Kava Cultivation, Native Species Conservation, and Integrated Watershed Resource Management on Pohnpei Island1

Mark Merlin2 and William Raynor3

Abstract: For many centuries, the kava plant, Piper methysticum, a series of ster- ile clones of a truly wild Piper species, has been used in several high islands in remote Oceania, including Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia. Until modern times, its use on all of these islands was largely restricted to chiefly, priestly, and medicinal use. Because of colonial suppression and/or the use of other nonindigenous psychoactive drugs, its use was abandoned on some of these islands. On other islands, such as Pohnpei, its use has increased greatly, with substantial changes in rank, gender, motivation, time, and place. This steep rise in its use has resulted in a large increase in its cultivation. On Pohnpei, in- tensification of cropping in upland environments is largely responsible for more than 70% loss of the remaining native, tropical rain forest since 1975. This im- pact and other human activities endanger the unique upland biodiversity of this remote tropical island. Recent historical trends in forest exploitation, threats to biodiversity, and watershed disturbance on Pohnpei are discussed in this paper. The Watershed Conservation Plan and management benefits of the proposed Pacific-Asia Biodiversity Transect (PABITRA) are emphasized with permanent plot establishment for long-term monitoring.

Piper methysticum Forst. f. is a tropical Pa- preparations are, or once were, imbibed in a cific shrub in the pepper family, Piperaceae wide range of tropical Pacific Ocean societies (Figure 1). It is known by various names in (Lebot et al. 1992). the tropical Pacific, such as kava, kava kava, The first European explorers who landed ‘awa, yagona, and sakau, and is propagated on the islands of remote Oceania (i.e., eastern vegetatively, as are most of the Pacific’s major Melanesia, Polynesia, and Micronesia) en- traditional crops. Kava has been used for cen- countered many societies in which kava turies, if not millennia, to produce psychoac- drinking was an essential part of religious, po- tive preparations. Its active principles, several litical, and economic life. Cultivation and use lipidlike substances known as kava lactones, of the plant has virtually disappeared from al- are concentrated in the rootstock and roots. most all of eastern Polynesia, as well as from These psychoactive chemicals are tradition- Kosrae Island in Micronesia. But kava re- ally ingested by Pacific islanders, who gener- mains as an important psychoactive drug in ally drink cold-water infusions of kava stumps parts of Melanesia (e.g., Vanuatu and Fiji), in and roots that are chewed, ground, pounded, most of the islands of western Polynesia (in- or otherwise macerated. Mind-altering kava cluding Samoa and Tonga), and on Pohnpei Island in Micronesia. For centuries, kava had strong cultural significance for people in many tropical Pacific island societies, espe- 1 Manuscript accepted 2 May 2004. 2 Department of Botany, University of Hawai‘i at cially those in remote Oceania. Many have Ma¯noa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96822. believed and some still do believe that kava 3 The Nature Conservancy, Pohnpei Island, Feder- has sacred powers, and therefore it can be ated States of Micronesia. classified as a ‘‘plant of the gods’’ (e.g., Schultes et al. 2001). The recent, rapidly Pacific Science (2005), vol. 59, no. 2:241–260 growing interest in its use, often more recre- : 2005 by University of Hawai‘i Press ational than sacred, and cultivation as a cash All rights reserved crop are important contemporary issues in a

241 Figure 1. Kava, Piper methysticum, a tropical Pacific shrub in the pepper family, Piperaceae. Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 243

Figure 2. Aerial image of Pohnpei Island seen from the northwest. number of tropical islands including Pohnpei. human-related biodiversity threats. The po- In fact, Pohnpei is the only Micronesian is- tential benefits of the Pacific-Asia Biodiver- land where kava is still openly cultivated and sity Transect (PABITRA) network, with its traditionally, as well as recreationally, con- proposed field research for biodiversity con- sumed. On Pohnpei kava is known as sakau, servation and ecological integrity, are empha- and in this paper it will be referred to by that sized as complementing the management name. efforts of the Conservation Society of Pohn- During the last decades of the twentieth pei and those of The Nature Conservancy. century, use and cultivation of kava spread well beyond the areas of traditional use pohnpei island, the study area, and among Pacific islanders. This included a impact of sakau cultivation huge surge in use of kava products in several areas of Europe, North America, Australia, Pohnpei, a high volcanic island, is located at and elsewhere. On some tropical Pacific is- approximately 7 N latitude and 158 E longi- lands, in recent times, the traditional, strict tude and covers 334 km2 of land with its controls on the use of kava as a sacred drug highest elevation 791 m above sea level (Fig- plant have been eliminated. For example, in ures 2 and 3). It is the largest and tallest island parts of Vanuatu, Fiji, and Pohnpei, kava has in the F.S.M., traditionally referred to as part become a source of a mind-altering beverage of the eastern Carolines island group. Before consumed by a greatly expanded part of the 1980, sakau was consumed on Pohnpei mainly population with both societal and environ- in connection with feasts, funerals, and other mental consequences. This study focuses cultural events. However, over the last two on the ecological impact of kava cultivation decades, sakau has grown in importance as on the high volcanic island of Pohnpei in the a major cash crop, both for the local market, Federated States of Micronesia (F.S.M.), with mainly kava bars, and for export to Pohn- reference to recent watershed resource man- peians and others overseas. More than a mil- agement efforts to deal with this and other lion pounds of sakau entered the commercial 244 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005

Figure 3. Map of Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia.

economy in 1996, generating at least US$3 (@12,000 ha) have been degraded, principally million for local growers and business people because of greatly increased cultivation of ( J. Yakana, The Nature Conservancy, 1996, sakau. The following discussion outlines the pers. comm.). Regrettably, this huge growth historical and cultural trends involved in the in sakau production led to widespread defor- rise of sakau as both the major cash crop estation. Since 1975, 70% or more of the and the principal environmental threat on previously intact native forests of Pohnpei Pohnpei. Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 245

The sakau plant, considered sacred by the Although Pohnpeians have always made majority of the island’s inhabitants even to- use of their forest resources (Raynor 1994), day, is the central feature of Pohnpeian social these resources are in greater danger today and cultural life. Among other things, sakau than ever before. However, accelerated forest is used to acknowledge new titles or ranks, to loss, brought on mainly from agricultural ask forgiveness, honor and welcome visitors, clearing, chiefly for sakau, has fostered con- seek marriage, celebrate birthdays, bring to- servation efforts over the past two decades gether villagers, seal agreements, and bury based on local concern for the natural heri- the dead (Reisenberg 1968, Merlin et al. tage of Pohnpei. A natural resource manage- 1992, Raynor 1994). Traditionally consumed ment program has been developed to monitor only by people in the chiefly ranks, after and control the impact of sakau cultivation. World War II use of sakau became much more widespread and currently is a nightly historical overview ritual for a large percentage of the island’s population. For centuries sakau has been an integral part However, as already noted, during the lat- of the religious, economic, political, and so- ter part of the twentieth century the cultural cial life of Pohnpei. Informants agree that expansion of local sakau use, along with a sakau is an extremely special plant, because it rapidly growing, commercial demand for the actually exceeds all other plants and animals, crop in both local and export markets, led to including humans, in its wahu (respect) value increased cultivation, much of it at the ex- (e.g., see Ashby 1990, Anson and Raynor pense of Pohnpei’s native forests. The rela- 1993). Sakau is the central element of the rit- tively recent movement of sakau cultivation ual feasts (kamadipw en wahu) held each year into Pohnpei’s upland rain forests has raised for the paramount chiefs to celebrate the much concern. In comparison with some opening of the yam season and accompanies other tropical Pacific islands, the forests and all nopwei (ceremonial first offerings to the coral reefs of Pohnpei are still relatively in- gods and chiefs) of the major seasonal tact. For example, Pohnpei is one of only crops—breadfruit and yams. Because of its three islands in the Pacific more than 5 mil- wahu value, sakau is presented and prepared lion yr old that still has substantial natural anytime one meets with chiefs or senior lin- forest cover (Paulay 1994). eage members, when asking favors or forgive- In fact, Pohnpei still has the largest intact ness for particularly serious transgressions, native upland rain forests and mangroves in for marriage ceremonies, and various other all of Micronesia, with some of the most occasions when a commoner needs to meet diverse and unique vegetation and wildlife in with higher-ranked people or the paramount the Pacific region. The forests of Pohnpei chiefs. Despite recent trends in commercial- contain about 270 species of plants, of which ization, sakau continues to hold its central 110 (ca. 41%) are endemic to Pohnpei. Six- place in the cultural and social systems of teen percent of the island’s 50 bird species Pohnpei. are also endemic to Pohnpei. In addition, Pohnpei legend suggests that sakau was in- there are at least 25 species of terrestrial tree troduced as a ‘‘gift from the gods.’’ According snails, three species of fish, and a skink species to one legend, sakau fell to earth in several that are endemic to the island. Pohnpeians forest areas on Pohnpei and began to grow. depend on a number of these species for sub- In these areas, known as diwi, sakau grew sistence and income. In addition, the forests wild and often reached very large size. Tradi- of Pohnpei provide important watershed tionally, people visited these areas to harvest benefits, storing, filtering, and slowly releas- small amounts for personal use and collect ing water into the island’s numerous springs, planting materials for growing on their lands. streams, and rivers, while protecting the is- Over the last few decades, people claim that land’s lowlands, lagoon, and reef from sedi- most of the diwi have been destroyed by mentation and degradation. greedy commercial harvesters. 246 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005

from traditional to commercial use in newly cleared forest areas, and as the local demand picked up this became a key factor Although sakau consumption was reserved for ‘‘upland’’ sakau farming. Since 1983, mainly for the higher-ranking members of most of this new upland sakau planting has the culture, during the Japanese mandate occurred on public lands. Because of the dis- (1914–1945) its use was even more highly re- tance and effort required to walk to, cultivate, stricted and strict punishments were dealt out and carry out sakau from the interior forests, to offenders. However, as noted earlier, since typical sakau growers have gradually shifted World War II, consumption has increased from mature Pohnpeian men (Ohl en Pohnpei) steadily, extending more and more to the to younger males, 15 to 30 yr old. Sakau cul- general populace. Before the opening of the tivation became the most lucrative option first sakau bar in Kitti in 1972, sakau was nei- open to young men living in rural areas, who ther bought nor sold. Generally, each Pohn- are mostly uneducated and unskilled, lack ac- peian man had his own sakau, and the plant cess to family lands, and have only limited itself was considered a prestige crop, useful traditional farming knowledge. The attrac- only in the realm of traditional activity. Hav- tion of the upland forest cultivation was ing a lot of sakau marked a man as productive further strengthened because having large and successful, able to provide for his family quantities of sakau not only has provided a and community at all times. sizable income in the current, rather stagnant, After the opening of the first commercial economy but also has often enhanced the markets on Pohnpei, commercial sale of sakau young grower’s status in his family and com- began to increase, especially in the urban munity. center of Kolonia, where consumers rapidly Because of the use of public lands and the outnumbered growers as the island’s urban increased focus on production of larger plants center doubled in population over three in a shorter time frame, cultivation methods decades from 1970 to 2000; the current have also gradually shifted to those favoring total human population on Pohnpei is about commercial production. This includes prac- 34,500 (F.S.M. 2000), but probably reached tices that degrade forest habitat such as total @38,000 by 2002. As the cash economy con- overstory clearing and clean weeding; these tinued to grow, fewer people had the time increase production in the short term but to grow sakau, although practically everyone can cause long-term environmental problems. who participates in the local culture needs These environmentally unsustainable prac- sakau. Subsequently, a cash market also ap- tices are hardly ever carried out on private peared in the mid-1970s for whole sakau lands, but they became the rule for sakau plants (with branches intact), which is pre- plots in public forest lands (Dahl and Raynor ferred for a variety of cultural uses. 1996). The event that really increased the com- Sakau became the major income source mercialization of sakau, however, was the se- for much of the island’s rural population, vere 1982–1983 El Nin˜ o drought, the worst generating millions of dollars a year in the ever recorded on Pohnpei. By the second rural economy. By the end of the twentieth month of the drought, much of the island’s century, 4,000–5,000 people (ca. 15% of the lowland sakau crop was dying in the fields, population) were engaged in sakau produc- and desperate farmers sold what they could tion, most as their primary source of income. to avoid total loss. At the same time, obser- The domestic market then consisted of about vant farmers noticed that the forests re- 50 licensed sakau bars, a number of retail mained moist during the drought. Concerns stores, and numerous unlicensed temporary about future reliability of rainfall drove plant- sakau bars (Figure 4), with combined con- ing into the forest, where rainfall is more sumption estimated at 477,000 kg/yr ( J. consistent and reliable and soil fertility is Yakana, The Nature Conservancy, 1996, higher. pers. comm.). Local demand is mainly for Cultivators realized that sakau grows faster fresh plants, processed (roots pounded and Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 247

Figure 4. Sign for one of the many sakau (kava) bars on Pohnpei Island. squeezed) fresh and bottled extract, and pei. A greatly increased demand for kava has pounded and frozen roots. The export market been stimulated by the strong move toward a in 1995–2000 (mainly to expatriate Pohn- cash economy and preference for wage labor; peians living in Guam, Saipan, Hawai‘i, and however, substantial environmental damage the U.S. mainland) was estimated at 40,000 has occurred as growers have moved onto kg/yr for pounded and frozen roots and liquid public lands in the island’s upland forests, extract. Another 660,000 kg was being har- where conditions favor commercial produc- vested annually for customary use and per- tion, at least in the short term, because of sonal consumption by farmers and their sufficient natural moisture and high, but tran- extended families. By the late 1990s, approxi- sient, fertility. Stereoscopic analysis of aerial mately 2,500–5,000 ha of sakau were planted, photography, supplemented by field recon- and most of this is in the upland forests, naissance, indicates that in only 27 yr (1975– where soils are richer and sakau grows quickly 2002) about 12,000 ha of Pohnpei’s intact to a marketable size. native forests had been heavily disturbed or destroyed; indeed, between 1975 and 2002, summary of upland kava cultivation the area of upland forest alone was reduced impact from 18,800 ha to 10,500 ha (see Figure 5). It is safe to say that no greater environmental The growth of kava cultivation over the last disaster has befallen the island in the more three decades has had mixed impacts on the than 2,500 yr since Pohnpei has been in- economy, environment, and culture of Pohn- habited! 248 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005

Figure 5. Maps representing remote sensing data that documented decline in areal extent of native upland rain forest on Pohnpei Island from 42% in 1975 (left map) to 15% in 1995 (right map).

the pohnpei watershed forest reserve interagency task force made up of representa- site conservation plan tives from several Pohnpei State Government agencies, community leaders, and nongovern- Beginning in 1982, island foresters and scien- ment organizations. The Nature Conserv- tists began to notice an increase in deforesta- ancy began working at the site in 1992, and tion. By 1987, the Pohnpei Watershed Forest assisted the Watershed Steering Committee Reserve was established by law (State Law to initiate a watershed education and negotia- 1L-128-87: The Pohnpei Watershed Forest tion program. Over 2 yr the program was ex- Reserve and Mangrove Protection Act of tended to the entire island of Pohnpei. Two 1987) in response to acknowledgment that major changes were unanimously insisted Pohnpei’s interior was being rapidly defor- upon by local communities in over 200 meet- ested. The reserve encompasses 5,100 ha ings: first, paramount chiefs and their village (13,000 acres) of the central upland forest representatives (soumas) need to be partners and is home to most of the island’s biodiver- in the management process; and second, envi- sity, including broadleaf, palm, ivory nut, and ronmentally sustainable management should montane cloud forests containing approxi- be extended beyond the Watershed Forest mately 270 plant species (110 endemic), 50 Reserve to encompass the entire island, from bird species (13 endemic at the species and the mountains to the reefs. subspecies levels), and numerous other indig- Beginning in 1992, the government’s effort enous and endemic animals. However, com- to develop a community-based management munity involvement in the development of program began to attract outside interest. the law was virtually nonexistent in the early The South Pacific Regional Environmental years after it was passed, and the proposed Programme provided funding and technical rules and regulations, failing to recognize tra- assistance as part of the South Pacific Biodi- ditional Pohnpei resource use and authority, versity Conservation Programme. The Asian were universally rejected. As a result, govern- Development Bank soon followed, advancing ment boundary survey teams were turned a technical assistance package through The back by angry villagers around the island. Nature Conservancy that included develop- These setbacks led to the formation of the ment of a Geographic Information System, Watershed Steering Committee in 1990, an new aerial photography, and identification Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 249 of compatible enterprise alternatives. It also strongly involved with local environmental resulted in the development of the Pohnpei issues, chose seven conservation targets for Watershed Management Strategy, which rec- coordinated resource management. These in- ognizes the central role of communities in de- clude three system targets (tropical montane termining resource use and managing natural cloud forest, broadleaf/palm forest, and head- environment and seeks to ensure the sustain- water streams) and four species targets (forest able management of Pohnpei’s natural re- birds as a whole group, the Pohnpei short- sources. This strategy led to the initiation of eared owl, bats, and endemic snails). the Pohnpei Community Planning Program, an innovative attempt to support the island’s Tropical Montane Cloud Forest communities as the primary managers of their biological resources. The program aims to Pohnpei’s tropical montane cloud forest has develop coordinated management within and been described as the lowest-elevation cloud between communities that will maintain sub- forest in the world. Tropical montane cloud sistence and cash resources while also pro- forest is the result of environmental factors, tecting the island’s remarkable biodiversity. including extremely high rainfall (>1,125 It also hopes to develop a legal and admin- cm/yr), wind, and rocky substrate (Figure istrative framework for equitable comanage- 6). On Pohnpei, above 600 m, the trees are ment between government and customary stunted (typically 3–6 m or less). On the authorities on the island. highest, wind-blown summits, trees reach PABITRA, a network of the Ecosystem only 1.2–1.5 m in height. Cyathea ponapensis Division in the Biodiversity Task Force of and Gynotroches axillaris are typical domi- the Pacific Science Association, has the po- nants, but Astronidium ponapense, Garcinia tential to play an important role in assisting ponapensis, Ilex volkensiana, Cinnamomum caro- the Pohnpei Community Planning Program liniense, Elaeocarpus kerstingianus, Glochidion to achieve these multiple management goals. sp., Syzygium caroliniense, Rapanaea carolinien- Under the leadership of Dieter Mueller- sis, and Campnosperma brevipetiolata all attain Dombois and other network scientists, PABI- dominance in some areas. Trails in this forest TRA has begun training teams of local and become canals of mud after very little use. other traditional and scientific experts (e.g., in Pohnpei tropical montane cloud forest en- Fiji and Samoa) and has proposed permanent compasses a variety of other important plot establishment along ocean-to-mountain communities and species, including montane transects for long-term environmental moni- freshwater perched marshes, endemic Panda- toring on a variety of tropical Pacific islands, nus patina forests, the Pohnpei Island skink including Pohnpei (see the PABITRA Web (Emoia ponapea), the long-billed white-eye site [http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/pabitra/] (Rukia longirostra), a number of endemic tree and other articles in this issue of Pacific snails, and the extremely rare Pohnpei moun- Science). This ecological monitoring has the tain starling (Aplonis pelzelni [see Buden potential to assist the efforts of those con- 1996]). Currently, the top stress on this forest cerned Pohnpeian governmental agencies, type involves the alteration of composition/ nongovernmental agencies, and local citizens structure, mainly as the result of occasional by providing a continuum of biological and human visitors and introduced animals and physical data relevant to economic, legal, ad- plants. The trampling by people and alien ministrative, and resource management deci- hoofed mammals that root or browse in these sion making. cloud forests, which originated in the absence of such animals, rapidly breaks down tropical conservation targets and stresses montane cloud forest, and the component trees are not able to withstand these impacts. As a result of the Pohnpei Community Plan- Invasive plants, especially grasses, rapidly col- ning Program, the Conservation Society of onize and outcompete native species after Pohnpei, a nongovernmental organization these kinds of disturbances. Figure 6. Tropical montane cloud forest on Pohnpei Island. Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 251

Broadleaf/Palm Forest forests, lagoons, and coral reefs. Headwater streams also encompass a number of endemic This vegetation type combines the remaining species, including freshwater fish such as the native broadleaf and palm forests that make vertical hover goby, Parioglossus verticalis, and up the majority of Pohnpei’s upland forests. other gobies including Stenogobius spp., Sti- Several forest types make up the upland forest phodon spp., Sicyopus nigriradiatus, Sicyopterus resource, distributed on the island in relation lividus, Sicyopterus eudentatus, and Lentipes to altitude and, to a lesser extent, drainage. spp.; a freshwater eel, Anguilla sp.; freshwater Broadleaf forest is the most widespread and shrimp; dragonflies and damselflies such as is dominated by Campnosperma brevipetiolata, Pacificothemis esakii, Hemicordulla haluco, Tei- Elaeocarpus carolinensis, and other tree species nobasis ponapensis, Teinobasis nigrolutea, Teino- (for example, Parkia korom, Palaquium karrak, basis fortis, Teinobasis ariel, Teinobasis aeride, Myristica insularis, Cinnamomum caroliniense, Stolephorus multibranchus, and Agrionoptera Ficus tinctoria, Barringtonia racemosa, Termi- sanguinolenta. Habitat fragmentation, habitat and ). nalia caroliniensis, Cynometra ramiflora destruction or conversion, pollution, thermal Almost pure stands of the endemic palm alteration, and sedimentation are the major are found on upper- Clinostigma ponapensis stresses on headwater streams, caused mainly elevation ridges. Upland swamp forest, char- by the cultivation of sakau along stream banks acterized by the endemic ivory nut palm, and subsequent homesteading-related forest , occurs in scattered Metroxylon amicarum conversion. patches. The broadleaf/palm forest matrix en- compasses a number of other important tar- gets, including approximately 270 species of Forest Birds plants (110 endemic), 50 species of birds (13 Forest birds have been given special focus as a endemic species and subspecies), the Pohnpei species group because managing and protect- Island skink, endemic tree snails, the Pohnpei ing the forest alone would not necessarily flying fox ( ), the Polynesian Pteropus molossinus guarantee the survival of birds that nest in sheath-tailed bat ( ), Emballonura semicaudata the forests of Pohnpei. Forest birds include and the Micronesian swiftlet ( Collocalia in- 32 species that nest in Pohnpei’s forests, in- ). The current stresses on broadleaf/ quieta cluding 13 species and subspecies endemic palm forest include habitat fragmentation, to Pohnpei such as the long-billed greater altered composition/structure, and habitat white-eye (Rukia longirostra), Pohnpei lory destruction or conversion. Recent work by (Trichoglossus rubiginosus), Pohnpei flycatcher The Nature Conservancy has documented (Myiagra pluto), Pohnpei fantail (Rhipidura a conversion of almost two-thirds of the kubaryi), Caroline Islands ground dove (Galli- broadleaf/palm forest (10,000 ha) to other columba kubaryi), purple-capped fruit dove vegetation types between 1975 and 1995, (Ptilinopus phorphyraceus), Micronesian impe- mostly agriculture, especially sakau cultiva- rial pigeon (Ducula oceanica), Caroline Islands tion. reed warbler (Acrocephalis syrinx), Caroline Is- lands white-eye (Zosterops semperi), Microne- sia kingfisher (Halcyon cinnamomima), gray Headwater Streams white-eye (Zosterops cinerea), blue-faced par- These aquatic waterways are some of the rotfinch (Eurythrura trichroa ssp. clara), and most important and complex systems on the cicada bird (Coracina tenuirostris ssp. Pohnpei Island. Due to the island’s elevation inseperatum). Stresses on Pohnpei’s forest (up to 795 m) and high rainfall, the streams of birds include habitat destruction or conver- Pohnpei are well formed and biologically di- sion, species loss, extraordinary predation/ verse (e.g., see Buden et al. 2001). In addition, parasitism/disease, and habitat fragmentation. the water they provide is absolutely essential Most of the stresses are caused by human in- to downstream habitats, including coastal cursion into the upland forests for cultivation freshwater marshes, swamp forests, mangrove of sakau and settlement. Along with humans, 252 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005 introduced animals, especially cats and rats dead trees in mangrove forests, so they need and to a lesser degree pigs and ants, are be- to be managed on a broader scale than just lieved to be major predators of forest birds. the upland forest. The caves of the sheath- Invasive plants become established in settle- tailed bat may also host other insect biodi- ment areas and further limit the birds’ major versity that has not yet been studied. Top native plant food sources (Engbring et al. stresses to the bats of Pohnpei include species 1990). loss, habitat destruction or conversion, and habitat disturbance. After the ban on flying fox exports to Guam in the early 1990s, the Pohnpei Short-Eared Owl direct harvest of these animals decreased The Pohnpei short-eared owl (Asio flammeus considerably, but they still face a number of ponapensis) was considered a separate target threats from forest conversion and habitat because, unlike its avian cousins, it nests in disturbance from introduced animals. Some holes in and hunts in the island’s open grass- of the sheath-tailed bat’s caves have also lands and savannas. Therefore management been disturbed by hikers and the ecotourist of the island’s forests, or even forest birds, businesses; local guides sometimes disturb would not protect the short-eared owl. The the bats, encouraging the animals to fly out short-eared owl’s survival depends on the of their caves or dead trees, which amuses protection of native and nonnative grassland the tourists. This continued and regular dis- and savanna. The Micronesia kingfisher (Hal- turbance has led to the abandonment of sev- cyon cinnamomima), which also hunts in the eral sheath-tailed bat caves. savanna area, is another species that de- pends on the same ecosystems for its survival. Endemic Snails The kingfisher is also occasionally eaten by the short-eared owl. The main stresses on The numerous endemic terrestrial snails of the short-eared owl and its habitat include Pohnpei are some of the least-studied species alteration of natural fire regimes and habitat on the island. Although most of the remain- destruction or conversion, caused mainly by ing tree snail population is located in the annual burning of many of the island’s grass- montane cloud forest, the threats to their sur- lands and savannas during the dry season vival will not be eliminated by simply manag- ( January–March) by hunters to bring intro- ing these areas; thus they have been treated duced Philippine deer out into the open. Ex- as a separate conservation target. The known traordinary predation/parasitism/disease may endemic species of terrestrial snails on Pohn- be another stress, especially from introduced pei include Trochomorpha conoides, Trochomor- cats and rats that may prey on the young of pha nigritella tolotomi, Trochomorpha nigritella the Pohnpei short-eared owl. fuscata, Trochomorpha nigritella paucispira, Tro- chomorpha nigritella, Trochomorpha contigua Bats nanalauti, Trochomorpha contigua, Trochomor- pha carolinae, Trochomorpha kuesteri monticola, Although Pohnpei’s bats, which include the Trochomorpha kuesteri, Liardetia doliolum, Den- endemic Pohnpei flying fox (Pteropus molossi- drotrochus ponapensis, Palline micramyla, Jo- nus) and the native Polynesian sheath-tailed kajdon callizonus, Jokajdon tumidulus, Palikirus bat (Emballonura semicaudata), nest below the ponapicus, Palikirus cosmetus, Roimontis toloto- upland forests, their importance to the is- mensis, Kubaryiellus kubaryi, Russatus nigrescens, land’s various forest types as major pollinators Wrayanna soluta, Thaanumella cookei ponapen- and seed distributors led to their selection as sis, Thaanumella cookei, Thaanumella angulosa a separate conservation target. In addition, turita, Thaanumella angulosa, Ponapella piha- the Pohnpei flying fox roosts in groups in piha, Partula martensiana, Partula guamensis, the island’s agroforest areas, swamp forest, and Partula emersoni (B. D. Smith, Marine and mangroves, and the Polynesian sheath- Laboratory, University of Guam, 2004, pers. tailed bat has been known to live in hollow comm.). The main stresses affecting terres- Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 253 trial snails on Pohnpei include extraordinary vector for bird malaria, which has wiped out predation, parasitism, and disease, and, to a numerous native bird species on other is- much lesser extent, habitat fragmentation. lands) as well as alien ants, are most likely In the 1950s, the Trust Territory (USA) gov- also having a negative impact on forest bird ernment introduced the rosy wolf snail, Eu- populations. glandina rosea, and the parasitic flatworm Platydemus manokwari (Eldredge and Smith Agricultural Clearing 1994) to control the giant African snail (Acha- tina fulica), a serious introduced agricultural Clearing for farming, mainly for sakau as pest. Both these species were observed up to noted earlier, has been identified as a serious the cloud forest in Pohnpei, along with shells threat for Pohnpei’s forests, especially in re- from endemic Pohnpei snails showing alien cent decades. All targets except the tropical predation effects during a 1992 snail popula- montane cloud forest are currently impacted tion and distribution survey undertaken by by this threat, which has been exacerbated by the Pohnpei State Government, The Nature rapid population growth and a rapid growth Conservancy, and the University of Guam. in the cash economy. As mentioned previ- ously, aerial photography and vegetation critical threats and stakeholders mapping revealed that intact native forest on Pohnpei had been reduced from 42% of the A number of critical threats to the biodiver- island’s land area to only 15% between 1975 sity of Pohnpei have been identified in recent and 1995 and that the loss of native forest years, including five that were deemed most continued over the next 7 yr (into 2002) but serious. According to The Nature Con- at a considerably slower rate (492 ha/yr be- servancy, these serious threats in order of tween 1975 and 1995 to 153 ha/yr between importance are invasive animals, agricultural 1995 and 2002). However, whether or not clearing, hunting, homestead development, the watershed project discussed later in this and recreation. paper was responsible for the declining rate of forest clearing is not clear because it may be that there is no more forest to cut except Invasive Animals on steep slopes. In any case, the local, com- Some invasive animals are major predators mercial market for sakau has also grown rap- and parasites affecting the native fauna of idly in the last two decades. Pricewise, local Pohnpei, especially endemic snails, forest per-pound prices for sakau have increased birds, and bats. Alien animals that have had tenfold in the last 15 yr. Forest conver- the most impact on native species are the sion increases erosion, which exacerbates the predatory snail Euglandina rosea, the intro- downstream impacts of sediment on man- duced flatworm Platydemus sp., and rats (espe- groves, lagoons, and coral reefs. Finally, cially Rattus rattus, which is a major predator forest conversion results in a loss of species of native forest nesting birds in other islands diversity. Because terrestrial endemism is rel- and probably also on Pohnpei). Domestic atively high, the local extinction of a species and feral cats, introduced in the 1800s, cur- could be equivalent to its complete loss. The rently exist in large numbers throughout the upland forest, because of clearing and other island and probably are a major predator of forms of degradation, may already be close native birds. Pigs may also be a predator, es- to a critical threshold in terms of habitat pecially of ground-nesting species such as the value. Caroline Islands ground dove and the short- eared owl. The Philippine deer, Cervus mar- Hunting iannus, has also been introduced on Pohnpei and may have a negative impact on at least The hunting of forest birds, mainly under- some native species (Wiles et al. 1999). Intro- taken by younger (18–35 yr old) rural, rela- duced insects, especially mosquitoes (the tively uneducated (high school or less) men, 254 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005 and now with guns, is another minor threat to or younger people playing with fire. Bats, es- forest birds. Species such as the Micronesian pecially the sheath-tailed bat in areas where pigeon (Ducula oceanica) and the purple- regular ecotourism trails are located (e.g., capped fruit dove (Ptilinopus porphyraceus) Pwudoi Sanctuary and Pahntakai Waterfall), have experienced drastic population reduc- are, as noted earlier, often disturbed by tour tions in recent years. Hunting also has indi- guides, often encouraging the bats to aban- rect impacts on the short-eared owl. The owl don their roosts. nests in holes in the ground in savanna areas. Hunters burn the savannas whenever the strategies for forest conservation weather is dry enough, because deer are at- and biodiversity protection on tracted to the odor of ashes. Apparently, alien pohnpei deer introduced for hunting associate ashes with tender new sprouts of grasses and ferns. Over the past decade, a number of strategies to enhance forest conservation and biodiver- sity protection have been developed by gov- Homestead Development ernmental agencies and nongovernmental With the rapid growth in population on organizations. Several are ongoing strategies Pohnpei Island, combined with in-migration and a few reflect new ideas. Three strategies of people from other islands after the island ranked particularly high: promotion of low- was declared the capital of the F.S.M., private land sakau cultivation, promotion of a lands have become increasingly fragmented. ‘‘ranger’’ enforcement program, and demar- In addition, a number of younger Pohn- cation of the watershed forest reserve bound- peians, especially those from large families, ary. Several other strategies ranked as do not have access to land. Pohnpei’s forested medium in importance. The strategies are interior, mainly public land as a result of the summarized as follows: German land distribution in the early 1900s, represents an attractive resource to these peo- Strategy 1. Promote Lowland Cultivation of ple. For a number of reasons, the last new Sakau land distribution by the government occurred in the late 1950s, nearly three generations The ‘‘Grow Low’’ Campaign has been a key ago. This has led to ‘‘squatting’’ on public component of The Nature Conservancy’s lands located around the Kolonia area and strategy on Pohnpei. After 10 yr building up movement of people into the forested public a substantial conservation capacity in the lands above villages around the island. In ad- watershed forest reserve, The Nature Con- dition, inland movement and settlement has servancy has recently convinced their local been encouraged by the traditional leader- partners, the Conservation Society of Pohn- ship of the island, who still claim the central pei, to take over the on-site management, forested uplands as ‘‘kingdom’’ land that was including the campaign to encourage sakau never passed on to the German Kolonia gov- growers to stop planting in the upland forest ernment for distribution. and move their crops back to the lowlands (Figure 7). A key component of the Grow Low Campaign strategy is a program of dis- Recreation tributing planting information and small plas- Impact through recreational activities, mainly tic bags for use as simple plant containers to ecotourism, is a fairly minor threat to the assist farmers in getting a lowland-grown sa- short-eared owl and bats. The main threat kau crop started. By 2003, over 600,000 bags to the native owl is ‘‘recreational’’ burning. had been distributed to interested farmers. Because few people value the island’s savanna This simple method has dramatically in- and grassland areas, burning them is not con- creased the survival rate of lowland-grown sidered a serious offense, and many fires are sakau. After several months in small local started by children walking home from school nurseries, young sakau plants are eventually Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 255

Figure 7. Logo for the sakau ‘‘Grow Low’’ Campaign (Sakau en Nansapw ¼ ‘‘kava in the traditionally cultivated low- land regions’’).

transplanted into the field, usually under the duce the introduction and spread of invasive shade of other trees. plants and animals in these ecologically sensi- This program has had a very positive re- tive areas. ception among local farmers and has a lot of The Nature Conservancy has passed the momentum. The goal is to have cultivators implementation of this strategy to the Con- plant 3 million sakau plants in lowland forests servation Society of Pohnpei. Key partners near villages by 2006. If achieved, this could in this strategy include The Nature Conserv- replace all upland-grown sakau for local con- ancy, traditional municipal and village chiefs, sumption and produce a large exportable sur- the Pohnpei State Government’s Department plus for the international markets. of Economic Development and the Depart- The Grow Low strategy to eliminate up- ment of Land and Resource Management, land forest cultivation of sakau will reduce ag- the College of Micronesia Land Grant Pro- ricultural clearing in these areas of relatively grams, the U.S. Department of Agriculture high native biodiversity. In addition, less hu- Natural Resources Conservation Service, man activity in the upland forest will help re- and, potentially, the PABITRA network. 256 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005

Strategy 2. Develop a State-Level Ranger budget, and the Conservation Society of Enforcement Program Pohnpei is currently completing a new con- tract with the surveyor to complete the line Village chiefs in some parts of Pohnpei have in 2004 (Anonymous 2003a). The delinea- appointed community conservation officers tion, which is well under way, and subsequent to help implement Community and Mu- enforcement of the watershed forest reserve nicipality Action Plans. Currently, there are boundary, in conjunction with the sakau over 250 young men and women who have Grow Low Campaign, will greatly reduce ag- been appointed as community conservation ricultural clearing, hunting, and homestead officers. They serve on a voluntary basis and development within the watershed forest are responsible for conservation education, reserve. In addition, it will help discourage promotion of sustainable development activ- road construction in the watershed forest re- ities, and monitoring and enforcement of serve vicinity. Moreover, as noted earlier, the community-approved restrictions. The Na- decreased human activity in the reserve will ture Conservancy has worked closely with slow the introduction and spread of invasive the program, helping to build the capacity plants and animals. of community conservation officers through technical training, mobilization of funding, and strategic planning assistance. Surveillance Strategy 4. Lowland Sakau Certification and monitoring work of the conservation offi- Program cers should lead to a decrease in agricultural Advocates of forest conservation and biodi- clearing and hunting as well as a reduction versity protection on Pohnpei support the es- in the spread of invasive plants and animals. tablishment of a ‘‘certified low-growth’’ sakau Having villagers directly involved in pro- program, perhaps patterned after a program tected areas management will also improve run by the ‘‘Rainforest Alliance’’ called the public awareness of the importance of the ‘‘ECO-OK’’ program. If successful, a ‘‘certi- island’s biodiversity and support of the need fied low-growth’’ product could command to conserve it. The Conservation Society of a premium price. Creating an eco-friendly Pohnpei is the lead agency and will be as- ‘‘brand name’’ would also help differentiate sisted by The Nature Conservancy, the Ma- sakau from Pohnpei from products of other rine and Environmental Research Institute producers. This could become important of Pohnpei, the Pohnpei State Marine Re- if lower-cost sources from other countries sources Division and Forest Division, and come into the market over the next 3–5 yr. the College of Micronesia. By closing the commercial market for sakau cultivated in upland forest areas, the project will discourage further agricultural clearing. Strategy 3. Demarcate the Watershed Forest The Nature Conservancy has taken the lead Reserve Boundary in this initiative so far but will need the sup- As a result of 10 yr of public education and port of both the Pohnpei State Government involvement, the island’s traditional and gov- (especially the Department of Economic De- ernment leaders now nearly unanimously velopment and the Pohnpei State Legislature) support the Pohnpei Watershed Forest Re- and the island’s sakau growers, who will need serve. In partnership with Pohnpei State De- to self-police this certification program. partment of Land and Natural Resources, the Conservation Society of Pohnpei recently Strategy 5. Community Planning by contracted a local private surveyor, Pacific Municipality Survey, Ltd., to delineate and mark the Pohn- pei Watershed Forest Reserve. The entire To help Pohnpeians create conservation watershed forest reserve boundary is 63,221 strategies that address the shared concerns m long and it will cost US$120,000 to com- of the community, The Nature Conservancy plete the survey. The Pohnpei State Govern- helped launch a ‘‘Community Visioning Ini- ment appropriated this amount in their 2003 tiative’’ for the island in 2000. Visioning is Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 257 an innovative process by which a community biennial monitoring of forest clearing activity envisions the future it wants and plans how to to monitor the impacts of the Grow Low achieve it. Through public involvement, com- Campaign and other elements of the sakau munities identify their purpose, core values, strategy (Community Planning Program, and vision of the future, which are then trans- Community Conservation Officer Program, formed into a manageable set of community watershed forest reserve boundary line goals and an action plan. In March 2000, survey, etc.). The monitoring has now been The Nature Conservancy sponsored a very taken over by the Conservation Society of successful visit by six Pohnpei leaders to com- Pohnpei. The monitoring program is focus- munity groups in Hawai‘i to see the commu- ing on 13 forest areas representing the most nity visioning process firsthand. After their ecologically important components of the return, the leaders organized a Community Pohnpei Watershed Forest Reserve. Each Visioning Workshop on Pohnpei for more of the selected forest areas shares a common than 80 people representing Pohnpei’s 11 upper border at the Nahna Laud ridge, the municipalities, women and youth groups, pri- central peak of Pohnpei Island. Two individ- vate business leaders, and other stakeholders. uals from each area have been selected by After the workshop, the municipalities of U, their village leaders to do the actual recording Madolenihmw, and Nett along with the city of forest clearing plots every 6 months. All of Kolonia launched visioning processes in information is analyzed and a report is pro- their respective communities. duced by the Conservation Society of Pohn- At the municipal level, the community pei and shared with key government and visioning process helps the local community traditional leaders to assist them in manage- discuss and come up with solutions to key ment or decision making that affects their for- problems or threats. The planning program est resources. has already generated locally initiated solu- Monitoring results for September 2003, tions to agricultural clearing, hunting, home- undertaken, as usual, in selected areas around stead development, and road construction. Pohnpei chosen for their biodiversity and The Nature Conservancy continues to be their vital relations to the watershed, indi- the lead agency in this strategy, though efforts cated that for the most part, ‘‘the clearing are under way to pass the lead to a steering sites have dramatically decreased in size since committee of municipal representatives and the first quarter of 2003’’ with the largest de- resource agencies (possible agencies include creases in the municipalities of U and Mado- The Nature Conservancy, the Conservation lenihmw, where the watershed forest reserve Society of Pohnpei, the U.S. Department of demarcation had already taken place (Anony- Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation mous 2003b). This monitoring program Service, Department of Health, Department makes government and traditional leaders of Education, Chief Magistrate’s Council, more aware of the serious threat from agri- Pohnpei Visitor’s Bureau, Lieutenant Gover- cultural clearing and helps build consensus nor, Department of Land and Natural Re- for protection of the watershed forest reserve. sources, and others) to provide financial, process, advocacy, and peer coaching support Strategy 7. Improve Agroforestry Productivity to municipalities undergoing the process. Much of the island’s lowland agroforests have become neglected in recent years as rural Strategy 6. Monitoring of Sakau Cultivation people have embraced the cash economy and and Dissemination of Information chosen wage labor over farming. By integrat- As part of the 3-yr grant funded by the ing cash crops (sakau, betel nut, betel leaf, United Nations Development Program– kehp en dol yam cultivar, taro, menihle banana Global Environment Facility, The Nature cultivar, etc.) back into the traditional agro- Conservancy implemented its ‘‘Community forestry system, it is expected that farmers Conservation and Compatible Enterprise will spend more effort on their farms. In Development on Pohnpei, FSM’’ and began turn, this will increase both household in- 258 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005 come and, indirectly, subsistence food pro- by a team of outside and local experts, and duction and income substitution, because the was documented in an August 1997 report recommended cash crops need to be inter- entitled ‘‘Monitoring to Manage: A Report cropped with local food crops such as bread- for Pohnpei’s Watershed Management Pro- fruit, taro, banana, yam, etc. In addition, gram Team and Partners.’’ The study was women and elderly farmers will be able to supported by The Nature Conservancy, the participate in the cultivation of sakau for South Pacific Regional Environmental Pro- both traditional use and cash. Currently, sa- gramme, and the Rodney Johnson–Katherine kau production in the upland forests excludes Ordway Stewardship Endowment, an internal these groups and further marginalizes them. grant program in The Nature Conservancy Improved agroforestry will not only in- dedicated to improving environmental man- crease local production of food and increase agement. The main objective of the study household income, but will also help slow ag- was to design a community-based monitoring ricultural clearing, hunting, homestead devel- program that is both resource-efficient and opment, and the introduction of invasive practical and that feeds directly into man- plants and animals in the watershed forest agement decision making. The monitoring reserve. protocol, which focused on recording forest The Pohnpei Department of Economic clearings, was piloted by The Nature Con- Development, especially the Division of Agri- servancy in 1998 in two forest areas, Senpehn cultural Development, is leading this strategy in Madolenihmw District, and Eirike in Nett currently, assisted by The Nature Conserv- District. In addition to forest clearing, The ancy, the Conservation Society of Pohnpei, Nature Conservancy also completed new ae- the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural rial photography and vegetation analysis in Resources Conservation Service, Pohnpei 2002 (results discussed earlier) and is working Agricultural Trade School, and the College with a host of partners to repeat an islandwide of Micronesia Land Grant Programs. forest bird survey within the next 2 yr. Several other suggestions have been enter- tained by The Nature Conservancy in various Strategy 8. Enforce No-Burning Laws reviews of this site conservation plan, includ- Pohnpei has established a law making it ille- ing monitoring of regeneration plots in aban- gal to burn savanna/grasslands at any time; doned agricultural clearings; establishment however, this law has not been enforced to of plots to measure species composition and date. By limiting the nearly annual burning regeneration (succession) structure; focused of savanna/grasslands, the Pohnpei short- bird monitoring (e.g., in recovering forest eared owl’s nesting and hunting habitat will areas), including breeding and nonbreeding be protected. The Pohnpei Division of For- seasons, mist netting, mark and release, indi- estry and Resource Conservation has taken a cator species, bird movement; threats moni- lead in enforcement of no-burning laws but toring (invasive animals, hunting, agricultural needs better support from the municipal gov- clearing); water quality and fauna monitoring ernment and police to limit human-initiated in headwater streams (e.g., point-source mon- fires. itoring, mapping of threats, quantitative anal- ysis, stream fauna, chemistry, sediment load, monitoring protocol, initial etc.); bat monitoring (recommended to be successes, and the potential role of done on at most a 3-yr interval [best once/ pabitra in pohnpei resource month or twice/year] with counts at roosting management sites at dusk [wet and dry seasons]); and inter- vention in the spread of invasive species (drop The monitoring approach that The Nature traps, ground traps, and removal of invasive Conservancy and its current governmental alien plants). and nongovernmental organization partners However, with the current limited staff is now conducting on Pohnpei was developed and financial resources, these monitoring and Kava and Conservation on Pohnpei . Merlin and Raynor 259 other activities remain only on the ‘‘wish list’’ Literature Cited for the resource managers pursuing goals through the strategies outlined here. One of Anonymous. 2003a. Marking the WFR the most promising scientific initiatives that boundary. The Messenger-Serehd: Con- could assist in these conservation-oriented servation Society of Pohnpei Newletter 5 monitoring and other activities on Pohnpei (3). is the PABITRA network. Indeed, the island ———. 2003b. Forest monitoring in Septem- of Pohnpei has been proposed as a PABITRA ber. The Messenger-Serehd: Conservation site for ecological transect monitoring. Pohn- Society of Pohnpei Newletter 5 (4). pei, one of the few central Pacific high is- Anson, H., and W. Raynor. 1993. Traditional lands, is particularly well suited for inclusion resource management and the conserva- in PABITRA. One of only three islands in tion of biological diversity on Pohnpei the Pacific over 5 million yr old that still has Island, Federated States of Micronesia. substantial forest cover, Pohnpei is home to a Pages 133–146 in L. Hamilton, ed. Ethics, relatively rich diversity of plant and animal religion and biodiversity: Relations be- species. In addition, for well over a decade, tween conservation and cultural values. the island has been the focus of a major in- The White Horse Press, Cambridge, U.K. ternational effort to create a model of sus- Ashby, G. 1990. A guide to Pohnpei: An tainable forest management; thus abundant island argosy. Rainy Day Press, Eugene, scientific data are already available to assist Oregon. in the establishment of permanent sites along Buden, D. W. 1996. Rediscovery of the transects within selected watersheds. Pohnpei Pohnpei Mountain Starling (Aplonis pel- offers potential vertical transects from the zelni). Auk 113 (1): 229–230. montane cloud forests and upland palm and Buden, D. W., D. B. Lynch, and R. E. Wat- broadleaf forests located on mountain peaks son. 2001. The gobiid fish (Teleostei: down through secondary forest, agroforest, Gobioidei: Sicydiinae) of the headwater swamp forest, and finally extensive coastal streams of Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Is- mangroves and fringing coral reefs. There is lands, Federated States of Micronesia. Mi- also considerable government and landowner cronesica 34 (1): 1–10. awareness and support for conservation- Dahl, C., and B. Raynor. 1996. Watershed related activities on Pohnpei. In sum, the planning and management: Pohnpei, Fed- unique and abundant biodiversity of Pohnpei, erated States of Micronesia. Asia Pac. combined with the availability of a sound bio- Viewpoint 37 (3): 235–251. logical and physical environmental database, Eldredge, L. G., and B. D. Smith. 1994. In- along with ongoing government, community, troductions and transfers of the triclad flat- and nongovernmental organization involve- worm Platydemus manokwari. Tentacle ment in forest management, make this tropi- 4:8. cal island an obvious and particularly worthy Engbring, J., F. Ramsey, and V. Wildman. candidate for inclusion in the PABITRA 1990. Micronesian forest bird surveys; the network. Federated States: Pohnpei, Kosrae, Chuuk, and Yap. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, acknowledgments Honolulu, Hawai‘i. F.S.M. 2000. Census of population and hous- We thank the governments of the F.S.M. ing, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micro- and Pohnpei State, The Nature Conservancy, nesia. the Conservation Society of Pohnpei, the Lebot, V., M. Merlin, and L. Lindstrom. South Pacific Regional Environmental Pro- 1992. Kava: The Pacific drug. Yale Uni- gramme, the Asian Development Bank, Die- versity Press, New Haven. ter Mueller-Dombois, Curt Daehler, and Merlin, M., D. Jano, B. Raynor, T. Keene, J. the many Pohnpeian people who offered their Juvik, and B. Sebastian. 1992. Tuhke en support and contributed to this study. Pohnpei; Plants of Pohnpei. East-West 260 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2005

Center, Program on Environment, Hono- Ponape. Smithsonian Institution Press, lulu, Hawai‘i. Washington, D.C. Paulay, G. 1994. Biodiversity on oceanic is- Schultes, R. E., A. Hofmann, and C. Ra¨tsch. lands: Its origin and extinction. Am. Zool. 2001. Plants of the gods: Their sacred, 34:134–144. healing and hallucinogenic powers. Heal- Raynor, W. 1994. Resource management in ing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont. upland forests of Pohnpei: Past practices Wiles, G. J., D. W. Buden, and D. J. Wor- and future possibilities. ISLA: A Journal thington. 1999. History of introduction, of Micronesian Studies (Rainy Season) 2 population status and management of Phil- (1): 47–66. ippine deer (Cervus mariannus) on Micro- Reisenberg, S. 1968. The native polity of nesian islands. Mammalia 63 (2): 193–215.