifulness mischief (20) motility mercilessness mischievousness motion (A) mercy (1*5) misconduct (l) motivation merit (38) misery (2 6 ) mounting merriment (6) misfortune (l8) mourning merrymaking (l) misgiving (5) movement (AA) mesmerism mismanagement (l) moving metabolism (l) misogyny mulatto metallurgy misrepresentation (l) multiplication (3 ) metalworking mistrust (5) mummery metamorphism misunderstanding (U) mumps (1) metamorphosis (h) misusage munificence metaphor (l) mitigation murder (A) metaphysics mixture (39) musketry (l) metathesis mobility (2) mustiness meteorology mobilization (2) mutation (l) meter (12) mockery (5) mutilation (l) method (AA) mode (23) mutiny (6) metonymy moderation (?) mycology mezzo sorprano modernism myopia miasma modernization mystery'(1*2) microscopy modesty (7) mysticism (2) midland (2) modification (7) myth (8) midnight (A) modulation mythology (3 ) midst (hh) moistness naivetfi midwifery moisture (21) nakedness (l) might (AA) molestation (l) namelessness mightiness mollification narcissism migration (7) momentum (2) narcosis mildness (l) monarchism narration (l) mileage (3) monarchy (8) narrowness (l) APPENDIX C— Continued

nasality nomenclature (l) obnoxiousness nascency nomination (15) obscenity nastiness nopage obscurantism nationalism (2) nonchalance (l) obScureness , nationalization nonconformity obscurity'(6) nativity (3) non co-operation obsequy natural history nonexistence observance (6) naturalism nonsense (19) observation (ho) naturalization (2) nonunionism obsession (2) nature (AA) noon (A) obsolescence nausea (2) normalcy obstetrics (l) navigation (10) northeast (10) obstinacy (V) nearness (3) northwest (19) obstreperousness neatness (2) nostalgia . obstruction (5) necessity (A) notability obtrusion necrosis ' notation (2) obtusenesB , need (AA) note (AA) obviation negation (l) notice (AA) obviousness neglect (1*9) notification (1) occlusion negligence (3) notoriety (l) occulation negotiability nourishment (7) occultism negotiation (12) novelty (ih) occupancy (l) neologism noxiousness occupation (3*0 nephritis nuance occurrence (9 ) nepotism nude (l) oceanography nerve (3 6 ) nudism oddity (2) nervousness (3 ) nudity odium neuralgia nuisance (10) odor (27) neurasthenia nullification (2) offense (28) neuritis numbness (l) offensiveness neurology numeration officialism neuropathy numismatics officiousness neurosis nuture (3) oligarchy (l) neutrality (2) nutriment (l) omission (5 ) newness nutrition (6) omnipotence news (AA) nutting (l) onhilpresence nicety (l) obduracy omniscience night (AA) obdurateness oneness nightfall (5) obedience (15) onerousnesB nighttime (l) ..." obeisance (2) onomatopoeia nihilism obesity (1) opacity nineteen (19) obfuscation opalescence ninety (21) objection (20) opaqueness nirvana':.:'''.' objuration opera (3h) nobility (12) oblation operation (A) nobleness (1) obligation (23) ojwretta . noblesse oblige obliqueness ; opthalmia noel (1) obliquity (1) opinion (AA) noisiness obliteration '■ opportuneness nomadism oblivion (5) opportunism 128

APPENDIX C--Continued

opportunity (A) pageantry (l) patency oppositeness pagination paternalism opposition (29) pain (AA) paternity oppression (8) painting (U5 ) pathology (l) oppressiveness paleness (l) pathos (3) opprobrium paleography patience (39) opthalmology paleontology patina optics pallidness patrimony (l) optimism (3) palmistry patriotism (1 2 ) optometry panacea (l) patronage (9 ) opulence (l) pandemonium pattern (A) orange (A) panid (19) pavement (l6) oration (5) pantheism paving oratory (5) pantomime (l) pay (AA) order (AA) papacy (l) payment (Vf) ordination paradise (2 9 ) peace (AA) organization (A) paradox (3) peasantry (2) orientalism parallax peculation orientation parallelism (l) peculiarity (ll) originality (5) paralysis (t) pedagogy ornamentation paranoia pedantry ornithology paraphernalia (l) pediatrics orogeny paraphrase peerage (2) orthodontia paratyphoid fever peevishness orthodoxy (l) parcel post pellagra orthoSpy parcheesi penalty (13) orthography parentage (U) penance (5 ) orthopedics paresis penetrability oscillation (2) pari mutuel penetration (2) osculation paring (l) penitence (l) osmometry parity penmanship osmoBis (2) parlance (l) penology ostentation (l) parochialism penury (2) osteology parody (l) percentage (13) ostracism parricide perception (7) outgrowth (1) parsimony percipience outlawry partiality (l) percolation output (17) participation (5) percussion outrage (12) parting (6) perdition (2) ovation partianship (l) peregrination overdevelopment partnership (12) peremptoriness overnight (9) parturition perfection (17) overproduction (3 ) par value perfidy (l) oversi^t (2) passage (AA) perforation ■ oversize passing performance (35) ownership (9) passion (A) pericarditis oxidation (2) passover (l) peril (25) pace (A) pastel (2) periodicity : pacification pasteurism periphrasis pacifism (l) pasteurization peristalsis paganism (l) pasturage (l) peritonitis 129

APPENDIX C— Continued perjury (l) phototype pneumonia (?) permanence (2) phrenology poetics permanency phylogenesis poetry (2 6 ) permission (22) physical geography poignancy (l) permutation physical science poise (13) pernicious anemia physics (3) polarity perpetuation physiognomy (2) polarisation perpetuity physiography polemics perplexity (7) physiology (3) policy (A) persecution (7) physiotherapy polish (28) perseverance (5) physique (3) politeness (?) persiflage . picking political economy persistence (3) piecework political science personality (30) pietism politics (ho) personation piety (6) pollination (l) personification (l) pillage (3) pollution (3) perspiration (h) pilotage polygamy (1) perspicuity pink (A) polyphony persuasion (7) pink eye polytheism pertinacity pinochle pomp (12) pertinence piquancy pomposity perturbation (l) pique (6) popery perversion piracy (l) populace (?) perversity (l) pitifulness popularity (13) pessimism (l) pitilessneBs pornography pestilence (5.) pity (A) population (A) petrification placement portraiture (l) petrograpby placidity portrayal petrology plagiarism position (AA) petulance (1) plague (15) positiveness phantasmagoria plaid (6) possession (A) pharmaceutics plainess (2) possibility (U?) pharmacology platitude postage (10) pharyngitis, plausibility posterity (7) philanthropy (l) pleading postponement philately pleasantness postulation philology (l) pleasantry (2) posture (?) philosophy (30) pleasure (AA) potence phlebotomy plenitude potency (l) v phonetics plenty (A) potentiality (2) phonics plethora potpourri phonography pleurisy pottage (l) phonology pliancy poverty (2h) phosphorescence plight (11) power (AA) photoengraving plot (36) •powerfulness photography (3) plumbing (2) poverles sness photogravure plunder (13) pox V:,■ photolithography plurality (2) practicability photometry plutocracy practicality photosynthesis pneumatics practice (AA) 130

APPENDIX C— Continued pragmatism presentiment (l) projection (6) praise (A) presentment prolixity praiseworthiness preservation (7^ prolongation (1) prattle (l) pressure (1(8) prominence (U) prayer (A) prestige (7) promiscuity precaution (13) prestigitation promise (AA) precedence (2) presumption (It) promotion (10) preciousness presupposition promptness precipitance pretense (10) promptitude precipitation (2) pretension (3) promulgation pr e c ipit ousnes s prevalence (2) pronunciation (U) preciseness prevention (8) proof.(U8) precision (6) price (AA) propaganda (12) preclusion prickly heat propagation (l) preconciousness pride (A) propensity (2) preconception priggishness prophecy (12) predestination primacy (l) prophylaxis predetermination priming propinquity predication primitiveness propitiousness prediction (7) primness proportion (A) predigestion principalship proposition (19) predilection (l) priority (l) propriety (5) predisposition privacy (6) propulsion (l) predominance (l) privation (U) proscription (l) predomination, privilege (33) prosecution (5) preeminence (2) probability (12) prosody pre-emption probate prosperity (29) pre-existence probation (3) prostitution prefecture probity prostration preference (lU) procedure (11) protection (M») preferment (l) proclamation (9) protectionism pregnability proclivity protest (A) pregnancy (l) procrastination protestation (2) pre Judgment procreation (l) protocol (l) prejudice (l6). * V procurement protrusion prelacy prodigality (l) providence (lU) prematureness production (A) provision (39) premedi tation productivity (2) provocation (5) premonition (l) profanation provocativeness preoccupation (2) profanity (1) prowess (9) preordination proficiency (l) proximity (2) preparation profit (A) prudence (7) preparedness (1) profligacy prudency prepayment profundity pruriency preponderance (1) progeny (3) psalmody prepossession prognosis psychiatry preposter ousnes a prognostication psychoanalysis prescription progress (A) psychology (12) presence (A) progression (l) psychopathology presentation (8) prohibition (Uo) psychopathy 131

APPENDIX C~Continued psychosis (l) quintessence re-appearance psycotherapy quotation (10) rearrangement ptomaine quotability reason (AA) puberty rabies (l) reasoning (13) publication (16) race (AA) reassurance (1) publicity (18) rachitis rebellion (lU) puerility raclness rebirth pugilism radiance (7 ) rebuttal pugnacity radiation (3) recalcitrance puissance radicalism (l) recall (A) pulchritude radio (kl) recapitulation pull (AA) radioactivity receipt (20) pulsation radiotelegraphy receivership (1) pulverization radiotelephony reception (19) punctiliousness radiotherapy receptiveness punctuality radius (6) recess (iU) punctuation rage (U9) recession (l) punishment (31*) raillery reciprocation purchase (A) rainfall (7 ) reciprocity (l) purgatory (l) ramification (l) recitation (2) purification; (2) rampage recitative purity (9) rancor (l) recklessness (2 ) purple (37) rank (A) reckoning (U) purpose (AA) ransom (10) reclamation (2) pursuance (l) rape (3 ) recognition (21) pursuit (21) rapidity (8) recognizance purulency rapport recollection (ll) purveyance rapture (10) recommendation (12) pusillanimity rarefaction recommitment pyemia rarity (3 ) reconciliation (U) pyorrhea rashness (l) reconnaissance (l) pyrography ratification (k) reconstruction (8) pyromania rating (l) recourse.; (U) pyrotechnics ratio . (11) recovery (1 6 ) quackery ratiocination recreation (ll) quaintness V rationalism recrimination (l) qualification (8) rationalization recruitment quality (A) ravage (9) rectification quantity (A) raving rectitude (l) quarantine (2) ravishment recuperation queasiness rawness recurrence (2) queerness reactance redemption (3) quick-march reaction (21) redolence quickness (3) readiness (9) reduction ( 20) quick-step reading (Ul) redundance; quiescence readjustment (3) redundancy quiet (A) realism (3) ■ reduplication '/■; quietness (3) reality (2 8 ) re-election (2) ■ quietude (l) realness refectidn quilting (l) • realty reference (2^) ■ 132 APPENDIX C— Continued refinement (7) renewal (ll) respectability (l) reflection (22) renovation respiration (h) reform (31) renown (16) respite (U) reformation (3) rent (23) resplendency refraction (l) renunciation (2) response (1 8 ) refreshment (12) reorganization (U) responsibility (36) refrigeration (2) reparation (8) responsiveness refulgence repartee (l) rest (AA) refund (2) repatriation restitution (l) refusal (10) repeal (10) restoration (11) refutation (l) repentance (6) restraint (ll) regalia repetition (10) restriction (ll) regeneration (2) replacement (l) resumption (2) regicide replenishment resurgence registration (?) repletion resurrection (3) registry (l) replica (l) resuscitation regret (33) repose (19) retaliation {1) regulation (19) reprehension retardation regurgitation representation (13) retention (l) rehabilitation (2) repression (2 ) reticence (2) rehearsal (6) reprieve (l) reticulation reimbursement reprisal (l) retirement (8) reincarnation reproach (17) retraction reinforcement (3) reprobation retribution (l) reiteration reproduction (9) retrogression rejoicing (10) reproof (4) reunion (h) rejuvenation repudiation (l) revelation (ll) relapse (3 ) repugnance (l) revelry (3) relationship (1 6 ) repulsion (l) revenge (9) relativity repurcuBsion revenue (19) relaxation (h) reputation (30) reverberation (l) relay (3) requirement (1 6 ) reverence (lU) release (37) requisition (2) reverie! (l) relegation requittal reversal;(l) . relentles sness rescue (30) rbversion (l): relevancy research (22) review (U?) reliability (l) resemblance (10) revision (?) reliance (3 ) resentment (12) revival (9) relief (A) ■ reservation (17) revocation religion (A) reserve (A) revolution (A) relinquishment re-settlement revulsion (2) reluctance (?) residence (2?) reward (k3) remarriage (1) residency rhapsody (l) remembrance (12) residue (2 ) rhetoric (U) reminiscence (3) resignation (ll) rheumatism (7) remission (l) resilience rhjrthm (?) rendttance (2) ’ resistance (2 6 ) ribaldry remonstrance (2) resolution (27) richness (h) remorse (7) resonance (l) rickets (2 ) remuneration (l) resource (20) ricochet renaissance (8) resourcefulness (l) . riddance (l) rendezvous (3) respect (A) ridicule (9 ) APPENDIX C— Continued riding safety (A) riffraff sagacity (h.) scope (ll) right (AA) sainthood scoundrelism righteousness (5) saintliness scragginess rightness salaciousness scrape (18) rigidity (l) salesmanship (l) scraping rigor (h) saltiness scribble (3) ringworm salubriousness scrimmage (l) riot (lh) salutation (5) scrofula ripeness (l) salvage (3 ) scrupples risk (kO) salvation (10) scrutiny (3) ritualism sameness scurrility rivalry (5) sanctlficatloh scurvy (2 ) robbery (9 ) sanction (10) sea level robustness sanctity ( M seamanship roguery sandiness seasickness rollcall sang-froid seas on able ness rolling (AA) sanitation (5) seating room rolypoly sanity (3 ) secession (2 ) romance (25) sarcasm (3 ) seclusion (3) romanticism sash (12) second nature roofing (l) satiety secrecy (?) rotation (7 ) satire (7 ) secretion (3) rotogravure satisfaction {38) secretiveness rotteness saturation (l) secretion (3) roughage sauciness sectarianism roughness (2 ) savageness sectionalism (2) roulette (l) savagery (l) secularism roundness saving (A) security (3*0 routine (1 5 ) savoir-faire sedateness , royalty (1 0 ) savor (6) sedition (2) rudeness (l) scab (l) seduction (l) rue (7) scabbiness seediness ruin (A) scandal (13) seek & search rule (AA) scandalmongerlng seemliness rummage (2 ) scansion seepage rumor (1 8 ) scarcity (9) seesaw (l) running (33) scaremongering segmentation rupture (l) scenery (ll) segregation (l) . rusticity scent (2U) seismography rustle (21) scepticism (l) seizure (3) sabotage schism (l) selection (17) sacerdotalism scholarship (6) selectivity /sacredness scholasticism (l) self abuse sacrifice (A) school (AA) self assertion sacrilege schooling (2) selfishness (6) sadism sciatica semaphore ! sadness (ll) scintillation senescence safeness science (A) senility , safekeeping • scolding 3.3U

APPENDIX C— Continued seniority shopping sleeping sickness sensation (20) shortage (8) sleepiness sensationalism shorthand (l) sloppiness sensibility (3) shortness (l) sloth (k) sensitiveness (3) shovelboard slovenliness sensitivity showmanship slowness (2) sensuality showiness slyness sentiment (29) shrewdness (2) smallness (l) sentimentality (l) shrift smallpox (5) separability shrinkage. (I) smartness (l) separation (Ik) shyness (3) smell (A) sepia sickness (23) smithereens sepulture siege (l6) smoothness (2) sequence (6) sight (AA) smugness serenade (l) sightseeing (l) smut (l) serenity (2) significance (17) snobbery serfdom signification (l) snugness sericulture silence (AA) soaking seriousness (U) silkiness sobriety (2) service (AA) silliness soccer servility similarity (3) sociability (l) servitude (U) simile (2) socialism (k) settlement (A) similitude (l) society (AA) severance (l) simony sociology (l) severity (7) simplicity (19) softness (k) sewerage simplification sogginess sewing (10) simulation solace (5) sex (2 6 ) sin (A) solemnnesB shabbiness sincerity (9) solemnity (5) shade (AA) singing solicitation (l) shadiness singlestick solicitude (2) shagginess singularity solid (k2) shakiness sinology solidarity (l) sham (3) sinuosity solidity (l) shame (A) sisterhood solloquy (l) shape (AA) sixpence (6) solitaire sharpness (2) size (AA) solitude (1 6 ) shaving (k) sizing solo (3) sheen (2) skill (39) solution (31) shell shock slaughter (lk) solvency shelter (A) slander (6) somnambulism shimmer (5) slang (3) somnolence shine (A) slapstick sonority shipbuilding (3) slave trade sonorousness shipment (9) slavery (21) sootiness shipping (2k) sleekness sophism shipwreck (6) sleep (AA) sophistication (l) shock (A) sleeping (28) sophistry shooting sleeplessness soprano (l) 135

APPENDIX C— Continued sorcery (3) stagnation (l) strangeness (2) sordidness staginess stratagem (1*) soreness (l) stain (28) strategics sorrow (A) staleness strategy (1*) sough stalemate strati fi cation soul (AA) stamina (1) strength (AA) soul fulness stance (l) stress (13) sounding standardization (l) strictness soundness (2) staple (8) stride (1 8 ) sourness stardom strife (17) sovereignty (8) starlight (U) strike pay space (AA) starriness stringency sparkle (29) starvation (9) structure (35) sparsity statecraft stubbornness (2) spavin stateliness stud (8) spawn (U) statement (A) study (AA) speakership statesmanship (2) stuffiness specialization (2) static (2) stultification specification (*0 statics, stupefaction speculation (12) stature (9) stupidity (3) speech: (AA) status (9) stupor (3) speed (A) statute law sturdiness speediness stead (9) style (A) spelling steadfastness stylishness spiciness steadiness (2) suasion spin (2k) stealth (3) suavity spindrift stealthiness Bubconsciousness spinning (ll) steepness subdivision (3) splnsterhood steere^e (l) subjection (U) spirit (AA) steermanship subjectiveness spiritualism (l) sterility subjugation (l) spirituality (l) sterilization (l) sublimation spitefulness sternness (l) sublimity (l) spittle stewardship submergence spleen.(3) sticklnesB submersion splendor (21) stiffness.: (1) submission (8) spoliation stigma (5) subordination (l) spontaneity (l) stillness (13) subscription (7) spontaneousness sting (2 8 ) subserviency sport (A) stinginess subsidence (l) sportsmanship stint (3) subsidy (3) spotlessness stoicism (l) subsistence (U) spring (AA) stolldhess substantiation springtime (8) stolidity substitution (U) squalor (l) stoppage (2) subterfuge (l) squareness stop press subtlety (M squash (6) storage (10) subtraction (l) stability (6) stoutness subversion stabilization (2) straightness success (AA) staff (37) strain (A) succession (22) 1.36

APPENDIX C— Continued

succor (7) BurenesB tact (6) succulence surety (3) tactfulness suction (2) surgery (7) tactics (7) suddenness surliness tag (7) sufferance (3) surmise (6) tailoring (3 2 ) suffering (22) surplus (16) talent (2 6 ) suffocation (l) surprise (AA) talk (A) suffrage (10) surtax (l) talkativeness suffusion surveillance (l) the talkieB suggestion (4U) surveying (I*) tameness suicide (ll) survival (U) tan (lU) suitability susceptibility (l) tang (l) suitableness suspense (6) tangency the sulks suspension (7) tangibility sulkiness suspicion (28) tannery sullenness sustenance (2) taoism sultriness suttee taps summary (7) suzerainty tardiness (l) summer (AA) swagger (3) tariff (1 8 ) summertime (l) swallow (U6) tartneBs sunburn (3) swampiness taste (AA) sundown (*>) swank tastefulness sunlight (32) swarikiness tastelessness sunniness svaraj taupe sunrise (13) swarthiness tautology sunset (2h) swashbuckling tavdriness sunshine (U6) sway (2 6 ) tax (A) super abundanc e sweetness (15) taxation (15) superannuation swelling (3) taxidermy supererogation swiftness (k) taxonomy superficiality swordplay teaching (AA) superfluity (l) swordsmanship teamwork (l) superintendence (l) syllabification tearlessness superiority (8) symbolism tearfulness superscription Bymbollzation technicality (l) supersession symmetry (3) technique (6) superstition (10) sympathy (J+3) technocracy (2) superstructure (l) symphony (6) technology (l) supertax synchronization tedium (l) supervision syncopation teetotalism suppleness syncope telegraphy supplication (3) syndlcatism teleology supply (AA) syndication telephony support (AA) synopsis (l) telephotography supposition (3) syntax (l) television (l) suppression (U) synthesis (l) temerity (l) suppuration syphilis (l) temper (29) supremacy (9) tabulation (l) temperment (ll) surcharge taciturnity temperance (8) 137

APPENDIX C— Continued temperature (A) thrift (7) toxemia tempestuousness thriftiness toxicology tempo (l) thrombosis toxin (l) temporality thrush (6) tracery (l) temptation (15) thunder (U6) track (A) tenacity (l) thyroid trackage tenancy ticklishness traction (l) tenantry tide (1+6) trade-unionism tenderness (l6) tidings (12) tradition (27) tennis (18) tightness traffic (36) tenor (6) tillage (2) tragedy (27) tenpins tilth training (A) tense (9) timeliness trajectory tenseness timidity (3) tranquility (6) tension (9) timidness transcendence tenuity timing transcendentalism tenuousness tincture (2) transcription tenure (2) tint (13) transfer (28) tepidness tintinabulation transference (l) termination (U) tipsiness transfiguration terminology (l) tiridness transformation (7) territoralism tiresomeness transfusion (l) terror (U8) titilation transit (5 ) terrorization titivation transition (7) terseness title (A) translation (13) testimony (17) titration transliteration tetrarchy toggery transluscence texture (6) toil (1+1) transmigration thankfulness (3) tolerance (U) transmission (5) thanklessness toleration (3) transmittance thanks toll (10) transparency (l) theft (6) tonality transpiration (l) theism tone (A) transplantation theocracy tonic (U) transport (2 8 ) theology (7) tonnage (6) transportation (25) theory (A) tonsilectomy transposition theosophy tonsilitis transhipment therapeutics tonsure trashiness therapy topography (l) trauma thermodynamics topsoil travel (AA) thickness (15) torment (1 8 ) travesty (l) thievishness torpidity treacherousness thievery torque treachery (10) thinking (A) torsion treason (15) thinness torture (23) t reasonableness thirst (23) totalitarianism treasury (22 thirstineBs totality treatment (l+l) thoughtfulness (l) touchiness trenchmouth thoughtlessness toughness trepidation (2) thralldom towage trespass (6) 138

APPENDIX C— Continued tribulation (2) undercurrent (l) valency tribute (22) underestimation valiancy trichinosis undergrowth (l) validity (2) trickery (l) understatement valor (8) trigonometry undertone (2 ) valuation (5) trill (3 ) undertow value (AA) trimness underweight vandalism triumph (Ul) underworld (?) vanity (20) trivia uneasiness (8 ) vantage (U) triviality (l) unemployment (15) variability tropism unfaithfulness variance (2) trouble (AA) unfamiliarity variation (lU) truancy unification (l) variety (A) truce (3) uniformity (U) varsity (l) truculence union (AA) vastness (2) trumpery uniqueness vaudeville (U) trust (AA) unity (1 2 ) vehemence (5) trustfulness universality velocity (8) truth (AA) .< unkindness (l) venerability truthfulness unlawfulness veneration (l) tuberculosis (U) unpopularity venery tuberosity unpleasantness (l) vengeance (17) tug of ver unrest (6 ) ventilation (5) tuition (2 ) unselfishness (l) ventriloquism tumult (ll) unwholesomeness venture (35) tumultuousness unwillingness (2 ) venturesome (l) turbulence (l) unworthiness (l) veracity (l) turgidity uppercase verbiage turmoil (U) uppishness verbosity turning uprightness (l) verification turpitude urbanization verisimilitude turquoise (3) uremia verity (2) tutelage (l) urge (A) versatility (l) tweed (T) urgency (l) verse (38) twilight (29) urinalysis versification twinkling usability vertigo typhoid fever usage (7 ) verve typhus (l) usefulness (U) veterinary medicine typography uselessness (l) veto (6) tyranny (1 2 ) usurpation (l) vexation (5 ) ugliness (2 ) usury (1 ) viability ulceration utility (12) vibrance ultra high frequency utilization (2 ) vibration (10) umbrage vacancy (1 ) vicarage unanimity (l) vaccination (2 ) vice (3**) unbelief (l) vacillation - vice-presidency uncertainty (8 ) vacuity . viciousness unconcern (2 ) vacuum (?) vicissitude (U) unconsciousness (l) vagary (2 ) victory (A) unction (l) vagueness (l) video unctuouanesB vainness vigilance (5) 139

APPENDIX C— -Continued vigor (19) wakefulness (1) willfulness vileness vanderluBt willies vilification want (AA) willingness (5) villainy (3) vantonness (l) will power vim war (AA) wiliness vindication (1) warfare (it) winsomeness vindictiveness warmth (23) winter (AA) vintage (2) warming (ll) wisdom (U9) violation (8) warranty wiseness violence (2 9 ) washing (l6) wistfulness (l) violet (3fc) wastage wit (A) virginity (l) waste (AA) witchcraft {5) virility wastefulness witchery (l) virtue (A) watchfulness (2) withdrawal (3) virtuosity water polo withholding tax virtuousness water power witness (A) virulence (l) water works (l) wittiness virus wateriness wizardry visage (6) wattage woe (2 6 ) viscosity waywardness woefulness visibility (1) weakness (37) womanhood (3) vision (U5 ) wealth (A) womankind (1) visitation (U) weaponry wonder (AA) visualization wear (AA) wonderment (l) vitality (8) weariness (ll) wont (17) vitiation weather (AA) woodcraft (l) vituperation wedlock (l) wool gathering vivaciousness weeping (t) work (AA) vivacity (2) weight (AA) working (32) vividness . weirdness workmanship (6) vivisection welfare (25) worldliness vocabulary (6) wetness worry (A) vociferation whaling (l) worship (A) vogue (6) wheelbase (2) worth (AA) voice (AA) whimsicality worthlessness volatility whims worthiness volition (l). whiteness (5 ) wrath (21) volleyball white slavery wreckage (3) voltage wholeness wretchedness (t) volubility wholeheartedness writ (8) volume (A) wholesale (ll) writing (39) voluptuousness wholesomeness wrongdoing (l) vomit (k) wickedness (U) yachting voodoo wideness yaws voracity widowhood yearning vulgarness width (28) yeastlness vulgarism wilderness (3*0 yellow fever (l) vulgarity (l) wildfire (1) yellow press vulnerability wildness (2) yellowness APPENDIX C— Continued yen (2) youthfulness zero (ll) yeomanry (l) yule zest (U) yield (A) zeal (15) Zionism yoga zealotry zip yogism Zeitgeist zoology (l) yore (6) zenith (U) zoom youth (AA) zephyr (2) zoroas t rani sm BIBLIOGRAPHY

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